Buddhist Art Series-1

ICONOGRAPHY OF AMOGHAPA: THE BODHISATTA OF COMPASSION

ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO

Hong Kong, 2009

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Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field. Ms. M.A. Basilio is a nursing professional who has also a keen passion for conducting research on religion and science.

First Publication on 26th August 2009

Copyright Ankur Barua and M.A.Basilio

Communication Address of Corresponding Author: Dr. ANKUR BARUA Block EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A, Salt Lake City, Sector-2, Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA. Email: [email protected]

Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)

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Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Dr. Dorothy Wong, visiting Professor of Buddhist Art at the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for her constant encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and valuable guidance throughout this work.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and timely advice for this project.

I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Dipa Barua for showing keen interest and providing constant assistance and support during this endeavor.

Ankur Barua

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ICONOGRAPHY OF AMOGHAPA: THE BODHISATTA OF COMPASSION

Introduction Amoghapa (Avalokitevara Bodhisatta with the Unfailing Rope) is one of the popular esoteric forms of Avalokitevara, who protects all sentient, living beings by means of his rope of compassion and has their wishes fulfilled. This is why he is known as the Bodhisatta with the Unfailing Rope (Amoghapa). This lasso of compassion is used to rope in all wayward sentient beings to the Dhamma, so that they do not fall into the three evil realms, and always guiding them on the Correct Path.1

The widespread worship of this deity first started in India, and then spread to the Himalayas, East Asia during the later part of the eighth century. Though the initiation of this Bodhisatta in East Asia remains unclear, but the examination of Amoghapa images suggests that the cult of Amoghapa in East Asia arose in the late seventh to eighth centuries. It was initiated by imperial patronage due to their devotion to the esoteric Avalokitevara with the concept of royalty and efficacy in protecting the state. Confounded by the lack of early Indian examples, the scholars of Indian art still believe that there must have been Indian precedents prior to the East Asian images.1,2

Early Textual Evidences of Amoghapa Amoghapa owes his existence to the rise of the Diamond Vehicle (vajrayna) in India and is mentioned in various works of esoteric Buddhism. The Amoghapakalparja, the bulky Amoghapa-ritual is a masterpiece of the

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Mahynistic Tantra literature containing twenty-six chapters. The first chapter of this text was also published as the Amoghapahdaya Mahyna-stra.3 Several versions of the Amoghapa-dhrai-stra4 have been translated into Chinese, most of them during the sixth and eighth centuries. The earliest known information on Amoghapa comes from Chinese translations of this text that were made by Jnnagupta in 587, Hsan Tsang in 659, Bodhiruci in 693 and Amoghavajra in the seventh century.1 Tibetan versions of Amoghapahdaya texts emphasize Amoghapas role as a compassionate savior. Recitation of his mantras results in twenty blessings in this world and eight for those near death. 5,6,7

Early Appearance of Amoghapa Images during the Pla Period Art in India The significant period for the popularity of multiple-armed forms of Avalokitevara was the early part of the Pla period (8th-12th centuries), for most images depicting multiple-armed forms date to either the ninth or tenth centuries. While four-armed forms are most commonly found, a smaller number of six-armed images also survive.8 These images were identified as of Amoghapa because of the presence of pa, which is a distinctive attribute of this form of Avalokitevara. 9

The exact origins of Amoghapa images are not yet clearly defined. The descriptions of Amoghapa are completely missing in the Indian texts, the Sdhanaml10 and the Nipannayogval11, which were used for iconographic identifications. However, descriptions of Amoghapa are found in Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese collections. A Nepalese manuscript of the Amoghapa Lokevara pj contains a description of the most popularly depicted eight-armed form of Amoghapa.6,12

R.O. Meisezahl has published descriptions of the eight-armed form preserved in the Tibetan Tanjur which are recorded to have come from Bengal and Kashmir. These descriptions all agree in prescribing the akaml, pa,

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abhaya mudr and varada mudr for the right hands of the figure and the padm, trida, pustaka and kamaalu for the left ones.12

