FACILITATING

INTERDISCIPLINARY
RESEARCH
Committee on Faeilitating Interdiseiplinary Researeh
Committee on Scienee, Engineering, and Publie Poliey
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
- ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING, AND
INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE
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Universidad de la Repblica
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
WASHINGTON, D.C.
www.nap.edu
00 1 O 4
2
The Drivers of
In terdisci p linary Research
N
o one can predict the issues that science and society will consider
most pressing in the decades to come. But if we loo k at sorne high-
priority issues of today- such as world hunger, biomedical ethics,
sustainable resources, homeland security, and child development and learn-
ing-and pressing research questions, such as the evoluti on o virulence in
pathogens and the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem func-
tions, we can predict that those of the future will be so complex as to
require insights from multiple disciplines. What research strategies are
needed to address such a future ? To what extent will interdisci plinary
research (IDR) and interdisciplinary education be among the strategies?
Just what is IOR?
DEFINING INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
No single definition is likely to encompass the diverse range of activities
that have been described under the heading of IOR. Reflecting the diversity
of modes of interdisciplinary work, several organizational models ha ve
evolved (see Table 2-1). For the purpose of this report, the committee has
developed the following description as a point of departure:
Interdi sciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by [eams oc indi-
viduals rhar integrares nformarion, data, techniques, [ools, perspecti ves,
concepts, and/or rheories from two or more disciplines oc bodies of spe-
cialized knowledge ro advance fundamental understanding or ro salve
problems whose solurions are beyond rhe scope of a single discipli ne oc
field of research practice.
26
THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISCI PLlNAR y RESEARCH 27
Research is trul y interdisciplinary when it is not just pasting two di sci-
plines together to creare one product but rather is an integrarian and syn-
thesis of ideas and methods. An example is the current exploration of string
theory by theoretical physicists and mathematicians, in which the questions
posed have brought fundamental new insights both to mathematicians and
ro physicists.
Convocation Quate
Interdisciplinary research by definition requires the researchers to learn the
other discipline. I like to stress vocabulary, but also methodology; I feel very
strongly about it.
Ruzena Bajcsy, director of the Center for Information Technology
Research in the Interest of Society, University of California, Berkeley
Other terms used inelude borrowing and multidisciplinary research.
Borrowing describes the use of one discipline's methods, skills, or
theories in a different discipline. A borrowed technique may be assimilated
so completely that it is no longer considered foreign, and it may transform
practice without being considered interdisciplinary.1 An example of bar-
rowing is the use of physical-science methods in biologic research, such as
electron mi croscopy, x-ray crystallography, and spectroscopy. Such bor-
rowing may be so extensive that the origin of the technique is obscured. '
For purposes of this discussion, multidiscip/inary research is taken
to mean research that involves more than a si ngle discipline in which each
discipline makes a separare contribl:1tion. Investigators may share facilities
and research approaches while working separately on distinct aspects of a
problem.
3
For example, an archaeological program might require the partici-
pation of a geologist in a role that is primarily supporti ve. Multidisciplinary
IKlein, J. T. "A Conceptual Vocabulary of Interdjsciplinary Science," Practising l nter-
disciplinarity. Eds. Weingarr, P. and Stehr, N. Universiry of Taranta Press, Taronto, 2000.
pp. 3-24.
2See Holton, G., Chang, H. , and Jurkowirz, E. "How a scienrific discovery is made: A case
hiswry." American Scientist, Vol. 84, Jul y-August 1996, pp. 364-75, for specific examples o f
borrowing.
3Friedman, R. S. and Friedman, R. C. "Organized Research Unirs of Academe Revisi ted. "
In Managing High Technology: An lnterdisciplinary Perspective. Eds., Mar, B. W., Newell,
W. T. and Saxberg, B. O. Amsrerdam: Nonh Holland-Elsevier, 1985. pp. 75-91.
I
28 FACILlTATING INTERDISCIPLINA RY RESEARCH
STRUCTURE/POLlCIES
TABLE 2-1 Interdisciplinary Research Structures
As a direct response ro ane component of es charge, "ldenrify and analyze current
structucal models of interdisciplinary rescarch," che cornmittee collected informaran 00
abour 100 existing IDR groups and centers. The cornmittee rested che caregorization
proposed by Epton er al.a and found char, alrhough ir is largel y applicable, (here are
important additional IDR strucrural categories and characteristics, including national
labs, space alloearan, and fluidity of tcams.
