Classical Mechanics (Newtonian physics)

praveen kumar reddy.A (M.sc Physics)

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Newtonian physics

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What is the main theme to study Mechanics ?

Central concept in Mechanics is to understand Motion.

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Types of motion

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Calculus

Newton discovered Calculus ( a new branch of mathematics) to describe motion.

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Kinematics

First step in classical mechanics is to describe motion in terms of space and time while ignoring agents that caused motion. Portion of that classical mechanics is called Kinematics.

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Motion in one dimension

Now we will concentrate on the motion of a body which is moving linearly along only on one dimension (may be along X axis, Y axis , Z axis)

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Particle model

In study of translatory motion , we use particle model. a particle is a point-like objectthat is, an object with mass but having infinitesimal size.

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Parameters to describe motion

Position Velocity / Speed Acceleration

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Position

The motion of a particle is completely known if the particles position in space is known at all times.

A particles position is the location of the particle with respect to a

chosen reference point that we can consider to be the origin of a coordinate system.

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Position

Position time graph

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Distance vs displacement
Distance is the path traversed by the particle. Displacement is the difference between initial and final position.

Distance is a scalar quantity , while displacement is a vector quantity.

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Average Velocity or Average speed

The average velocity vx of a particle is defined as the particles displacement x divided by the time interval during which that displacement occurs:

Units of velocity are meter per second. Note : here velocity is displacement/time , while Speed is distance/time

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Instantaneous velocity or speed

Often we need to know the velocity of a particle at a particular instant in time, rather than the average velocity over a finite time interval. the instantaneous velocity vx equals the limiting value of the ratio x/t as t approaches zero

The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative, or zero. When the slope of the positiontime graph is positive In calculus notation it is written as

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Average acceleration

The average acceleration ax of the particle is defined as the change in velocity vx divided by the time interval t during which that change occurs:

Units of acceleration are meter per second square.

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Instantaneous acceleration
In some situations, the value of the average acceleration may be different over different time intervals. It is therefore useful to define the instantaneous acceleration as the limit of the average acceleration as t approaches zero.

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When the objects velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the object is speeding up. On the other hand, when the objects velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, the object is slowing down.

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Now we will understand a simple type of motion - A body moving in one dimension with constant acceleration.

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body moving with constant acceleration

Position time graph

Velocity time graph

Acceleration time graph

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Equations of motion - applicable only to body moving with constant acceleration :

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Freely Falling objects (Example of motion of body with constant acceleration)

Bodies whoose radius is very small compared to radius of earth , which are falling very near to earth is approximated as a freely falling body. They move with constant acceleration (that is acceleration due to gravity)

Freely falling bodies should fall only under the influence of gravity , not with any other force.

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Freely falling objects - Galileo

It is well known that, in the absence of air resistance, all objects dropped near the Earths surface fall toward the Earth with the same constant acceleration under the influence of the Earths gravity.

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Motion of a body in two dimensions

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Position vector

Let us extend this idea to motion in the xy plane. We begin by describing the position of a particle by its position vector r, drawn from the origin of some coordinate system to the particle located in the xy plane,

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Position , velocity and acceleration

Difference between final position vector and initial position vector

average velocity of a particle during the time interval t as the displacement of the particle divided by the time interval

The instantaneous velocity v is defined as the limit of the average velocity

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Position , Velocity and acceleration

the average acceleration of a particle

The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as

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 It is important to recognize that various changes can occur when a particle accelerates.

First, the magnitude of the velocity vector (the speed) may change with time as in straight-line (one-dimensional) motion.
Second, the direction of the velocity vector may change with time even if its magnitude (speed) remains constant, as in curved-path (two-dimensional) motion. Finally, both the magnitude and the direction of the velocity vector may change simultaneously.

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Two dimensional motion with constant acceleration

The component form of the equations for vf and rf show us that two-dimensional motion at constant acceleration is equivalent to two independent motionsone in the x direction and one in the y directionhaving constant accelerations ax and ay.

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Special cases of Two dimensional motion

Projectile motion Uniform circular motion

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Projectile motion ( in our day to day lives)

You see projectile motion in our every day lives too often

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Projectile motion
In projectile motion , we consider these two assumptions
1. Free fall acceleration g is constant during motion

2. Effect of air resistance is negligible.

This is equation of parabola , Hence trajectory of projectile motion is parabola.

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Analyzing projectile motion

when analyzing projectile motion, consider it to be the superposition of two motions:

(1) constant-velocity motion in the horizontal direction (2) free-fall motion in the vertical direction.
Note : The horizontal and vertical components of a projectiles motion are completely independent of each other and can be handled separately, with time t as the common variable for both components.

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Parameters associated with Projectile

Time of ascent

Maximum Height

Range

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Various angles of projectiles

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Uniform circular motion

A car moving in a circular path with constant speed v. Such motion is called uniform circular motion, and occurs in many situations. It is often surprising to find that even though an object moves at a constant speed in a circular path, it still has an acceleration Note that the acceleration depends on the change in the velocity vector. here in this case of circular motion velocity vector changes in direction.

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Magnitude of centripetal acceleration

In uniform circular motion the acceleration is directed inward toward the center of the circle. There will be no acceleration component parellel to velocity vector. If it is there , velocity will change and there is no chance of uniform circular motion. The acceleration acting towards center of circle is called centripetal acceleration and is given by

In many situations it is convenient to describe the motion of a particle moving with constant speed in a circle of radius r in terms of the period T

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Tangential and Radial acceleration

Here in this situation velocity changes both in magnitude and direction. Here Velocity vector is always tangential to path of particle.

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Tangential and Radial acceleration

The total acceleration vector a can be written as the vector sum of the component vectors: Total acceleration = Radial acceleration + Tangential acceleration The tangential acceleration component causes the change in the speed of the particle. at = dV/dt The radial acceleration component arises from the change in direction of the velocity vector

At a given speed, ar is large when the radius of curvature is small and small when r is large.

at is in the direction or opposition of velocity vector.

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Relative velocity and Relative acceleration

We find that observers in different frames of reference may measure different positions, velocities, and accelerations for a given particle.
That is, two observers moving relative to each other generally do not agree on the outcome of a measurement.

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Galilean transformations
We define the time t " 0 as that instant at which the origins of the two reference frames coincide in space. Thus, at time t, the origins of the reference frames will be separated by a distance v0t.

If velocity is cosntant Vo = 0 , there fore a' = a

the acceleration of the particle measured by an observer in one frame of reference is the same as that measured by any other observer moving with constant velocity relative to the first frame.

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Next lecture continues from Newton Laws of motion

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