Perormance 1a

INTRODUCTION
The resistance of a ship is the force that resists the motion

of the ship
For present study, consider Resistance R at constant
forward speed V of the ship in a straight line
The power required to overcome this resistance is called
the effective power, P
E
= R x V
R in kN, V in m per sec, P
E
in kW
V is often given in knots
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour; 1 n.m. = 1852 m;
1 knot = 0.5144 m/s.
RESISTANCE OF SHIPS 1
1. INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The resistance of a ship is the force that resists the motion
of the ship
For present study, consider Resistance R at constant
forward speed V of the ship in a straight line
The power required to overcome this resistance is called
the effective power, P
E
= R x V
R in kN, V in m per sec, P
E
in kW
V is often given in knots
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour; 1 n.m. = 1852 m;
1 knot = 0.5144 m/s.
INTRODUCTION - 2
Study of Ship Resistance is important
because :
it is necessary to determine the effective
power at the design speed so that an
appropriate propulsion system may be fitted
to the ship
it is desirable to design the hull form of the
ship so as to minimize its resistance subject to
the various design constraints
INTRODUCTION - 3
History : development of ships over the
ages resulting in hydrodynamically
efficient hull forms developed empirically
Scientific studies : Newton, Euler and
others
Experiments : Leonardo da Vinci,
Frederick Chapman, Beaufoy, Hall
brothers, Benjamin Franklin
INTRODUCTION - 4
Mechanical propulsion need for
estimation of power
Early model experiments unsuccessful
Contribution of French naval constructor,
Edmund Reech
Model experiments discredited, nearly
abandoned
Contribution of William Froude

INTRODUCTION - 5
Froudes tank, model experiments,
Greyhound experiments

Development of ship model testing

Ship model tanks in India
2. RESISTANCE COMPONENTS
RESISTANCE COMPONENTS - 1
Several causes of ship resistance,
complicated phenomena
Problem simplified by dividing total
resistance into independent components,
neglecting mutual interaction
Hydrodynamic components
Bare hull resistance, appendage resistance
Aerodynamic component
Air and wind resistance

Bare hull total resistance R
T
Components based on causes of resistance
Viscous resistance R
V
due to viscosity of water
Wave resistance R
W
(wave making resistance) due to self-
generated ship waves different from waves existing in the
sea
R
T
= R
V
+ R
W

Components based on effects of ship moving in water
Tangential stresses - Frictional resistance R
F
Normal stresses Pressure resistance R
P
R
T
= R
F
+ R
P

Viscosity alters pressure distribution
around the hull, gives rise to viscous
pressure resistance R
VP
R
VP
= R
V
R
F
= R
P
R
W

R
T
= R
F
+ R
VP
+ R
W

R
VP
is usually small unless there are large
waterline and buttock slopes aft or hull surface
has discontinuities resulting in formation of
eddies or vortices due to flow separation giving
rise to eddy resistance or separation drag.
Frictional resistance of the ship is often
divided into 2-d frictional resistance and
form resistance
R
F
= R
F0
+ R
Form
R
F0
is the resistance of a plane surface of
infinite aspect ratio and may be calculated
by theory (hopefully)

Waves generated by the ship sometimes
break giving rise to the component called
wave breaking resistance
Another way to look at components of ship
resistance : force = mass x acceleration

Force Acceleration of water
R
F0
In direction of motion
R
Form
Normal to direction of motion
R
W
Vertical acceleration
R
Eddy
Angular acceleration (?)
Transom resistance
Induced drag
Spray drag
Momentum drag

Wave pattern resistance
Wake resistance

Need for studying components to design
for minimum resistance

For many practical purposes, it is
necessary to divide total resistance into
only two components : frictional resistance
and the remaining part or residuary
resistance
R
T
= R
F
+ R
R
This was first proposed by W. Froude, who also
stated the law of comparison

The residuary resistances of geometrically similar
ships are proportional to their displacements if their
speeds are proportional to the square roots of their
lengths

constant if constant
for geometrically similar ships
= displacement, length of the ship
R
R V
L
L
= =
A
A =
This is now called the Froude law
Speeds proportional to the square root of
the lengths of geometrically similar ships
(or models) are called corresponding
speeds
The modern approach is to divide the total
resistance into viscous resistance and
wave resistance and to apply the Froude
law to wave resistance
RESISTANCE OF SHIPS - 3
3. RESISTANCE EXPERIMENTS
AND LAWS OF SIMILARITY
RESISTANCE EXPERIMENTS
Experiments with full size ships : HMS
Greyhound (1874), Japanese navy ship
Yudachi (1933), Clyde paddle steamer
Lucy Ashton (1950), and others
Difficulties with full size ship experiments :
high costs, difficult to control condition of
experiment
Experiments with small scale models
much more convenient
LAWS OF SIMILARITY - 1
How are quantities measured in a model
experiment related to the corresponding
quantities in the ship?

Laws of similarity :
Geometrical similarity
Kinematic similarity
Kinetic similarity

Dynamic similarity between ship and model

Kinematic and kinetic similarity by dimensional
analysis

Dimensional Analysis
Method to obtain partial solution to problem that
cannot be completely solved
Only quantities that enter the problem need to be
known, but only the form of the solution is obtained
Every equation that represents a physical relationship
must be dimensionally homogeneous
Fundamental dimensions in problems not involving
heat or electricity are
Mass M
Length L
Time T
For a ship or model of given geometry :

( )
, , , , ,
a b c d e f
T
R f L V g p k L V g p = =
| |
2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
b c e f d
a
MLT L LT ML ML T LT ML T

( ( ( ( (
(
=

| || || | | | | | | |
2 3 3 2 2 c d f a b c d e f b d e f
M L T M L T
+ + + +
=
1 c d f + + = 3 1 a b c d e f + + = 2 2 2 b d e f =
2 a d e = +
2 2 2 b d e f = 1 c d f =
2 2 2 2 1 d e d e f d f d e f
T
R kL V g p
+
=
2 2
2 2
f
d
e
T
gL p
R L V k
VL
V V

| |
| |
| |
=
|
| |
\ .
\ .
\ .
2 2 2 2
, , .
T
R g L p
f
VL
LV V V

| |
=
|
\ .
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
, , , ,
T
R V L V p V L V p
f f
gL g L SV V V
v

| | | |
| |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
( )
, ,
T n n n
C f R F E =
C
T
is the total resistance coefficient, S is the wetted
surface proportional to L
2
, and R
n
, F
n
and E
n
are the
Reynolds number, Froude number and Euler number