The cintmai is an attribute of Avalokitevara, but usually associated with Cintmaicakra Avalokitevara. The cintmai is viewed as the jewel which grants all wishes, a popular aspect of Avalokitevaras nature, which is also connected to his ability to save an protect. Some earlier images of Amoghapa from Japan are also found to have this jewel as an attribute. However, a six-armed form of Amoghapa in India, described in the Sdanaml, known as Pretasantarpita, also holds the jewel or cintmai. Interestingly, Pretasantarpita which is translated as satiated with prets, the hungry ghosts, share some of the common functions as Amoghapa as the deliverer of beings from horrible existence of the hell.9,13

One of the earliest examples of Amoghapa image from India during 8th9th century is the four-armed broken image at Udayagiri (Fig. 1). He is richly adorned and wears a jeweled diadem at the base of is ja-mukua coiffure. His third eye and the effigy of Amitbha in his coiffure are eroded. His head is framed by a plain halo which is flanked on either side by a goddess seated in vajraparyaka on a vivapadma. The rosary and noose are both held in the uplifted back right hand while the principal right hand is lowered in vaada-mudr. Only abhaya-mudr of the eightarmed form is missing in the right hand of this image. The major left arm is broken at the elbow. The raised back left hand holds the Kamaalu. There are seven Mnu buddhas flanked on the right by Vajrapi and on the left by Maitreya, each figure being seated in Vajraparyaka, with the centre Buddha displaying dharachakra-mudr. The lower part of the image below the knees is broken.14

In contrast, a standing four-armed image of Amoghapa at Ratnagiri has the noose held in one of the left hands (Fig. 2). This image, dated in 8th century, was found in the area of the banyan grove. He stands rigidly in a slightly flexed pose on a vivapadma with his principal right hand lowered in varada while the uplifted back hand holds the rosary. His principal left hand held chest-high holds the stalk of a lotus while the uplifted back hand holds the noose.

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He is richly adorned and an effigy of Amitbha appears in is ja-mukua. He has a third-eye and his head is framed by an oval halo. The sides of the back-slab each contain a meandering lotus stalk branching out from the vivapadma seat of Amoghapa and blossom opposite the halo of the deity where they each support a Tathgata, Akobhya on the right and Amitbha on the left. The centre branch on the left is held in his raised principal left hand to blossom above his shoulder. In the fork made by the two branches of the stalk on the left is placed the kamaalu, replaced in the uplifted back hand by the noose. In this image there are three objects on the left side, though there are only two arms on this side. Amoghapa is flanked at the base by Tr on the right and Bhkuti on the left, each seated in vajraparyaka.14

Some six-armed images of Avalokitevara, with one hand holding the lasso (pa), were found at Kurkihr and

Amethi (Fig.3a). They belong to the 9th-10 centuries and are standing images wearing long dhotis and having
antelope skins draped around their torsos. They are adorned with jewelry and crowned with a small image of Amitbha placed at the centre. Some of these images also hold the cintmai jewel on one of the right hands. They are attended by Tr on the right side and Bhkuti, who is four-armed, on the left.9

It is obvious that there were two major iconographic forms of Amoghapa evolving in Orissa at this time, one with a noose in the right hand and another with a noose in the left hand. The addition of a third object or attribute on one side or the other in a four-armed image suggests the form is transitional leading to one that will have additional hands. A similar transition was noticed by J. Leoshko on some seated six-armed Pla period images of Amoghapa where a book is added on the left side to make four attributes while the cintmai on the right side is replaced by abhaya-mudr. The book and abhaya-mudr are attributes of the eight-armed Amoghapa form as prescribed in texts. So, the only missing attribute is tridad.15

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The paucity of six-armed and eight-armed images of Avalokitevara suggests an abrupt cessation in this line of development.16 The reason for this interruption, occurring near the end of the Bhauma period, is unknown. It could be as a result of changing tenets within the indigenous Buddhist sects or due to a change in external patronage.14

These incipient Orissan forms of Amoghapa evolved primarily from the four-armed image and do not exhibit many of the peculiar features prescribed in the later texts, such as a tiger-skin wrapped around the lower garment or the antelope-hide serving as a sacred thread. The number of companion deities varies from two to five with variable identities and genders, suggesting their iconography has not yet crystallized. The image of Sudhanakumra, who is popular in textual descriptions of Amoghapa is absent, while Ekaja appears only once or twice. Tr, in contrast, seldom appearing in textual descriptions, appears in all Orissan examples.9,14

