Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Questionable Cancer Therapies
Questionable Cancer Therapies
The American Cancer Society (ACS) has defined questionable methods as lifestyle
practices, clinical tests, or therapeutic modalities that are promoted for general use for the
prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of cancer and which are, on the basis of careful
review by scientists and/or clinicians, deemed to have no real evidence of value [1].
Under the rules of science (and federal law), proponents who make health claims bear the
burden of proof. It is their responsibility to conduct suitable studies and report them in
sufficient detail to permit evaluation and confirmation by others. The ACS evaluates
cancer methods by asking three questions:
FDA Historian Wallace F. Janssen has noted that in every decade since 1940, a
questionable cancer remedy has attracted a large following and become a national issue
[2]. It was Koch Antitoxins in the 1940s, Hoxsey treatment in the 1950s, Krebiozen in the
1960s [3], laetrile in the 1970s, and immuno-augmentative therapy in the 1980s. Today's
questionable methods include corrosive agents, plant products, special diets and "dietary
supplements," drugs, correction of "imbalances," biologic methods, devices,
miscellaneous concoctions, psychological approaches, and worthless diagnostic tests.
Many promoters combine methods to make themselves more marketable. A 1987 ACS
investigation found that 452 (9%) of 5,047 cancer patients identified through a
telephone survey had used questionable treatments. Of these, 49% had used "mind
therapies" (mental imagery, hypnosis, or psychic therapy) and 38% had used diets
[4]. The dangers of using questionable treatments include delay in getting appropriate
treatment, decreased quality of life, direct physical harm, interference with proven
treatment, waste of valuable time, financial harm, and psychological damage [5].
Quackwatch has heard from several people who have been defrauded of large sums of
money pursuing nonexistent cancer "cures." Most of these cases involved offshore clinics
to whom money was wired in advance. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has
jurisdiction over cases involving wire fraud. Americans who believe they have been
victims of wire fraud should report what happened to the FBI.
Typical Misrepresentations
Antineoplastons
In 1988, Burzynski got a tremendous boost when talk-show hostess Sally Jesse Raphael
featured four "miracles," patients of Burzynski, who she said were cancer-free. The
patients stated that Burzynski had cured them when conventional methods had failed. In
1992, "Inside Edition" reported that two of the four patients had died and a third was
having a recurrence of her cancer. (The fourth patient had bladder cancer, which has a
good prognosis.) The widow of one of Raphael's guests stated that her husband and five
others from the same city had sought treatment after learning about Burzynski from a
television broadcast -- and that all had died of their disease. In 1995, a federal grand jury
indicted Burzynski for mail fraud and marketing an unapproved drug. The indictment
charged that he had billed insurance companies using procedure codes for chemotherapy,
even though his treatment was not chemotherapy. He was tried in 1997 but not convicted.
In 1998, the Texas Attorney General secured a consent agreement stating that Burzynski:
(a) cannot distribute unapproved drugs in Texas; (b) can distribute "antineoplastons" only
to patients enrolled in FDA approved clinical trials, unless the FDA approves his drugs
for sale; (c) cannot advertise "antineoplastons" for the treatment of cancer; and (d) on his
website and in promotional material and ads must place a disclaimer that the safety and
effectiveness of "antineoplastons" have not been established. The agreement also called
for Burzynski to pay $50,000 to reimburse the Attorney General's office and the Texas
Health Department for the cost of their investigation [9]. The Cancer Letter subsequently
noted that although Burzynski has set up many "clinical trials," they do not conform to
usual standards [10].
CanCell
CanCell -- originally called Entelev and recently renamed Cantron and Protocel -- is a
liquid claimed to cure cancer by "lowering the voltage of the cell structure by about
20%," causing cancer cells to "digest" and be replaced with normal cells.
Accompanying directions have warned that bottles of CanCell should not be allowed to
touch each other or be placed near any electrical appliance or outlet. CanCell has also
been promoted for the treatment of AIDS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple
sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, "extreme cases of emphysema and diabetes," and several
other diseases. In 1989, the FDA reported that CanCell contained inositol, nitric acid,
sodium sulfite, potassium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, and catechol. Subsequently, its
promoters claimed to be modifying the formulation to make it more effective [11]. They
have also claimed that CanCell can't be analyzed because it varies with atmospheric
vibrations and keeps changing its energy [12]. Laboratory tests conducted between 1978
and 1991 by the NCI found no evidence that CanCell was effective against cancer. The
FDA has obtained an injunction forbidding its distribution to patients.
