MATH 121 GAME THEORY REVIEW

ERIN PEARSE
Contents
1. Denitions 2
1.1. Non-cooperative Games 2
1.2. Cooperative 2-person Games 4
1.3. Cooperative n-person Games (in coalitional form) 6
2. Theorems and Main Ideas 7
3. Techniques 8
3.1. Tips to remember when solving 2-player 0-sum games: 8
3.2. Solving for mixed strategies in 2-player 0-sum games: 8
3.3. Finding equilibrium pairs in 2-person nonzero-sum games 9
3.4. Finding the Nash maximin bargaining solution 10
3.5. Finding the Nash threat bargaining solution 11
3.6. Examples with complex negotiation sets 12
4. Practice Exercises 14
5. Solutions 16
I have tried to follow some conventions:
The row player in a 2-person game is called Rose and the column player is called
Colin, for obvious reasons.
The payo for pure strategies is denoted using (, ). In the extension to expected
payos for mixed strategies, I use P(x, y).
Also, a payo (, ) or P(x, y) is actually a vector the k
th
component (i.e., the
payo to the k
th
player) is denoted
k
(, ) or P
k
(x, y). In some places, I may have
neglected to include the subscript when its fairly clear what is meant.
Vectors are bold, their components are not: x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
).
The letters u, v are reserved for discussing payos.
Stars represent optimal things: x

, y

, u

, v

, etc.
Disclaimer: this document was prepared by the TA and not the professor, so it should not be considered
as an exhaustive list of the material covered in the course. It is just a collection of the most important ideas
for help with studying for the nal. Also, notation may dier slightly from the professors ask me if you
have questions: [email protected].
1
Math 121 Game Theory
1. Definitions
1.1. Non-cooperative Games.
extensive form: The game represented as a tree, where each branch point indicates a
choice made by one of the players (or by chance/nature). The leaves (nal nodes)
are the nal outcomes of one round of play, and have associated payos for the
players.
pure strategy: A prior, comprehensive list of the choices to be made at each decision
point the player might encounter during a play of the game.
mixed strategy: A probability vector x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) where x
i
indicates the like-
lihood with which the player will play the i
th
pure strategy.
probability vector: x R
n
satisfying
(i) 0 x
i
1, for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(ii)

n
i=1
x
i
= 1.
worthwhile: A pure strategy (in a matrix game) is called worthwhile i it appears
with positive (i.e., nonzero) probability in some optimal strategy.
information set: For a game in extensive form, two or more branch points/nodes are
in the same information set if the player making the decision at that point cannot
tell the nodes apart.
perfect information: A game is said to have perfect information i all the information
sets consist only of single points, i.e., at any point in the game, both players know
everything that has occurred up to that point.
normal form: For 0-sum 2-player games, the normal form is the game represented
as a matrix, where the entries in the matrix are the payos to Rose. Note: More
generally (i.e. for n-player games which arent necessarily 0-sum), the normal form
is a function from the cross product of the strategy spaces to R
n
. In the case of two
players, this just looks like
: {}
m
i=1
{}
m
j=1
R
2
, with (
i
,
j
) = (
1
(
i
,
j
),
2
(
i
,
j
)).
so it can be represented as a matrix with entries (
1
(
i
,
j
),
2
(
i
,
j
)).
expected value: The expected value of getting payos a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
with respective
probabilities p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
k
is p
1
a
1
+ p
2
a
2
+ + p
k
a
k
. Written as a payo vector
a = (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
) and a probability vector p = (p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
k
), the expected value
is a
T
p.
2
Cumulative Review
expected payo: For mixed strategies x = (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
), y = (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
), in an
mn matrix game A whose entry a
ij
is the payo (
i
,
j
), the expected payo is
P(x, y) = x
T
Ay =
m

i=1
n

j=1

i
(
i
,
j
)
j
.
optimal strategy: An optimal strategy for Rose is x

such that min

y
(x

, y) = V .
Similarly, an optimal strategy for Colin is y

such that max

x
(x, y

) = V .
upper value, lower value: Consider a matrix game A = [(
i
,
j
)]. For pure strate-
gies, the lower value is
v = max