SMALL ACADEMIC 10 persans)
Bottom-up initiaran
Research is primary; training is byproducr
Loase management structure
Many participants ha ve disciplinary research commitments as well
LARGE ACADEMIC
Bonom-up initiation, top-down incubarion and management
Research and training components
Management by directors who report directly t o vice president for research or
equivalent
Tend to be permanent features: new building, instrumentation
Some centers "co-hire" faculty, but faculty are affiliated with departments
Space allocation: mix of permanent and "hote!" facilities
INDUSTRY
Top-down, product-driven research
Focused on research, not training
Structured management
Discrete time!ines and end points
Fluid movement of researchers between teams
NATIONAL LABORATORIES
Blend of top-down, mission-driven research and bottom-up initiation
Research and training components
Structured management
Discrete timelines and end points
Fluid movement of researchers between teams
INTERINDUSTRY, INTERUNIVERSITY, UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY
Top-down, societal needs -driven research (can be basic and applied)
Research and training components
Part-time directors with advisory board s
Often initiated with large starting grants (such as National Science Foundation-
funded Science and Technology Centers and Engineering Research Centers )
Except for seed grants, faculty must provide own grant money
Programs may offer an "immersion" IDR opportunity
dEpton, S. R., Payne, R. L., and Pearson, A. W. (1985) "Contextual Issues in Managing
,. Cross-Disciplinary Research." In Managing High Technology: An Interdisciplinary Perspec-
tive. Eds. Mar, B. W., Newell, W. T. and Saxberg, B. O. New York: Elsevier. pp. 209-29.





THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
29
A
\
/
A
B
/ \
B
A
e
B
Multidisciplinary:
Join together to
work on common problem,
split apart unchanged
when work is done.
Interdisciplinary:
Join together to
work on common question or problem.
Interaction may lorge a new
research lield or discipline.
FIGURE 2-1 Difference between multi- and interdisciplinary.
SOURCE: Adapted froro L. Tabak, Director, NINDS, NIH. Presentation at Convo-
carian 00 Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research, Washington, D.C., January 29,
2004.
research ofren refers ro effarts thar are additive but nor necessarily integra-
ti ve (see Figure 2-1 )4,5
IDR can also be described in terms of modes of participation. In one
mode an individual investigarar masters and integrares several fields. The
investigarar may conceive a new problem oc methad or may venture far
enough from his or her original discipline to create a new field. For ex-
ample, Albert Einstein ventured from his field of physics into Riemann
geometry to describe his new General Theory of Relativity.
In a second mode, a group of investigarars, each with mastery in ane
field, leam to communicate and coHaborate on a single problem.' In sorne
cases, such groups may be quite large, as in high-energy physics and genom-
ies research.
4Porter, A. L. and Rossini, F. A. "Multiskll Research," Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion,
UtiJizaton , Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1986, p. 219.
SKlein, J. T. Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice. Detrait: Wayne State Uni-
versity Press, 1990, p. 56.
61n ane formulatan, this made is termed consilience: the "jumping together of knowledge"
across disciplines "ro create a camman groundwork of explanarian". Wilson, E. O. Con-
silience: The Unity of Science, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998, p. 8.
30 FACILlTATING lNTERDlSCIPLlNARY RESEARCH
Convocation Quote
If you think of disciplines as organs, Irue interdisciplinarity is something like
blood. It Aows. It is a liquid. It is not contained. There is no inside and
outside.
Alice GoHlieb, professor of medicine and di rectar, Clinical Reseorch
Center at the Robert wood Johnson Medical School
The cornmittee paid special attention to interdisciplinary education,
viewing it as a central component of IDR. Students are prepared for the
complexities of IDR when they are encouraged ro understand and I'ursue
multipl e disciplines and to address complex probl ems from the perspective
of multiple fields in their undergraduate and graduate studies. Specific
suggestions for strengthening interdisciplinary education are presented in
Chapters 4, 5, and 9.
