Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71 (2000) 23 43 www.elsevier.

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Review

Review on some plants of Indian traditional medicine with antioxidant activity

Paolo Scartezzini, Ester Speroni *
Department of Pharmacology, Uni6ersity of Bologna, Via Irnerio, 48, 40126 Bologna, Italy Received 2 August 1999; received in revised form 13 March 2000; accepted 17 March 2000

Abstract A lot of medicinal plants, traditionally used for thousands of years, are present in a group of herbal preparations of the Indian traditional health care system (Ayurveda) named Rasayana proposed for their interesting antioxidant activities. Among the medicinal plants used in ayurvedic Rasayana for their therapeutic action, some of these have been throughly investigated. In the present paper seven plants (Emblica ofcinalis L., Curcuma longa L., Mangifera indica L., Momordica charantia L., Santalum album L., Swertia chirata Buch-Ham, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) are viewed for their historical, etymological, morphological, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects. The plants described contain antioxidant principles, that can explain and justify their use in traditional medicine in the past as well as the present. In order to identify the plants with antioxidant activity in Ayurveda, a formulation of some rasayanas with well dened antioxidant properties has been examinated. For this purpose, we have considered Sharmas work on the preparation MAK4, MAK5, MA631, MA 471, MA Rajas Cup, MA Student Rasayana, MA Ladies Rasayana. 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Antioxidants; Ayurveda; Indian medicinal plants

1. Introduction The traditional medicine all over the world is nowadays revalued by an extensive activity of research on different plant species and their therapeutic principles. Experimental evidence suggests that free radicals (FR) and reactive oxygen species
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 39-051-2091793; fax: +39051-248862. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Speroni)

(ROS) can be involved in a high number of diseases (Richards and Sharma, 1991; Niwa, 1991). As plants produce a lot of antioxidants to control the oxidative stress caused by sunbeams and oxygen, they can represent a source of new compounds with antioxidant activity. Ayurveda, the Indian traditional health care system (ayus= life, veda = knowledge, meaning science of life), is the oldest medical system in the world and is being revived in its complete form under the name of Maharishi Ayurved (Glaser, 1988). The World

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Health Organization has approved its efcacy (Zaman, 1974). This system provides an approach to prevention and treatment of different diseases by a large number of medical procedures and pharmaceuticals. One of the clinical specialities of Ayurveda is Rasayana. Rasayana is not only a drug therapy but is a specialized procedure practised in the form of rejuvenating recipes, dietary regimen promoting good habit. The purpose of rasayana is two-fold: prevention of disease and counteraction of aging processes which result from optimization of homeostasis. The meaning of the word Rasayana (rasa = essence, water; ayana=going) essentially refers to nutrition and its acquisition, movement, circulation and perfusion in the body tissues (Singh, 1992). With regard to the Rasayana drug therapy Sharma et al. (1992) reported the strong antioxidant activity of any rasayana: these compounds were found to be 1000 times more potent than ascorbic acid, a-tocopherol, and probucol.

3. Phyllanthus emblica L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Syn.: Emblica ofcinalis Gaertn. Phyllanthus glomerata Wall. Dichelactina nodicauli Hance

3.1. Miscellaneous
Linnaeus was the founder of the genus Phyllanthus (phyllon=leaf, anthos =ower) with refer` ence to the most important characteristic of these plants: their branches are curiously at like leaves with owers on the margins after blossoming. The Persian name of Emblica is amlah (from Sanskrit amla), but, as the Arabic amlaj suggests, probably in older Persian amlag, and hence Emblica. Garcia de Orta says it was called embelgi by the Arab physicians. The name of the family Euphorbiaceae comes from Euphorbus, physician to Juba, King of Mauritania. In Sanskrit Phyllanthus emblica has many synonym: Dhatriphala (dhatri= female supporter, a nurse; phala=fruit); Vayahstha (= strong, vigorous, being in the bloom of age); Amritaphala (amrita= immortal); Amala (= pure, clean); Amla ( = sour), all these synonymous words show how important this plant is in traditional Indian medicine, in fact, it is the most common ayurvedic plant (Monier-Williams, 1997). According to Indian mythology it is believed to be the rst tree created in the universe. Emblica is represented in the traditional Indian jewelry. In Malaysia this plant is so renowned that a city and a river bear its name: Malacca. Fruits of Emblica are rasayana. Plants of this genus were imported in the western countries at the end of the 18th century. Dumont de Courset, French botanist, grew about ten species at Paris botanical garden. Targioni Tozzetti wrote to his French colleague: fruits of this plant are available in Europe in any grocery as old medicament and they were once used as laxative. On the contrary, Rumpf G. Everhard in his Herbarium amboinense (17411755) says that they are used for dysentery, like astringent, and against cephalea and they are also eaten dried or candied (Gerola et al., 1963).

2. Some examples of plants with antioxidant activity In order to identify the plants with antioxidant activity in Ayurveda a formulation of some rasayanas with well dened antioxidant properties has been examined. For this purpose, we have considered Sharmas work on the preparation MAK4, MAK5 (Dwivedi et al., 1991; Fields et al., 1991; Niwa, 1991; Sharma et al., 1992; Dogra et al., 1994; Sharma et al., 1996), MA631 (Hanna et al., 1993, 1996), MA 471 (Sircar et al., 1996), MA Rajas Cup (Sharma et al., 1992), MA Student Rasayana (Sharma et al., 1995), MA Ladies Rasayana (Sharma et al., 1992a). These preparations contain a wide number of plants. Among the different plants, seven of them have been specically investigated for their well-demonstrated antioxidant activity: Emblica ofcinalis L.; Curcuma longa L.; Mangifera indica L.; Momordica charantia L.; Santalum album L.; Swertia chirata Buch-Ham; Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.

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3.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Dhatriphala, Amla, Amaliki, Amalakan, Sriphalam, Vayastha; Hindi, Amla; English, Emblic myrobalan; Italian, Mirabolano emblico; German, Amla; French, Phyllanthe emblic; Nepalese, Amba; Chinese, An Mole; Tibetan, Skyu-ru-ra; Malaysian, popok Melaka; Portuguese, Mirabolano emblico (Kapoor, 1990; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993; Nadkarni, 1993).

3.8. Flowers
Blossom in MarchMay, minute, unisexual, 0.51.5 cm long, greenish yellow, in axillary fascicles, often a portion of branchlet is naked below the leaves, with mbriated bracts at the base. Male owers on short and thin pedicels, sepals six, long 1.2 mm, oblong, obtuse, disco O, anthers three on a short central column. Few owers female subsessile, sepals six, long 1.2 mm, oblong, obtuse, disk a lacerate cup. Ovary has three celled, styles connate at the base, double, with acute lobes.

3.3. Habitat
The species is native to India and it grows in tropical and subtropical regions, wild and cultivated (in India the most common cultivars are: Chakaiya, Banarsi, Francis ). It grows also in Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, SE Asia, China and Malaysia, to 1400 m. (Kapoor, 1990; Calabrese, 1993a; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993; Stainton, 1997; Sahni, 1998).