1
2
2
T
T
R
C
SV
=
n
V L
R
v
=
v =
n
V
F
g L
=
1
2
2
n
p
E
V
=
Advantages :
Dimensionless quantities, independent of
units if consistent system is used
Number of independent variables reduced
(Buckingham theorem)
Variables can be changed easily in an
experiment
( )
, , , , ,
T
R f L V g p =
( )
, ,
T n n n
C f R F E =
For a ship and a geometrically similar model,
with subscripts M and S for model and ship,
if :
R
nM
= R
nS
, F
nM
= F
nS
and E
nM
= E
nS
,
then C
TM
= C
TS
.

R
nM
= R
nS
and F
nM
= F
nS
mean that :

or approximately
S S M M
M S
V L V L
v v
=
S M
M S
V V
g L g L
=
M S
L L =
M S
V V =
If both the Reynolds numbers and Froude
numbers of the model and the ship must be
made equal, the model must be of the same size
as the ship!
If only the Reynolds numbers are made equal,
the speed of the model will be very high and the
forces very large : consider a numerical
example.
It is not generally feasible in an experiment to
make the Reynolds number of the model equal
to the Reynolds number of the ship.
Making the Froude numbers of the model and
the ship equal is quite convenient see
numerical example.

If the pressure in the Euler number is taken to be
the hydrostatic pressure, equal Froude numbers
and geometrical similarity make the Euler
number of the model equal to the Euler number
of the ship automatically. (Euler number is also
called pressure coefficient.)
In model experiments on ship resistance
the Froude numbers of the model and the
ship are made equal. The Reynolds
numbers cannot be made equal, and
therefore C
TM
is not equal to C
TS
.

Following Froude, one may write the total
resistance coefficient in terms of a viscous
resistance coefficient that is a function of
Reynolds number and a wave resistance
coefficient that is a function of Froude
number :
( ) ( )
, ( )
T n n V n W n
C f R F C R C F = = +
1
2
2
V V
C R SV =
2 1
2
W W
C R SV =
If the Froude numbers of geometrically
similar ships are equal, their wave
resistance coefficients are also equal an
alternative expression of the Froude law.
The Froude law is used to determine the
resistance of a ship from the measured
resistance of a model.
An outline of the procedure is as follows :
Measure model total resistance R
TM
at speed
V
M
Determine model viscous resistance R
VM
by
some independent means
Model wave resistance R
WM
= R
TM
R
VM
Obtain the ship wave resistance R
WS
at the
corresponding speed V
S
by the Froude law,
as shown below

S
S M
M
L
V V
L
=
S
WS WM
M
R R
A
=
A
is the displacement A
Determine the ship viscous resistance R
VS
The ship total resistance R
TS
= R
VS
+ R
WS

This procedure can be expressed in terms
of coefficients as follows :

TS TM VM VS
C C C C = +
nS nM
F F =
4. VISCOUS RESISTANCE
VISCOUS RESISTANCE - 1
To determine the resistance of a ship from the
resistance of the model requires the total
resistance to be divided into two parts.

This was first proposed by W. Froude, who
divided the total resistance into frictional
resistance and residuary resistance and also
stated the law of comparison :

T F R
R R R = +
constant if constant
for geometrical similar ships
R
R V
L
= =
A
Froude then developed a method to determine
R
F
for a model or a ship.
He tested a series of planks of different lengths
over a range of speeds. The surface of the
planks varied from smooth to rough. The
resistance of the planks was expressed by the
formula :
friction coefficient dependent on length and nature of surface
Wetted surface
Speed
1.83 for smooth surfaces, 2.00 for rough surfaces
n
F
R f SV
f
S
V
n
=
=
=
=
=
Froude extrapolated his results to greater
lengths, and proposed that the frictional
resistance of a model or a ship could be taken to
be equal to the resistance of an equivalent
plank, i.e. a plank having the same length and
wetted surface as the model or ship.

Froudes results were later re-analysed by his
son, R.E. Froude, to give a formula that became
the standard method of calculating the frictional
resistance of ships and models :

1.825
2
in lbs, in ft and in knots
F
F
R f SV
R S V
=
0.053
0.00871 for sea water
8.8
0.0516
0.00846 for fresh water
8.8
in feet
f
L
f
L
L
= +
+
= +
+
Example 1 : A guided missile destroyer of length 163 m,
breadth 17 m and full load draught 7 m has a
displacement of 7700 t and a wetted surface of 3013 m
2
.
A model to a scale of 26.08 is made of the ship and a
resistance test carried out. The model has a resistance
of 147.9 N at a speed of 3.022 m per sec. Determine the
effective power of the ship at the corresponding speed
using the Froude method.

Answer : 41846 kW at 30 knots
Modern approach :
Use of non-dimensional parameters based on
Dimensional Analysis
Division of total resistance coefficient into viscous
resistance coefficient and wave resistance coefficient
Viscous resistance coefficient is calculated from two-
dimensional frictional resistance coefficient
Two-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient may
be determined from the Boundary Layer Theory as a
function of Reynolds number
T V W
C C C = + ( )
0 F n
C f R =
Boundary Layer Theory : Prandtl 1904
No slip condition. Velocity increases from zero
at solid boundary to nearly the value for inviscid
flow in a thin layer of fluid next to the boundary.
This is called the boundary layer.
It is assumed that the effects of viscosity on the
flow are confined to the boundary layer and the
flow outside the boundary layer is that of an
inviscid fluid.
Greatly simplifies viscous flow problems.
Laminar flow. Turbulence. Transition from
laminar flow to turbulent flow.
Critical Reynolds number depends on
roughness of surface and presence of
disturbances in the incoming flow and other
factors.
Flow around the ship is turbulent because of
high Reynolds number, rougher surface than
model
Flow around model may be laminar because of
low Reynolds number. Causes serious error.
Special measures to make flow turbulent around
ship models.
Determination of two-dimensional frictional
resistance by Boundary Layer Theory : Friction
lines -Prandtl-Karman line

Other friction lines :
Prandtl-Schlichting

Schoenherr

1
5
0
0.074
F n
C R
=
( )
0
2.58
10
0.455
log
F
n
C
R
=
( )
10 0
0
0.242
log
n F
F
R C
C
=
There are many such friction lines.