CHALLENGES DRIVING INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
To understand the natural world, scientists are drawn toward the un-
known, especially toward the "grand challenges" of research. How did the
universe originate? What physical processes control c1imate? What is the
carrying capacity of the biosphere? Such challenges almost always invite
journeys across disciplinary frontiers. A scientist may respond ro many
kinds of motivation, or "drivers," in undertaking interdisciplinary projects.
We Ii st four such drivers below, providing examples and exploring why the
practice of modern science and engineering requires interdisciplinary work.
The Inherent Complexity of Nature and Society
Human society in ts natural setting contends with enormously com-
plex systems that are influenced by myriad forces. It is not possible to study
rhe earth's clima te, for example, without considering the oceans, rivers, sea
ice, atmospheric consrituents, solar radiation, transport processes, land-
use, land-cover, and other anthropogenic practices and the feedback mecha-
nisms that link this "system of subsystems" across sea les of space and time.
A full predictive or even descript ive understanding requires the use of many
disciplines (see Box 2-1 l.
Nature's complexity often leads ro surpri ses that require much thought
and experimentation to unravel. An example is the unexpected emergen ce
of the Antarctic ozone hole in the austral springtime, a phenomenon found
to be the consequence of complex chemical and dynamic pathways attribut-
able to the use of chl orine- and bromine-bearing compounds in commercial
THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISCIPLlNAR y RESEARCH
EVOLUTION
BOX 2-1 The International Geosphere-Biosphere
Program (IGBP)
The real connections tha! link the geosphere and biosphere to each other
are subtle, complex, and aften synergistic; their study transcends Ihe bounds of
specialized, scientific disciplines and Ihe $COpe of limited, natienal scientific en-
deavars. For these reasans progress in fundamental areas of ocean-atmosphere
interactions, biogeochemical cycles, and solar-terrestrial relationships has come
far more slowly han in specialized fjelds, in spile of the obvious practical impar-
lance of such sludas. If, however, we could launch a cooperativa interdisciplnary
program in the earth sciences, on an inlernational seale, we might hopa lo take a
major step toward revealing the physical, chemical, and biological workings 01 the
Sun-Earth system and the mysteries 01 Ihe origins and su/Vival 01 life in the bio-
sphere. The concept 01 an International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP),
as outlined in this report, calls for this sort 01 bold ventura in organized
rasearch-the study 01 whoJe systems 01 interdisciplinary science in an effort to
understand global changes in the terrestrial environment and ils living systems.
a
So begns the prelace to a 1983 workshop report that would help lo launch
the IGBP, which 20 years later is one 01 the largest interdisciplinary international
research efforts ever undertaken. In lts origns, the program reflected all the major
drivers 01 IDA. It begins with the complexity of nature, the interactions between the
land mass, the oceans 01 air and water, and the lite torms of Earth. II finds that
much of the most exciting science lakes place on the boundaries 01 both systems
and disciplines, such as the biogeochemical flows 01 the major life-support ele-
ments. Encouraging such explorations are powerful socetal needs to understand
how humankind is transforming the earth and the threats and opportunities that
such transformation poses. Making possible such ambition are generative technol-
ogies, particularly computer simulation and modeling, remote sensing trom space,
and recovering the past trom cares of oeean bottom, ice, lakes, and trees.
In scale, the program refleets both big scienee and local investigation. Sorne
10,000 scientists in 80 eountries and fllore than 20 disciplines take part in IGBP
seientific activites.
b
They nclude agricultural scientists, archaeologists, atmo-
spheric chemists, and dynamicists, biologists, climatologists, ecologisls, economists,
environmental historians, geographers, geologisls, hydrologists, mathematicians,
meteorologists, planl physiologists, political scientists, physical and chemical
oceanographers, remote sensing scientists, and sociologists.
The program has transformed the disciplines initially involved. Disciplines that
were primarily focused on local and sma!! scales, such as ecology, now address
large-seale processes and conduct extensive experiments including in situ carbon
enrichment and experimental deforestation. Disciplines that were primarily curios-
ity-driven such as the many paleosciences, have acquired important societal 'rele-
vanee. Natural and social sciences have come lo need and value each other.
continuas
aFriedman, H. Prelace. Toward an International Geosphere-Biospher9 Program: A Study
of Global Change. Repar! of a National Research Council Workshop, Woods Hole, MA July
25-29, 1983. Washington: National Academy Press, p. viL
bFor these details and insights we are gratelul lO WiU Steffen, Executive Director of the
IGBP.
