This document provides an overview of grouting techniques used for tunnels and underground structures. It discusses various ground treatment methods including pre-treatment before tunnel construction and post-treatment after tunneling is complete. The key methods described are permeation grouting to fill voids in rock or soil, compaction grouting to compact soil formations, compensation grouting to control ground settlements, and rock grouting to reduce water flows and strengthen rock foundations. Successful rock grouting requires thorough site investigation, borehole surveys, clearly defined requirements, and consultation with specialist contractors.
This document provides an overview of grouting techniques used for tunnels and underground structures. It discusses various ground treatment methods including pre-treatment before tunnel construction and post-treatment after tunneling is complete. The key methods described are permeation grouting to fill voids in rock or soil, compaction grouting to compact soil formations, compensation grouting to control ground settlements, and rock grouting to reduce water flows and strengthen rock foundations. Successful rock grouting requires thorough site investigation, borehole surveys, clearly defined requirements, and consultation with specialist contractors.
This document provides an overview of grouting techniques used for tunnels and underground structures. It discusses various ground treatment methods including pre-treatment before tunnel construction and post-treatment after tunneling is complete. The key methods described are permeation grouting to fill voids in rock or soil, compaction grouting to compact soil formations, compensation grouting to control ground settlements, and rock grouting to reduce water flows and strengthen rock foundations. Successful rock grouting requires thorough site investigation, borehole surveys, clearly defined requirements, and consultation with specialist contractors.
This document provides an overview of grouting techniques used for tunnels and underground structures. It discusses various ground treatment methods including pre-treatment before tunnel construction and post-treatment after tunneling is complete. The key methods described are permeation grouting to fill voids in rock or soil, compaction grouting to compact soil formations, compensation grouting to control ground settlements, and rock grouting to reduce water flows and strengthen rock foundations. Successful rock grouting requires thorough site investigation, borehole surveys, clearly defined requirements, and consultation with specialist contractors.
This paper provides only an overview oI what is a seemingly simple process oI injecting material into the ground. It is signiIicantly more complex the more one becomes involved in the process. It seeks to provoke thought amongst designers, and provides what can only be a brieI synopsis oI the need Ior methods and materials used to create a successIul ground treatment project.
GROUND TREATMENT To have ground treatment or not that is the question In any project where excavation is carried out in the ground, not only is there a duty oI care on the construction team whilst the permanent structure is completed but there is a proIessional and moral responsibility to ensure that the completed structure is Iit Ior the purpose intended.
The Tunnel Designer should ensure that the Client brieI is complete and that his own terms oI engagement allow him to do the requisite investigation and rigorous design.
My own experience over a 30 years is that there is usually an unIoreseen ground condition during construction that may well have been detected iI money was spent beIore the project got to site and the more esoteric project Ieatures costing more than the sum allocated to the ground investigation.
In the mid 70`s the Managing Director oI the largest site investigation company in the UK suggested that the current spending on SI was oI the order oI 0.5 oI project value and should and could be justiIied at 2.
So having established that the client and designer are probably going to Iind it hard to justiIy the expense up Iront, it Iollows that a risk oI adverse ground conditions will aIIect the Contractor and the parties to the contract whilst a solution is sought.
It is noteworthy` some oI the most proIitable ground treatment projects I have assisted in devising a solution and subsequently won, have been the emergency mobilisation oI key expertise and plant.
II ground treatment may be required we have to determine: When ground treatment will be done (planned and predetermined or panic mode remedial) What is its purpose How will it be done We also have to ask: Do we have enough inIormation? How will the ground treatment be paid Ior? Who has the specialist skills, personnel and plant?
PRE TREATMENT OF THE GROUND
Has the contractor got the technical resources and staII to execute the work?
The amount and extent oI pre- treatment is dictated by accessibility at the surIace and the desirability to minimise disruption oI the tunnelling process. Having established that there is suitable access probably at the portals and interim access points the method oI treatment will be dictated by the depth oI tunnel Irom surIace and the extent oI treatment deemed necessary. Other Iactors such as the nature oI the over burden will dictate the methods employed by the specialist contractor to install grout holes which are generally 75 150 mm. The intensity oI the pre-treatment is best discovered by initial site investigation Iollowed by a ground treatment trial.