3.9. Bark
Thick to 12 mm, shining greyish brown or greyish green, peeling off in conchoidal akes.

3.10. Fruits
Ripen from NovemberFebruary, nearly spherical or globular, wider than long and with a small and slight conic depression on both apexes. Its size changes accordingly with the variety. Normally fruit is 1825 mm wide and 1520 mm long. Surface is smooth with 6 obscure vertical pointed furrow. When ripened the mesocarp is yellow and the endocarp is yellowish brown. The mesocarp is acidulous in fresh fruit and acidulous astringent in dried fruit.

3.4. Used parts

Dried fruit and fresh fruit, seed, leaves, root bark, owers (Nadkarni, 1993).

3.5. Morphological characteristics

Emblica is a medium to large deciduous tree.

3.6. Branches
Flat, twig hairless or nely pubescent, 10 20 cm long, often deciduous.

3.11. Seeds
Foursix, smooth, dark brown (Kapoor, 1990; Calabrese, 1993a; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993; Stainton, 1997; Sahni, 1998).

3.7. Lea6es
Simple, linear-oblong blunt, small, a hundred or more on each branchlet, arranged in two ranks and thus appearing to form a pinnate leaf, 8 10 mm or more long and 2 3 mm broad, stipolate, entire, obtuse or round at the base, subacute or apiculate apex, hairless, light green outside, pale green or often pubescent beneath, almost stalkless. Leaves fall in November-December and grow in FebruaryMarch.

3.12. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 3.12.1. Fruits Moisture 81.2%, protein 0.5%, fat 0.1%, mineral matter 0.7%, ber 3.4%, carbohydrates 14.1%, Ca (0.05%), K (0.02%), Fe (1.2 mg/100g), nicotinic acid (0.2 mg/100g), phyllemblin, phyllemblic acid, gallic acid, emblicol, ellagic acid, pectin (Nizamuddin et al., 1982; Kapoor, 1990;

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Barthakur and Arnold, 1991), SOD 482,14 unit/g (Fengshu et al., 1992), putranjivain A (El-Mekkawy et al., 1995), two new hydrolysable tannins vitamin C-like called emblicanin A and B and not ascorbic acid as it was believed by mistake until 1996, punigluconin and pedunculagin (Ghosal, et al., 1996).

3.12.2. Seeds A xed oil, phosphatides, and a small quantity of essential oil. The xed oil (yield 16%) has the following physical and chemical characteristics: acid value 12.7; saponication value 185; iodine value 139.5; acetyl value 2.03; unsaponiable matter 3.81%; sterol 2.70%; saturated fatty acids 7%. Contain linolenic (8.78%), linoleic (44.0%), oleic (28.40%), stearic (2.15%), palmitic (2.99%) and miristic acid (0.95%). Proteolytic and lipolytic substances are present (Siddiqui, et al., 1973; Kapoor, 1990). 3.12.3. Lea6es Gallic, ellagic, chebulic, chebulagic, chebulinic acids, a gallotannin called amlic acid, alkaloids phyllantidine and phyllantine (Khanna and Bansal, 1975; Basa and Srinivasulu, 1988; Kapoor, 1990; Asmawi, et al., 1993). 3.12.4. Bark Leukodelphinidin, tannin and proanthocyanidin (Khanna and Bansal, 1975; Kapoor, 1990). 3.12.5. Roots Ellagic acid and lupeol (Kapoor, 1990; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). 3.13. Pharmacological action
Fruits of P. emblica have been used for thousands of years in the traditional Indian medicine for the treatment of several diseases. For many years the therapeutic potential of the fruits was attributed to their high content of ascorbic acid: about 1 g of vitamin C per 100 ml of fresh juice (Kapoor, 1990). Because of the presence of certain tannins it did not oxidate even in dried fruit maintaining the antiscorbutic capacity unchanged.

Also some studies (Chyck et al., 1919) and (Srinivasan, 1944) were published where the high antiscorbutic capacity was exalted. In fact amla was used with a great success during the famous famine of Hissar (193940) and also in another case of scorbutus which affected the Indian army at Nassirdab in 1837 in Rajputana (Srinivasan, 1944). All the studies published after that time were based on comparison between ascorbic acid and P. emblica the latter was discovered to be more effective than ascorbic acid whether in vitro or in vivo. The fruit extract inhibits micronuclei formation, sister-chromatid exchanges, clastogenicity and mutagenicity metal-induced such as lead, aluminum, cadmium, nickel, caesium (Dhir et al., 1980; Kumar and Shankar, 1986; Dhir et al., 1991; Roy et al., 1991, 1991a, 1992; Agarwal et al., 1992; Ghosh et al., 1992; Dhir et al., 1993; Ghosh et al., 1993). It preserves against radiation (810 r) (Yadav, 1987, 1988). All these results were explained through the high content of ascorbic acid. In 1996 professor Shibhnath Ghosal of Banaras Hindu University (Ghosal et al., 1996) discovered that Emblica fruits do not contain ascorbic acid neither in free nor in conjugated form, but it contains two new hydrolysable tannins with low molecular weight (B 1000), called emblicanin A (2,3-di-o-galloyl-4,6-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-2-keto-glucono-d-lactone) and emblicanin B (2,3,4,6-bis-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-2-keto-glucono-d-lactone) and other tannins like punigluconino (2,3-di-O-galloyl-4,6-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoylgluconic acid) and pedunclagin (2,3,4,6-bis-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-D-glucose) already isolated in other species, Punica granatum in particular. These two new tannins have a very strong antioxidant action. The two emblicanins A and B have been found to preserve erythrocytes against oxidative stress induced by asbestos, generator of superoxide radical. Emblicanin A oxidates when put in contact with asbestos becoming emblicanin B and together they have a stronger protective action to erythrocytes than vitamin C. Moreover they improve the efcacy of vitamin C in reducing dihydroascorbic acid to ascorbic acid. The same recycling process has been observed in the rutin-vitamin C combination. The above men

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tioned tannins prevent the polymerization of vinylic monomers (MMA) in polymers (PMMA) in presence of hydroxyl radicals (Ghosal et al., 1996). Fruit extract has been shown to have an antimutagenic activity in Ames test (Grover and Kaur, 1989, 1989a). Recently fruits have been tested for their antiviral activity, particularly for inhibiting reverse transcriptase in the replication of retroviruses like HIV-1. Some active ingredients inhibit the replication of the virus through a non competitive action with respect to the dTTP but competitive action with respect to the template primer (El-Mekkawy et al., 1995). Other studies have shown that the fruit enhances the immunodefence (Suresh and Vasudevan, 1994), and has a hypolipidemic effect (Thakur and Mandal, 1984; Thakur, 1985; Mathur et al., 1996). Emblica fruit is also effective in acute pancreatitis therapy (Thorat et al., 1995) and like hepatoprotective (Gulati et al., 1995).

tiles very quickly; Harita (= yellowish) o Pita (= yellow), Gauri (= brilliant) because of the color of its rhizome; Haladi (hala= a plough, name of a country and people in the north, water; di= to shine, be bright) because it dyes the plough of bright yellow if cut and it releases colour if put in water. Turmeric is also used, by the mountain people, to protect the skin from the sun rays; Ranjana (= to colour); Yamira o Yamini, Nisa, Rajani ( = night) because rhizomes are gathered in the night time; Yashitapriya (Yoshita= women, wife; priya= beloved, dear to) o Yuvati (= a girl, young woman) because it is used during wedding ceremonies and as make up (Monier-Williams, 1997).

