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9.1 INTRODUCTION
Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) with the sensitivity to detect electromagnetic waves within a small range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation belonging to this region of the spectrum (wavelength of about 400 nm to 750 nm) is called light. It is mainly through light and the sense of vision that we know and interpret the world around us. There are two things that we can intuitively mention about light from common experience. First, that it travels with enormous speed and second, that it travels in a straight line. It took some time for people to realise that the speed of light is finite and measurable. Its presently accepted value in vacuum is c = 2.99792458 108 m s1. For many purposes, it suffices to take c = 3 108 m s1. The speed of light in vacuum is the highest speed attainable in nature. The intuitive notion that light travels in a straight line seems to contradict what we have learnt in Chapter 8, that light is an electromagnetic wave of wavelength belonging to the visible part of the spectrum. How to reconcile the two facts? The answer is that the wavelength of light is very small compared to the size of ordinary objects that we encounter commonly (generally of the order of a few cm or larger). In this situation, as you will learn in Chapter 10, a light wave can be considered to travel from one point to another, along a straight line joining
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them. The path is called a ray of light, and a bundle of such rays constitutes a beam of light. In this chapter, we consider the phenomena of reflection, refraction and dispersion of light, using the ray picture of light. Using the basic laws of reflection and refraction, we shall study the image formation by plane and spherical reflecting and refracting surfaces. We then go on to describe the construction and working of some important optical instruments, including the human eye.
P ARTICLE MODEL
OF LIGHT
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9.2 REFLECTION
OF
Newtons fundamental contributions to mathematics, mechanics, and gravitation often blind us to his deep experimental and theoretical study of light. He made pioneering contributions in the field of optics. He further developed the corpuscular model of light proposed by Descartes. It presumes that light energy is concentrated in tiny particles called corpuscles. He further assumed that corpuscles of light were massless elastic particles. With his understanding of mechanics, he could come up with a simple model of reflection and refraction. It is a common observation that a ball bouncing from a smooth plane surface obeys the laws of reflection. When this is an elastic collision, the magnitude of the velocity remains the same. As the surface is smooth, there is no force acting parallel to the surface, so the component of momentum in this direction also remains the same. Only the component perpendicular to the surface, i.e., the normal component of the momentum, gets reversed in reflection. Newton argued that smooth surfaces like mirrors reflect the corpuscles in a similar manner. In order to explain the phenomena of refraction, Newton postulated that the speed of the corpuscles was greater in water or glass than in air. However, later on it was discovered that the speed of light is less in water or glass than in air. In the field of optics, Newton the experimenter, was greater than Newton the theorist. He himself observed many phenomena, which were difficult to understand in terms of particle nature of light. For example, the colours observed due to a thin film of oil on water. Property of partial reflection of light is yet another such example. Everyone who has looked into the water in a pond sees image of the face in it, but also sees the bottom of the pond. Newton argued that some of the corpuscles, which fall on the water, get reflected and some get transmitted. But what property could distinguish these two kinds of corpuscles? Newton had to postulate some kind of unpredictable, chance phenomenon, which decided whether an individual corpuscle would be reflected or not. In explaining other phenomena, however, the corpuscles were presumed to behave as if they are identical. Such a dilemma does not occur in the wave picture of light. An incoming wave can be divided into two weaker waves at the boundary between air and water.
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We are familiar with the laws of reflection. The angle of reflection (i.e., the angle between reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface or the mirror) equals the angle of incidence (angle between incident ray and the normal). Also that the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane (Fig. 9.1). These laws are valid at each point on any reflecting surface whether plane or curved. However, we shall restrict our discussion to the special case of curved surfaces, that is, spherical surfaces. The normal in
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FIGURE 9.1 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface lie in the same plane.