Having decided the Iunction oI the treatment, to be stabilisation oI the tunnel strata, water control, surIace structure maintenance or a combination.
Post Tunnelling Treatment
What is the Iunction oI this treatment? Consolidation oI the rock mass Contact grouting Overall stabilisation oI the tunnel strata.
Post tunnelling treatment may be necessary to consolidate the rock mass, minimise water ingress or provide intimate contact between the tunnel lining and the rock mass. Typically, holes are Ior consolidation oI the rock mass are up to 20 metres long and conducted aIter a contact grouting phase to Iill the void between lining and rock. Appropriate techniques in single phase grouting with micro-Iine cements have been pioneered in Norwegian hard rock tunnels saving considerable amounts oI time and money.
GROUND TREATMENT METHODS
The method eventually chosen will reIlect the: purpose oI the treatment the access available availability locally oI techniques. Vastly diIIerent techniques are appropriate in rock and soil.
Permeation grouting is the Iilling oI intersces oI the rock or soil, using appropriate materials and techniques to consolidate the ground (Little John, 2003) provides an historical perspective oI 200 years oI development oI the technique. Figure 3 shows an innovative method oI permeation grouting to enhance pile capacity.
Compaction Grouting Is the injection, under relatively high pressures, oI a toothpaste consistency grout that essentially compacts soil clay Iormations. Its application Australia is limited but is widely used in the USA and the UK with great success. (Warner, 2003) describes compaction grouting development
Compensation Grouting Essentially conducted through sleeved grout pipes or tube a manchettes to adjust ground levels as tunnels pass through compressible ground. Used extensively on the new underground Jubilee line in London it controlled settlements and represents the leading edge oI grouting techniques with real- time monitoring oI settlement and grout injection, using computer controlled plant.
Generally conducted Irom surIace Ian arrays or Irom specially dug shaIts with horizontal tube a manchettes, discreet quantities oI grout are injected at precise locations, usually with computer controlled and linked electro-level monitoring techniques. European cities with historical structures have enIorced the use oI this sophisticated technique to prevent structural damage to historical buildings.
Jet Grouting A grouting process developed in Germany and Japan Ior their generally uniIorm sands and silts. Using very high pressures (5000 psi) and requiring considerable care in application an execution. Jet-grouted columns up to 1.5 m diameter have been achieved and since this process requires up to $1million investment in specialist plant, Australia has only recently started using the technique to underpin and create waterprooI structures.
Soil Mixing Deep soil mixing developed by the Japanese in the 80`s to transIorm their silty coast line into load-bearing ground they have invested enormous sums oI money one soil mix rig is in the order oI 1.5 million $US. SuccessIully transported to the USA and applied on Jacksons` Lake Dam to retro Iit Ior additional earthquake resistance over 27 deep soil mixing techniques have been identiIied by (Bruce 2001). Used extensively on the Boston Freeway and a low-pressure version developed by the writer to stabilize reinIorced earth-Iill behind a wall. Scandinavians use lime and modest plant in their glacial clays to improve the capacity oI the ground and whilst it is heavily used in the States, Australia is only recently taking on board the possibilities oI this ground treatment technique.
ROCK GROUTING
Rock grout is probably the most well- known oI grouting practices to engineers working in design and construction. Despite being used on every most permanent dams tunnels and numerous other structures such as oil rigs, river barges and in mines, the writer has seldom worked with a client either contractor or consultant who has been closely involved with the specialist grouting activities. Rock grouting commenced in France in 1802 by Charles de Berigny almost 200 years ago using cement, with Australia advancing its use oI grouting in the Snowy Mountains Scheme 150 years later in the 1950`s. Lombardi has suggested that rock grouting involves the injection oI material into 2 or 3 voids existing in typical rock Ioundations compared with the 20-35 in soils. The purpose oI rock grouting on each project varies but may be:
Reducing the permeability against water Ilow Enhancing the rock strength Ior Ioundations Filling oI voids in e.g. caustic limestone.