31
1
32 FACIL/TATI NG I NTERDISCIPL/ NARY RESEARCH
BOX 2-1 Contlnued
Disciplines have discovered camman nterests, such as how to relate wholes to
parts, macro processes to micro behavior, and global lo local. Indeed, global
change seienee now exhibits many interdisciplinary aspects, with a secend gener-
alan 01 scientists Iranscending their disciplines and schooled in problem-driven
camman knowledge.
But mast important are the major scientific findings. The program has trans-
formed our understanding 01 both nature and humankind. A recent summary vol-
ume
c
finds that:
The earth is a system that life ilself helps to modulate. 8iol09ical processes
nterael with chemical and physical processes to ereate the planetary environment.
Human activities are influencing the functioning of the earth system in
many important ways.
The earth is operating in a no-analogue state. The magnitudes and rates of
changes occurring simultaneously in the earth system are unprecedented.
The earth's dynamics are characterized by critical thresholds and abrupt
changes.
CSteffen, W., Sanderson, A. , Tyson, P. , Jager, J .. Matson, P . Moore 111, B., Oldfield, F.,
Richardson, K., Schellnhuber. H.J., Tumer 11, B. L. , Wasson, R. Global Changa and the Earth
System: A Planet Under Pressure. IGBP Global Change Series.New York: Springer-Verlag,
SerUn Heidelburg, 2004, 336 pp.
produets. Pinpointing that eause required the eombined efforts of many
scientific and technical disciplines; solving the problem itself required the
collaboration of physical scientists, engineers, economists, and social scien-
tists.
Similarly, the human-genome mapping project was a complex under-
taking that depended on extensive collaboration across many fields, includ-
ing the biological and computational sciences. Basic questions of life-how
living beings grow, how the brain functions, why many animals need ro
sleep, how retroviruses functi on-share the characteristic of complexity,
and understanding them, even in part, depends on multiple disciplines.
Gaining sueh understanding will almost certainly require deep expertise
both at the subsystem level and at the interdisciplinary level-and the inte-
grat ion of these two levels. Ir is important to note that depth in researeh is
not confined to si ngle-discipline investigations. Statistical mechanics, for
example, unites physicists and mathematicians in studies of substanti al
depth
7
If science and engi neering deal with extremely complex systems, the
same is true for studies of human society. How human societies evolve,
7Kafaros and Ei sner, ibid. p. 1257.
THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISCIPLlNARY RESEARCH 33
make decisi ons, interacr, and solve problems are all matters that call for
diverse insights. Very fundamental questions are inherently complexo For
example, why do humans kili each other? Why does hunger persist in a
world of plenty? Answering such questions successfull y requires collabora-
rion across che natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities .
The Orive to Explore Basic Research Problems
at the Interfaces of Disciplines
Sorne of che most interesting scienrific questions are found at che inter-
faces between disciplines and in the white spaces on organi zational charts.
Exploring such interfaces and interstices leads investi gators beyond their
own disciplines ro invite che participaran of researchers in adjacent or
complementary fields and even to srimul ate the development of a new
interdisciplinary field. Examples inc\ude the following:
Biochemistry was long ago considered an interdi sciplinary activity;
today ir has departmental, prograrn, or similar structural status in mos!
major universities .
The field of cognitive science has evolved in response ro questions
that could not be answered by single disciplines. Today the Cognitive Sci-
ence Society embraces anthropology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience,
education, linguistics, psychology, and philosophy. '
As biology has become more quanti tative, its points of overlap
wirh [he mathematical sciences and che physical sciences have become more
numerous and important. Today, the computational and stati stical power
of mathematics and the research facilities of the physical sciences are re-
quired for making sense of, for example, genomics, proteomics, epidemiol -
ogy, structural biology, and ecology.
Ecology and economics (and other social sciences) have a common
origin, at least in name, and, increasi ngly, a common fi eld--ecologic eco-
nomics-that aspires to facilitate "undersranding between economists and
ecologists and the integrarion of their thinking" with the goal of developing
a sustainable world.