In calculating the frictional resistance of the ship,
it is necessary to add a roughness allowance,
typically 0.0004.

For laminar flow, the Blasius friction line is used :
1
2
0
1.328 (Laminar)
F n
C R
=
Hughes carried out experiments with plates and
shallow draught pontoons of varying length-
breadth ratio and derived the formula :

for two-dimensional plane surfaces of infinite
aspect ratio.
He concluded that the ratio of the resistance of a
plane surface of finite aspect ratio to that of
infinite aspect ratio depended only on the aspect
ratio and not on the Reynolds number.
( )
2
0 10
0.066 log 2.03
F n
C R

=
The frictional resistance of a curved body is
different from that of a plane surface because :
The velocity distribution is different (Figure)
The water particles have to traverse a greater
distance and hence have a higher velocity.
The difference between the frictional resistance
of a three-dimensional body such as a ship and
a plane surface (flat plate) is called form
resistance.

Hughes suggested that by analogy the ratio of
the frictional resistance coefficient of a three-
dimensional body such as a ship to the
resistance of a plane surface of infinite aspect
ratio at the same Reynolds number is constant.
This ratio is called the form factor :

The form factor depends upon the shape or
form of the ship but is independent of Reynolds
number.
( )
0
ship
1 both at the same
F
n
F
C
r k R
C
= + =
Other methods of taking three-dimensional
shape of ship into account : Lap-Troost,
Granville, and others.
Empirical formulas for determining form factor.
Prohaskas method : based on theory that C
W
is
proportional to fourth power of F
n
, i.e.

so that
( ) ( )
4
0 0
1 1
T F W F n
C k C C k C a F = + + = + +
( )
4
0 0
1
n T
F F
a F C
k
C C
= + +
Or, more generally :

The form factor 1 + k can be obtained by fitting
the experimental data to these equations.

The International Towing Tank Conference 1957
decided to use the following formula for
calculating the frictional resistance of ships and
models :
( )
0
1
b
T F n
C k C a F = + +
( )
2
10
0.075 log 2
F n
C R

=
The ITTC 1957 Line is a model-ship correlation
line and not a two-dimensional friction line. It is
the Hughes line with a built-in form factor.

However, it is now quite common to use a form
factor with the ITTC line.

The ITTC line is now the standard method for
calculating frictional resistance of ships and
models.
Example 2 : A guided missile destroyer of length
163 m, breadth 17 m and full load draught 7 m
has a displacement of 7700 t and a wetted
surface of 3013 m
2
. A model to a scale of 26.08
is made of the ship and a resistance test carried
out. The model is found to have a resistance of
147.9 N at a speed of 3.022 m per sec.
Determine the effective power of the ship at the
corresponding speed using the ITTC line with a
form factor of 1.08 and a roughness allowance
of 0.0004.
Answer : 35458 kW at 30 k
The pressure distribution around a three-
dimensional body is different from that
around a two-dimensional body (Figure)
In an inviscid flow, the pressure
distribution does not lead to any
resistance.
In viscous flow, the pressure gradually
reduces from forward to aft compared to
the pressure in inviscid flow.
This gives rise to viscous pressure
resistance.
If the body is streamlined, viscous
pressure resistance is small and need not
be considered separately.
If the body has large slopes in the after
body or has discontinuities, the flow
cannot follow the curved surface closely.
The flow separates from the surface and
eddies are created.
This can be explained with the help of the
Boundary Layer Theory (Figure).
Boundary layer separation and the creation of
eddies gives rise to eddy resistance or
separation drag.
Extent of separation and magnitude of eddy
resistance depend upon many factors : laminar
flow or turbulent flow, Reynolds number,
hydrostatic pressure.
Regarding eddy resistance as independent of
Reynolds number may lead to a small error on
the safe side when extrapolating model
resistance to the ship.
Separation can be reduced by boundary layer
suction, but this is rarely used.
Resistance of rough surfaces :
Froudes plank experiments : resistance proportional
to V
n
, n less than 2 for smooth surfaces, n = 2 for
rough surfaces.
Nikuradses roughened pipe experiments : confirmed
Froudes results that for rough surfaces resistance is
proportional to V
2
.
Below a critical Reynolds number, a rough surface
behaves like a smooth surface. Then there is a
transition from smooth surface to rough surface
behaviour.
The Reynolds number range in which this transition
occurs depends on the relative roughness L/k
s
where
L is the length and k
s
the equivalent sand roughness
of the surface.
This behaviour of rough surfaces is explained by
the Boundary layer Theory :

At low Reynolds numbers when the flow is laminar,
the effect of roughness is negligible the rough
surface behaves like a smooth surface.

In a turbulent boundary layer, there is a laminar sub-
layer whose thickness decreases as the Reynolds
number increases. So long as the roughness
elements are within the laminar sub-layer, they do not
affect the flow.
As the Reynolds number increases and the laminar
sub-layer thickness decreases, the roughness
elements project into the turbulent part of the
boundary layer and the effect of roughness becomes
increasingly evident.
At sufficiently high Reynolds numbers, the thickness
of the laminar sub-layer is small compared to the
height of the roughness elements k
s
, and the surface
behaves fully like a rough surface, the resistance
being proportional to V
2
.
This is important for ship model testing : the Reynolds
number of the model is small and it is easy to make it
hydrodynamically smooth, but the ship with its much
higher Reynolds number cannot be made to behave
as if it had a smooth surface.
A ship does not normally behave as if its surface
was fully rough, its frictional resistance is not
proportional to V
2
.
The roughness of the ship surface is taken into
account by adding a roughness allowance
A typical value is = 0.0004, but one may
use the following formula :