min

(, ),
and the upper value is
v = min

max

(, ).
For mixed strategies, the lower value is
V = max
x
min
y
P(x, y),
and the upper value is
V = min
x
max
y
P(x, y).
value of the game: If v = v, then this common value is V , the value of the game.
Otherwise, dene the value of the game V to be the common value V = V .
Note: it is a theorem that V = V .
Note: in the case when v = v, there a couple of important relevant facts:
It is a theorem that v = v i there is a saddle point.
It is a theorem that if v = v, then v = v = V = V = V .
When v = v, we also say that the game has a solution in pure strategies.
Note: it is a theorem that value of the game is the expected payo when optimal
strategies compete (or more generally, when an optimal strategy competes against a
worthwhile strategy), i.e.,
V = P(x

, y

).
solution in mixed strategies: In a matrix game, a solution in mixed strategies is a
triple (x

, y

, V ) where x

is an optimal strategy for the rst player and y

is an
optimal strategy for the second player, and V is the value of the game.
domination: Strategy
1
dominates strategy
2
i

1
(
1
,
j
)
1
(
2
,
j
), j.
Similarly, strategy
1
dominates strategy
2
i

2
(
i
,
1
)
2
(
i
,
2
), i.
3
Math 121 Game Theory
If all the inequalities are strict, the strategy is said to be strictly dominated.
Note: when the game is 0-sum,
1
dominates strategy
2
i

1
(
i
,
1
)
1
(
i
,
2
), i.
saddle point: In a matrix game A = [(
i
,
j
)], a saddle point is a pair of pure
strategies (

) such that
(,

) (

) (

, ), for all other pure strategies , .

equilibrium pair: In a matrix game A = [(
i
,
j
)], a equilibrium pair is a pair of
(pure or mixed) strategies (x

, y

) such that

1
(x, y

)
1
(x

, y

) and
2
(x

, y)
2
(x

, y

) for all other strategies x, y.

Note: for 0-sum games, this can be written

1
(x, y

)
1
(x

, y

)
1
(x

, y), for all other strategies x, y.

maximin strategies: The optimal strategies for the 0-sum games e
1
and e
T
2
obtained
from the original payo matrix by only considering one players payos.
Note: for Colin, remember to take the transpose.
maximin values: The values of the 0-sum games e
1
and e
T
2
.
1.2. Cooperative 2-person Games.
closed: A set K R
n
is closed i it contains its boundary.
bounded: A set K R
n
is bounded i it is contained in some disk of nite radius, i.e.,
R < such thatK B(0, R) = {x
.
.
. |x| R}.
convex: A set K R
n
is convex i any line joining two points of the set lies entirely
within the set, i.e.,
x, y K = tx + (1 t)y K, 0 t 1.
Note: tx + (1 t)y is called a convex combination of x and y when 0 t 1.
continuous: A function f is continuous i it maps nearby points to nearby points, i.e.,
> 0, > 0 such that |x y| < = |f(x) f(y)| < .
4
Cumulative Review
Pareto optimal: The pair of strategies (x
1
, y
1
) is Pareto optimal i there does NOT
exist (x
2
, y
2
) such that

1
(x
2
, y
2
)
1
(x
1
, y
1
) and
2
(x
2
, y
2
)
2
(x
1
, y
1
),
where at least one of the inequalities is strict.
A pair of payos (u, v) is Pareto optimal i there does not exist (u

, v

) such that
u

u and v

v,
where at least one of the inequalities is strict.
(noncooperative) payo region: The set of payos which can be obtained by play-
ers using mixed strategies (where each player is randomizing separately).
cooperative payo region: The set of payos which can be obtained through coop-
erative play. In jargon, its the image of the payo function (general normal form, as
above) when the players are using jointly randomized strategies.
Note: it is a theorem that the cooperative payo region is the convex closure (or
convex hull) of the payo region of the non-cooperative game.
frontier set: (u, v) is in the frontier set F i there is no other point (u

, v

) in the
cooperative payo region with u u

and v v

.
negotiation set: (Also called the von Neumann- Morgenstern negotiation set or bar-
gaining set) The subset N F of the frontier set satisfying u u
0
and v v
0
, where
(u
0
, v
0
) is the status quo point, i.e., (u, v) N i
(i) (u, v) C
(ii) u u
0
and v v
0
(iii) (u, v) is Pareto optimal in C.
status quo point: A pair of payos (u
0
, v
0
) which the players will receive if they can-
not agree to cooperate.
maximin bargaining solution: The payo (u