4.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Haridra, Harita, Pita, Haladi, Ranjana, Yamira, Yamini, Yoshitapriya, Yuvati; Hindi, Haldi; English, Turmeric, Indian saffron; Italian, Curcuma; German, Gelbwurzel kurkuma; French, Curcuma; Japanese, Ukon; Chinese, Yiichin; Tibetan, Skyer-rtsa (Kapoor, 1990a; Nadkarni, 1993a; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993a).

4. Curcuma longa L. Family: Zingiberaceae Syn.: Curcuma domestica Valeton Amomum curcuma Jacq. Curcuma xanthorrhiza Naves.

4.3. Habitat
India, in particular Madras, Bengal and Bombay, Pakistan, China, Asiatic SE (Kapoor, 1990a; Nadkarni, 1993a; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993a).

4.1. Miscellaneous
Curcuma is a Latin name derived from Kourkoum, a word of Arabic origin meaning saffron. Curcuma is also the name of the species chosen by Linnaeus in 1737 for this kind of monocotyledonous herbs of India. Curcuma rhizome is one of the most common spices for its special taste and colour. In fact the powder of this plant is used for many Hindu rituals especially in wedding ceremonies where ladies use it to make a beauty-spot on the forehead. People living in north India on the mountains use this plant to protect the skin against the sun rays. In chemical laboratories an alcoholic extract of curcuma is used to test boric acid and borate. In sanskrit there are about 46 synonymous of curcuma: Haridra (hari= yellow; dra =to run, make haste) because it dyes tex-

4.4. Used parts

Rhizomes.

4.5. Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial herb 60100 cm high with a short stem and large sheathing leaves.

4.6. Lea6es
Very large, elliptic blade, in tufts up to 1 m or longer, stem is as long as the blade, tapering at the base.

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4.7. Inorescence
Flowers yellow, gathered into a spike 10 15 cm long, peduncle 15 cm long, concealed by the sheathing petiole; when it blossoms the light green bracts become violet.

4.8. Rhizome
The commercial turmeric consists of primary rhizomes: these are ovate, oblong, pyriforme, denominated bulb or round turmeric. The secondary rhizomes are more cylindrical and 4 7 cm long, 11.5 cm wide, called ngers. Externally yellowish or yellowish brown. Internally yellow or yellow orange. The odor is aromatic and the taste warm and somewhat bitter. The transverse sections of the rhizomes present: thin walled; parenchyma cells; scattered vascular bundles; denite endodermis; epidermis consisting of cubical cells and is thin walled; under the epidermis there are few layers of cork, scattered oleoresin cells with suberized walls and contain orange yellow globules of a volatile oil or amorphous resinous masses. The cork cambium is developed from the subepidermal layers. Cork is composed of four to six layers of parenchymatous cells. The parenchyma of cortex and pith contains curcumin and is rich in starch grains. The cells of the ground-tissue are lled with many starch grains. Vascular bundles are scattered and are collateral, with phloem toward the periphery and few xylem elements. The vessels have mainly spiral thickenings and only a few have reticulate and annular structure (Kapoor, 1990a; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993a).

loil-p-cumaroilmethane, di-p-cumaroilmethane, aand b-turmerones, a-pinene, b-pinene, camphene, limonene, terpinene, caryophyllene, curcumene, linalool, borneol, isoborneol, eugenol, cineole, curdione, curzerenone, curlone, campesterol, stigmasterol, b-sitosterol, cholesterol and fatty acids (Kapoor, 1990a; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995).

4.10. Pharmacological action

Curcumin and its sodium salt have been shown to have a strong anti-inammatory activity in carragenin- and caoline-induced edema, formaline-induced arthritis with a corticosteroid-like and a strong antioxidant activity. Also natural occurring analogues of curcumine like feruloyl-(4hydroxycinnamoyl)-methane and bis-(4-hydroxycinnamoyl)-methane have been shown to have similar effects. Sodium curcuminate antagonizes several spasmogens. Turmeric powder protects the gastric mucosa against irritants. Curcumin prevents atulence (Ammon and Wahl, 1991). Curcumin and the related compounds p-coumaroyl(feruoyl)methane and di-p-coumaroylmethane have a protective effect on liver against CCl4 and D-galactosamine (Yoshinobu et al., 1983). It increases the bile production. Curcumin and its derivates inhibit aggregation of platelets in vitro as well as in vivo (Ammon and Wahl, 1991). It has been observed that curcumin decreases high cholesterol levels like statine. Curcumin and its derivatives have shown antitumor activity in in vitro tests (Kuttan et al., 1985). Some polysaccharides (arabino-galactans) named ukonan A, B, C, D (Japanese name of turmeric is ukon) show remarkable activity on the reticuloendothelial-system (Gonda et al., 1990, 1992, 1992a). The extract of turmeric has shown antimutagenic activity (Azuine et al., 1992). TAP (turmeric antioxidant protein) has been isolated from aqueous extract of turmeric. TAP prevents Ca-ATPase from inactivation in presence of promoters of lipid peroxidation (LPO) as well as the depletion of thiol (SH) content during peroxidation. The antioxidant activity is probably mediated through the protection of the SH group of

4.9. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 4.9.1. Rhizome 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione (1.11%) called curcumin, feruloyl(4-hydroxycinnamoil)-methane (0.86%) called desmethoxycurcumin, bis-(4-hydroxycinnamoil)methane (1.62%) called bisdesmethoxycurcumin, 2-(hydroxymethyl)anthraquinone, 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1-heptene-3,5-dione called dihydrocurcumin, diferuloilmethane, feru-

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the enzyme. Similar results have been obtained through reagents which reduce thiol groups (Selvam et al., 1995). A mixture of curcuminoids such as curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin protects normal human keratinocytes from xanthine/hypoxanthine oxidase injury (Bonte et al., 1997).

Pikavallabha (pika= indian cuckoo; vallabha= favourite, lover) because cuckoos and parrots used to stay on this tree. A mango tree in Chandigarh, the capital of Punjab, has a trunk of 9.6 m girth and a crown spread of 2250 m2 with annual output of 17 tones of fruit (MonierWilliams, 1997; Sahni, 1998a).