According to information that was on the promoter's web site during 1997, Cell Specific
Cancer Therapy (CSCT) is applied with a device that is four inches thick, shaped like a
donut, and exposes the patient to a magnetic field that is much weaker than that of
magnetic resonance imaging. It is available at a clinic in the Dominican Republic. The
advertised fee is $20,000, payable in advance, but the fee may be reduced or waived for
people unable to pay. CSCT is claimed not to cure cancer but to "destroy active
cancerous cells in a body and to do so without causing any damage to healthy cells." Its
objective is to destroy enough cancerous cells that the body's immune system is "once
again able to take over and do its normal job." The device is claimed to "detect cancerous
cells with a sensitivity much greater than that of either conventional magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) or CAT scans" and to destroy cancer cells without harming adjacent
normal cells." The promoter claims that cancerous cells have an "atypical metabolic
mechanism that makes them "susceptible to polarizing electromagnetic fields." There is
no scientific evidence that magnetic energy can selectively destroy cancer cells. Similar
treatment is offered at the Davidson Cancer Clinic in Mexico, whose proprietor is facing
criminal charges for fraud.
Hulda Clark, Ph.D., N.D., claims that (a) all cancers and many other diseases are caused
by "parasites, toxins, and pollutants"; (b) cancers can be detected with a blood test for
ortho-phospho-tyrosine and a device that identifies diseased organs and toxic substances;
(c) cancers can be cured by killing the parasites and ridding the body of environmental
chemicals; (d) black walnut hulls, wormwood, and common cloves can rid the body of
over 100 types of parasites; and (e) the amino acids ornithine and arginine improve this
recipe. Her book Cure for All Cancers, contains 103 case histories of her supposed cancer
cures. However, judging from her descriptions (a) most did not have cancer, and (b) of
those that did, most had received standard medical treatment or their tumors were in early
stages.
Devices
Many types of devices are used with unfounded claims that they are effective against
cancer. These include devices that pass low-voltage electrical current through tumors or
the body, "electroacupuncture" devices purported to measure the electrical resistance of
"acupuncture points," electrical devices claimed to "charge" blood samples taken from
patients and later reinjected, negative ion generators claimed to have an effect against
tumors, radionics devices claimed to diagnose and cure cancer by analyzing and emitting
radio waves at the correct frequencies, magnets claimed capable of curing cancers by
"improving circulation" or by intracellular effects, and projectors of colored light claimed
to exert healing effects [13].
Essiac
Essiac is an herbal remedy that was prescribed and promoted for about 50 years by Rene
M. Caisse, a Canadian nurse who died in 1978. Shortly before her death, she turned over
the formula and manufacturing rights to the Resperin Corporation, a Canadian company
that has provided it to patients under a special agreement with Canadian health officials.
Several reports state that the formula contains burdock, Indian rhubarb, sorrel, and
slippery elm, but there may be additional ingredients. Essiac tea claimed to be Caisse's
original formulation is also marketed in the United States. Several animal tests using
samples of Essiac have shown no antitumor activity. Nor did a review of data on 86
patients performed by the Canadian federal health department during the early 1980s
[14].
Fresh Cell Therapy
Fresh cell therapy, also called live cell therapy or cellular therapy, involves injections of
fresh embryonic animal cells taken from the organ or tissue that corresponds to the
unhealthy organ or tissue in the patient. Proponents claim that the recipient's body
automatically transports the injected cells to the target organ where they repair and
rejuvenate the ailing cells. The American Cancer Society states that fresh cell therapy has
no proven benefit and has caused serious side effects (infections and immunologic
reactions to the injected protein) and death [15]. In 1984, The FDA issued an Import
Alert asking the U.S. Customs and Postal Services to block the importation of all "cell
therapy" powders and extracts intended for injection.
Gerson Method
Proponents of the Gerson diet claim that cancer can be cured only if toxins are eliminated
from the body. They recommend "detoxification" with frequent coffee enemas and a low-
sodium diet that includes more than a gallon a day of juices made from fruits, vegetables,
and raw calf's liver. This method was developed by Max Gerson, a German-born
physician who emigrated to the United States in 1936 and practiced in New York City
until his death in 1959. Gerson therapy is still available at Hospital Meridien in Tijuana,
Mexico and, since February 1997, at the Gerson Healing Center in Sedona, Arizona.
Gerson therapy is still actively promoted by his daughter, Charlotte Gerson, through
lectures, talk show appearances, and publications of the Gerson Institute in Bonita,
California. Gerson protocols have included liver extract injections, ozone enemas, "live
cell therapy," thyroid tablets, royal jelly capsules, linseed oil, castor oil enemas, clay
packs, laetrile, and vaccines made from influenza virus and killed Staphylococcus aureus
bacteria.