9
That many of the most interesting scientific questions are lodged in the
inrerstices between disciplines can also be seen in various acriviries that
honor outstanding creativity. For example, although the MacArthur Foun-
dation fellow awards are not given on the basis of interdisciplinari ty, to
8See Appendix D on {he development of disciplinary sociecies.
9The Web site of che International Society of Ecological Economics is http://www.
ecologicafeconomics. org.
34 FA CIUTATING INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
judge from brief biographies, two-thirds to three-fourths of MaeArthur
fell ows in seienee appear to work in interdiseiplinary fields.
The Need to Solve Soeietal Problems
Human society depends more [han ever on sound science foc sound
deei sion making. The fabrie of modern life-its food, water, seeurity, jobs,
energy, and transportation-is held together largely by teehniques and tools
of seienee and teehnology. But the applieation of teehnologies to en han ce
the quality of life can itself ereate problems that require teehnologieal solu-
tions. Examples inelude the buildup of greenhouse gases (henee global
warming), the use of artificial fertili zers (water pollution and eutrophiea-
rion), nuclear-power generaran (radioacrive waste), and auto motive [cans-
portation (highway deaths, urban sprawl, and air pollution).
EVOLUTION
BOX 2-2 The Developmenl 01 Mlcrowave Radar al
MIT's Radlallon LaboraloryB
The development 61 radar (radio detection and ranging) during the 19405 was
largely accelerated by military needs in Wortd War 11. Members of the scientific
community recognized the value of radar lo the war effort. In the United Slates, the
etfort to expand microwave radar capabilities was concentrated al MIT's Radiation
Laboratory, which was staffed by civilian and academic scientists in many disci-
plines. Projects ncluded physical electronics, microwave physics, electromagnetic
praperties of matter, and microwave cammunicalion principies.
The "Rad Lab" was responsible tor almosl half Ihe radar deployed in World
War 11 and al one point employed almost 4,000 people working on several conti
nenls in government, industrial , and university laborataries. What began as a
BrltishAmerican effort to make microwave radar work evolved into a centralized
laboratory committed lo understanding the theories behind experimental radar
while solving lts engineering problems.
The Rad Lab was formally shut down afler Ihe end of World War 11 in 1945,
but in 1946 the Basic Research Division was incorporated into the new Research
Laboratory 01 Electronics al MIT. Research continued on problems in physical
electronics and micrawave physcs. Modern techniques were applied to physics
and engineering research, and engineering applications were emphasized in mi
crowave communication.
8MIT Radiation l aboratory series Volume 28. Ed. Henney, K. Avai lable al http.llwww.
brewbooks.com/reflrfireCradlab_v28.htmt, G.Goebel, Microwave Radar & The MIT Rad lab.
Available at http.l/www.vectorsite.netlttwiz3.htmf.LabsMicrowave Traditions al RLE. ALE
currents, Vol. 4, No. 2-$pring 1991. Available at hftp:/lrfeweb.mit.edu/radlablradlab.HTM.
THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISClPLl NARY RESEARCH 35
An indicati on 01 interdisciplinariry in response ro societal needs is the
success oE large, sustained endeavors, many DE which continue ro chis day.
During World War JI, lor example, science and engineering demonstrared
rhe abil ity ro srrengrhen military power rapidly (see Box 2-2). The 3-year
Manhanan Project (1942-1945) ro develop an aromic bomb was an inter-
disciplinary eflore requiring researchers Irom many lields and sublields 01
science and engineering, from (he wide sweep of chemi srry and physics ro
che specific skills of uranium refinemenr, sorape separarian, plutonium
purificarian, nuclear decay measurement, nuclear-waste dispasal, and ra-
diation biology.
Anorher example is rhe Nati onal Cancer Acr, signed by President Nixon
in 1971. The acr authorized an inrerdisciplinary research eflore involving a
va sr sweep 01 biomedical disciplines, lram genetics and cell biology thraugh
c1inical care, bioerhics, and biosraristics. Caneee research has always beeo
among rhe mosr interdisciplinary 01 lields, mirraring the complexity 01 the
many diseases ir addresses.
Researchers continue to apply the 20th century' s revolutionary genetic
insights to unravel the structures and lunctions of proteins (see Box 2-3).
This investigarian influences every aspecr DE (he life sciences, at every
level, from molecular arrangements ro clnical, poputarian, and ecologic
studies.