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9.2.2 Focal length of spherical mirrors
To derive the relevant formulae for reflection by spherical mirrors and refraction by spherical lenses, we must first adopt a sign convention for measuring distances. In this book, we shall follow the Cartesian sign convention. According to this convention, all distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or the optical centre of the lens. The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken as positive and those measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative (Fig. 9.2). The heights measured upwards with respect to x -axis and normal to the principal axis (x -axis) of the mirror/ lens are taken as positive (Fig. 9.2). The heights measured downwards are FIGURE 9.2 The Cartesian Sign Convention. taken as negative. With a common accepted convention, it turns out that a single formula for spherical mirrors and a single formula for spherical lenses can handle all different cases.
Figure 9.3 shows what happens when a parallel beam of light is incident on (a) a concave mirror, and (b) a convex mirror. We assume that the rays are paraxial, i.e., they are incident at points close to the pole P of the mirror and make small angles with the principal axis. The reflected rays converge at a point F on the principal axis of a concave mirror [Fig. 9.3(a)]. For a convex mirror, the reflected rays appear to diverge from a point F on its principal axis [Fig. 9.3(b)]. The point F is called the principal focus of the mirror. If the parallel paraxial beam of light were incident, making some angle with the principal axis, the reflected rays would converge (or appear to diverge) from a point in a plane through F normal to the principal axis. This is called the focal plane of the mirror [Fig. 9.3(c)].
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tan =
MD MD =2 FD CD
The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the mirror is called the focal length of the mirror, denoted by f . We now show that f = R/2, where R is the radius of curvature of the mirror. The geometry of reflection of an incident ray is shown in Fig. 9.4. Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror. Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis striking the mirror at M. Then CM will be perpendicular to the mirror at M. Let be the angle of incidence, and MD be the perpendicular from M on the principal axis. Then, MCP = and MFP = 2 Now, MD MD and tan 2 = (9.1) CD FD For small , which is true for paraxial rays, tan , tan 2 2. Therefore, Eq. (9.1) gives
FIGURE 9.4 Geometry of reflection of an incident ray on (a) concave spherical mirror, and (b) convex spherical mirror.
CD (9.2) 2 Now, for small , the point D is very close to the point P. Therefore, FD = f and CD = R. Equation (9.2) then gives f = R/ 2 (9.3)
or, FD =
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or
B A B P = BA B P Comparing Eqs. (9.4) and (9.5), we get
BA B F = ( PM = AB) (9.4) BA FP Since APB = APB , the right angled triangles A BP and ABP are also similar. Therefore, (9.5)
BF B P FP B P = = (9.6) FP FP BP Equation (9.6) is a relation involving magnitude of distances. We now apply the sign convention. We note that light travels from the object to the mirror MPN. Hence this is taken as the positive direction. To reach
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the object AB, image A B as well as the focus F from the pole P, we have to travel opposite to the direction of incident light. Hence, all the three will have negative signs. Thus, B P = v , FP = f, BP = u Using these in Eq. (9.6), we get
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B A B P = BA BP With the sign convention, this becomes h v = u h so that m=
v f v = f u 1 1 1 + = (9.7) f v u This relation is known as the mirror equation. The size of the image relative to the size of the object is another important quantity to consider. We define linear magnification ( m ) as the ratio of the height of the image (h ) to the height of the object (h ): h m= (9.8) h h and h will be taken positive or negative in accordance with the accepted sign convention. In triangles A BP and ABP, we have, or
h v = (9.9) h u We have derived here the mirror equation, Eq. (9.7), and the magnification formula, Eq. (9.9), for the case of real, inverted image formed by a concave mirror. With the proper use of sign convention, these are, in fact, valid for all the cases of reflection by a spherical mirror (concave or convex) whether the image formed is real or virtual. Figure 9.6 shows the ray diagrams for virtual image formed by a concave and convex mirror. You should verify that Eqs. (9.7) and (9.9) are valid for these cases as well.
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FIGURE 9.6 Image formation by (a) a concave mirror with object between P and F, and (b) a convex mirror.