The designer must ask himselI what do I want to achieve on the project and how is it best achieved? Experience suggests that the specialist Ioundation contractors usually have options not within the wildest imaginings oI the design engineer. Operating at or near the cutting edge oI equipment, material and operational practices the specialist can draw upon the hundreds oI projects he has worked on to optimize the techniques and materials available. Grouting oI rock is usually Ior the reduction oI permeability reducing the leakage under dams Irom say 100 lugeons to an average oI 3.
A typical rock-grouting scheme on a dam serves to consolidate the Ioundation under the dam core using a multiple row oI shorter holes up to 15 m long and typically a single row up to 45 m deep to reduce seepage under the structure. The 2 km long curtain under Thompsons Creek Dam earth Iill dam near Bathurst involved 60 000 m oI drilling and 30 000 tonnes oI Portland cement. El Cajon in Honduras a concrete arch dam required a complex network oI galleries/tunnels Irom which 250 000 m oI drilling was done and more than 83 thousand tonnes oI cement were injected. Rock grouting in tunnels is oIten not quite so extensive and oIten involves the consolidation oI the rock by Iissure grouting to minimise settlements on the tunnel lining. Typically done in Ians extending up to 20 m Irom the tunnel walls aIter lining installation, or directly in rock unlined tunnels such as the Norwegian hard rock tunnels to reduce water inIlows.
What are the kev ingredients of successful rock grouting?
Site investigation and water testing to establish the base line permeability, joints etc. Bore-hole surveys as was done on Canning Dam in WA and in Burley tunnel Ior the remedial works. A correct deIinition oI the requirements Ior grouting. Consultation with a specialist contractor who can enlighten the client/designer on possible and probable solutions methods materials and equipment. A suitable speciIication written Ior the project speciIic needs, not a cut and paste oI a bad dam grouting speciIication. A properly thought out method oI payment Ior the works and iI appropriate, a schedule oI quantities. As reported by Littlejohn (2003), Sanborn and Lipser reported the use oI grouting on a large scale in 1920 in New York State. Used to strengthen the rock around the tunnels and provide an eIIective seal in the high operational water pressures in the tunnels.
In 1944 the Portland Cement Association in Chicago reported the successIul scaling oI cracks with Iiner ground cement to seal crack widths oI 0.03 mm 0.76 mm. See table 1 below.
Table 1 Crack Width (mm) Water Cement Ratio by Wt 0.03 0.13 1.15 0.13 0.25 1.0 0.25 0.76 1.0 Satisfactorv mixes for crack sealing (modified after Calson 1944)
In practice it was more important to determine the minimum particle sizes and Iissure widths that could be permeated by various grouts. In 1935 Terzaghi stated his position in relation to cement grouting.
'No Iissure can be cemented with a width oI less than about 0.1 mm. For the same reason no Iine sand or gravel with an admixture oI Iine sand can be grouted iI the eIIective size oI a compact sand is smaller than about 1 .4 mm or that oI a loose sand smaller than 0.5 mm the grout merely displaces the material.
J P Morgan invented the colloidal mill in 1934 in which the high shear action removed air, improved wetting and increased the proportion oI Iine cement particles. This colloidal mixer is still in use today. In the USA in 1951 grout injection reIusal was reported to limit the Ilow rate at a speciIied injection pressure signiIicantly lower than today`s practice. 1.4 litres/minute Ior 20 minutes at 345 kN/m, (1 cubic Ioot over 20 minutes at 50 psi equivalent 5.67 litres/min at 1380kN/m). Grouting pressures on dams in the 1950`s (Grundy 1955) stated that allowable grouting pressures should be twice the weight oI overburden above the stage being grouted. Lippold (1958) suggested that saIe injection pressures with patches varied between 1.6 to 5.3 kN/m per metre oI cover, again dependent on overlying mass and geological structure.