, v

) which is a result of applying the

Nash arbitration procedure with the maximin value (or security levels) as the status
quo point. Note: The method for obtaining the Nash maximin bargaining solution
is described below.
threat bargaining solution: The payo (u

, v

) which is a result of applying the

Nash arbitration procedure with the threat outcomes as the status quo point. Note:
The method for obtaining the Nash threat bargaining solution is also described below.
5
Math 121 Game Theory
1.3. Cooperative n-person Games (in coalitional form).
coalition: In an n-player game, the set of players is N = {1, 2, . . . , n} and a coalition
is any subset of N. (Consider it to be a team formed when certain players choose to
work together). The empty coalition is . The grand coalition is N. The set of all
coalitions is the power set of N, denoted P(N) and contains every subset of N as an
element.
characteristic function: An n-player game represented as a function v : P(N) R,
where v(S) represents the maximum that the coalition S N can guarantee for
itself, regardless of what the coalition N S could do to thwart it:
v(S) = max
xX
S
min
yY
NS

iS

i
(x, y).
superadditive: A set function f is superadditive i
v(S T) v(S) + v(T),
whenever S T = .
innitely divisible: The rewards of a game are said to be innitely divisible if they
can be split up among the players in any way.
side payments: A transfer of payos from one player to another.
imputations: A reasonable share-out of the payos. For an n-player game v, the set
of imputations is
E(v) = {x R
n .
.
.

n
i=1
x
i
= v(N), and x
i
v({i}), i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
domination: An imputation x dominates y over S i
(i) x
i
> y
i
, i S, and
(ii)

iS
x
i
v(S).
An imputation x dominates y i it dominates y over some S.
core: For an n-player game v, the core is the set of imputations which are not domi-
nated for any coalition.
Note: see the Core Characterization Theorem below, for a more useful way to com-
pute the core.
Shapley value: A function (v) which assigns each player a number/value indicating
the relative power of that player in the game (average marginal power).
6
Cumulative Review
2. Theorems and Main Ideas
It is not necessarily important to know the names of these items, I just included them as
memory aids for the most part. Items marked with a symbol are ones that might be good
to study in case you are asked to prove them on the exam.
Expected Value Principle: If you were to know your opponent is playing a given
mixed strategy, and will continue to play it regardless of what you do, you should
play your strategy which has the largest expected value.
Minimax Theorem: (von Neumann, 1928) Every mn matrix game has a solution.
That is, there is a unique number v called the value of the game, and there are optimal
mixed strategies for Rose and Colin. I.e.,
(1) if Rose plays her optimal strategy, Roses expected payo will be v, no matter
what Colin does, and
(2) if Colin plays his optimal strategy, Roses expected payo will be v, no matter
what Rose does.
Principle of Domination: A rational player should never play a strictly dominated
strategy. Moreover, removing a strictly dominated strategy from the game will not
change the solution to the game.
Principle of Higher-Order Domination: The Principle of Domination may be ex-
tended to the resulting smaller game.
I.e., after applying the Principle of Domination, the resulting smaller game may con-
tain dominated strategies, even though these strategies werent dominated in the
original game. The Principle of Higher Order Domination says that these strategies
should also be removed from the game, and that players should only play strategies
which survive this multi-stage process.
Worthwhile Strategies Lemma: When a worthwhile strategy plays against an
optimal strategy in a matrix game, the payo is the value of the game. (p. 37)
Equilibrium Pair Lemma: If (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) are equilibrium pairs in a ma-
trix game, then P(x
1
, y
1
) = P(x
2
, y
2
). (p. 43)
Equilibrium Pair Theorem: (x, y) is an equilibrium pair in a matrix game if and
only if (x, y, e (x, y)) is a solution to the game.
7
Math 121 Game Theory
Core Characterization Theorem: For an n-player game v, the core is
C(v) = {x R
n .
.
.
n

i=1
x
i
= v(N), and

iS
x
i
v(S), S N}.
Note: In comparison, the set of imputations is
E(v) = {x R
n .
.
.
n