5.2. Vernacular names

5. Mangifera indica L. Family: Anacardiaceae Syn.: Mangifera anisodora Blanco Mangifera fragrans F.-Vill. Mangifera rostrata Blanco Mangifera syl6atica F.-Vill. Sanskrit, Alipriya, Amra, Bhramavapriya, Kamaphala, Kamayudha, Kamavallabha, Kokilavasa, Kires, Kokilananda, Pitavallabha; Hindi, Am; Italian, Mango; English, Mango tree, Spring tree; French, Abricotier de St. Domingue, Ambo, Loubi, Freycinet, Manguier, Saint Michel; German, Mango; Chinese, An Lo Kuo; Nepalese, Angp (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993b).

5.1. Miscellaneous
Mangifera comes from Tamil man-kay or man-gay, which becomes manga in Portuguese, and from Latin fer-fero i.e. to produce. It has been grown in India for 4000 years, not only for the fruit but also because it creates a lot of shadow. Buddha used to rest under the mango tree. The plant has an important symbolic meaning: its scented owers are used in Shiva worshipping. The Moghul Emperor Akbar the Great (Jalalad-Din Muhammad Akbar 1542 1605) created a big garden of 100 000 mango trees at Darbhanga, north India. It was extraordinary at that time because intensive cultivation was unknown. Thanks to the Chinese Hwen Tsang, who lived in the 7th century, mango became famous also outside of India. In the rst half of 18th century the mango was exported to the other tropical countries by the Portuguese (Calabrese, 1993). In Sanskrit there are many synonymous of mango: Kamaphala (kama= desire, love, wish; phal=fruit), Kamavallabha (vallabha=favorite, lover), Kamayudha (yudh= ghter, hero, warrior), which means fruit of love, aphrodisiac; Kireshta (kira= a parrot; stha=to stand); Kokilavasa, Kokilananda, (kokila= indian cuckoo; vasa= dwelling, residence; nanda = joy, happiness)

5.3. Habitat
India, south-east of Asia, Malaysia, Himalayan regions, Sri Lanka, Africa, America, Australia and, in general, in tropical and monsoon climate. Fruits ripen in hot and dry season (Calabrese, 1993; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993b; Sahni, 1998b).

5.4. Used parts

Ripe and unripe fruits, root, bark, leaves, owers, resin from bark (Nadkarni, 1993b; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993b).

5.5. Morphological characteristics

A large evergreen tree, longlived, 1045 m high with a strong trunk and heavy crown.

5.6. Lea6es
Evergreen, coriaceous, 1030 cm long and 5 10 cm wide, at the end of the branches, alternate, oblong or lanceolate, entire, the margins often undulate, shining, green bright up and yellow-greenish down, pinkish when young, petiole 25 cm long, swollen at the base.

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5.7. Bark
Thick, acrid, dark grey and brous.

3a, 27-dihydroxycycloart-24(E)-en-26-oic (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995).

acids

5.8. Flowers
The time of owering is January to March and the owers are male and bisexual. They are united in big inorescence with a pyramidal shape, long 10 50 cm and placed at the apex of the branchlets; in any panicle there are about 5000 small owers with dark red spotted petals. In spite of the big quantity of owers, fruits are very few. Petals fourve pale yellow, three orangecoloured ridges on the inner face, oblong, subacute. Sepals ovate, shorter the petals. Stamen one, lament subulate, anther purple. Ovary glabrous.

5.10.2. Fruits Cycloartenol, 3b-hydroxycycloart-24-en-26-al, 24-methylene-cycloartan-3b,26-diol, C-24 epimers of cycloart-25-en-3b,24-diol, a-amyrin, b-amyrin, dammarenediol II, C-taraxastane-3b, 20-diol, ocotillol, methyl mangiferonate, methyl mangiferolate, methyl isomangiferolate, sitosterol, a mixture of 5-(12-cis-heptadecenyl)and 5-pentadecyl-resorcinols, vitamins A and C (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 5.10.3. Roots Friedelin, friedelan-3b-ol, a-amyrin, b-amyrina, cycloartenol, b-sitosterol (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 5.10.4. Lea6es Flavonoids, phenolic, glucose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, rhamnose, tannins, leucine, tyrosine, valine, protocatechuic acid, catechin, mangiferin, alanine, glycine, g-aminobutyric acid, kinic acid, shikimic acid, methylic, ethyl, propyl, butyl, amyl and iso-butyl alcohols, a-pinene, bpinene, camphene, myrcene, car-3-ene, limonene, b-ocimene, g-terpinene, a-terpinolene, linalool, estregole, d-elemene, b-elemene, a-cubebene, methyleugenol, b-caryophyllene, humulene, alloaromadendrene, a-guaiene, b-bulnesene, a-farnesene, d-cardinene, elemicin, chinomin, protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, methylchinomin, isochinomin, quercetin, hyperin, taraxerone, taraxerol, friedelin, lupeol, b-sitosterol (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 5.10.5. Flowers Threonine, alanine, valine, tryptophan, glucose, galactose, arabinose. 5.10.6. Unripe fruits Polysaccharides, a triterpene, acetates of cycloartanol, amyrin, lupeol, homomangiferin-2C-bD-glucopyranosyl-3-methoxy-1,6,7-trihydroxyxanthone.

5.9. Fruits
It is a large eshy drupe that can weigh 200 g minimum and 2 kg maximum depending on the variety. Drupe is ovoid or kidney shaped with a typical goat shape on the extremity. Thick peel is green or yellow or orange. Mesocarp is eshy, yellow or orange, juicy and particular sweet in April and June when it ripens. Endocarp is woody, covered with woody bres and contains many seeds (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993b; Calabrese, 1993; Sahni, 1998b).

5.10. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 5.10.1. In whole plant Friedelin, b-sitosterol, mangiferin (6.9%) mp. 278, molecular weight 422.35, catechin, protocatechuic acid, ellagic acid, gallic acid, m-digallic acid, trigallic acid, gallotannin, butin, setin, leucocyanidin, quercetin, triterpenic acid-mangiferolic acid mp.181-, isomangiferolic acid, hydroxymangiferolic acid, mangiferonic acid, hydroxymangiferonic acid, ambonic acid and ambolic acid, exudate from stem yield gum (16.0%) and resin (81.0%), a triterpenoid pentacyclic-hopan-1b, 3b,22-triol- and four tetracyclic triterpenoids 3a, 22(R/S)-, 3b, 22(R/S)-, 3b, 23(R/S)-,

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5.10.7. Bark Protocatechuic acid, catechin, mangiferin, alanine, glycine, g-aminobutyric acid, kinic acid, shikimic acid, tetracyclic triterpenoids, cycloart24-en-3b,26-diol, 3-ketodammar-24(E)-en-20S,26diol, C-24 epimers of cycloart-25-en-3b,24,27-triol and cycloartan-3b,24,27-triol. 5.10.8. Seeds Stearic acid, a-pinene, b-pinene, myrcene, limonene, oleic (86,0%), arachidonic, linoleic, linolenic and palmitic acids (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 5.11. Pharmacological action
Mangiferin is a C-glucosylxanthone and it has cardiotonic and diuretic properties. Gallic acid and quercetine show a strong antiviral activity. Mangiferin stimulates after 48 h the proliferation of thymocytes and spleenic lymphocytes with a peak response at 5.0 mg/ml and 20.0 mg/ml, respectively (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Mangiferin has a remarkable anti-inammatory activity. Mangiferin is an antioxidant at different levels of oxidation sequence able to: prevent the lipoperoxidation by decreasing the O2 concentration and generating mangiferin phenoxy radicals. Bind metal ions like Fe3 + , Fe2 + preventing the generation of hydroxyl radicals and/or oxo-ferryl groups. Regulate the polymer chain initiation by interaction with ROS to produce feebly-reactive oxo-radical. Act like a scavenger to lipid peroxy and alkoxy radicals and prevent the abstraction of H from cellular lipids. Maintain the balance of cellular oxidant/antioxidant (Ghosal, 1996a).