In the last 50 years the ability oI specialist grouting engineers to place stable grouts in the variable Iissures in rock has increased. These have been well documented in the ASCE conIerences in 1982, 1992 and 2003 with notable milestones being:
1. Hornsby (1992) and his interpretation oI modiIied Lugeon water tests. 2. The introduction oI microIine cements and super plasticisers described by Gause & Bruce (1997). 3. The adoption oI real time computer monitoring oI the drilling and grouting process throughout the 1990`s.
Lombardi and Deere in 1993 deriving the Grout Intensity Number GIN to use a single stable grout throughout the grouting process. This is probably the most signiIicant step in progress to Iind its way to Australia. The establishment cost barrier Ior the limited ground treatment market being too great Ior Australian specialists.
SOIL GROUTING
A soil mass can exhibit an inIinite variability that tests the specialists ability to design a grouting scheme to:
Improve the stability oI the soil mass Reduce seepage into or through the soil.
The key ingredients to success are deIined by Littlejohn (2003) when the site investigation provides suIIicient inIormation to answer.
1. Can the ground be grouted? 2. What types and amounts oI grout are required? 3. Following treatment what strength improvement or permeability reduction can be anticipated?
Guidelines are laid out in European Standard EN 12715 Execution oI Special Geotechnical Work Grouting, to assist the designer with his site investigation planning. As a Iirst assessment the grouting specialist will study the grain size oI the material and most importantly the proportion passing the 75 micron. For soils with greater than 15 passing the 75 micron sieve permeation grouting with Portland Cement grouts.
Important practical limits on the coeIIicient oI permeability prior to grout treatment include:
5 x 104 m/sec Ior cement based grouts 5 x 105 m/sec Ior clay chemical grouts 1 x 105 to 5 x 106 m/sec Ior chemical grouts.
The pre-treatment oI a soil mass was successIully done Ior the DartIord Tunnel under the River Thames in Thames gravel using a clay cement and clay chemical grout in the mid 1950`s. This was the Iirst use oI the technique in UK tunnelling through alluvium with a Iull scale trial proving a reduction in permeability 1000 Iold Irom 30.1 x 104 to 50 x 107 m/sec.
Since that time the development oI chemical grouts such as silicates resorcinol Iormaldehydes acrylamides and polyurethanes led to the routine adoption oI multiphase clay cement silicate tube a manhette injection Ior much oI the Hong Kong Metro. Figure 2 shows limitations oI silicate grouting.
In 1967 Soletanche used clay cement and silicate acetate grouts to improve the compressive strength and reduce seepage at the Auber Metro Station in Paris within the Seine Alluvium. With a tunnel crown 18 m below street level and mainly below the water table the process is described by Jamin and Le Sciellor, (1970). Warner (1972) reported the strength testing oI chemically grouted sands. CamberIort (1977) produced guidelines on the limits oI permeation oI grouts based on permeability ( Fig. 1)
By 1982 the mechanical behaviour oI chemically grouted soils was better appreciated and in general strength was known to increase with increasing density and decreasing eIIective size D10 and the question oI grout longevity was posed at the 8 th
European ConIerence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
Finer ground cement became available, along with concrete technology products.
In 1988 the USBR employed super plasticisers Ior the Iirst time in cement grouting Ior the Waddell Dam in Arizona.
Lenses oI glacial till at the Vernier Tunnel on the Geneva Motorway were treated with ultra-Iine cement with the new combination oI silicon and calcium that would treat non-cohesive soils with permeability`s down to 1.5 x 105.
The treating oI a soil mass to improve its properties may be by using:
The most cost-eIIective process is dictated by not only the quality oI the site investigation but the physical location and accessibility oI the site. The grouting treatment designer must consider:
1. The depth to and thickness oI treatment required. 2. Access Irom the surIace, Irom adjacent land, or Irom within the tunnel
In some situations the pre-treatment oI ground to be tunneled through may be essential, desirable or occasionally impracticable. The ground may be treated Irom the surIace as oIten done in the Hong Kong Metro, Irom small diameter shaIts sunk adjacent to the tunnel alignment as on the London Jubilee line or treated in advance oI tunnel excavation as in the Subsea tunnels in Norway.