i=1
x
i
= v(N), and

iS
x
i
v(S), S = {i}, i N},
so the only dierence between core and imputations is that to be an imputation, x
need only satisfy the condition

iS
x
i
v(S) (*)
when S is a singleton {i}. To be in the core, x must satisfy (*) for every S N.
3. Techniques
3.1. Tips to remember when solving 2-player 0-sum games:
(1) Check for saddle points.
(2) Check for dominated strategies.
(3) Solve for mixed strategies.
3.2. Solving for mixed strategies in 2-player 0-sum games:
(1) Try to reduce an mn game to a 2 n or m2 game by using domination.
(2) If you have a 2n or m2 game, use the graphical technique for ascertaining which
strategies are worthwhile. Remember:
(a) when you have 2 column strategies, you are minimaxing, so nd the lowest point
on the upper envelope, and
(b) when you have 2 row strategies, you are maximining, so nd the highest point
on the lower envelope.
(3) Determine the optimal strategies by equalizing expectations (in accordance with the
Expected Value Principle). For example, let x = (, 1 ) and y = (, 1 ) and
consider:
_
2 3
1 3
_
The optimal strategy for Rose is found by setting P(x,
1
) = 2 +(1)(1) equal to
P(x,
2
) = 3+3(1) and solving to get x = (
4
9
,
5
9
). The optimal strategy for Colin
is found by setting P(
1
, y) = 2 +(3)(1 ) equal to P(x,
2
) = (1) +3(1 )
and solving to get y = (
2
3
,
1
3
).
8
Cumulative Review
3.3. Finding equilibrium pairs in 2-person nonzero-sum games.
This is known as the Swastika method. Consider the matrix game
A =
_
(a
11
, b
11
) (a
12
, b
12
)
(a
21
, b
21
) (a
22
, b
22
)
_
.
1. Find the expected value of the mixed strategies x = (, 1 ), y = (, 1 ) for each
player:
P
1
(x, y) = a
11
+ (1 )a
12
+ (1 )a
21
+ (1 )(1 )a
22
= ((a
11
a
12
a
21
+ a
22
) + (a
12
a
22
)) + (a
21
a
22
) + a
22
.
and similarly,
P
2
(x, y) = b
11
+ (1 )b
12
+ (1 )b
21
+ (1 )(1 )b
22
= ((b
11
b
12
b
21
+ b
22
) + (b
21
b
22
)) + (b
12
b
22
) + b
22
.
Dont worry about memorizing the formulas here and in the next couple of steps,
just remember the technique.
2. Find the values of which makes
(a
11
a
12
a
21
+ a
22
) + (a
12
a
22
) < 0.
On the unit square, plot the points (0, ) for these values of , and plot the points
(1, ) for those values of which reverse the inequality. Also draw the horizontal line
y = for the critical value of which makes
(a
11
a
12
a
21
+ a
22
) + (a
12
a
22
) = 0,
and connects the other two pieces.
3. Find the values of which makes
(b
11
b
12
b
21
+ b
22
) + (b
21
b
22
) < 0.
On the unit square, plot the points (, 0) for these values of , and plot the points
(, 1) for those values of which reverse the inequality. Also draw the vertical line
x = for the critical value of which makes
(b
11
b
12
b
21
+ b
22
) + (b
21
b
22
) = 0,
and connects the other two pieces.
4. The equilibrium pairs are any places where the graphs from 2 and 3 intersect. Youre
done!
Note: For steps 2 & 3, you may nd it easier to solve
(a
11
a
12
a
21
+ a
22
) + (a
12
a
22
) = 0
9
Math 121 Game Theory
and
(b
11
b
12
b
21
+ b
22
) + (b
21
b
22
) = 0
rst and obtain the horizontal and vertical lines, and then gure out how to complete the
gure based on the inequalities afterwards. Remember, however, that the right way to gure
out how to complete the gure is to solve
(a
11
a
12
a
21
+ a
22
) + (a
12
a
22
) < 0
and
(b
11
b
12
b
21
+ b
22
) + (b
21
b
22
) < 0,
as described above. Im mentioning this because students often seem to make bizarre mis-
takes with the swastika method by nding the horizontal and vertical lines, and then lling
in the rest of the gure arbitrarily (or perhaps based on some mistaken assumption). So use
the inequality!
3.4. Finding the Nash maximin bargaining solution.
Consider the noncooperative matrix game A with entries
a
ij
= (
1
(
i
,
j
),
2
(
i
,
j
)) = (u
ij
, v
ij
).
1. Plot the entries (u
i
, v
j
) of the payo matrix in (u, v)-space, where u is the payo to
Rose and v is the payo to Colin. Then the cooperative payo region C is the convex
hull of the points (u, v).
2. Locate the frontier set by nding the points in C which are Pareto optimal. (u, v) is
not Pareto optimal in C if there are any points above or to the right of it, which are
also in C, i.e. if there is u