In 1947, the NCI reviewed ten cases selected by Dr. Gerson and found his report
unconvincing. That same year, a committee appointed by the New York County Medical
Society reviewed records of 86 patients, examined ten patients, and found no evidence
that the Gerson method had value in treating cancer. An NCI analysis of Dr. Gerson's
book A Cancer Therapy: Results of Fifty Cases concluded in 1959 that most of the cases
failed to meet the criteria (such as histologic verification of cancer) for proper evaluation
of a cancer case [16]. A recent review of the Gerson treatment rationale concluded: (a)
the "poisons" Gerson claimed to be present in processed foods have never been
identified, (b) frequent coffee enemas have never been shown to mobilize and remove
poisons from the liver and intestines of cancer patients, (c) there is no evidence that any
such poisons are related to the onset of cancer, (d) there is no evidence that a "healing"
inflammatory reaction exists that can seek out and kill cancer cells [17].
Between 1980 and 1986 at least 13 patients treated with Gerson therapy were admitted to
San Diego area hospitals with Campylobacter fetus sepsis attributable to the liver
injections [18]. None of the patients was cancer-free, and one died of his malignancy
within a week. Five were comatose due to low serum sodium levels, presumably as a
result of the "no sodium" Gerson dietary regimen. As a result, Gerson personnel modified
their techniques for handling raw liver products and biologicals. However, the Gerson
approach still has considerable potential for harm. Deaths also have been attributed to the
coffee enemas administered at the Tijuana clinic.
Charlotte Gerson claims that treatment at the clinic has produced high cure rates for many
cancers. In 1986, however, investigators learned that patients were not monitored after
they left the facility [19]. Although clinic personnel later said they would follow their
patients systematically, there is no published evidence that they have done so. A
naturopath who visited the Gerson Clinic in 1983 was able to track 21 patients over a 5-
year period (or until death) through annual letters or phone calls. At the 5-year mark, only
one was still alive (but not cancer-free); the rest had succumbed to their cancer [20].
The principal proponent of the Greek Cancer Cure was microbiologist Dr. Hariton-
Tzannis Alivizatos, of Athens, Greece, who died in 1991. He claimed to have a blood test
that could determine the type, location, and severity of any cancer. He also asserted that
his "serum" enabled the patient's immune system to destroy cancer cells, and helped the
body rejuvenate parts destroyed by cancer. Knowledgeable observers believe that the
principal ingredient of the so-called Greek Cancer Cure was niacin. The American
Cancer Society and the NCI asked Alivizatos several times for detailed information on
his methods, but he never replied [21].
Hoxsey Treatment
Hoxsey's treatment was offered at clinics in the United States from 1924 until repeated
clashes with the FDA led him to close his main clinic in Dallas in the late 1950s. In 1963,
Hoxsey's former chief nurse Mildred Nelson began offering it at a clinic in Tijuana,
Mexico [22]. Hoxsey himself contracted prostate cancer in 1967 and underwent surgery
after treating himself unsuccessfully with his tonic. Most of the herbs in the tonic have
been tested for antitumor activity in cancer, with negligible results for a few and no
results for the others. Some of these herbs, most notably pokeroot, have toxic side effects.
The NCI evaluated case reports submitted by Hoxsey and concluded that no assessment
was possible because the records did not contain adequate information [23]. Hoxsey died
in 1974. Nelson died in January 1999.
Hydrazine Sulfate
In the mid-1970s, hydrazine sulfate was proposed for treating the progressive weight loss
and debilitation characteristic of advanced cancer. Based on animal data and preliminary
human studies, it has also been claimed to cause tumor regression and subjective
improvement in patients. However, three recent trials sponsored by the National Cancer
Institute demonstrated no benefit attributable to hydrazine sulfate [24-26]. The trials
involved 243 patients with newly diagnosed non-small cell lung cancer, 266 patients with
advanced non-small cell lung cancer, and 127 patients with advanced colorectal cancer.