The application oI grout to the ground will depend upon the nature oI the ground to be treated and the relative costs oI treatment by grouting or other alternative tunnelling methods.
Where unexpected conditions are encountered during tunnel excavation the selection oI treatment will depend on the nature oI the ground being tunnelled. In the Malgovert Tunnel in France the alpine gypsiIerous triassic quartzine was severely crushed and 5 phases oI treatment were required to get through the 524 It over a 2 year period.
Four stages oI grouting treatment involving silicate grout Iollowed by a cement grout injected to Iissure the ground and compact the quartzite sand. A third stage quick (15 min.) setting chemical grout to give cohesion Iollowed by a Iinal round oI cement grouting to compress the ground.
The resulting ground required explosives to break it out.
GROUTING MATERIALS
The purpose oI grouting is to inject material Iluid into voids in the soil or rock. The objective may be to create a temporary change in the strata by void Iilling or to aIIect a permanent or liIetime oI the structure. Grout is usually in the Iorm oI a Iluid Iormed Irom a plethora oI materials available.
Bruce et al.(1998) DeIine Iour categories oI materials listed below in order oI rheological perIormance and cost.
1. Particulate grouts (suspension or cementitious) having a Bingham perIormance
2. Colloidal solutions which are evolutive Newtonian Iluids in which viscosity increases with time
3. Pure solutions in which viscosity remains essentially consistent with the adjustable setting period
4. Miscellaneous materials
These comprise mixtures oI water and one or several particulate solids such as cement, pozzolans, clays, sand and additives to modiIy viscosity.
Depending on the mix it may be stable or unstable (having signiIicant bleed). Particulate grouts remain highly popular due to their basic characteristics and relative economy, and remain the most commonly used Ior routine waterprooIing and ground strengthening.
Water to solids ratio is the prime determinant oI their properties and basic characteristics oI stability, Iluidity, rheology, strength and durability.
APPENDIX 1 extract Irom GROUTS AND GROUTING 1
Particulate Grouts
The basic characteristics, and relative economy oI these grouts remain the most commonly used Ior both routine waterprooIing and ground strengthening. Water to solids ratio is the prime determinant oI their properties and basic characteristics. Five broad subcategories can be identiIied:
It should be borne in mind that many particulate grouts are unsuited Ior sealing high Ilow, high head conditions: they will be diluted or washed away prior to setting in the desired location.
Colloidal Solutions
These comprise mixtures oI sodium silicate and reagent solutions, which can change in viscosity over time to produce a gel. Sodium silicate is an alkaline, colloidal aqueous solution. In order to obtain a satisIactory hardening time, the silicate must be strongly diluted, and so these gels are typically weak, and thereIore oI use only Ior waterprooIing. Typical inorganic reagents are sodium bicarbonate and sodium aluminate.
The reletive proportions oI silicate and reagent will determine by their own chemistry and concentration the desired short and long-term properties such as gel setting time, viscosity, strength, syneresis and durability, as well as cost and environmental acceptability.
In general, sodium silicate grouts are unsuitable Ior providing permanent barriers against general high-Ilow/high-head conditions, because oI their relatively long setting time (20-60 minutes), low strength (less than 1 Mpa) and poor durability. This is a diIIerent case Irom using sodium silicate solution (without reagent) to accelerate the stiIIening oI cementitious grouts a traditional deIence against Iast Ilows.