1O
The Stimulus 01 Generarive Technologies
Generati ve technologies are those whose nove!ry and power not only
lind applicarions 01 grear value but also have the capacity to transform
existing disciplines and generare new ones. An early momenrous example
was the use of microscopes by Ho.oke and van Leeuwenhoek ro view "cu-
bieles," or cells, in animal and plam bodies and ro make ir possible ro see
living "animalcules" (bacteria) wirh rheir own eyes-borh critical steps
along the path ro modern molecul ar biology.
A recent example of a generarive technology has been rhe developmenr
01 rhe Internet, whose popular form is only about 10 years old. The Internet
10Yet another example can he found io Braoscomh, L, Holroo, G., and Sonnerr, G. Cutting-
edge Bas;c Research in the Serv;ce of Publie Ob;eet;ves: A Blueprint for an Intellectually Bold
and Socially Beneficial Science Po/iey. Consortium for Science Po liey Ourcomes, Arizona
Sute Universiry, Ma y 2001. Avai labl e on- line at http://www.cs po.org/products/reports/
scienceforsociety.pdf (Based 00 a workshop sponsored by the David and Lucile Packard
Foundation aod [he Alfred P. Sloao Fouodat ion.) The report makes the case for use-inspired
or "Jeffersonian" hasic rcsearch and ineludes a master list of questioos in science aod tech-
nology, most of which require interdisciplinary approaches. Holton, G., "Whar Kinds of
Science are Worrh Supporting?" The Grear Ideas Today, Encycl opcdia Britannica, Chicago,
1998.
36 FACILl TATING INTERDISCIPLINA RY RESEARCH
EVOLUTION
BOX 2-3 Prolein Slruclure Delerminalion Uslng
X-Ray CrystallographyB,b
The knowledge of protein structures is criticar lo fighting disease with drugs.
In recenl years, the development of new techniques to determine protein structure,
combinad with rapid improvement in computer technology, has allowed protein-
structure determination lo proceed al arate that is keeping pace with advances in
biomedical sclenC9. In the case of x-ray crystallography, ils development and wide
use in determination-which spanned a century-began with no
knowledge ot ilS valua for biomedicine.
X rays were firsl discovered in 1895, and the diffraction 01 x rays byelectrons
in crystals was firsl demonstrated in 1912. In the 19305, x rays were aimed at
crystals of biological molecules, but il was not until Perutz and Kendrew deter-
minad Ihe molecular structure of hemoglobjn and myoglobin in 1960 that the value
of x-ray crystallography in protejn science was realizad. In the 1970s, synchrotron
radiation (see Box 2-5) was harnessed as a source of x rays for protein crystallog-
raphy, and the 1990s saw a great increase in the number of protein structures
determined with this technique. Research to develop the technology was an inter-
disciplinary endeavor. Its long-term nature should remind those who facilitate IDR
that support 01 basic research can often have payoffs that are not immediately
visible and are often outside the field in which theywere initially envisioned.
aDUI, K. Strengthening Biomedici ne's Roots. Nature22 400:309-310. July 1999.
bJ-iistory of X-ray Crystallography and Associated Topies. Available al htfp:llwww.dr.ac.
uk/SRSlPX/h;story/history.hfmf.
has both enhanced connectivity between people and revolurionized access
to information, transforming the abi lity to interaet and collaborate across
space and rime. Ir has special relevan ce ro rhe world of research, for which
it offers ways ro work in large, di srribured teams, enl arge rhe educati onal
enterprise, provide access to data on time and spatial scales never possible
before, and design powerful new tools lo transform the processes of discov-
ery, learning, and communication (see Box 2-4).
Dramatic declines in the cost of processing, storing, and rransmirring
infarmati on are transforming science and engineering disciplines. Sorne
expens have called on rhe National Science Foundalion and orher science
agencies ro launch a bold new iniriarive in cyberinfrasrrucrure, which would
play Ihe same role in supporting the knowledge economy rhar roads, power
grids, and rail lines have played in supporting the industrial econorny.l1
11 Revolutionizing Science and Engineering through Cyberinfrastructure. Report of the
National Science Foundation Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure. February 3, 2003. Avail-
able a l http://www.cise. Ils f.gov/scilreportsltoc.c{m.