The largest of the three found that nerve damage occurred more often and that quality of
life was significantly worse in the hydrazine sulfate group. After these studies were
published, proponents claimed that they were flawed because patients were permitted to
ingest tranquilizers, barbiturates, or alcohol, which allegedly would nullify the effect of
hydrazine sulfate. The National Cancer Institute rejected these concerns, and an
investigation by United States General Accounting Office found no difference in survival
times between the patients who had taken these drugs and those who had not [27]. In
December 2000, the Annals of Internal Medicine published a case report of a 55-year-old
man with cancer of the sinus near his left cheekbone. Instead of undergoing
recommended medical treatment, he obtained hydrazine sulfate through a Web site and,
for four months, followed the regimen published on the kathykeeton.com Web site. Two
weeks later, he was hospitalized with signs of kidney and liver failure. Despite intensive
hospital care, he died within a week [28,29].
"Hyperoxygenation" Therapies
Immuno-augmentative Therapy
In 1980, CBS-TV's "60 Minutes" gave Burton a tremendous publicity boost when a
prominent physician stated that one of his patients appeared to have recovered
miraculously with Burton's treatment. Although the patient died of his cancer twelve days
after the program was shown, "60 Minutes" refused to inform viewers of this fact. In
1986, the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment assembled a group of
technical experts and representatives of Burton to design a clinical trial to evaluate IAT.
However, communication between Burton and U.S. government authorities broke down
after he insisted that a "pre-test" be conducted at his clinic [34]. Burton died in 1993, but
the clinic is still operating.
Iscador
Iscador is an extract of mistletoe first proposed for the treatment of cancer in 1920 by
Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925), who espoused many occult beliefs. Steiner founded the
Society for Cancer Research to promote mistletoe extracts and occult-based practices he
called anthroposophical medicine. A 1962 report by the society claimed that the time of
picking the plants was important because they react to the influences of the sun, moon,
and planets. Various mistletoe juice preparations have been studied with the hope of
finding an effective anticancer agent. However, in 1984, the expert working group of the
Swiss Society for Oncology concluded that there was no evidence that Iscador was
effective against human cancers [35]. To date, more than 30 clinical studies have
investigated imistletoe as a cancer treatment. The National Cancer Institute has
concluded: "Reports of improved survival and/or quality of life have been common, but
nearly all of the studies had major weaknesses that raise doubts about the reliability of the
findings." [36]
In the 1960s, William Donald Kelley, D.D.S., developed a program for cancer patients
that involved dietary measures, vitamin and enzyme supplements, and computerized
"metabolic typing." Kelley classified people as "sympathetic dominant,"
"parasympathetic dominant," or metabolically "balanced" and made dietary
recommendations for each type. He claimed that his "Protein Metabolism Evaluation
Index" could diagnose cancer before it was clinically apparent and that his "Kelley
Malignancy Index could detect "the presence or absence of cancer, the growth rate of the
tumor, the location of the tumor mass, prognosis of the treatment, age of the tumor and
the regulation of medication for treatment."
In 1970, Kelley was convicted of practicing medicine without a license after witnesses
testified that he had diagnosed lung cancer on the basis of blood from a patient's finger
and prescribed dietary supplements, enzymes, and a diet as treatment. In 1976, following
court appeals, his dental license was suspended for five years [37]. However, he
continued to promote his methods until the mid-1980s through his Dallas-based
International Health Institute. Under the institute's umbrella, licensed professionals and
"certified metabolic technicians" throughout the United States would administer a 3,200-
item questionnaire and send the answers to Dallas. The resultant computer printout
provided a lengthy report on "metabolic status" plus detailed instructions covering foods,
supplements (typically 100 to 200 pills per day), "detoxification" techniques, and lifestyle
changes.
Treatment said to be similar is still provided today by Nicholas Gonzalez, M.D., of New
York City, who claims to have analyzed Kelley's records and drafted a book about his
findings. The manuscript was never published, but experts who evaluated its chapter on
50 cases found no evidence of benefit. Gonzalez says that he offers "10 basic diets with
90 variations" and typically prescribes coffee enemas and "up to 150 pills a day in 10 to
12 divided doses."
In 1994, after investigating six of Gonzalez's cases, New York State licensing authorities
had concluded: (a) his "alternative protocol" did not entitle him to an alternative standard
of care; (b) he had failed to correctly interpret signs and symptoms of disease
progression, (c) he had treated the patients incompetently, and (d) his record-keeping was
inadequate. He placed on probation for three years with a stipulation that he undergo
retraining and his work be supervised by the Office of Professional Conduct.
In 1997, a jury in New York City awarded $2.5 million in actual damages and $150,000
in punitive damages to a former Gonzalez patient. The woman testified that she had been
diagnosed with an early stage of uterine cancer in 1991 and underwent a hysterectomy.