F
C A
F
C A
1
3
3
10 105 0.64
S
F
k
C
L
| |
A =
|
\ .
A standard value of hull surface roughness used
in determining the frictional resistance of a ship
is k
s
= 150 microns (150 x 10
-6
m), but much
lower values for new ships are obtained by using
modern shipbuilding methods and paint
technology.
In service, the hull surface becomes
progressively rougher due to damage to the
paint, corrosion and erosion of the hull surface
and due to fouling. This makes it necessary to
clean and re-paint the hull surface when the ship
is dry-docked.
The rate of fouling depends upon factors such
as the times spent at sea and in port, in
temperate waters and in tropical waters. An
allowance for the increase in resistance due to
the roughening of the hull surface is made (e.g.
a drop in speed of % per day in temperate
waters and % per day in tropical waters at
constant power).
Self-polishing co-polymer paints (SPC
coatings) not only prevent fouling but actually
become smoother with time in service so that
there is no increase in resistance with days out
of dry-dock. This allows intervals between dry-
dockings to be extended.
Unfortunately, SPC coatings contain tri-butyl tin
(TBT) which causes excessive destruction of
marine life. Paints containing TBT are now
banned, and have been replaced by newer
coatings that may not have self-polishing
characteristics.
5. WAVE RESISTANCE
WAVE RESISTANCE - 1
There are two main components of
resistance
Viscous resistance
Wave resistance
Wave resistance is associated with the
waves generated by a ship
At low speeds (Froude numbers), wave
resistance is a small part of total
resistance

WAVE RESISTANCE - 2
At very high speeds (Froude number more
than about 0.45), wave resistance
increases so much that conventional
displacement type vessels cannot go at
such high speeds.
It is necessary to use unconventional hull
forms for ships of very high speed.
WAVE RESISTANCE - 3
A three-dimensional body moving in water has a
pressure distribution around it. (Figure).
If the body is near the surface of water, the free
surface will rise at regions of high pressure and
fall at regions of low pressure.
A moving pressure distribution will give rise to
free surface waves accompanying the body.
This was observed by W. Froude, who made a
sketch showing the waves generated by a ship.
WAVE RESISTANCE - 4
WAVE RESISTANCE - 5
The waves generated by a moving pressure point were
studied by Lord Kelvin. (Figure).
The main features of the Kelvin wave pattern are :
The pressure point generates a series of transverse waves and
a series of diverging waves.
The transverse waves are slightly curved convex forward, travel
at the same speed V as the pressure point, have a wave length
appropriate to the wave speed (i.e. ) and the wave
height decreases in proportion to the square root of the distance
from the pressure point.
The diverging waves emanate from the pressure point and join
the transverse waves in cusps that lie on lines radiating from the
pressure point on either side of the direction of motion at angles
of 19
o
28 (sin
-1
1/3).
2
2 V g t =
WAVE RESISTANCE - 6
The waves generated by a ship in calm water have the
similar features.
The moving pressure distribution of the ship can be
regarded as an assembly of pressure points all
producing Kelvin wave patterns that are superposed on
each other.
There is a bow wave system and a stern wave system,
each with diverging and transverse waves (Figure) :
Each system lies within lines making an angle with direction of
motion; the angle depends on the hull form.
The bow transverse waves start with a crest aft of the bow.
The stern transverse waves start with a trough forward of the
stern.
The stern wave system is superposed on the bow wave system.
Diverging waves are steeper and therefore more visible.
The combined wave system spreads far and wide behind the
ship with the wave heights reducing and finally dying out.
WAVE RESISTANCE - 7
WAVE RESISTANCE - 8
The superposition of the stern waves on the bow
waves results in wave interference that may be
favourable or unfavourable.
If the transverse waves from the bow are in
phase with the transverse waves from the stern,
i.e. the crests of the bow waves coincide with the
crests of the stern waves, the resulting waves will
have the maximum height, and the wave
resistance will be larger than the value it would
have if there was a phase difference.
Considering resistance, this is unfavourable
interference.
WAVE RESISTANCE - 9
If the bow waves and the stern waves are
completely out of phase, i.e. the crests of the
bow waves coincide with the troughs of the stern
waves, the resulting waves have smaller heights
and the wave resistance is lower : favourable
interference.
Wave resistance does not increase steadily with
speed but has undulations. This is shown clearly
by a curve of wave resistance coefficient as a
function of Froude number, or a curve of total
resistance coefficient as a function of speed-
length ratio , V in knots, L in feet. / V L
WAVE RESISTANCE - 10
Wave Resistance Coef f icient
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Fn
1000 Cw
The humps and hollows in a wave resistance
curve can also be explained by noting that a
deep wave trough at the stern will cause a sharp
increase in pressure resistance, while a shallow
trough or a crest will reduce the pressure
resistance, which is mostly wave resistance.
(Figure).
The speeds or Froude numbers at which
favourable and unfavourable wave interference
(humps and hollows) occur can be calculated.
(Calculation).
mL = distance between first crest of bow transverse
waves and first crest of stern transverse waves.
n = number of complete wave lengths in the distance mL

If m = 1.7 :
Values of Froude number, F
n

Hump Hollow Hump Hollow
n Speed Speed n Speed Speed
1 0.520 0.736 6 0.212 0.222
2 0.368 0.425 7 0.197 0.204
3 0.300 0.329 8 0.184 0.190
4 0.260 0.278 9 0.173 0.178
5 0.233 0.245 10 0.164 0.169

(Figure)
The hump corresponding to n = 1 is called the main
hump, and the hump corresponding to n = 2 is called the
prismatic hump because it depends upon the prismatic
coefficient of the ship.
The design speed should preferably lie in a hollow.
At low Froude numbers, the wave length is small, there
are many waves between the bow and the stern and the
wave heights are small. The wave resistance is small and
interference effects are negligible.
As Froude number increases, the number of waves within
the ship length decreases, the wave heights increase and
the wave resistance becomes large and the interference
effects prominent.
As the Froude number approaches about 0.4, the wave
length approaches the length of the ship.
Above a Froude number of 0.4, the wave length becomes
greater than the length of the ship, the first trough of the
bow waves starts nearing the stern, there is a large
decrease in pressure, particularly towards aft, resulting in
sinkage and aft trim, and a large increase in wave
resistance.