THE DRIVERS Of INTERDISCIPLlNARY RESEARCH
INNOVATI VE PRACTICE
BOX 2-4 The Knowledge and Dislribuled Inlelligence (KDI)
Funding Initialive
The rise in computar power and connectivity i5 reshaping relationships among
people and organizations and transforming the processes 01 discovery, learning,
and communicatio.n. The knowledge and distributed intelligence (KDI) funding ini
tiativa at the National Science Foundation (NSF) was created in 1998 to find ways
to model and make use 01 complex and cross-disciplinary scientific data.
a
KDI
supported interdisciplinary projects 01 individuals or groups that took advantage 01
changes in how research was being done, such as ncreases in computing power
and connectivity among researchers. The nitial solicitation had three foei 01
research: knowledge networking, learning and intelligent systems, and new com-
putational challenges. The KDI iniliative has sponsored research that analyzes
living and engineered syslems in new ways, and il encourages investigators to
explore Ihe cognitive, elhical, educational, legal, and social implications of new
Iypes of learning, knowledge, and interaclivity.
A program assessment was carried out in 2002. NSF recognized thal metrics
have to be developed that match the goals 01 the researeh programo To Ihat end,
KDI granlees were invited to a workshop lo determine how prajeets were orga-
nized and managed, to identify the projecls, outeomes, and lo eatalog suggestions
Ihat might help future grantees in their exeeulion of KDI-sponsored projects.
The evaluationb,c provides interesting infarmalion about tools, researeh di-
reetions, outreach, and student training. Management 01 collaborative and mulli-
diseiplinary researeh projects was a substantive issue. Project success depended
largely on eaordinating interaetions among researehers. Dispersion 01 participants,
ralher than interdiseiplinarity, was the most problematic aspect of KDI projeets.
Projeets with principal investigators in multiple universities were subslanlially less
well eoordinated and reported lewer favorable outeomes. Project-related conter-
enees, workshops, and other regular meetings appeared lo reduce Ihe adverse
effects 01 dispersion. The assessment identilied a number 01 needs for further
support, including management lools' that would increase the ease with whieh
projeet participants inleract aver the lifelime ot Ihe project.
a"fhe original KDI solicitation is available a: http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/19981nsf9855/
nsf9855.pdf.
bCummings, J. and Kiesler, S. (2004) KDllniliative: Multidisciplinary Scienlific Collabo-
ratons. NSF Report. Available on the NSF KOI Home Page: http://www.cise.nsf.gov/kdi/about.
html.
Cfaking stock of the KOI: Science of Evaluation. http://www.cise.nsf.gov/kdi/eval.html.
37
This cyberinfrastructure might be composed of distributed, high-perfor-
manee campllters, online scientific instrllments and sensor arrays, mlllti-
disciplinary collections of scientific data, software toolkits for modeling
and interactive visualization, and toals that enable close collaboration by
physically distributed reams of researchers (see Box 2-5 and Box 9-7).
38 FA CILlTATI NG IN TERDISCIPLlNARY RESEARCH
EVOLUTION
BOX 2-5 Tool-Driven Inlerdlselplinary Researeh:
The Advaneed Pholon Souree (APS) al
Argonne Nallonal Laboralory
The Advanced Photon Source (APS) at Arganne Natlonal Laboratory is a
natianal synchrotronradiation light-source research facility. Commissioned in 1995,
the APS is funded by the US Department 01 Energy, Office of Science, Office 01
Basic Energy Sciences.
a
Members 01 the intemational research community use
high-brilliance x-ray the APS to carry out basic and applied research
in materials science; biology; physics; chemistry; environmental , geophysical , and
planetary science; and innovative x-ray instrumentation.
Aesearchers come lo the APS as members 01 col1aborative access teams
(CATs) or as ndependent investigators. CATs comprise larga numbers of investi-
gators with common research objectives and are responsible for design, construc-
lion, funding, and operalion 01 beamlines al the facility. CATs must allocate 25
pereent 01 their x-ray beam time to independent invesligators or groups not affmat-
ed with CATs.
The APS was designed to accommodale up lo 32 CATs, of which over 20 are
in operation. One 01 the interdisciplinary industry-university collaborations estab-
lished to take advantage of APS resources ls the University 01 Michigan-Howard
University-AT&T BeU Laboratories (MHATT) CAT, formed in 1989. MHATT-CAT
studies range from baslc protein dynamics to the behavior of solid-slate lasers.