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v + f v = u f
EXAMPLE 9.1
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FIGURE 9.7
Solution The ray diagram for the formation of the image of the phone is shown in Fig. 9.7. The image of the part which is on the plane perpendicular to principal axis will be on the same plane. It will be of the same size, i.e., B C = BC. You can yourself r ealise why the image is distorted. Example 9.3 An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature, and magnification of the image in each case. Solution The focal length f = 15/2 cm = 7.5 cm
1 1 1 + = v 10 7. 5
v=
or
10 7 .5 = 30 cm 2. 5
The image is 30 cm from the mirror on the same side as the object. Also, magnification m =
v ( 30) = =3 u ( 10) The image is magnified, real and inverted.
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EXAMPLE 9.2 EXAMPLE 9.3
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Example 9.2 A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave mirr or, as shown in Fig. 9.7. Show by suitable diagram, the for mation of its image. Explain why the magnification is not uniform. Will the distortion of image depend on the location of the phone with respect to the mirror?
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Solution You may think that the image will now show only half of the object, but taking the laws of reflection to be true for all points of the remaining part of the mirror, the image will be that of the whole object. However, as the area of the reflecting surface has been r educed, the intensity of the image will be low (in this case, half).
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(ii) The object distance u = 5 cm. Then from Eq. (9.7),
1 1 1 + = v 5 7.5
EXAMPLE 9.3
or
v=
5 7 .5 = 15 cm (7.5 5)
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for u = 39 m, v =
EXAMPLE 9.4
9.3 REFRACTION
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When a beam of light encounters another transparent medium, a part of light gets reflected back into the first medium while the rest enters the other. A ray of light represents a beam. The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident ray of light that enters the other medium, changes
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Example 9.4 Suppose while sitting in a parked car, you notice a jogger approaching towards you in the side view mirror of R = 2 m. If the jogger is running at a speed of 5 m s 1, how fast the image of the jogger appear to move when the jogger is (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, and (d) 9 m away.
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Note: Optical density should not be confused with mass density, which is mass per unit volume. It is possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than that of an optically rarer medium (optical density is the ratio of the speed of light in two media). For example, turpentine and water. Mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but its optical density is higher. If n 21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 and n 12 the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2, then it should be clear that n 12 = 1 n 21 (9.11)
where n 21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium. Equation (9.10) is the well-known Snells law of refraction. We note that n 21 is a characteristic of the pair of media (and also depends on the wavelength of light), but is independent of the angle of incidence. From Eq. (9.10), if n 21 > 1, r < i , i.e., the refracted ray bends towards the normal. In such a case medium 2 is said to be optically denser (or denser, in short) than medium 1. On the other hand, if n 21 <1, r > i, the refracted ray bends away from the normal. This is the case when incident ray in a denser medium refracts into a rarer medium.
It also follows that if n 32 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 2 then n 32 = n 31 n 12, where n 31 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 1. FIGURE 9.9 Lateral shift of a ray refracted Some elementary results based on the laws through a parallel-sided slab. of refraction follow immediately. For a rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two interfaces (air-glass and glass-air). It is easily seen from Fig. 9.9 that r2 = i1, i.e., the emergent ray is parallel to the incident raythere is no 317
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deviation, but it does suffer lateral displacement/ shift with respect to the incident ray. Another familiar observation is that the bottom of a tank filled with water appears to be raised (Fig. 9.10). For viewing near the normal direction, it can be shown that the apparent depth, ( h1) is real depth (h 2) divided by the refractive index of the medium (water). The refraction of light through the atmosphere is responsible for many interesting phenomena. For example, the sun is visible a little before the actual sunrise and until a little after the actual sunset due to refraction of light through the atmosphere (Fig. 9.11). By actual sunrise we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the sun. Figure 9.11 shows the actual and apparent positions of the sun with respect to the horizon. The figure is highly exaggerated to show the effect. The refractive index of air with respect to vacuum is 1.00029. Due to this, the apparent shift in the direction of the sun is by about half a degree and the corresponding time difference between actual sunset and apparent sunset is about 2 minutes (see Example 9.5). The apparent flattening (oval shape) of the sun at sunset and sunrise is also due to the same phenomenon.
EXAMPLE 9.5
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FIGURE 9.10 Apparent depth for (a) normal, and (b) oblique viewing.