These effects reach their peak at Froude numbers around
0.5 (main hump). The sharp increase in wave resistance
at Froude numbers above 0.4 acts as a speed barrier for
ships of normal form and unconventional hull forms must
be used.
Theoretical calculation of wave resistance has been
attempted.
Potential flow. Equations of motion. Laplace equation
Boundary conditions. Michell 1898.
Sources and sinks to represent ship. Havelock.
Others : Wigley, Weinblum, Inui, Pien, .
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Wave breaking resistance is closely related to wave
making resistance.
In ships with very full forebodies, the flow ahead of the
bow becomes unstable and the bow waves break resuting
in wave breaking resistance.
Wave breaking may be due to flow separation at the free
surface ahead of the bow.
Another view is that wave breaking occurs when the
streamlines at the bow have excessive curvature causing
flow instability.
Guidelines for avoiding wave breaking include making the
radius of curvature of the streamlines sufficiently large
(R>V
2
/50, metric units), and limiting the half angle of
entrance and the slope of the tangent to the sectional area
curve at the forward end within limits.
Wave breaking resistance is not important for most ships.
6. OTHER RESISTANCE COMPONENTS
APPENDAGE RESISTANCE - 1
Appendages :
Single screw ships : rudder, bilge keels and
stabiliser fins, skeg
Twin screw ships : shaft brackets or bossings,
open shafts, multiple rudders
Negative appendages : projections into the
hull, e.g. tunnels of lateral thrust units
Appendage resistance from model tests :
Appendage resistance = total resistance with
appendages bare hull total resistance
Difficulties:
Accuracy of small appendages such as bilge
keels
Scaling problems : Reynolds number effects,
laminar flow
Appendage scale factor

Propulsion devices and their components
not considered as appendages
Rudders in propeller slipstream
Empirical formulas for resistance of
individual appendages
Preliminary estimates of appendage
resistance as a percentage of total bare
hull resistance

APPENDAGE RESISTANCE AS
PERCENTAGE OF BARE HULL RESISTANCE

Type of ship Values of Froude number
0.21 0.30 0.48

Large, fast, four screws 10-16 10-16 -
Small, fast, twin screws 20-30 17-25 10-15
Small, medium speed, twin screws 12-30 10-23 -
Large, medium speed, twin screws 8-14 8-14 -
All single screw ships 2 - 5 2 - 5 -

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE - 1
Air and wind resistance R
AA
: D.W. Taylors
formula :

C
D
is the drag coefficient
is the density of air
A
T
is the transverse projected area of the ship
above water
V
R
is the relative head wind speed
Typically C
D
= 1.2, = 1.225 kg per m
3

1
2
2
AA D air T R
R C A V =
air
air

Hughes method to determine R
AA
:
Wind force is given by

V
R
= relative wind velocity
= relative wind direction
A
L
= longitudinal above water projected area
A
T
= transverse above water projected area
= angle of wind force to ship centre line

( )
2 2
1
2
2
sin cos
cos( )
L T
air R
A A
F C V
u u
o u
+
=
u
o
The wind force coefficient C depends on the
type of ship and on , average values being :

: 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 deg
C : 1.20 1.52 0.64 0.20 0.51 1.29 1.02

A
T
should be taken as 0.3A
1
+ A
2
, where A
1
is
the transverse projected area of the main hull
above water and A
2
the transverse projected
area of the superstructure and deckhouses.

Then

u
u
cos
AA
R F o =
Effect of wind velocity gradient depends upon
relative magnitudes of ship speed and absolute
wind speed
Yawing moment if centre of pressure of wind
force and centre of lateral resistance have a
large longitudinal separation : resulting drift
angle and use of rudder increase hydrodynamic
resistance
Air and wind resistance may be reduced by
streamlining superstructure and deck houses
but this works only in a head wind.

7. SHIP RESISTANCE IN CONFINED WATER
RESISTANCE IN CONFINED WATER - 1
Shallow water, restricted water and
confined water
Effect on a ship moving in confined water :
sinkage and trim
increase in resistance
other effects : propulsion, manoeuvrability,
vibration

Sinkage and trim :
Restricted cross-section for displacement flow under
the ship
Increased relative velocity of water
Decrease in pressure
Sinkage
Effect of boundary layers on ship and ground
With level ground, pressures are lower towards aft
and hence the ship trims aft
Forward trim may occur if the ship is heading into
shallower water or if centre of change in pressure is
forward of centre of flotation, as in many full form
ships
Combined sinkage and trim due to ship moving
in shallow water is called squat
Change of pressure in shallow water of given
depth is proportional to V
2
Squat increases sharply with speed
Excessive speed in shallow water may cause
the bottom of the ship to touch the ground
Shallow water effects become more pronounced
if the water is also restricted in width, since more
displacement flow has to go under the ship
Empirical formulas to estimate squat
Barrass formula for squat in a canal :

= squat in m, C
B
= block coefficient
S = midship area / canal cross-section area
V = ship speed in knots
0.81 2.08
20
B
C S V
o =
o
For shallow water of unrestricted breadth,
an equivalent breadth b may be used to
calculate the effective canal cross-section
area :

where B is the breadth of the ship.
0.85
7.04
B
b B
C
=
Barrass has also given simpler formulas :
In unrestricted shallow water with h/T between
1.1 and 1.4 (h = depth of water, T = draught
of the ship)

In a canal for which S lies between 0.1 and
0.266,

Ships with C
B
> 0.7 trim forward, ships with
C
B
< 0.7 trim aft according to Barrass.

2
100
B
C V
o =
2
50
B
C V
o =
Confined water affects ship resistance
mainly in two ways :
The increased displacement flow velocity
increases the viscous resistance
The waves generated by the ship are different
in shallow water than in deep water. Waves
of a given speed are longer in shallow water
and have sharper crests than in deep water.
This causes a change in wave resistance
In water of depth h, wave speed (celerity)
and wave length are related as follows :

As , ,
and the familiar relation between wave
speed and wave length in deep water is
obtained :

2
2
tanh
2
g h
c
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
2
2 c
g
t
=
h tanh(2 / ) 1 h t

As ,
and the wave speed is given by :

This is the limiting speed of a wave in water
of depth h and is called the critical wave
speed.