Momordica cylindrica Blanco; Momordica humilis Wall.; Momordica muricata DC.; Momordica operculata Vahl.; Momordica senegalensis Lamk.; Cucumis africana Lindl.

6.1. Miscellaneous
The denomination Momordica was introduced by Tournefort, before Linnaeus, in allusion to the jagged seeds as though bitten; from Latin mordeo, momordi= to bite, to gnaw. Charantia comes from the Sanskrit. The fruits are very often used in Indian cuisine. They are eaten unripe, green and in different recipes but basically they are cut, marinated in salt to eliminate the bitter taste. The effective hypoglycemic action has been deeply studied and it is so strong that diabetic patients have to be reminded to check the glycaemia after having it. In Sanskrit the plant is called: Karavalli, Karavallika, Karavella (kara= the hand, leaves palmately ve-lobed; valli, vallika= a creeper) i.e. creeping plant; Patu (= strong, intense, healthy) with reference to the strong bitter taste and to the therapeutic action; Pitapushpa (pita= yellow, pushp= ower) because of the yellow owers; Kandira (= armed with arrows, an archer) because of the hanging fruits (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993c; Monier-Williams, 1997).

6.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Ambuvallika, Brihadvalli, Kandakataka, Karavella, Karavellaka, Karavelli, Katilla, Patu, Pitapushpa, Varivalli, Vasakantaki; Hindi, Karela, Kareli, Karola; English, Bitter mellon, Carilla fruit; Italian, Melone amaro, Cetriolo africano; French, Pandipane; Portuguese, Pepino de Sao Gregorio; Arabic, Qisaulbarri; Brasilian, Erva de Sao Caetano, Melao de Sao Caetano; Chinese, Ku Kan (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993c; Nadkarni, 1993c).

6. Momordica charantia L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Syn.: Momordica balsamica Desc.; Momordica balsamina Blanco;

6.3. Habitat
India, Malaya, China, tropical Africa, Middle East, America (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993c).

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6.4. Used parts

Unripe fruits, seeds, root, leaves (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993c; Nadkarni, 1993c).

6.11. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 6.11.1. Lea6es Octacosane, 1-triacontanol, 7-stigmasten-3b-ol, 7,25-stigmastadien-3b-ol, 5,25-stigmastadien-3b-ol glucoside, phytosphingosine, momordicine I, II, III. 6.11.2. Seeds b-sitosterol-b-D-glucoside, stearic acid, two lectins, two new triterpene glycosides momordicosides A and B, characterized as 3-O-b-gentiobioside and 3-O-b-D-xylopyranosyl (1 4)-[b-D-glucopyranosyl (16)]-b-D-glucopyranoside, respectively, of cucurbit-5-en3b,22(S),23(R),24(R),25pentaol; momordicosides C, D and E characterized as 3-O-b-gentiobiosides of cucurbit-5-en-3b,23,24,25-tetraol, cucurbit5,24-dien-3b,22,23-triol and 3b-hydroxy23.24,25,26,27-pentanor-20(j) cucurbit-5-en-22-al, respectively; two cytokinins zeatin and zeatin riboside ; two proteins a and b momorcharins, p-cymene, hexadecanol, menthol, nerolidol, pentadecanol, and squalene, 10a-cucurbit-5,24-dien3b-ol, 24-methylencycloartanol, taraxerol, b-amyrin, campesterol, cycloeucalenol, 24b-ethyl5a-cholesta-7-trans-22-dien-3b-ol, 24b-ethyl-5acholesta-7-trans-22,25(27)-trien-3b-ol, lophenol, 4a-methylzymosterol, obtusifoliol, spinasterol, stigmasterol, stigmasta-7,25-dienol and stigmasta7,22,25-trienol (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993), momordica anti-protein (MAP 30) (Lee-Huang et al., 1990; Bourinbaiar and Lee-Huang, 1995), ribosome-inactivating-proteins (RIPs) (Stirpe, 1980, 1982, 1982a, 1983, 1984, 1988, 1988a; Yeung et al., 1988; Stirpe, 1992; Ng et al., 1992, 1994; Ortigao and Better, 1992; Husain et al., 1994). 6.11.3. Unripe fruits Momordicosides G, F1, characterized as 3-O-bD-allopyranoside and 3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, respectively, of 5,19-epoxy-25-methoxy-5b-cucurbita-6,23-dien-3b-ol, momordicosides F2, I characterized as 3-O-b-D-allopyranoside and 3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside of 5,19-epoxy-5b-cucurbita-6,23-dien-3b,25-diol, 3-O-[6%-O-palmitoyl-b-Dglucosyl]-stigmasta-5,25(27)-diene and stearil derivative (Guevara et al., 1990).

6.5. Morphological characteristics

Annual plant with long, angled and grooved stem, more or less pubescent. The plant in toto if rubbed releases a typical scent probably because of a kind of self protection system against insects or any kind of animals.

6.6. Tendrils
Simple, thin, pubescent.

6.7. Lea6es
Palmately ve-lobed, lobes acute or subacute, apiculate, spinnous-dentate 5 12 cm diameter, pubescent or subglabrous on both sides; petioles 2 5 cm long, pubescent.

6.8. Flowers
Unisexual, the male owers are solitary; peduncles 5-6 cm long, glabrous or pubescent, with a large orbicular bract at under the middle. Calyx 7 10 mm long, pubescent; lobes elliptic, subacute, 5 6 mm long. Corolla irregular, yellow. The female owers with three stamens; peduncles 5 10 cm long, thin, bracteate. Ovary fusiform, muricate, three stigmas, forked.

6.9. Fruits
Oblong or ovate, 5 15 cm long, pendulous, orange-coloured when mature, green or whitish when unripe. The pulp is blood-red or scarlet after dehiscence.