FIGURE 9.11 Advance sunrise and delayed sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
Example 9.5 The earth takes 24 h to rotate once about its axis. How much time does the sun take to shift by 1 when viewed from the earth? Solution T ime taken for 360 shift = 24 h T ime taken for 1 shift = 24/360 h = 4 min.
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SNELLS
LAW
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sin i v = 1 sin r v 2
To make this time minimum, one has to differentiate it (with respect to the coordinate of X ) and find the point X when t is a minimum. On doing all this algebra (which we skip here), we find that the guard should enter water at a point where Snells law is satisfied. To understand this, draw a perpendicular LM to side SR at X. Let GXM = i and CXL = r. Then it can be seen that t is minimum when
In the case of light v 1/v2, the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to that in the medium, is the refractive index n of the medium. In short, whether it is a wave or a particle or a human being, whenever two mediums and two velocities are involved, one must follow Snells law if one wants to take the shortest time.
When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it is partly reflected back into the same medium and partly refracted to the second medium. This reflection is called the internal reflection. When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal, for example, the ray AO1 B in Fig. 9.12. The incident ray AO1 is partially reflected (O1C) and partially transmitted (O1B) or refracted, the angle of refraction (r ) being larger than the angle of incidence (i ). As the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of refraction, till for the ray AO3, the angle of refraction is /2. The refracted ray is bent so much away from the normal that it grazes the surface at the interface between the two media. This is shown by the ray AO3 D in Fig. 9.12. If the angle of incidence is increased still further (e.g., the ray AO4 ), refraction is not possible, and the incident ray is totally reflected.
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Consider a rectangular swimming pool PQSR; see figure here. A lifeguard sitting at G outside the pool notices a child drowning at a point C. The guard wants to reach the child in the shortest possible time. Let SR be the side of the pool between G and C. Should he/she take a straight line path GAC between G and C or GBC in which the path BC in water would be the shortest, or some other path GXC? The guard knows that his/her running speed v 1 on ground is higher than his/her swimming speed v2. Suppose the guard enters water at X. Let GX =l1 and XC =l 2. Then the time taken to reach from G to C would be
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This is called total internal reflection. When light gets reflected by a surface, normally some fraction of it gets transmitted. The reflected ray, therefore, is always less intense than the incident ray, howsoever smooth the reflecting surface may be. In total internal reflection, on the other hand, no transmission of light takes place. The angle of incidence corresponding to an angle of refraction 90, say AO3 N, is called the critical angle (ic ) for the given pair of media. We see from Snells law [Eq. (9.10)] FIGURE 9.12 Refraction and internal reflection of rays from a point A in the denser medium that if the relative refractive index is less (water) incident at different angles at the interface than one then, since the maximum value with a rarer medium (air). of sin r is unity, there is an upper limit to the value of sin i for which the law can be satisfied, that is, i = ic such that sin ic = n 21
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TABLE 9.1 C RITICAL ANGLE OF
Substance medium Water Refractive index 1.33 Crown glass 1.52 1.62 Dense flint glass Diamond 2.42
For values of i larger than ic, Snells law of refraction cannot be satisfied, and hence no refraction is possible. The refractive index of denser medium 2 with respect to rarer medium 1 will be n12 = 1/sin ic . Some typical critical angles are listed in Table 9.1.