A few twelve-arm forms of Avalokitevara were found at Nland (Fig. 3b) and nearby Telhra region which could be identified as Amoghapa. Although they do not completely correspond to the twelve-armed description published by Meisezahl, they hold a pa in one of their left hands. The images from Nland are early example of the eighth century and those from Telhra dates to the early tenth century. These twelve-armed images of Amoghapa were popular at a few sites indicating localized practices of Amoghapa. 9

The popularity of the six-armed forms of Amoghapa in the Gay region may reflect the influence of ideas or activities occurring at the nearby sites of Bodhgay and Gay.17 The Hindu trtha Gay is considered to be a holy place for the performance of srddha ceremonies for ancestors.14 These activities are concerned with the welfare of dead ancestors can be related to the Pretasantarpita form of Avalokitevara which was common with Amoghapa. According to the Amoghapahdhyadhranstra, Amoghapa is believed to deliver eight benefits at the hour of death to save the human beings from an unpleasant existence.18

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Iconography of Early Image of Amoghapa from Nepal Amoghapa Lokeshvara, a manifestation of the Bodhisatta Avalokiteshvara and one of the most popular deities in Nepal, is one of the eight tutelary deities of the Kathmandu valley. This sculpture of Amoghapa Lokeshvara (Fig. 4), with copper with traces of gilding and gold pigment, epitomizes the classical beauty of Licchavi period (c. AD 300879) art in Nepal. Amoghapa's graceful posture (tribhanga) and gentle countenance are exquisitely rendered. Ornament is pared to the minimum to allow for the cleanest line. The sacred thread (upavita), antelope skin and scarf fall naturally over the god's youthful, sensuous form. The fan-like arrangement of Amoghapa's twelve-arm form a halo around his body. This is made of unalloyed copper, which is problematic to cast. But this is cast in one piece and entirely fire-gilt. Unfortunately, the arms have suffered damage and almost all are now displaced.12,19

Amoghapa is particularly popular in Nepal and is only rarely encountered in Tibet. However, this image has been worshipped in Tibet for an indeterminate period, as confirmed by the presence of traces of gold paint on the face and neck and blue pigment in the hair. The practice of applying paint to images in this manner is unknown in Nepal. Elegant facial expressions and sense of movement, the pronounced webbing between the fingers, seen here especially between the thumb and forefinger are iconographic features that appear throughout the Licchavi period.20 A pronounced nose, protruding lower lip and webbed fingers were standard sculptural features of this period which were derived from the ideals of the great artistic era of the Indian Gupta kings.12,19

Iconography of Early Image of Amoghapa from Tibet In the Garbhakosa Maala of Tibet, Amoghapa is seated in the middle of the 3rd row of the Lotus Section. Amoghapa here is white-fleshed and 3-eyed in each of the three faces. He has 4-arms and wears a robe of deerskin (Fig. 5). The two important attributes of this form of Amoghapa Avalokitevara are the infallible lasso and Vajra of Equal Guidance.1,6 The indication of Hindu influences on the esoteric Buddhist iconography is evident from the inclusion of multiple arms and multiple heads, depicting the superhuman power and efficacy similar to Mahevara, a form of iva.21
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Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapa from China A group of esoteric images dating to late seventh and early eighth centuries at Longmen, reflects the influence of Esoteric Buddhism fostered by the patronage of the Empress Wu. The eight-armed Bodhisatta at Longmen could have been an incipient form of Amoghapa.22 Buddhism was an instrument to augment her political status and legitimacy for Empress Wu. She promoted the cults of Amoghapa and other esoteric Avalokitevaras, notably the Eleven-headed Avalokitevara and the Thousand-armed Avalokitevara, invoking their powers to protect the state. It was the same ideological principles that took shape in Japan about half a century later, focusing on Todaiji.23

There is no existing representation of this Bodhisatta dating to the late seventh and early eighth centuries from China at present. The only known example comes from Dunhuang Cave 148 which dates to 776; the statue is lost but there are murals depicting the benefits of worshiping this Bodhisatta.24