6.10. Seeds
Dappled, at, thick notched margin, red aril (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993c).

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6.11.4. Fruits Momordicoside K, L, two acylglycosylsterols-3O-[6%-O-palmitoyl-b-D-glucosyl] stigmast-5,25(27)diene and 3-O-[6%-O-stearyl-b-D-glucosyl] stigmasta-5,25(27)-diene, benzyl alcohol, myrtenol, cis-3-hexenol, trans-2-hexenal, 1-penten-3-ol, cis-2-penten-1-ol, charantin, stigmast5,25-diene-3b-O-glucoside. 6.11.5. Tendrils Benzyl alcohol, myrtenol, cis-3-hexenol, trans2-hexenal, 1-penten-3-ol, cis-2-penten-1-ol (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). 6.12. Pharmacological action
Unripe fruits reduce the number of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes induced by mutagen mitomicyn C of about 80% (Guevara et al., 1990). The antimutagenic activity may reside in the peculiar lipid structure of acylglucosil sterols. The fruit extract has antidiabetic activity whether in animals or in clinical trials, therefore it is utilized to treat diabetes all over the world (Aslam and Stockley, 1979; Akthar et al., 1981; Leatherdale et al., 1981; Day et al., 1990; Shibib et al., 1993; Cakici et al., 1994). A lot of research has been done on RIPs action extracted from the seeds (Stirpe, 1980, 1982, 1982a, 1983, 1984, 1988, 1988a, 1992; Yeung et al., 1988; Ortigao and Better, 1992; Ng et al., 1992, 1994; Husain et al., 1994). Protein extracted from the seeds, MAP-30, inhibits HIV-1 infection and replication in vitro. This protein reduces p24 expression and reverses transcriptase. Encouraging results have been noted by HIV-positive patients with MAP-30 use (Lee-Huang et al., 1990; Bourinbaiar and LeeHuang, 1995). The fruit juice is a strong scavenger of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals, even after boiling 45 min with acid or alkali treatment (Sreejayan, 1991).

7.1. Miscellaneous
The denomination Santalum comes from the medieval Latin Sandalum and this from the Arabic sandal. Sandalwood is a small tree highly esteemed in India. Where it grows wild there is always somebody who takes care of it because this plant is considered to be an important good for the community. It is one of the trees of the Buddhist Heaven. The scent of its wood is very pleasant, and the Indians used to burn sticks of sandalwood whether in the house or in the gardens. Accordingly to the Hindu mythology the Good Indra loved to rub her breast with a piece with the purpose of giving a yellow color to it. It is believed that sandalwood keeps the evil away. Sandalwood is mentioned in one of the oldest Vedic commentary, the Nirukta, written probably on the 5th century BC. Also in the Ramayana and in the Mahabharata, two poems of the Indian epic literature, this plant is mentioned. In Sanskrit there are thousands of synonyms of sandalwood: Candana (canda or candra= the moon; na= identical, gift), Candrakanta (kanta=lovely, beautiful) with reference to the scent of the plant which is refreshing like the light of the Moon; Sarpavasa (sarpa= snake, vasa= perfume) because its scent is appreciated by the snake; Sarpeshta (shta, stha= to stand, stand rmly) so appreciated by the snake that it becomes dazed; Sevya (= honourable) because it is highly considered by the people. Concerning this it has to be remembered that in India a disease called Spike disease is destroying many trees with serious ecological and economic consequences. A legend narrates that Buddha, in one of his innumerable rebirths, transformed himself in a sandalwood tree. The sandalwood is ready to be used at the age of about 10 years. The useful part is the heartwood which contains 90% of santalol (Monier-Williams, 1997; Sahni, 1998b).

7.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Candana, Candrakanta, Sarpavasa, Sarpeshta, Sevya; Hindi, Safed Chandan; English, White sandalwood, Italian, Sandalo; German, Weisses Sandelholz; French, Santal; Japanese,

7. Santalum album L. Family: Santalaceae

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Byakudan; Chinese, Tan hsiang; Tibetan, Tsandna (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993d; Nadkarni, 1993d).

7.10. Seeds
Bony, single (Kapoor, 1990b; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993d; Sahni, 1998b).

7.3. Habitat
Cultivated in Karnataka, Coimbatore, Salam and in south-western India. Endemic to Timor Islands. Some botanists consider that Sandal was introduced to India from Timor Islands in ancient time probably through birds which are the most important dispersal agents (Kapoor, 1990b; Nadkarni, 1993d; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993d; Sahni, 1998a).

7.11. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 7.11.1. Bark An oil is extracted. The principle constituent of the oil is santalol (90%) (Banerjee et al., 1993), exo-norbicycloekasantalal, b-santalic, teresantalic, nortricycloekasantalic, bicycloekasantalic and dihydro-b-santalic acids, urs-12-en-3b-il-palmitate, b-sitosterol, (+)epi-b-santalol, ( )b-santalol, ( )trans-b-santalol, a-santalol (52%), b-santalol (23%), epi-b-santalene, cis-lanceol, cis-nuciferol, b- and epi-b-teresantalic acid, b- and epi-bnorekasantalic acid, b- and epi-b-ekasantalic acid, a-santalic acid isolated along with two new compounds I and II, 11-keto-dihydro-a-santalic acid, bisabolenols A, B, C, D and E, tricycloekasantalol, a- and b-santalenes, trans-a-bergamotene, a-curcumone, nuciferol. 7.11.2. Fruits l-allohydroxiproline, betulinic acid, b-sitosterol, fatty acids. 7.11.3. Lea6es Betulinic acid (0.05%), b-sitosterol, glucose, fructose, sucrose (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 7.12. Pharmacological action
Banerjee et al. (1993) reported that sandalwood oil shows an indirect antioxidant activity by increasing the glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity and the acid soluble SH level in the liver. Feeding (by gavage) to mice (Swiss albino) at a dose of 5 ml sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days caused a 1.80 and 1.93-fold increase in GST activity, respectively. A dose of 15 ml of sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days causes 4.73 and 6.10-fold increases in the enzymes activity, respectively. Moreover there is 1.59 fold and 1.57-fold increase in SH-levels in hepatic tissue at the dose of

7.4. Used parts

Bark and volatile oil (Kapoor 1990b; Nadkarni, 1993d; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993d).

7.5. Morphological characteristics

The Sandal tree is a parasite of some tree, evergreen. Strychnos Nux Vomica is a reasonably good host but most members of the Mango family are fatal to Sandal.

7.6. Bark
Dark grey.

7.7. Lea6es
Opposite, sometimes alternate, oval or elliptic, shining, 3.76.21.5 3.2 cm with stalks long 0.6 1.2 cm.

7.8. Flowers
Small (to blossom in February April) odourless, in clusters with loosely branched, purplebrown, perianth bell-shaped, with four triangular lobes, stamens four.

7.9. Fruits
Ripens in MayJune with globose drupe 0.6 1.2 cm, purple black.

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oil (by gavage) of 5 and 15 ml for 10 days, respectively.

8.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Kiratatikta, Nepalanimba kitata, Nepalanimba, Nidrari, Anaryatikta, Naipala, Ardhatikta, Bhunimba, Naditikta, Ramasenaka; Hindi, Charanatah; German, Chirata-kraut; English, Chereta; Italian, Chirata, Chiretta; Nepalese, Khatu; Japanese, Seu buri; Chinese, Toyaku; Arabic, Aasbuzzarirah (Kapoor, 1990c; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993e).