SOME TRANSPARENT MEDIA
A demonstration for total internal reflection All optical phenomena can be demonstrated very easily with the use of a laser torch or pointer, which is easily available nowadays. Take a glass beaker with clear water in it. Stir the water a few times with a piece of soap, so that it becomes a little turbid. Take a laser pointer and shine its beam through the turbid water. You will find that the path of the beam inside the water shines brightly. Shine the beam from below the beaker such that it strikes at the upper water surface at the other end. Do you find that it undergoes partial reflection (which is seen as a spot on the table below) and partial refraction [which comes out in the air and is seen as a spot on the roof; Fig. 9.13(a)]? Now direct the laser beam from one side of the beaker such that it strikes the upper surface of water more obliquely [Fig. 9.13(b)]. Adjust the direction of laser beam until you find the angle for which the refraction
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Critical angle
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(i) Mirage: On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels. The refractive index of air increases with its density. Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air. If the air currents are small, that is, the air is still, the optical density at different layers of air increases with height. As a result, light from a tall object such as a tree, passes through a medium whose refractive index decreases towards the ground. Thus, a ray of light from such an object successively bends away from the normal and undergoes total internal reflection, if the angle of incidence for the air near the ground exceeds the critical angle. This is shown in Fig. 9.14(b). To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming FIGURE 9.13 from somewhere below the ground. The observer naturally assumes Observing total that light is being reflected from the ground, say, by a pool of water internal reflection in near the tall object. Such inverted images of distant tall objects cause water with a laser an optical illusion to the observer. This phenomenon is called mirage. beam (refraction due to glass of beaker This type of mirage is especially common in hot deserts. Some of you neglected being very might have noticed that while moving in a bus or a car during a hot thin). summer day, a distant patch of road, especially on a highway, appears to be wet. But, you do not find any evidence of wetness when you reach that spot. This is also due to mirage.
FIGURE 9.14 (a) A tree is seen by an observer at its place when the air above the ground is at uniform temperature, (b) When the layers of air close to the ground have varying temperature with hottest layers near the ground, light from a distant tree may undergo total internal reflection, and the apparent image of the tree may create 321 an illusion to the observer that the tree is near a pool of water.
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(ii) Diamond : Diamonds are known for their spectacular brilliance. Their brilliance is mainly due to the total internal reflection of light inside them. The critical angle for diamond-air interface ( 24.4) is very small, therefore once light enters a diamond, it is very likely to undergo total internal reflection inside it. Diamonds found in nature rarely exhibit the brilliance for which they are known. It is the technical skill of a diamond cutter which makes diamonds to sparkle so brilliantly. By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple total internal reflections can be made to occur. (iii) Prism : Prisms designed to bend light by 90 or by 180 make use of total internal FIGURE 9.15 Prisms designed to bend rays by 90 and 180 or to invert image without changing reflection [Fig. 9.15(a) and (b)]. Such a its size make use of total internal reflection. prism is also used to invert images without changing their size [Fig. 9.15(c)]. In the first two cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism must be less than 45. We see from Table 9.1 that this is true for both crown glass and dense flint glass. (iv) Optical fibres: Now-a-days optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video signals through long distances. Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other end (Fig. 9.16). Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres FIGURE 9.16 Light undergoes successive total are fabricated such that light reflected at one internal reflections as it moves through an side of inner surface strikes the other at an optical fibre. angle larger than the critical angle. Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its length. Thus, an optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe. A bundle of optical fibres can be put to several uses. Optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are converted to light by suitable transducers. Obviously, optical fibres can also be used for transmission of optical signals. For example, these are used as a light pipe to facilitate visual examination of internal organs 322 like esophagus, stomach and intestines. You might have seen a commonly
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9.5.1 Refraction at a spherical surface
tan NOM = tan NCM = MN OM MN MC MN MI tan NIM =
We have so far considered refraction at a plane interface. We shall now consider refraction at a spherical interface between two transparent media. An infinitesimal part of a spherical surface can be regarded as planar and the same laws of refraction can be applied at every point on the surface. Just as for reflection by a spherical mirror, the normal at the point of incidence is perpendicular to the tangent plane to the spherical surface at that point and, therefore, passes through its centre of curvature. We first consider refraction by a single spherical surface and follow it by thin lenses. A thin lens is a transparent optical medium bounded by two surfaces; at least one of which should be spherical. Applying the formula for image formation by a single spherical surface successively at the two surfaces of a lens, we shall obtain the lens makers formula and then the lens formula.