/ 0, h tanh(2 / ) 2 / h h t t
2
c g h =
The waves generated by a moving pressure
point in shallow water give guidance on the
effect of shallow water on the waves
generated by a ship :
At speeds V well below , the waves
generated by the pressure point in water of
depth h are the same as in deep water :
diverging waves and transverse waves of wave
length lying between lines
making an angle of 19
o
28 with the direction of
motion (i.e. the Kelvin wave pattern)

g h
2
2 / V g t =
As the speed V increases beyond 0.4 , the
wave length starts being affected by the depth
of water h and the angle between which the
wave pattern is contained starts increasing from
19
o
28

As V approaches , this angle approaches
90
o
, the wave length increases indefinitely, and
there is only a single wave crest moving with
the pressure point with its crest at right angles
to the direction of motion

g h
g h
As the speed V increases beyond the critical
wave speed, this solitary wave is left behind,
and a new wave system forms consisting only
of diverging waves emanating from the pressure
point, convex forward. These diverging waves
are contained within two lines making an angle
with the direction of motion. The angle
decreases as V increases so that the speed of
the waves normal to their crests is

o o
sin V g h o =
The waves generated by a ship in shallow
water have similar characteristics
As the ship speed V starts increasing towards
the critical wave speed , the waves start
becoming longer than in deep water, the
crests become sharper and the troughs
shallower, and the first wave crest becomes
larger while the subsequent waves are
diminished.
g h
When the wave length starts becoming more
than the length of the ship, sinkage and trim
by stern start increasing and the resistance
also increases.
The maximum values are reached at or just
before the ship speed becomes equal to the
critical wave speed, at which there is a single
sharp crest accompanying the bow.
As the ship speed becomes supercritical, the
solitary wave is left behind and a new wave
system consisting of only diverging waves is
formed. Sinkage, trim and resistance reduce
substantially.
These observations are mostly based on
model experiments since ships can rarely
be made to go at speeds approaching or
exceeding the critical wave speed.
Ships do operate at subcritical speeds in
shallow water, and it is necessary to
calculate the effect of shallow water on
their resistance.
A method due to O. Schlichting is widely
used for this purpose.
In Schlichtings method :
The total resistance is divided into viscous resistance
and wave resistance

It is assumed that if the wave length in shallow water of
depth h at a speed V
I
(called Schlichtings intermediate
speed) is the same as the wave length in deep water at
a speed , the wave resistance at the speed V
I
in
shallow water will be equal to the wave resistance at
the speed in deep water.

The wave length in deep water at a speed is given
by
V
2
2 V
g
t

=
The wave length in shallow water of depth h at a speed
V
I
is given by

For the wave lengths to be equal

2
2
2
tanh
I
V
h
g
t
=
| |
|
\ .
1
1
2
2
2
2
tanh tanh
I
V h g h
V
V
t

| |
| |
| |
| |
= =
|
|
| |
|
\ .
\ .
\ .
\ .
The total resistance in deep water at the
speed is expressed as the sum of
viscous resistance and wave resistance :

The total resistance in shallow water of
depth h at the speed V
I
is similarly :
T V W
R R R

= +
V
TI VI WI VI W
R R R R R

= + = +
The value of R
VI
for shallow water cannot
be determined. However, R
VI
can be
determined at the speed V
I
for deep water
by the same method as used to determine
at the speed in deep water.
Schlichting experimentally determined a
speed V
h
in shallow water at which the
measured total resistance R
Th
is equal to
the sum of R
VI
at the speed V
I
in deep
water and .
V
R

V
W
R

Schlichting found that the ratio V
h
/V
I
is a
function of , where A
X
is the area of
the immersed maximum cross-section of
the ship.
Landweber extended Schlichtings method
to the resistance of a ship in a canal by
replacing the depth of water h by the
hydraulic radius R
H
, which is the ratio of
the canal cross-section area to the
perimeter.
X
A h
For a rectangular canal of breadth b and
depth of water h, the hydraulic radius is

where p is the perimeter (girth) of the
maximum immersed section of the ship.
As , so that in shallow
water of unrestricted breadth, the hydraulic
radius becomes equal to the depth of water.
2
X
H
bh A
R
b h p
=
+ +
,
H
b R h
and are given in the following
tables :

0.0 1.0000 0.6 0.9961
0.1 1.0000 0.7 0.9833
0.2 1.0000 0.8 0.9570
0.3 1.0000 0.9 0.9186
0.4 1.0000 1.0 0.8727
0.5 0.9997
I
V V
h I
V V
V
g h

V
g h
I
V
V
I
V
V

0.0 1.0000 0.6 0.9712 1.1 0.8923
0.1 1.0000 0.7 0.9584 1.2 0.8726
0.2 0.9995 0.8 0.9430 1.3 0.8536
0.3 0.9964 0.9 0.9274 1.4 0.8329
0.4 0.9911 1.0 0.9087 1.5 0.8132
0.5 0.9825
These are Landwebers values.

X
H
A
R
X
H
A
R
X
H
A
R
h
I
V
V
h
I
V
V
h
I
V
V
8. RESISTANCE TESTS WITH SHIP MODELS
RESISTANCE MODEL
EXPERIMENTS
Long but checkered history
Reliable results from time of W. Froude
Model experiments in modern times
Long, narrow towing tank
Towing carriage with instrumentation
Variety of experiments : resistance,
propulsion, manoeuvring, seakeeping
Other types of facilities
ITTC
TOWING TANK
TOWING CARRIAGE
SHIP MODEL TEST
SHIP MODEL TEST

SHIP MODELS - 1
Materials : wood, wax, fibre-glass,
polyurethane foam
Model size
Equipment limitations : speed, resistance
Accuracy of small models model propellers
Accuracy of measurements : small forces
Turbulent flow : large models for high
Reynolds number, artificial turbulence
stimulation
C
T
curves for turbulent and laminar flow
SHIP MODELS - 2
Upper limit on model size tank wall
interference or blockage
Increased displacement flow
Shallow water effects on waves
Interference of reflected waves
Criteria to avoid blockage effects :
not more than 1/200
not more than 0.7
L
M
not more than 0.5 b

X
A bh
M
V g h
RESISTANCE EXPERIMENT - 1
Geometrically similar model ballasted to correct
draught and trim
Attached to towing carriage through resistance
dynamometer :
Model free to sink and trim
No trimming moment due to tow force
Resistance measured at steady model speed by
resistance dynamometer
Test over range of speeds
Wave profiles, flow lines
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENT DATA
Basic procedure as discussed earlier