According to one ofthe directors of the MHATI-CAT, University ofMichigan Phys-
ics Professor Roy Clarke, "a very important part of the projeet is lo establish high-
speed communicalions that link participating institutions and the facility al the APS,
so that our sludents, particularly our undergraduate researchers, can participate
a.;:tively in the research while attending classes on their respective campuses."b
Others CATs are run by university or industry leams. To enhanee communi-
cation among and between leams, the APS Web site provides a linked list 01 CATs
and offers a listserver for nter-CAT communication. The APS Web site also lisis
meetings 01 interest lo lacility users and highlights recent research by posting ab-
stracts and figures on lts home paga.
aAPS: Advanced Photon $ource al ANL. Home page: http://epics.aps.anl.gov/aps. php.
J .R. (1994) Ctarke co-directs project at Argonne photon facitity. The Unlversily
Record. Uni versily of Mlchlgan. March 28, 1994. Accessed March 29. 2004 at http://www.
umich.edu/- urecord/9394/Mar28_9412.htm.
Advoeates of eyberinfrastrueture believe that it will allow a growing
number of researehers ro colleet , proeess, analyze, and make avail able vol-
umes of information that trigger shifts in the kinds of seientifie questions
that can be pursued; simulate systems of greater eomplexity and impor-
tance; and more easil y work across scientific disciplines. For exa mple, the
National Seienee Foundation has funded a "Nati onal Virtual Observa-
THE DRIVERS OF INTERDISCIPLlNARY RESEARCH 39
tory"12 that is likely ro transform asrronomy. Within a few years, compre-
hensive sky surveys will be generating petabyres (quadrillions of bytes) of
data every year. The long-term goal is ro make this data available ro every
researcher, along with the databases, data mining algorithms, and visual-
izarian toals needed ro make sense of ir. Researchers believe thar this infor-
marian abundance willlead to qualitatively new science, such as statistical
astronomy chal analyzes the large-scale structure of rhe universe, and auto-
mated searches far e;mtic or previously unknown types of celestial objects.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is another example of a generative
technology. The Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology for 2003 was
awarded to chemists Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield ro honor their
wark that led to MRI. Their research grew out of a fundamental interest in
using che magnetic resonance effee! ro produce images in proton-containing
matter. MRI and positron-emission romography (PET), with ancillary math-
emarical advances in romographic analysis, ha ve revolutionized many as-
pecrs of medical diagnosis and opened opportunities for safe experimenta-
tion with human subjects in the cognitive sciences.
13
CONCLUSIONS
The potemial power of IDR to produce novel and even revolutionary
insights is generally accepted. Ultimately, however, the value of IDR to the
scientific enterprise depends on the extent to which individual researchers
are free to engage in it. IDR musr be not only possible but also attractive for
students, postdoctoral fellows, and faculty members.
FINDINGS
Interdisciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or
individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, per-
spectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or
bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understand-
ing or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a
single discipline or area of research practice.
12US Narional Virtual Observatory. http://www.us-vo.org/.
131n one view, "new technologies are now driving scienrific advances as much as rhe orher
way around. These technologies are enabling novel approaches ro old quesrions and are
posing brand-new ones." Leshner, A. 1. "Science at the leading edge," Science Vol. 303:729.
Feb. 6, 2004.
40 FACILlTATlNG INTERDISCIPLlNARY RESEARCH
"1 CA>l RV1l:Med< WI\W ALL "" WAj "'1\0
CO\110 CARIt. MD w\tO' c.ovlD
IDR is pluralistic in method and focus. It may be conducted by indi-
viduals or groups and may be driven by scientific curiosity or practical
needs.
Interdisciplinary thinking is rapidly becoming an integral feature of
research as a result of four po:-verful " drivers": the inherent complexiry
of nature and society, the desire to explore problems and questions that
are not confined to a single discipline, the need to solve societal prob-
lems, and the power of new technologies.
Social-science research has not yet fully e\ucidated the complex social
and intellectual processes that make for successful IDR. A deeper un-
derstanding of these processes will further enhance the prospects for
creation and management of successful IDR programs.