One maala of Avalokitevara as Amoghapa (Amojia Guanyin), also known as Bukongjuansuo Guanyin, was found in one of the Mogao caves near Dunhuang. In this maala of the tenth century, Amoghapa sits in an eightpointed star at the center of the painting as the primary deity (Fig. 6). He is surrounded by a circle of vajras and placed within a square foundation with protective deities at the four cardinal directions. He wears a crown and jewelry and holds a lasso, the traditional lotus and a rosary in three of his four arms. Additional forms of Avalokitevara alternate with attendant deities in the eight peaks of the stars. The four-armed wish-granting Avalokitevara Monibao Guanyin) and the powerful thousand-armed manifestation (Qianshou Guanyin) appear at either side of five buddhas in the upper portion of the painting. The buddhas, who are echoed by the smaller images in their crowns and in that of the principal icon, represent the five lineages of Buddhism. Buddha Vairocana, identified by his white color, is the central and largest of the five. The donors are depicted at the bottom of this painting.25

In Fowan Cave 136 in the Beishan caves, Dazu, Sichuan, dated to 1142-1146, Amoghapa is portrayed as seated with six arms, holding two round discs in the upper two hands (for Sunlight and Moonlight Bodhisattas), a bowl and a Page 10

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willow branch in the middle two hands, and a sword and an axe in the outer two hands (Fig. 7). The Bodhisatta has an elaborate floral crown with Amitbha at the top is lost, and florid jewelry on the chest. The two attendants by the side of the pedestal represent Vasiha and Lakmi. In later Chinese iconography the two attendant figures for Avalokitevara have transformed into a young boy, Sudhana and a young Dragon Girl, revealing a process of local adaptation.2

Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapa from Japan The earliest representation of Amoghapa in Japan (J. Fukkenjaku Kannon), dated 748 is in the Sangatsud (Hall of the Third month) of Tadaiji, Nara (Fig. 8). This Amoghapa image is a grandiose artistic masterpiece of 3.62 meters high, with a vivid countenance and thick and round cheeks with an austere expression. This ancient image of Amoghapa, having three eyes and eight arms, realistically curved and painted with dry lacquer technique introduced from China. His two central hands are pressed in front in the praying gesture, holding the cintmai, while the other hands hold emblems that include a lotus, pilgrim's staff, and lasso. A separate piece of lacquered cloth covers the shoulders to represent the deer skin. The halo and light rays behind the statue are rendered in openwork metal, with attached flame patterns. The figure appears heavy, with drapery folds hanging on the two legs. The creation of this image is thought to have been a response to Emperor Shomu's decree that provincial temples install statues of this divinity.1,2,26

Formerly, a huge picture scroll of cloth representing Amoghapa was hanging in the Hall of the Great Buddha (Daibutsuden) of the Tdaiji. The figure of the Bodhisatta was 35 feet high and 25 feet wide. It had been constructed by the order of Empress Kken to console the late Empress Dowager Kmy, her mother who was a worshipper of Amoghapa. Due to the perishable nature of the material, the hangings no longer exist, but more than 1000 characters of the inscriptions along the borders of the hangings have been recorded.1,26

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Daianji was an important state-sponsored temple in the first half of the eighth century before being eclipsed by Todaiji which was dedicated in 752. During 749, at Daianji in Nara, a painting of Vairocana Buddha (30 shaku tall) was installed as the main icon, flanked by paintings of Amoghapa and Thousand-armed Avalokitevara (15 shaku tall each). These were thought to precede the iconography of the triad of Vairocana and two Avalokitevaras at Todaiji. Carved in wood in the Single-block technique, a standing Amoghapa of Daianji, has eight arms; the attributes held in various hands have been lost (Fig. 9). The face and body are rendered fully, while the jewelry and drapery on the surface are naturalistically carved and detailed. This heavy style is found in sculptures of mid-to late eighth-century associated with the Todaiji and Toshodaiji workshops, including the Sangatsudo Amoghapa. The Amoghapa images at Ratnagiri in India, during 8th10th centuries, all have four to six arms and do not show the deer skin. They appear to have no connections to these early Japanese examples.2,27

Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapa from Java, Sumatra and Bali No existing text from Indonesia mentions the Amoghapa form of Avalokitevara. A sdhana written by Kamri akyarbadra (1127-1225), now present only in its Tibetan translation, describes the white Amoghapa. The Jago Amoghapa closely fits this description, though he lacks the antelope skin upavta. This sdhana also mentions Amoghapas attendants Hayagrva, Sudhanakumra, Bhku and Tr.7