Additional considerations
Roughness allowance
Correlation allowance
Ship correlation factor

ITTCs standard method
ITTC 1978 METHOD - 1
ITTC 1978 Ship Performance Prediction
Method : standardized method for
prediction of ship power from model tests
Basic procedure (as discussed earlier) :
R
TM
measured at V
M

1
2
2
TM
TM
M M M
R
C
S V
=
M M
nM
M
V L
R
v
=
( )
2
10
0.075 log 2
FM nM
C R

=

( )
1
WM TM FM
C C k C = +
S
S M
M
L
V V
L
=
S S
nS
S
V L
R
v
=
( )
2
10
0.075 log 2
FS nS
C R

=
WS WM
C C = (by the Froude law)
( )
1
TS FS WS
C k C C = + +
Three corrections to this basic procedure
in ITTC method :
Roughness allowance added to viscous
resistance coefficient where :

Bilge keels cannot be reproduced in model.
Resistance of bilge keels allowed for by
increasing hull wetted surface S
S
by bilge keel
surface area S
BK

( )
1
FS
k C +
F
C A
3
105 0.64 10
S
F
S
L
C
k
(
| |
A =
( |
(
\ .

ITTC 1978 METHOD 4
Air and wind resistance calculated by

After making these corrections, the total
resistance coefficient of the ship is
obtained as :

This gives the total resistance of the ship
in ideal conditions.
1
2
2
0.001
AA T
AA
S
S S S
R A
C
S
S V
= =
( )
1
S BK
TS FS F WS AA
S
S S
C k C C C C
S
+
( = + +A + +

ITTC 1978 METHOD 5
To allow for the differences between these ideal
conditions and the actual conditions on ship
trials or in service, C
TS
is multiplied by a load
factor (1+x).
The overload fraction x corresponds to a trial
allowance or a service allowance, and is based
on experience with previous ships
Service allowances may range from 10 to 40 per
cent, depending on type of ship and service
route.
9. ESTIMATION OF EFFECTIVE POWER

ESTIMATION OF EFFECTIVE POWER - 1

It is necessary to estimate effective power at an
early stage in ship design for deciding various
design parameters : main dimensions, hull form,
propulsion system, Iteration may be
necessary. Later, model tests may be used to
obtain more accurate values.

Three main methods for estimating effective
power in early design stages :
Data of similar ships
Methodical series data
Statistical data


Effective power or resistance data for several ships are
available with all established ship design organizations.
Another source of resistance data are the SNAME
Resistance Data Sheets, which give the data for some
150 ships of all types. The data for each ship include
resistance data and hull form particulars including lines
plan and sectional area curve.
The effective power of a new ship may be estimated from
the resistance data of a similar ship by making corrections
for the differences between the two ships.
A simple method is to assume that for nearly similar ships

More complicated and more accurate methods are also
available.

2
3
3
E
P V A

In a methodical series of hull forms the principal
ship characteristics are varied according to some
prescribed method or system so that all the hull
forms are related to one another in a defined
mathematical or graphical manner. If for some
hull forms of the series the resistance data are
obtained through model tests, one can obtain the
resistance of any hull form of the series.
A methodical series may be based on the
systematic variation of a single hull form (parent
form) or there may several independent parent
forms from which the methodical series may be
derived.

One of the earliest methodical series was the
Taylor Standard Series, developed by Admiral
D.W. Taylor of the U.S. Navy.
The parent form was based on the British
armoured cruiser H.M.S. Leviathan (1900), which
had a ram bulbous bow and a twin screw cruiser
stern.
The parameters that were varied in the Taylor
Standard Series were the prismatic coefficient C
P
,
the breadth draught ratio B/T and the volumetric
coefficient .
3
/ L V
Parent form of the Taylor Standard Series

The ranges over which these parameters were
varied are :
C
P
: 0.48 0.86
B/ T : 2.25, 3.00, 3.75
: 0.70 x 10
-3
8.75 x 10
-3

The resistance

data as re-analyzed by Gertler are
given in the form of diagrams giving the residuary
resistance coefficient C
R
as a function of the
speed-length ratio , C
P
and B/ T.
There are also diagrams to determine the wetted
surface from the coefficient

3
/ L V
V L
S
C S L = V
A typical diagram is as follows :

The Taylor Standard Series has been widely used
as a benchmark for new designs.


Other well-known methodical series for merchant
ship forms are the DTMB Series 60 and the BSRA
Series.
Series 60 had five parent forms based on
successful ship designs of that time (the late
1950s) with block coefficients of 0.60, 0.65, 0.70,
0.75 and 0.80. The parameters that were
independently varied in the series were L/B, B/T
and LCB.
The resistance data are given in terms of
residuary resistance per unit displacement as a
function of , C
B
, L/B and B/T.

V L

The BSRA Series covers variations in block
coefficient from 0.65 to 0.80 for a ship of length
between perpendiculars of 400 feet and breadth
55 feet, with three draughts (26, 21 and 16 feet)
and variations in LCB.
Other methodical series that are available are :
SSPA Series for single screw cargo ships, for high
speed twin screw ships, and for tankers
NPL Series, one for coasters and another for high
speed displacement vessels
Trawler Series (Ridgely-Nevitt, Lackenby)
Formdata series, which attempts to combine the
features of other series such as Series 60
MarAd Series for full form ships with low L/B.

Methodical series methods have some advantages :
The resistance data are accurate if the hull form belongs
to the series.
A faired hull form is readily obtained.
There are also disadvantages :
The development of a methodical series is a costly and
time consuming exercise.
A methodical series becomes out of date.
Some important geometrical characteristics may not be
covered in a particular methodical series.
Methodical series data may be used to estimate the
effect on effective power of specific differences
between the design ship and the basic ship.

Resistance data for a large number of unrelated
hull forms are available with ship model testing
establishments. These data may be analysed to
develop a method to predict the effective power
of a new ship.
Many such methods have been developed in the
past using manual calculation methods and
graphs. Examples of such methods are those
due Ayre (1948), Lap (1954) and Moor (1959).
With the development of computers, methods
based on statistical analysis of the resistance
data of a large number of models have been
developed for estimating effective power.