Pure Solutions
Resins are solutions oI organic products in water, or a non-aqueous solvent, capable oI Iorming the Iormation oI a gel or Ioam with speciIic mechanical properties under normal temperature conditions and in a closed environment. They exist in diIIerent Iorms characterised by their mode oI reaction or hardening:
1 D.A. Bruce, A. Naudts, W.G.Smoak, High Flow Reduction in Mafor Structures, Materials, Principles, and Case Histories, Preceedings oI Sessions oI Geo-Congress 98, Boston, Massachusetts Polymerisation: activated by the addition oI catalysing element (e.g., poly- acrylamide resins, water reactive polyurethanes). Polymerisation and Polycondensation: arising Irom the combination oI two components reacting in stoechiometric proportions (e.g., epoxies, aminoplasts, two component polyurethanes, vinyl esters).
Mostly, setting time is controlled by varying the proportions oI reagents or components. Resins are used when category 1 or 2 grouts prove inadequate, Ior example when the Iollowing grout properties are needed:
Particularly low viscosity Very Iast gain oI strength (a Iew hours) Variable setting time (Iew seconds to several hours) Superior chemical resistance Special rheological properties (pseudoplastic) Resistance to high groundwater Ilows
Resins are used Ior both strengthening and waterprooIing in cases where durability is essential, and the above characteristics must be provided. Four categories can be recognised: acrylic, phenolic, aminoplastic, and polyurethane (see Table 1 appendix 1)
Miscellaneous Grouts
These grouts are essentially composed oI organic compounds or resins. In addition to waterprooIing and strengthening, they also provide very speciIic qualities such as resistance to erosion or corrosion, and Ilexibility. Their use may be limited by speciIic concerns such as toxicity, injection and handling diIIiculties, and cost and may include latex hot bitumen and epoxies.
FIGURE 1:General Theoretical limits oI Grout Permeation. AIter FHA-15 2
2 D.A. Bruce, J.A Shirlaw, Grouting of completelv weathered granite with special reference to the construction of the Hong Kong mass transit railwav, Institution oI Mining and Metallergy & British Tunnelling Society, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Brighton, England, 10-15 March 1985 FIGURE 2: Limits oI Silicate permeation in alluvial soils. 3
FIGURE 3: Production Grouting Procedure 4
3 D.A. Bruce, J.A Shirlaw, Grouting of completelv weathered granite with special reference to the construction of the Hong Kong mass transit railwav, Institution oI Mining and Metallergy & British Tunnelling Society, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Brighton, England, 10-15 March 1985
4 GS Littlejohn, J. Ingle, K Dadasbilge, Improvement in Base Resistance of Large Diameter Piles found in Siltv Sand, 8 th European ConIerence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Helsinki, 1983 APPENDIX 1
Type of resin
Nature of ground Use/ Application
Acrylic
Granular, very Iine soils
Finely Iissured rock
WaterprooIing by mass treatment
Gas tightening (mines, storage) Strengthening up to 1.5 Mpa Strengthening oI a granular medium subjected to vibrations
Phenol
Granular, very Iine soils
Strengthening
Aminoplast
Schists and coals Strengthening (by adherence to materials oI organic origin)
Polyurethane
Large voids
Formation oI a Ioam that Iorms a barrier against running water (using water reactive resins) Stabilisation or localised Iilling (using two component resins)
Table 1. Uses and applications of Resins (AFTES, 1991)
OI the Iour subclasses in table 1, only two groups oI polyurethanes are usually appropriate Ior remedial grouting given cost, perIormance and environmental implications:
Water-reactive polyurethanes : Liquid resin, oIten 'reactively diluted or in a plasticising agent, typically with added accelerator, reacts with groundwater to provide either a Ilexible (elastomeric) or rigid Ioam. Viscosities range Irom 50 to 1,000 cP (at 25C). There are two subdivisions:
1. Hydrophobic react with water but repel it aIter the Iinal (cured) product has been Iormed.
2. Hydrophilic react with water but continue to physically absorb it aIter the chemical reation has been completed.
Two component polyurethanes: Two compounds (polyol and isocyanate) in liquid Iorm react to provide either a rigid Ioam or an elastic gel. Such resins have viscosities Irom 100 to 1000 cP and strengths as high as 2 Mpa. A thorough description oI these grouts was provided by Naudts (1996).