Instead of following through with medically recommended radiation and chemotherapy,
she consulted Gonzalez who discouraged her from following her cancer specialist's
advice. Based on his interpretation of a hair test, Gonzalez prescribed up to 150 dietary
supplement pills a day plus frequent coffee enemas. Later he claimed that the cancer was
cured even though it was progressing. It eventually damaged her spine and left her blind.
An appeals court upheld the $2.5 million verdict but dismissed the punitive damage
award. In April 2000, a jury awarded $282,000 in damages to the husband of a 40-year-
old college professor who had died of Hodgkin's disease in 1995. According to an article
in The New York Daily News, the jury found him negligent because he failed to arrange
"appropriate testing" to track the cancer, relying instead on an unproven method of hair
analysis [38].
Laetrile
Laetrile, which achieved great notoriety during the 1970s and early 1980s, is the trade
name for a synthetic relative of amygdalin, a chemical in the kernels of apricot pits, apple
seeds, bitter almonds, and some other stone fruits and nuts. Many laetrile promoters have
called it "vitamin B17" and falsely claimed that cancer is a vitamin deficiency disease
that laetrile can cure. Claims for laetrile's efficacy have varied considerably [39]. First it
was claimed to prevent and cure cancer. Then it was claimed not to cure, but to "control"
cancer while giving patients an increased feeling of well being. More recently, laetrile
has been claimed to be effective, not by itself, but as one component of "metabolic
therapy" (described below).
Laetrile was first used to treat cancer patients in California in the 1950s. According to
proponents, it kills tumor cells selectively while leaving normal cells alone. Although
laetrile has been promoted as safe and effective, clinical evidence indicates that it is
neither [40]. When subjected to enzymatic breakdown in the body, it forms glucose,
benzaldehyde, and hydrogen cyanide [41]. Some cancer patients treated with laetrile have
suffered nausea, vomiting, headache and dizziness, and a few have died from cyanide
poisoning. Laetrile has been tested in at least 20 animal tumor models and found to have
no benefit either alone or together with other substances. Several case reviews have found
no benefit for the treatment of cancer in humans.
In response to political pressure, a clinical trial was begun in 1982 by the Mayo Clinic
and three other U.S. cancer centers under NCI sponsorship. Laetrile and "metabolic
therapy" were administered as recommended by their promoters. The patients had
advanced cancer for which no proven treatment was known. Of 178 patients, not one was
cured or stabilized, and none had any lessening of any cancer-related symptoms. The
median survival rate was about five months from the start of therapy. In those still alive
after seven months, tumor size had increased. Several patients experienced symptoms of
cyanide toxicity or had blood levels of cyanide approaching the lethal range [42].
In 1975, a class action suit was filed to stop the FDA from interfering with the sale and
distribution of laetrile. Early in the case, a federal district court judge in Oklahoma issued
orders allowing cancer patients to import a six-month supply of laetrile for personal use if
they could obtain a physician's affidavit that they were "terminal." In 1979, the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled that it is not possible to be certain who is terminal and that even if it
were possible, both terminally ill patients and the general public deserve protection from
fraudulent cures. In 1987, after further appeals were denied, the district judge (a strong
proponent of laetrile) finally yielded to the higher courts and terminated the affidavit
system [39]. Few sources of laetrile are now available within the United States, but it still
is utilized at several Mexican clinics.
Livingston-Wheeler Regimen
Virginia C. Livingston, M.D., who died in 1990, postulated that cancer is caused by a
bacterium she called Progenitor cryptocides, which invades the body when "immunity is
stressed or weakened." She claimed to combat this by strengthening the body's immune
system with vaccines (including one made from the patient's urine); "detoxification" with
enemas; digestive enzymes; a vegetarian diet that avoided chicken, eggs, and sugar;
vitamin and mineral supplements; visualization; and stress reduction. She claimed to have
a very high recovery rate but published no clinical data to support this. Scientists who
attempted to isolate the organism she postulated found that it was a common skin
bacterium. Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center compared 78 of
its patients with similar patients treated at the Livingston-Wheeler Clinic. All had
advanced cancers for which no proven treatment was known. As expected, the study
found no difference in average survival time of the two groups. However, Livingston-
Wheeler patients reported more appetite difficulties and pain [43]. The treatment
Livingston originated is now offered at the Livingston Foundation Medical Center in San
Diego.