One of the earliest statistical methods for
estimation of effective power was developed by
Doust (1958-59), in which the data of some 150
trawlers was analysed to determine an equation
of the form :

where the function f was a polynomial with 30
terms up to the second degree of the different
variables.

( )
2
, , , , ,
T
TL M P E
n
R
C f L B B T C C LCB i
F
A
= =
Two well known methods based on statistical
analysis are those due to Guldhammer and
Harvald (1974) and Holtrop (1984).

Holtrops method covers a wide variety of ships
tankers, bulk carriers, trawlers, coasters, tugs,
liners, container ships, ferries, warships and
not only takes into account various hull form
parameters such as L/B, B/T, C
P
, LCB etc but also
the type of stern. The method also includes the
calculation of air and wind resistance and the
resistance of individual appendages.

Several such methods have been developed in
recent years. Equations have also been fitted to
methodical series data such as Series 60, the
BSRA Series and the SSPA cargo liner series.
Methods of estimating effective power using
statistical analysis of the data of unrelated ships
give values of uncertain accuracy, although more
recent methods give a measure of the probable
error in the method.
An important advantage of these statistical
methods is that they can be updated regularly to
include recent data.

All methods of estimating effective power,
whether methodical series methods or statistical
methods, are liable to serious errors if used
beyond the range of the variables used in their
derivation.

10. HULL FORM AND SHIP RESISTANCE
HULL FORM AND SHIP RESISTANCE - 1
An objective of ship design : minimum resistance
at design speed
Reduction in size of propulsion plant
Reduced fuel consumption

Other objectives may be more important
internal volume, stability, strength, seakeeping,
manoeuvrability, .

The hull form is designed for minimum
resistance subject to constraints due to other
objectives

Main dimensions :

Length : There may docking and navigational
restrictions on length. An increase in length
increases first cost, increases wetted surface and
hence frictional resistance, but reduces wave
resistance. For a given displacement, there is an
optimum length for minimum resistance depending on
the Froude number, which largely determines the
ratio of wave resistance to total resistance.
Displacement length ratio, volumetric coefficient and
slenderness ratio are some parameters which
express the relation between displacement and
length, and for which an optimum value may be
determined as a function of Froude number.

Main dimensions :

Breadth : This is important for stability and a minimum
breadth-draught ratio is usually necessary for
adequate stability. An increase in breadth-draught
ratio increases wave resistance. There is an optimum
value of breadth-draught ratio for minimum wetted
surface and hence frictional resistance. For low
speed ships (Froude numbers less than 0.18), a
reduction in length compensated by an increase in
breadth may result in a reduction in the cost of the
ship without an increase in resistance. This concept
has been used in many low speed ships such as bulk
carriers and crude oil tankers.

Main dimensions :

Draught : An increase in draught decreases
the resistance without increasing the cost
greatly. There may be restrictions on draught
due to the depth of water in harbours, canals,
and rivers.

Form coefficients :
Block coefficient : The optimum block
coefficient from the point of view of resistance
is related to the Froude number. Relations of
the type are widely used, e.g.
for trial speed, and
for service speed.

The block coefficient also has an important
effect on seakeeping : a short full ship may
suffer excessive motions and speed loss in
heavy seas.

B n
C a bF =
1.08 1.681
B n
C F =
1.05 1.681
B n
C F =
Form coefficients :
Other coefficients : There is an optimum
relation between the block coefficient, the
prismatic coefficient, the midship section
coefficient and the waterplane coefficient.
A formula for sustained sea speed is :
At this speed, the total
resistance curve begins to increase more
steeply than V
3
. The trial speed is given by
V
T
= 1.06 V
S
0.55 0.48
n P
F C =
Longitudinal centre of buoyancy : There is an
optimum value of the longitudinal centre of
buoyancy for minimum resistance. The centre of
buoyancy should be slightly forward of
amidships (3.5 per cent of length) for low Froude
number, high block coefficient ships and move
slightly aft for high Froude number, low block
coefficient ships. A forward LCB tends to
minimize eddy resistance and an aft LCB tends
to reduce wave resistance.

Sectional area curve : Guidelines for drawing
the sectional area curve have been given by
many experts. Among the points to be
considered are :
Length of entrance, parallel middle body and run
The shape of the sectional area curve in the entrance
(convex, straight or S-shaped) and in the run
Hard and soft shoulders
The ordinates and slopes of the sectional area curve
at the ends (bulbous bow and immersed transom
area)
The sectional area curve must conform to the
prismatic coefficient and LCB.
Load waterline : There are guidelines for
deciding the shape of the load waterline, based
on Froude number. The important points are :
Length of entrance, parallel length and run
Half angle of entrance and half angle of run
Hard and soft shoulders
Shape of the load waterline in the entrance (convex,
straight or S-shaped) and in the run
Waterline slope in the run
Transom width.
Transverse sections : The shape of the
transverse sections forward and aft are largely
determined by the sectional area curve and the
load waterline.
V shaped sections result in a smaller wetted surface
but may also lead to higher wave resistance.
U shaped sections have the opposite effect.
V sections may lead to higher vertical accelerations
while U sections are more prone to slamming.
Flare above the load waterline is necessary to
minimise deck wetness, but excessive flare may lead
to high impact loads.
Bulbous bow : This was originally developed for
minimising wave resistance in high speed ships
by neutralising the bow waves. However, a
bulbous bow has been found to reduce the
resistance in low speed ships also, probably by
improving the flow lines around the hull and
eliminating vortices. It is necessary to design a
bulbous bow considering the operation of the
ship in both fully loaded and ballast conditions.
Conclusion : Although experienced designers
can empirically develop highly efficient hull
forms of very low resistance, very good tools
based on CFD are available today to optimise
hull forms. Finally, however, the merit of a hull
form can only be judged through model tests
and a comparison of the results with those of
other ships of a similar type. Model tests can
also identify areas of improvement in the hull
form.

Perormance 1a

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Perormance 1a

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INTRODUCTION

The resistance of a ship is the force that resists the motion

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE - 2

RESISTANCE IN CONFINED WATER - 23

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