, v

C with
u

u or v

v.
Obtain something of the form
F = {(u, v)
.
.
. au + v = b, c u d}.
Note that F may consist of two or more pieces (line segments with dierent slope),
e.g.,
F = {(u, v)
.
.
. a
1
u + v = b
1
, c
1
u d
1
} {(u, v)
.
.
. a
2
u + v = b
2
, c
2
u d
2
}.
or even a single point: F = {(u, v)}.
Note: if F = {(u, v)}, a single point, then you are done. The Nash solution is (u, v).
3. Get the negotiation/bargaining set by nding the status quo point (u
0
, v
0
). u
0
is
the value of the 0-sum game e
1
= [u
ij
] obtained by considering only the payos to
Rose from the matrix A. v
0
is the value of the 0-sum game e
2
= [v
ij
]
T
obtained by
considering only the payos to Colin from the matrix A, and then transposing the
matrix.
10
Cumulative Review
4. Obtain the negotiation set N by taking N to be those points of F which are above
and to the right of (u
0
, v
0
):
N = {(u, v)
.
.
. au + v = b, c

u d

},
where
[c

, d

] = [max{c, u
0
}, max{ad + b, v
0
}].
Dont bother remembering the formula just the idea.
5. Maximize the function f(u, v) = (u u
0
)(v v
0
) on N by rewriting it as f(u) =
(u u
0
)(au + b v
0
) and applying the rst derivative test. This gives u

. Then
v

= au

+ b. The Nash maximin bargaining solution is

(u

, v

).
3.5. Finding the Nash threat bargaining solution. Consider the same noncooperative
matrix game A with entries
a
ij
= (
1
(
i
,
j
),
2
(
i
,
j
)) = (u
ij
, v
ij
).
1. Find the frontier set F as outlined in 12 above.
F = {(u, v)
.
.
. au + v = b, c u d}.
2. Write down the game ae
1
e
2
, where e
1
, e
2
are as described above in step 3. a is the
coecient of u in the equation for the line in the frontier set. Then nd the value w

of the game ae
1
e
2
.
3. Using w

and the constant term b from the equation for the line in the frontier set,
get
u

=
1
2a
(b + w

) and v

=
1
2
(b w

).
4. This (u

, v

) is the threat bargaining solution.

Note: although they are not required in nding the threat bargaining solution, the optimal
threats are just the optimal strategies x

and y

of the game ae
1
e
2
. Thus, the threat
status quo point is just (P
1
(x

, y

), P
2
(x

, y

)).
11
Math 121 Game Theory
3.6. Examples with complex negotiation sets. It is possible that the frontier set consists
of two or more line segments, so that the negotiation set can be quite complex. Here is an
example of how to nd the maximin bargaining solution and threat bargaining solution of
such a game.
_
(2, 1) (3, 2) (0, 4)
(0, 1) (4, 0) (2, 1)
_
The maximin bargaining solution.
(1) The cooperative payo region is
(0,4)
(0,1)
(1,1)
(4,0)
(3,2)
(u
*
,v
*
)
(
9
,
7
)
u
0 u
*
=
v
*
=
v
0
4
11
4
13
6
2
Figure 1. Cooperative payo region and maximin status quo point.
(2) The frontier set is
F = {(u, v)
.
.
.
2
3
u + v = 4, 0 u 3} {(u, v)
.
.
. 2u + v = 8, 3 u 4}.
(3) The status quo point is (1, 1) when you nd the values of the games
_
2 3 0
0 4 2
_
and
_
_
1 1
2 0
4 1
_
_
.
(4) The negotiation set is
N = {(u, v)
.
.
.
2
3
u + v = 4, 1 u 3} {(u, v)
.
.
. 2u + v = 8, 3 u
7
2
}.
(5) The maximum of f(u, v) = (u u
0
)(v v
0
) on N proceeds in two steps.
(a) For the rst set, maximize f(u) = (u1)
_
4
2
3
u 1
_
for 1 u 3 and obtain
(u