Macrobiotics
Today's leading proponent is Michio Kushi, founder and president of the Kushi Institute
in Brookline, Massachusetts. According to Institute publications, the macrobiotic way of
life should include chewing food at least 50 times per mouthful (or until it becomes
liquid), not wearing synthetic or woolen clothing next to the skin, avoiding long hot baths
or showers, having large green plants in your house to enrich the oxygen content of the
air, and singing a happy song every day. Kushi claims that cancer is largely due to
improper diet, thinking, and way of life, and can be influenced by changing these factors.
He recommends yin foods for cancers due to excess yang, and yang foods for tumors that
are predominantly yin. His books contain case histories of people whose cancers have
supposedly disappeared after they adopted macrobiotic eating. However, the only reports
of efficacy are testimonials by patients, many of whom received responsible therapy [45].
The diet itself can cause cancer patients to undergo serious weight loss [46]. In July 2001,
Kushi's wife and colleague Aveline died of cervical cancer. According to an Associated
Press obituary, she underwent standard radiation treatment when the cancer was
discovered. When the cancer spread to her bones and she was told that no standard
treatment was available, relied on acupuncture and "Eastern" methods [47].
Metabolic Therapy
The most visible proponent of "metabolic therapy" was Harold Manner, Ph.D., a biology
professor who announced in 1977 that he had cured cancer in mice with injections of
laetrile, enzymes, and vitamin A. (Actually, he digested the tumors by injecting them
with digestive enzymes, which cannot cure cancers that have metastasized.) During the
early 1980s, Manner left his teaching position and became affiliated with a clinic in
Tijuana, Mexico. Although he claimed a 74% success rate in treating cancers,
there is no evidence that he kept track of patients after they left his clinic [48]. He died in
1988, but the clinic is still operating.
Pau D'arco
Pau d'arco tea, sold through health food stores and by mail, is also called taheebo,
lapacho, lapacho morado, ipe roxo, or ipes. The tea is claimed to be an ancient Inca
Indian remedy prepared from the inner bark of various species of Tabebuia, an evergreen
tree native to the West Indies and Central and South America. However, stories about its
origins contain geographic and botanical errors. Proponents claim that pau d'arco tea is
effective against cancer and many other ailments. Tabebuia woods contains lapachol,
which has been demonstrated to have antitumor activity in a few animal tumor models.
However, no published study has shown a significant effect on cancer in humans. Studies
during the early 1970s found that lapachol is not as readily absorbed by humans as by
rats, and that plasma levels high enough to influence tumors would be accompanied by
anticoagulant effects. Even low doses can cause nausea and vomiting and can interfere
with blood clotting [49]. Some researchers believe that lapachol should be studied further
using vitamin K to inhibit its anticoagulant activity .
Psychic Surgery
Psychic surgery is claimed to remove tumors without leaving a skin wound. Actually, its
practitioners use sleight-of-hand to create the illusion that surgery is being performed. A
false finger or thumb may be used to store a red dye that appears as "blood" when the
skin is "cut." Animal parts or cotton wads soaked in the dye are palmed and then
exhibited as "diseased organs" supposedly removed from the patient's body. (However,
one Philippine "healer" has been reported to use human blood, which raises the
possibility that HIV or hepatitis B could be transmitted.) The American Cancer Society
has concluded that "all demonstrations to date of psychic surgery have been done by
various forms of trickery." [50] Most "psychic surgeons" practice in the Philippines or
Brazil, but some have made tours within the United States. A few have been prosecuted
for theft and/or practicing medicine without a license [51].
Psychologic Methods
Various psychologic methods are being promoted to cancer patients as cures or adjuncts
to other treatment. The techniques include imagery, visualization, meditation, progressive
muscle relaxation, and various forms of psychotherapy. These techniques may reduce
stress, alleviate depression, help control pain, and enhance patients' feelings of mastery
and control. Individual and group support can have a positive impact on quality of life
and overall attitude. A positive attitude may increase a patient's chance of surviving
cancer by increasing compliance with proven treatment. However, it has not been
demonstrated that emotions directly influence the course of the disease.
Bernie Siegel, M.D., author of Love, Medicine & Miracles and Peace, Love & Healing,
claims that "happy people generally don't get sick" and that "one's attitude toward oneself
is the single most important factor in healing or staying well." Siegel also states that "a
vigorous immune system can overcome cancer if it is not interfered with, and emotional
growth toward greater self-acceptance and fulfillment helps keep the immune system
strong." However, he has published no scientific study supporting these claims. A 10-
year study co-authored by Siegel found that 34 breast cancer patients participating in his
program did not live longer after diagnosis than comparable nonparticipants. The
program consisted of weekly peer support and family therapy, individual counseling, and
the use of positive imagery [52]. In November 1998, Siegel sent a series of email
messages to Dr. Barrett in which he said that the study bearing his name had been done
by a student and was improperly designed.