The remarkably beautiful statues of the Bodhisatta Amoghapa Lokevara and his retinue are found at Candi Jago in East Java have been cited as evidence of a new wave of religious and stylistic influences from the Pla kingdom in eastern India. The Amoghapa statues found here are assisted by four attendants, four cosmic buddhas (Jina Buddhas) and their four akti. Of the thirteen statues that originally made up this Amoghapa maala, only the central image remains in situ (Fig. 10), standing in the courtyard of the temple.7

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Though the central stone stele of Amoghapa is damaged, with the head and several hands missing, but it reflects former grandeur (Fig. 10). From the ankle to the neck it measures 1.5 meters. He wears a damaged waistband and a long sarong with shallow folds on either side of his legs and also running down the middle. On the upper right thigh the face of a tiger can be seen and the legs of this tiger skin drape down onto each of the thighs. On either side of him are lotus plants that grow up from wavy lines that look like roots. This is thought to be a hallmark of Singasariperiod sculpture. According to Stamford Raffles, who visited Jago in 1815; the images head had been removed and taken to Malang by a Dutch man several years earlier. Despite the removal of the head of the statue, the three folds of the neck (trivala) are still visible on the torso. Though most of the attributes in the hands are damaged, but the most important attribute still preserved for identification of this statue is the pa or noose held in the second uppermost right hand. The figures uppermost right hand holds an akaml (rosary) and the other two lower right hands are broken. On the left side, the uppermost hand holds a book, the next is missing, the third hand holds a stick like object which could be a lotus stem and the lower hand is also missing. The statues of Amoghapas attendants were also found at Jago and they were much better preserved than the main image. Today, all four attendants stand together at the Museum Nasional in Jakarta, Indonesia.7 Stylistically; the statues that comprise the Amoghapa maala are remarkably different from the bas-reliefs that encircle the temple. These reliefs have a flattening abstraction of the human figures resembling that of traditional Javanese shadow-puppets. The free-standing sculpture of Amoghapa and is attendants, in strong contrast, are naturalistic. The difference in styles provides the evidence that these images were imported from India or made by immigrant sculptors and their students.7

Another image of Amoghapa was produced by King Ktanagara, the last of the Singasai dynasty in an attempt to replicate the image at Jago (Fig. 11). This sculpture, which was found near Rambahan in West Sumatra, has three inscriptions: a dated one at the base (1286), another on the back of the stele and a third at the feet of the deity. The second inscription is from the mid-fourteenth century; the third is highly eroded and has never been translated. The stone stele has borne significant damage, especially at the top.7

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An image of Amoghapa was also found in Bali (Fig. 12), which is now restored in a closed shrine at the Pura Puseh in Kutri, central Bali. The figure stands in a stiff stance against a plain stele, with a raised halo around the head. His dress and ornaments are elaborate. There are three bracelets around the each wrist, numerous bows and slashes at his waist, and large pleats of fabric that fall by his knees and twisted upward over his hands. His attributes are slightly different from the Jago Amoghapa. On his left side from bottom to top he holds a kamaalu (vase), a missing attribute, a akha (conch) and a padma (lotus). On his right, his lower hand is broken, then akaml (rosary), nga (snake) and an angkua (elephant prod). Here, the conch replaces the book and the angkua replaces the abhaya mudr. The nga might be transformed into ngapa (snake noose) in later images. Though the face of this image is severely damaged, but Stutterheim proposed that the image was a portrait of Dhammawanga (Wiuwardhana),28 a Balinese ruler (1022-1026) known for his inscriptions.7

Conclusion The cult of Amoghapa, originating from India, was widespread at Dunhuang and in Sichuan, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Japan and received impetus from the Himalayan tradition as well as local adaptations. Though the Amoghapahdaya Mahyna-stra also describes the iconography in making images of this Bodhisatta, and the rituals attending the worship, but the study of images shows a wide variation in following these instructions. Numerous early appearances of Amoghapa images outside of India provide the evidence that widespread popularity of Amoghapa was not limited to surviving texts. The oppression associated with the revival of Hinduism followed by the Muslim invasion of the Gangetic plains had led to the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and mass killing of Buddhist monks during the 12th Century CE. This had resulted in the extinction of this Amoghapa cult from India, which was its place of origin. However, the various traditions of representation of Amoghapa, which had evolved independently in India and East Asia during the eighth to tenth centuries 6,7, need to be investigated in detail for better understanding of the history of evolution of Buddhist art and archeology.