, v

) =
_
11
4
,
13
6
_
.
(b) For the second set, maximize f(u) = (u 1) (8 2u 1) for 3 u
7
2
and
obtain (u

, v

) =
_
9
4
,
7
2
_
.
12
Cumulative Review
The second solution is not within the negotiation set, and the closest we can get to it
within the second component of the negotiation set is the point (3, 2), which is also
in the rst component. Moreover, the max of f on the rst component is at
_
11
4
,
13
6
_
,
so this is our Nash bargaining solution.
The threat bargaining solution.
IMPORTANT NOTE: You are not responsible for nding threat bargaining solutions
for complex negotiation sets, as described in this section Dr. Gretsky recently informed
me that this is beyond the scope of the class, so there will be no problems like this on the
nal exam. I have included the following material here only because I promised I would, but
you dont have to worry about it.

(1) Find the cooperative payo region as before. This time, make use of Lemma 2.2 (p.
79) to nd the threat solution.
Lemma 1. If (u

, v

) is the Nash bargaining solution for status quo point (u

0
, v
0
),
and the negotiation set at (u

, v

) is a straight line with (u

, v

) not at an end point,

then the slope of the line joining u
0
, v
0
) to (u

, v

) is the negative of the slope of the

negotiation set at (u

, v

).
(2) Find the threat status quo point by determining the optimal strategies x

, y

of the
game ae
1
= e
2
, as described above (Finding Nash threat bargaining solutions).
(3) Draw a lines with negative slope as indicated in Figure 2. If the threat status quo is
in the white region, like t
3
, then the threat solution is T
3
. If the threat status quo
(0,4)
(0,1)
(4,0)
T
1
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
Figure 2. Threat solutions for dierent threat status quos.
is in the upper shaded region like t
1
or t
2
, then follow the line with slope
2
3
to the
boundary. The intersection will be the threat solution.
If the threat status quo is in the lower shaded region like t
4
or t
5
, then follow the line
with slope 2 to the boundary. The intersection will be the threat solution.
13
Math 121 Game Theory
4. Practice Exercises
(1) Domination. Find all cases of domination in the following game:
_
_
3 6 2 4
2 1 0 1
4 3 5 4
_
_
(2) Higher-Order Domination. Reduce this game using the principle of higher-order
domination:
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2 1 1 1
2 2 2 1 0
_
_
_
_
(3) Saddle Points. Find all saddle points in the following games.
(a)
_
_
3 2 4 2
2 1 3 0
2 2 2 2
_
_
(b)
_
_
2 0 4
2 1 3
3 1 2
_
_
(c)
_
_
4 3 8
9 5 1
2 7 6
_
_
(4) The rst game in the previous exercise shows that a saddle point may appear in a
dominated strategy. The Domination Principle says we shouldnt play these strate-
gies. Show that the Domination Principle cannot come into direct conict with the
Saddle Point Principle by showing that if Row A dominates Row B, and Row B
contains a saddle point entry, then the entry a in the same column of Row A is also
a saddle point.
(5) Prove (or at least make arguments for) the following:
(a) If a is a saddle point entry, then the row containing a is a maximin row, the
column containing a is a minimax column, and maximin = a = minimax.
(b) If maximin = minimax, then the intersection of the maximin row and the mini-
max column is a saddle point.
(6) Prove this theorem: Any two saddle points in a matrix game have the same value.
Furthermore, if the Rows player and Columns player both play strategies which
contain a saddle point outcome, then the result will always be a saddle point.
14
Cumulative Review
(7) Consider a general 2 2 game:
_
a b
c d
_
The game will have a saddle point unless the two largest entries are diagonally oppo-