8. Swertia chirata Buch-Ham. Family: Gentianaceae Syn.: Gentiana chyrayta Roxb.; Ophelia chirata Grisebach; Agathotes chirayata D. Don.

8.3. Habitat
Temperate Himalayas between 1200 and 3000 m, Kashmir, Bhutan and Assam (Kapoor, 1990c; Nadkarni, 1993e; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993e).

8.1. Miscellaneous
The genus Swertia was founded by Linnaeus in 1753 in honour of Emanuele Sweert, a Flemish naturalist, one of the precursor of the Dutch bulb-growing. The plant was rst described by Roxburgh under the name of Gentiana chyrayta in 1814. The herb is much esteemed by the Ayurvedic physician because of its febrifuge, antihelmintic, tonic and laxative properties, and is prescribed in case of malarian fever. Chirata comes from the Sanskrit Kirata, name of a mountain tribe of hunters that lives on high mountains, in wooden houses. They became Sudras (the members of the fourth cast) because they are not Hindus but follow an animistic religion. A synonym of the plant is Kirata tikta: tikta means bitter, pungent, medicinal plant which becomes the bitter plant of the Kiratas. Kirata is also one of the names of the God Shiva. In the Kiratarjuna, a part of the Mahabharata, the most famous Indian epic poem, Shiva takes the appearance of a wild mountaineer called Kirata who ghts with Arjuna, the mythical Indian hero. In Sanskrit it is mentioned under the name of: Nepalanimba, Nepala (=Nepal), nimba (= Azadirachta Indica, another bitter plant) i.e. Nepals nimba; Bhunimba i.e. ground nimba; Nitrari: Nidra (= sleep), ri (=remove, that removes sleep) in fact the plant was chewed by the Kiratas while walking on the mountain with the purpose of reducing fatigue; Anaryatikta (= the bitter plant of the non-Aryans); Naipala (= produced in Nepal); Kanda-tikta o tiktaka (kanda= vile, low) because it is used by the outcaste Kiratas (Monier-Williams, 1997).

8.4. Used parts

Whole plant (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993e; Kapoor, 1990c).

8.5. Morphological characteristics

Annual herb, 0.61.5 m high, erect, robust, branching, terete except near the top.

8.6. Stems
Cylindrical in its lower and middle portion, quadrangular in its upper.

8.6.1. Lea6es Lanceolate, in opposite pairs, 4 cm long, no stalks, acuminate, cordate at the base, sessile, three to ve to seven nerved. 8.7. Flowers
Small, numerous, large leafy panicles, green-yellow, lined with purple and green or white hairs. Calyx gamophyllous with four lanceolate lobes, corolla-lobes four twisted and superimposed, united at the base where they have two nectaries on each lobe fringed with long hairs. Stamen four, alternate with lobes of corolla, at the base of corolla, with stalk of the stame subulate and with anthers sagittate, oblong and bilocular. Ovary

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unilocular with ovules laminal placentation parietale; two stigmas.

8.8. Roots
Somewhat oblique or geniculate.

nizes amphetamine-induced stereotypy and inhibits induced aggressive behavior (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Mangiferin is an antioxidant at different levels of oxidation sequence (see above).

8.9. Fruits
Capsule oblong, two-valved

9. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Family: Solanaceae Syn.: Physalis exuosa L.

8.10. Seeds
Numerous (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993e; Kapoor, 1990c).

9.1. Miscellaneous
The origin of the word Withania is doubtful, whereas somnifera refers to the narcotic property of the leaves of the plant. In Sanskrit it is called Ashvagandha (asva=horse, gandha= smell) which means smell of the horse, because the root of the infected plant has the smell of the horse urine, but in general the meaning of the name is: what gives the energy and the sexual vitality of a horse. Other synonymous are: Varada (vara= choosing, desiring; da=offering, producing) that means granting wishes, conferring a boon, a benefactor; Vajigandha (vaji= strength, vigour; gandha= smell) i.e. smell of the strength; Vajikari (kari= causing, accomplishing) that means strengthening, producing virility; Vajiini ( = a mare) i.e. what promotes pregnancy; Palashparni (palasa=cruel, toxic; parna= leaf) with reference to the poisoning leaves. In Ayurveda Withania is used as tonic, aphrodisiac, sedative, as Medharasayana (= what promotes learning and a good memory) and in geriatric problems (Nadkarni, 1993f; Monier-Williams, 1997).

8.11. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant

Isolated from aerial parts polyoxygenated xanthone: 1,7,8-trihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone, 1,5,6-trihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone, 1-hydroxy3,5,8-trimethoxyxanthone, 1,5,8-trihydroxy-3methoxyxanthone and mangiferin i.e. 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone-C2-b-D-glucoside. Polyphenolic pigments: swertinin i.e. 7,8-dihydroxy-1,3-dimethoxyxanthone, swertianin i.e. 1,7,8-trihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone, decussarin i.e. 1-hydroxy-2,6,8-trimethoxyxanthone, swerchirin i.e. 1,8-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyxanthone and isobellidifolin i.e. 1,6,8-trihydroxy-4methoxyxanthone. Moreover it contains a bitter glucoside called chiratin from which for hydrolysis two bitter principles, hofelic acid and chiratogenin, amarogentina, gentiopicrina arise. Arginine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan, aspartic acid and glutamic acid, gentianin, gentiocrucine, b-amyrine and oleanolic acid have been isolated. Chiratanin, a xanthone dimeric, a new triterpene swertanone (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995) have also been isolated.

9.2. Vernacular names

Sanskrit, Ashvagandha, Ashvakandika, Balada, Balaja, Gandhapatri, Vajigandha, Vajikari, Vajiini, Palashaparni; Hindi, Asgandh; English, Winter cherry; Italian, Falso Alchechengi; Japanese, Ashwagandha; Aasoganda Nepalese; Singalese, Amukkara; Arabic, Bahman; Tibetan, Ba-dzigandha (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993f).

8.12. Pharmacological action

The plant extract is used as an effective remedy for chronic fever. Gentianin is antipsychotic in rat and mice, produces catalepsy and hypotermia, potentiates hexobarbital sleeping time, antago-

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9.3. Habitat
This solanacea grows in dry areas in India, on the Himalayas under 1600 m, Beluchistan, Sri Lanka and in the Mediterranean area: spontaneous in Sicily and Sardinia (Kapoor, 1990d; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993f).

9.4. Used parts

Root, leaf, seed (Kapoor, 1990d; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993f).

9.5. Morphological characteristics

Withania is a small or medium undershrub, 150 cm height, erect, grayish, branching perennial, odour is strong and disagreeable like horses urine.

coloured. Most of the cortical cells are rich of large starch grains. These having two to ve components almost rounded with a diameter of 1530 mm. The different components are much smaller than starch grains with a diameter of 9 mm. The woody part of the root is 1215 mm in diameter. It is composed of secondary xylema and woody rays. The outside part of the wood is composed of thick walled bers, wherein lie small patches of thin walled parenchyma as well as scattered or radially arranged rows of small groups of vessels and tracheids, all forming a circular zone or band of thick walled tissue. The cells of parenchyma are thin walled, rather large, rectangular, and most of them loaded with starch grains like cortical cells.