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Notes 1. See Meisezahl, R.O., ed. 1962. The Amoghapahdaya-Dharani. The Early Sanskrit Manuscript of the Reiunji. Monumenta Nipponica 17(1/4): 265-72. 2. See Wong, D. C. 2007. The Case of Amoghapa. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 2:151-8. 3. See Dasgupta, S.B. 1958. An Introduction to Tntric Buddhism. Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta Press. 4. For a detailed discussion of the contents of the stras see Reis-Habiro, Maria. 1999. The Amoghapa Kalparja Stra: A Historical and Analytical Study. Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 11: 39-67; Chn-fang, Y. 2001. The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitevara. New York: Columbia University Press: 56-58. 5. See Meisezahl, R.O., ed. 1962. The Amoghapahdaya-Dharani. The Early Sanskrit Manuscript of the Reiunji. Monumenta Nipponica 17(1/4): 293. 6. See Pal, P. 1966. The Iconography of Amoghapa Lokevara I. Oriental Art 7(4): 234-9. 7. See Reichle, N. 2007. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia. Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press: 85-132. 8. Of the few six-armed stone images which cannot be identified as Amoghapa, some do not correspond to any textual descriptions. See fig.71 in Saraswati, S.K., ed. 1977. Tantrayna Art Album. Calcutta, India: The Asiatic Society Press, for an example of one six-armed image which can be identified as representing the form Sugatisandarana Lokevara. 9. See Narain, A.K., ed. 1985. Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia. New Delhi, India: Kanak Publications: 127-33. 10. See Bhattacharyya, B., ed. 1925, 1928. Sdhanaml. Baroda, India: Gaekwards Orental Series. Oriental Institute Press XXVI & XLI. 11. See Bhattacharyya, B., ed. 1949. Nipannayogval. Baroda, India: Gaekwards Orental Series. Oriental Institute Press CIX. 12. See Meisezahl, R.O. 1967. Amoghapa, Some Nepalese Reresentations and their Vajrayanic Aspects. Monumenta Serica 26: 478-82.
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13. See Bhattacharyya, B. 1958. The Indian Buddhist Iconography. Calcutta, India: 2nd edition. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay: 141-142. 14. See Donaldson, T.E. 2001. Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa. New Delhi, India: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: Abhinav Publications 1 (Text): 200-206. 15. Refer to Leoshko, J. Appearance of Amoghapa: 129-33 and Bhattacharyya, B. 1958. The Indian Buddhist Iconography. Calcutta, India: 2nd edition. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay: 141-142. 16. According to Leoshko, J., the multiple-armed forms of Avalokitevara in Pla art are confined chronologically to the early period, i.e., 9th -10th centuries and do not appear later. 17. For an early and extensive account of pilgrim activities at Gay, see Hamilton, F.B., James J.F.W., ed. 1936. An Account of the Districts of Bihar and Patna in 1811-1812. Patna, India: Bihar and Orissa Research Society I: 98-134.

18. For a discussion of Avalokitevara, see Mitra, Rajendralal. 1882. The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal. Calcutta, India: The Asiatic Society Press: 95-7 and Mallmann, T.M. 1967. Introduction a l tude d Avalokitevara. Annales du Musee Guimet 57: 95-104 and Meisezahl, R.O., ed. 1962. The Amoghapahdaya-Dharani. The Early Sanskrit Manuscript of the Reiunji. Monumenta Nipponica 17(1/4): 293-4.
19. See Pal, P. 1967. The Iconography of Amoghapa Lokevara I. Oriental Art 13(1): 27. 20. Published in Schroeder (1981), fig. 76E. Earlier Licchavi period works show greater ties with Gupta period images. See Schroeder (1981), figs. 74A-G.