O. Carl Simonton, M.D., claims that cancers can be affected by relaxation and
visualization techniques. He claims that this approach can lessen fears and tension,
strengthen the patient's will to live, increase optimism, and alter the course of a
malignancy by strengthening the immune system. However, he has not published the
results of any well-designed study testing his ideas. Simonton theorizes that the brain can
stimulate endocrine glands to inspire the immune system to attack cancer cells. He and
his wife Stephanie (a psychotherapist) taught cancer patients to imagine their cancer
being destroyed by their white blood cells. However, there is no evidence that white cells
actually attack cancer cells in this manner or that "immune suppression" is a factor in the
development of common cancers.
Simonton's book Getting Well Again included reports on patients who got better after
using his methods. However, an analysis of five of the reports that might seem most
impressive to laypersons noted that two of the patients had undergone standard treatment,
one had a slow-growing tumor, and one probably did not have cancer. The fifth patient's
tumor was treatable by standard means [53].
Some people suggest that Simonton's program may have positive effects by helping
people to relax and to feel that they are "doing something" positive. Although his
approach is physically harmless, it can waste people's time and money and encourage
some to abandon effective care. It can also cause people to feel ashamed or guilty that
some inner inadequacy caused them to develop cancer and is interfering with their
recovery. Patients seeking a support program should select one that is based on scientific
principles and has competent professional supervision.
Revici Cancer Control (also called lipid therapy and "biologically guided chemotherapy")
is based on the notion that cancer is caused by an imbalance between constructive
("anabolic") and destructive ("catabolic") body processes. Its main proponent, Emanuel
Revici, M.D., prescribed lipid alcohols, zinc, iron, and caffeine, which he classified as
anabolic, and fatty acids, sulfur, selenium, and magnesium, which he classified as
catabolic. His formulations were based on his interpretation of the specific gravity, pH
(acidity), and surface tension of single samples of the patient's urine. Scientists who have
offered to evaluate Revici's methods were unable to reach an agreement with him on
procedures to ensure a valid test [54]. However, his method of urinary interpretation is
obviously not valid. The specific gravity of urine reflects the concentration of dissolved
substances and depends largely on the amount of fluid a person consumes. The acidity
depends mainly on diet, but varies considerably throughout the day. Thus, even when
these values are useful for a metabolic determination, information from a single urine
sample would be meaningless. The surface tension of urine has no medically recognized
diagnostic value. In 1993, following a lengthy struggle with New York State licensing
authorities, Revici's medical license was permanently revoked. He died in January 1998
at the age of 101. His treatment is still available at the Revici Life Sciences Center, which
reportedly is overseen by Keith Korins, M.D., and Revici's niece.
714X
714X is a chemical solution produced in Quebec by Gaston Naessens, who also operates
the International Academy of Somatidian Orthobiology. He claims that 714X can
"fluidify the lymph" and "direct nitrogen into the cancerous cells in order to stop their
toxic secretions which block the organism's defense system." 714X has been analyzed by
the Canadian Health Protection Branch and found to contain a mixture of camphor,
ammonium chloride and nitrate, sodium chloride, ethyl alcohol, and water. The Health
Protection Branch has received no scientific data to support claims that 714X can cure
cancer or AIDS. Its Expert Advisory Committee has deplored its use for these purposes
and warned that there could be adverse side effects [55]. In 1956, in connection with
alleged cancer remedy called GN-24, Naessens was convicted of illegal medical practice
and ordered by a French court to pay the maximum applicable fine. He was prosecuted
again in 1964 after another alleged cancer remedy he administered in Corsica was proven
not to work [56].
Shark Cartilage
Powdered shark cartilage is purported to contain a protein that inhibits the growth of new
blood vessels needed for the spread of cancer. Although a modest anti-angiogenic effect
has been observed in laboratory experiments, it has not been demonstrated that feeding
shark cartilage to humans significantly inhibits angiogenesis in patients with cancer. Even
if direct applications were effective, oral administration would not work because the
protein would be digested rather than absorbed intact into the body. (If the proteins could
enter the body, they would cause an immune response that would make the individual
allergic to them and could trigger disastrous allergic responses with further exposure to
the protein.)