9.10. Fruits
Little, globular, red, smooth, covered by a membranaceous closely tting calyx edible, open at the apex.

9.6. Stems
Branches ligneous, tomentose at the apex covered with minute stellately hairs.

9.11. Seeds
Numerous, yellow-white, reniform, laterally compressed, poisonous (Kapoor, 1990d; Kirtikar and Basu, 1993f).

9.7. Lea6es
Leaves simple, 2 6 cm wide, 3 8 cm long, alternate, petiole 1 2 cm long, ovate or ellipticobovate, pubescent, entire, acute.

9.12. Chemical constituents present in different parts of the plant 9.12.1. In whole plant A steroidal lactone I that was useful to clarify the withanolides G, H, I, J, K, U structures with 14a hydroxy group rather than a 814 double bond (Kirson and Gottlieb, 1981), three new withanolides II, III, IV (Vande Velde and Lavie, 1981), from Withania somnifera chemotypes III an intermediate in the biosynthesis of withanolide E has been elucidated as (20R,22R)14a,20-dihydroxy-1-oxowitha-2,5,16,24-tetraenolid (Vande Velde and Lavie, 1982). 9.12.2. Lea6es Somnitol, glucose, inorganic salts, withanone (5a,17a-dihydroxy-1-oxo-6a,7a-epoxywitha-2,24dienolide), glycine, cystine, glutamic acid, a-alanine, proline, tryptophan, withaferin A

9.8. Flowers
Flowers sessile, axillary clusters, 1 cm long, it blossoms nearly throughout the year. Corolla greenish or yellow or white-yellowish, 5 mm long, lobes lanceolate, acute and thin, calyx is visibly expanded around the fruit.

9.9. Roots
One or more roots, tuberous, some long. A transversal section shows thin cork, light brown, and cortex has a thick central woody region parenchymatous with a storage function. Cork has 12 to 16 rows of thin walled cubical or slightly tangentially elongated cells. Around the phellogen there are one or two rows of cork cells yellow

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(4b,27 - dihydroxy - 1 - oxo - 5b,6b - epoxy - 22 - witha 2,24-dienolide) (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993), 27desoxy-14a-hydroxywithaferin A (Chopra, 1969), withaferin (2,3-dihydro-3-methoxywithaferin A), withaferin A isomer (27-deoxy-14-hydroxywithaferin A), withanolide D (5b,6b-epoxy-4b,20dihydro-1-oxowitha-2,24-dienolide) (Gamoh et al., 1984), withanolide E, U, F, I, K (17,20-dihydroxy-1-oxo-20S-22R-witha-3,5,24-trienolide), L (17,20,dihydroxy-1-oxo-20S,22R-witha-2,5,14,24tetraenolide), M (17,20-dihydroxy-1-oxo,14,15aepoxy - 20S - 22R - witha - 2,5,24 - trienolide) (Abraham, 1973; Glotter, 1977), withanolide G (20-hydroxy-1-oxo-20R,22R-witha-2,5,24-trienolide), withanolide H (20,27-dihydroxy-1-oxo20R,22R-witha-2,5,24-trienolide), withanolide J (17,20-dihydroxy-1-oxo-20S,22R-witha-2,5,24-trienolide) (Abraham, 1973), chlorogenic acid, avonoids, somnirol, somnitol, withanic acid.

9.12.3. Roots Anaferine (bis(2-piperidylmethyl)ketone), isopelletierine (Khanna et al., 1993), tropine, pseudotropine, 3a-tigloyloxytropane, cuscohygrine, dl-isopelletierine, anahygrine, hygrine, meso-anaferine, a C-28 steroid lactone characterized as 5,20a-dihydroxy-6a,7a-epoxy-1-oxo-5awitha-2,24-dienolide (Bahr and Hansel, 1982), choline, saccharose (0.1%), b-sitosterol (0.02%), somniferine, somniferinine, withanine, withananine, nicotine, ipuranol, hentriacontane, fatty acids, essential oil, scopoletin, withanolides, withaniol, withananine, pseudowithanine, choline, withasomnine. 9.12.4. Fruits Amino acids, withanolide WS-1. 9.12.5. Seeds Withanolide WS-1 along with withaferin A and dihydrowithaferin A2 (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993, 1995). 9.13. Pharmacological action
W. somnifera produces effects in the CNS by acting via GABA receptor system. In fact it contains an ingredient which may posses a GABA

mimetic activity (Mehta et al., 1991). Glycowithanolides-sitoindosides VII-X and withaferin A show effects in experimentally validated Alzheimers disease model (induced by ibotenic acid) and inhibit the tolerance to morphine, prolonging morphine inducing analgesia (Ghosal et al., 1995; Ramarao et al., 1995). Withania prevents myelosopression induced by CPA, AZT, PD and increases immunity (Ziauddin et al., 1996). Withania is anti-inammatory (carragenine-induced) and it has hepatoprotective effects against alcohol and CCl4 (Sudhir et al., 1986). W. somnifera has anti-granuloma activity (Al-Hindawi et al., 1992). Withaferin A has anti-tumor effects against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, Sarcoma-180 (Devi et al., 1993, 1995; Sharad et al., 1996). The plant extract inhibits the aging process (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993).Withanolide D exhibits antitumor activity against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and human epidermoid carcinoma of nasopharynx (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). W. somnifera prevents LPO induced by pyrogenic substances like lipopolysaccharide (LPS from Klebsiella pneumoniae) and peptidoglycan (PGN da Staphylococcus aureus). Pyrogenic substance like LPS and PGN are known to increase LPO. LPS-induced LPO in mice and rabbits (0.2 mg/kg iv), has a peak within the span of 24 h reached in 46 h after administration. Simultaneous administration of W. somnifera (100 mg/kg, po) along with LPS signicantly prevents the rise in LPO levels. The same result is obtained with PGN, with the difference that the peak is reached 12 h after the administration. The antioxidant effects of W. somnifera depend on the presence of steroidal lactones, withanolides, which are the main active components (2.8%) (Dhuley, 1998).

10. Conclusions Many studies have been performed to identify antioxidant compounds with pharmacologically activity and a limited toxicity. In this context, ethnopharmacology represents the most important way possible of nding interesting and therapeutically helpful molecules. The phytochemical analysis of rasayana has revealed a large number

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of compounds including tannic acid, avonoids, tocopherol, curcumin, ascorbate, carotenoids, polyphenols, etc. which have been shown to have potent antioxidant properties (Gutteridge, 1994; Saija et al., 1995; Van den Berg, 1996). The herbal mixture preparations of Indian traditional medicine may have an antioxidant activity arising from their content of plants with antioxidant principles, that act probably in a synergistic way. This hypothesis along with the lack of toxicity (Blasdell et al., 1991) can be important to understand their use in the past as well as nowadays. References
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