21. An example of the three-headed Mahevara is in Whitfield, R., Farrer, A. 1990. Caves of the Thousand
Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route. London: The British Museum cat. no. 134.

22. Refer to Li, Wensheng. 1991. Longmen Tang dai mizong zaoxiang [Esoteric Sculptures from the Longmen
Caves from the Tang Dynasty]. Wenwu 1: 61-64 and Su, Bai. 1989. Dunhuang Mogaoku mijiao yiji zaji (shang) [Discussing Esoteric Remains from the Dunhuang Mogao Caves; First part]. Wemwu 9: 45-53 and Nara Narional Museum, Komikky, p. 155.
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23. See Wong, D.C. 2007. Early Transmission of Esoteric Images from China to Japan in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries. Huaxue 9. in print; and "Dji and his Role in Sino-Japanese Buddhist Art Exchanges," paper read at the 2007 Association for Asian Studies annual meeting. Boston. 24. For an overview see PengJinzhang, "Dunhuang Bukongjuansuo Guanyin jing bian yanjiu." Many examples are illustrated in PengJinzhang. ed. Mijiao huajuan.
25. See Leidy, D.P. 2008. The art of Buddhism: An introduction to its history and meaning. Boston: 1st ed. Shambhala Press: 193-4. 26. See Mason, P. 1993. A History of Japanese Art. New York: Prentice Hall Press: 68. 27. See Hock, N. 1987. Buddhist Ideology and the Sculpture of Ratnagiri: Seventh through thirteenth centuries. Berkley: Thesis (Ph.D.) University of California: 70-89. 28. Refer to Stutterheim, Oudheden van Bali, 129. There is some confusion as to the identity of Dhammawanga. Sutterheim suggests he might be Airlangga himself, though Berner Kempers and Coeds dismiss this theory. Stutterheim, Oudheden van Bali, 134. Coeds states that he might be a viceroy governing in Airlanggas stead (Indianized States, 145), while Berner Kempers contends it was Airlanggas elder brother. A.J. Bernet Kempers, Manumental Bali (Berkeley: Periplus Editions, 1991), 42-3.

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Sources of Illustrations Fig.1. Udayagiri: 8th9th century. 4-armed Amoghapa Lokevara flanked by two goddesses above with Vajrapi, seven Mnu Buddhas and Maitreya at the top. Dimension: 68x48 (broken). [ref: Donaldson, T.E. 2001. Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa. New Delhi, India: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: Abhinav Publications 2 (plates): Fig. 248.]

Fig.2. Ratnagiri: 8th century. 4-armed Amoghapa Lokevara flanked by Tr and Bhku below and by Amitbha and Akobhya above. Dimension: 75.5x45 (top missing). [ref: Donaldson, T.E. 2001. Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa. New Delhi, India: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: Abhinav Publications 2 (plates): Fig. 252.]

Fig.3a. Amethi near Kurkihr: 9th10th centuries. Six-armed image of Avalokitevara, where one arm holding the lasso (pa). [ref: Narain, A.K., ed. 1985. Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia. New Delhi, India: Kanak Publications: Fig.46.]

Fig.3b. Nalanda: 8th century. Twelve-armed image of Avalokitevara, where one arm holding the lasso (pa). [ref: Narain, A.K., ed. 1985. Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia. New Delhi, India: Kanak Publications: Fig.53.]

Figure 4: Nepal, 8th9th centuries. Copper with traces of gilding and gold pigment. Height - 31.5cm. [ref: The Sculptural Heritage of Tibet Amoghapa. [Serial online] 2007 June [cited 2008 December 17] [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.asianart.com/exhibitions/nyingjei/plate9.html.

Figure 5: Garbhakosa Maala of Amoghapa from Tibet. Here, Amoghapa is situated in the middle of the 3rd row of the Lotus Section. The white-fleshed, Amoghapa is 3-eyed, 4-armed & wears a robe of deerskin. [ref: Manifestasi2 Bodhisatta Avalokitesvara. [Serial online] 2004 November [cited 2008 December 26] [1 screen]. Available from: URL: http://www.wihara.com/forum/showthread.php?t=477.html.
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Figure 6: Maala of Avalokitevara as Amoghapa (Amojia Guanyin). Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China, Five Dynasties period, 10th century. [ref: Leidy, D.P. 2008. The art of Buddhism: An introduction to its history and meaning. Boston : 1st ed. Shambhala Press: 192. Fig. 9.3.] Figure 7: Amoghapa, South Song Dynasty, 1142-46 Chinese, Fowan Cave 136, Sichuan, Stone, Height: 147cm (After Dazu shiku diaosu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, Dazu shiku diaosu quanji: Beishan shiku, pl.103). [ref: Wong, D. C. 2007. The Case of Amoghapa. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 2:158. Fig. 7.]