Nevertheless, in the spring of 1993, "60 Minutes" aired a program promoting the claims
of biochemist/entrepreneur I. William Lane, Ph.D., author of the book Sharks Don't Get
Cancer. The program highlighted a Cuban study of 29 "terminal" cancer patients who
received shark-cartilage preparations. Narrator Mike Wallace filmed several of the
patients doing exercise and reported that most of them felt better several weeks after the
treatment had begun. The fact that "feeling better" does not indicate whether a cancer
treatment is effective was not mentioned. Nor was the fact that sharks do get cancer, even
of their cartilage. NCI officials subsequently reviewed the Cuban data and concluded that
they were "incomplete and unimpressive." [57]
In May 1997, at the American Society of Clinical Oncology's annual meeting, researchers
reported a study that found shark cartilage ineffective against advanced cancer in adults
with a life expectancy of at least 12 weeks. The study followed 58 people who were
prescribed oral doses of shark cartilage as their only form of anti-cancer treatment. After
12 weeks, none achieved a complete or partial response to the shark cartilage treatment.
Only ten showed no progression of their cancer, and only two had a quantifiable
improvement in quality of life. (The fact that ten cancers did not progress is not evidence
that the shark cartilage was responsible for this. The progression of cancer is not always
rapid.) The researchers concluded: "Shark cartilage was inactive in patients with
advanced stages of cancer, specifically in breast, colon, lung, and prostate cancer." The
study was sponsored by Cancer Treatment Research Foundation, Cartilage Technologies
(a manufacturer), and Cancer Treatment Centers of America. A few months later,
Cartilage Technologies announced that it would support no additional research on shark
cartilage as a cancer remedy [58].
Government agencies have taken action against at least three companies marketing shark
cartilage. In September 1997, the FDA warned Lane Labs-USA, of Allendale, New
Jersey, to stop claiming that its shark cartilage product BeneFin can help fight cancer,
arthritis, and psoriasis [59]. In December 1999, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a
lawsuit intended to stop the company from continuing its illegal marketing [60]. In 1998,
the Federal Trade Commission obtained two consent agreements barring unsubstantiated
claims for shark-cartilage products. Nutriveda, Inc., of Brooklyn, New York, had claimed
that its product Cardilet was effective against cancer, rheumatism, arthritis, diabetes,
fibroids, bursitis, circulatory problems, and cysts. Body Systems Technology, of
Castleberry, Florida, had advertised that its product was effective against cancer. In June
2000, the FTC announced that Dr. Lane and Lane Labs-USA had signed consent
agreements to stop illegal claims for Benefin and to pay $550,000 in penalties and $450
toward the cost of an approved clinical trial involving shark cartilage [61]
Vitamin C
The claim that vitamin C is useful in the treatment of cancer is largely attributable to
Linus Pauling, Ph.D. During the mid-1970s, Pauling began claiming that high doses of
vitamin C are effective in preventing and curing cancer. In 1976 and 1978, he and a
Scottish surgeon, Ewan Cameron, reported that a group of 100 terminal cancer patients
treated with 10,000 mg of vitamin C daily had survived three to four times longer than
historically matched patients who did not receive vitamin C supplements [62-63].
However, Dr. William DeWys, chief of clinical investigations at the NCI, found that the
patient groups were not comparable. The vitamin C patients were Cameron's, while the
other patients were managed by other physicians. Cameron's patients were started on
vitamin C when he labeled them "untreatable" by other methods, and their subsequent
survival was compared to the survival of the "control" patients after they were labeled
untreatable by their doctors. DeWys found that Cameron's patients were labeled
untreatable much earlier in the course of their disease-which meant that they entered the
hospital before they were as sick as the other doctors' patients and would naturally be
expected to live longer [64]. Nevertheless, to test whether Pauling might be correct, the
Mayo Clinic conducted three double-blind studies involving a total of 367 patients with
advanced cancer. All three studies found that patients given 10 g of vitamin C daily did
no better than those given a placebo [65-67]. Despite many years of taking huge daily
amounts of vitamin C, both Pauling and his wife Ava died of cancer -- she in 1981 and he
in 1994.
The American Cancer Society (800 227-2345 or a local office) can supply position
papers on many questionable methods. Direct advice can be obtained from the
Candlelighters Childhood Cancer Foundation Ombudsman's program (301 657-8401), the
Consumer Health Information Research Institute (816 228-4595), and the National
Council Against Health Fraud (909 824-4690).
References
_______________
Portions of this article were published in the authors' chapter in Cancer Medicine, 4th
Edition, published by Williams & Wilkins (1996). Dr. Herbert is Professor of Medicine,
The Mount Sinai School of Medicine and Chief, Hematology and Nutrition Research
Laboratory, the Bronx Veterans Affairs Medical Center.