site each other, so suppose the two largest entries are a and d. Suppose Colin plays
his strategies C
1
and C
2
with probabilities x and (1 x).
(a) Show that the value of of x which will equalize Roses expectations for Rose A
and Rose B is
x =
d b
(a c) + (d b)
.
(b) Show that the value of the game is
v =
ad bc
(a c) + (d b)
.
(8) Solve the following games:
(a)
_
_
_
_
3 5
1 3
2 2
3 6
_
_
_
_
(b)
_
_
_
_
2 5
1 2
0 2
0 4
_
_
_
_
(c)
_
4 2 0 3 2
4 1 0 3 1
_
(9) Some games have more than one solution: the value of the game is xed, but the
players may have several dierent strategies which ensure this value.
(a) Draw the graph for the following game. What happens?
_
2 0 2
3 1 1
_
(b) Show that there are two dierent optimal strategies for Colin, corresponding to
the solutions for the two dierent 22 subgames. The third 22 subgame does
not yield a solution. In the graph, what is dierent about that subgame?
15
Math 121 Game Theory
(10) Solve the following games:
(a)
_
_
3 0 1
1 2 2
1 0 1
_
_
(b)
_
_
_
_
5 2 1
4 1 3
3 4 3
1 6 2
_
_
_
_
(c)
_
_
_
_
4 3 2 4
4 4 4 2
5 2 7 2
3 2 2 2
_
_
_
_
5. Solutions
(1) C
2
dominates C
4
and C
3
dominates C
1
.
(2) The reduced game involves only R
1
, R
4
and C
3
, C
5
:
_
1 2
2 0
_
(3) (a) Four saddle points: R
1
or R
4
and C
2
or C
4
.
(b) R
2
, C
2
(c) none
(4) Since b is largest in its column, b a. Since R
1
dominates R
2
, a b. Hence a = b
and a is also the largest entry in its column. To show that a is a smallest entry in
its row, consider any other entry c in R
1
and let d be the corresponding entry in
R
2
. Then c d b = a. The rst inequality holds by dominance, and the second
because b is a saddle point.
(5) (a) Since a is smallest in its row, it is the row minimum for its row. Since it is the
largest in its column, the other row minima cannot be larger. Hence it is the
row maximin. Similarly, it is the column minimax.
(b) Let a be the maximin row I and the minimax column J. Then (the minimum
of Rose I) a (the maximum of Colin J). Since we are given that the two
16
Cumulative Review
extreme numbers in the inequality are the same, the inequality is in fact an
equality. Hence, a is smallest in its row and largest in its column.
(6) Suppose that a and b are saddle point entries in a matrix game, and c and d are the
other entries in the corners of a rectangle containing a and b:
a . . . c
.
.
.
.
.
.
d . . . b
Since a is the smallest entry in its row and b is the largest entry in its column, we get
a c b. Since b is a smallest entry in its row and a is a largest entry in its column,
we get b d a. Together, this shows that all the inequalities must actually be
equalities, so that all four numbers are the same. Hence, c and d are also largest in
their columns and smallest in their rows, and thus are saddle points.
(7) See page 42, derivation of 2.42 and 2.41.
(8) (a) R*=
_
0,
1
2
,
1
2
, 0
_
, C*=
_
5
8
,
3
8
_
, v =
1
2
.
(b) Saddle point at R
2
, C
1
. v = 1.
(c) R*=
_
4
9
,
5
9
_
, C*=
_
0, 0, 0,
1
3
,
2
3
_
, v =
1
2
.
(9) (a) The three lines intersect at one point.
(b) The value is
1
2
, and Roses optimal strategy is R*=
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
. Colin can play
C
1
*=
_
3
8
, 0,
5
8
_
or C
2
*=
_
0,
3
4
,
1
4
_
or any mixture of these. C
1
and C
2
dont yield
a solution because both of these lines slant to the left; the solution to that 2 2
subgame would be a saddle point.
(10) (a) R
3
is dominated, then C
3
is dominated. Solution:
R*=
_
1
2
,
1
2
, 0
_
, C*=
_
1
3
,
2
3
, 0
_
, v = 1.
(b) Saddle point at R
3
, C
3
, v = 3.
(c) Eliminate rst C
1
, then R
1
, then C
4
. Solve the resulting 4 2 game to get:
R*=
_
0, 0,
1
2
, 0,
1
2
_
, C*=
_
0,
5
8
,
3
8
, 0
_
, v =
1
2
.
17