Figure 8: Amoghapa, Nara Period, 748 CE, Japanese Tdaiji, Sangatsud. Dry Lacquer. Height: 362cm. (After Uchara Shoichi, et al. (eds.), Tenpy no bijutsu, pl.2). [ref: Wong, D. C. 2007. The Case of Amoghapa. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 2:157. Fig. 1.] Figure 9: Amoghapa, Late Nara period, 3rd quarter Eighth Century Japanese, Daianji. Wood, height: 189.9 cm. Important Cultural Property. (After Kno Seik, Shtoku Taishi to Daianji, pl.116). [ref: Wong, D. C. 2007. The Case of Amoghapa. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 2:157. Fig. 4.]

Figure 10: Amoghapa, 1268-1280 CE. Candi Jago, Tumpang, East Java, Height: 2.15m. [ref: Reichle, N. 2007. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia. Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press: 88. Fig. 4.2.]

Figure 11: Amoghapa, 1286 CE. Height: 1.63m, Rambahan, West Sumatra, now in Museum Nasional Indonesia. [ref: Reichle, N. 2007. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia. Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press: 98. Fig. 4.14.]

Figure 12: Amoghapa Pura Puseh, Kutri, Bali, Height: 79cm. [ref: Reichle, N. 2007. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia. Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press: 111. Fig. 4.22.]

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Annexure A Collection of Images of Amoghapa

Fig.1. Udayagiri: 8th9th century 4-armed Amoghapa Lokevara flanked by two goddesses above with Vajrapi, 7 Mnu Buddhas and Maitreya at the top. Dimension: 68x48 (broken).

Fig.2. Ratnagiri: 8th century 4-armed Amoghapa Lokevara flanked by Tr and Bhku below and by Amitbha and Akobhya above. Dimension: 75.5x45 (top missing).

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Fig.3a. Amethi near Kurkihr: 9th-10th centuries Six-armed image of Avalokitevara, where one arm holding the lasso (pa)

Fig.3b. Nalanda: 8th century Twelve-armed image of Avalokitevara, where one arm holding the lasso (pa)

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Figure 4: Nepal, 8th-9th centuries Copper with traces of gilding and gold pigment. Height - 31.5cm

Figure 5: Garbhakosa Maala of Amoghapa from Tibet Amoghapa is seated in the middle of the 3rd row of the Lotus Section. The white-fleshed Amoghapa is 3-eyed in each of his three faces. He is 4-armed & wears a robe of deerskin.

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Figure 7: Amoghapa, South Song Dynasty, 1142-46 Chinese, Fowan Cave 136, Sichuan, Stone, Height: 147cm (After
Dazu shiku diaosu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, Dazu shiku diaosu quanji: Beishan shiku, pl.103)

Figure 6:
Maala of Avalokitevara as Amoghapa (Amojia Guanyin). Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China, Five Dynasties period, 10th century.

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Figure 8: Amoghapa, Nara Period, 748 CE, Japanese Tdaiji, Sangatsud. Dry Lacquer. Height: 362cm (After Uchara Shoichi, et al. (eds.), Tenpy no bijutsu, pl.2)

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Figure 9: Amoghapa, Late Nara period, 3rd quarter Eighth Century Japanese, Daianji. Wood, height: 189.9 cm. Important Cultural Property. (After Kno Seik, Shtoku Taishi to Daianji, pl.116)

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Figure 10: Amoghapa, 1268-1280 CE Candi Jago, Tumpang, East Java, Height: 2.15m

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Figure 11: Amoghapa, 1286 CE Height: 1.63m, Rambahan, West Sumatra, now in Museum Nasional Indonesia

Figure 12: Amoghapa Pura Puseh, Kutri, Bali, Height: 79cm

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