Figure 9.17 shows the geometry of formation of image I of an object O on the principal axis of a spherical surface with centre of curvature C, and radius of curvature R . The rays are incident from a medium of refractive index n 1, to another of refractive index n 2. As before, we take the aperture (or the lateral size) of the surface to be small compared to other distances involved, so that small angle approximation can be made. In particular, NM will be taken to be nearly equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point N on the principal axis. We have, for small angles,
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LIGHT
SOURCES AND PHOTOMETRY
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i= MN MN + OM MC Similarly, r = NCM NIM
MN MN MC MI
It is known that a body above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength region in which the body emits the radiation depends on its absolute temperature. Radiation emitted by a hot body, for example, a tungsten filament lamp having temperature 2850 K are partly invisible and mostly in infrared (or heat) region. As the temperature of the body increases radiation emitted by it is in visible region. The sun with temperature of about 5500 K emits radiation whose energy versus wavelength graph peaks approximately at 550 nm corresponding to green light and is almost in the middle of the visible region. The energy versus wavelength distribution graph for a given body peaks at some wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of that body. The measurement of light as perceived by human eye is called photometry. Photometry is measurement of a physiological phenomenon, being the stimulus of light as received by the human eye, transmitted by the optic nerves and analysed by the brain. The main physical quantities in photometry are (i) the luminous intensity of the source, (ii) the luminous flux or flow of light from the source, and (iii) illuminance of the surface. The SI unit of luminous intensity (I ) is candela (cd). The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. If a light source emits one candela of luminous intensity into a solid angle of one steradian, the total luminous flux emitted into that solid angle is one lumen (lm). A standard 100 watt incadescent light bulb emits approximately 1700 lumens. In photometry, the only parameter, which can be measured directly is illuminance . It is defined as luminous flux incident per unit area on a surface (lm/m2 or lux ). Most light meters measure this quantity. The illuminance E, produced by a source of luminous intensity I , is given by E = I/ r2, where r is the normal distance of the surface from the source. A quantity named luminance (L ), is used to characterise the brightness of emitting or reflecting flat surfaces. Its unit is cd/m2 (sometimes called nit in industry) . A good LCD computer monitor has a brightness of about 250 nits.
Now, for NOC, i is the exterior angle. Therefore, i = NOM + NCM (9.13)
i.e., r =
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n1i = n 2r
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n2
MI
n 2 n1
MC
(9.15)
Here, OM, MI and MC represent magnitudes of distances. Applying the Cartesian sign convention, OM = u, MI = +v , MC = +R Substituting these in Eq. (9.15), we get
n2 n1 n n1 = 2 (9.16) v u R Equation (9.16) gives us a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive index of the medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface. It holds for any curved spherical surface.
Example 9.6 Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature = 20 cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position the image is formed? Solution We use the r elation given by Eq. (9.16). Here u = 100 cm, v = ?, R = + 20 cm , n1 = 1, and n 2 = 1.5. We then have
1.5 1 0.5 + = v 100 20
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or v = +100 cm The image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from the glass surface, in the direction of incident light.
Figure 9.18(a) shows the geometry of image formation by a double convex lens. The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps: (i) The first refracting surface forms the image I1 of the object O [Fig. 9.18(b)]. The image I1 acts as a virtual object for the second surface that forms the image at I [Fig. 9.18(c)]. Applying Eq. (9.15) to the first interface ABC, we get n1 n n n1 + 2 = 2 OB BI1 BC1 (9.17)
A similar procedure applied to the second interface* ADC gives, n 2 n 1 n 2 n1 + = DI1 DI DC2
* Note that now the refractive index of the medium on the right side of ADC is n 1 while on its left it is n 2. Further DI1 is negative as the distance is measured against the direction of incident light.
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EXAMPLE 9.6
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For a thin lens, BI 1 = DI1 . Adding Eqs. (9.17) and (9.18), we get n1 n1 1 1 + = (n 2 n1 ) + OB DI BC1 DC2 (9.19)
BC1 = + R1 , DC 2 = R 2
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FIGURE 9.18 (a) The position of object, and the image formed by a double convex lens, (b) Refraction at the first spherical surface and (c) Refraction at the second spherical surface.
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The point where image of an object placed at infinity is formed is called the focus F, of the lens and the distance f gives its focal length. A lens has two foci, F and F , on either side of it (Fig. 9.19). By the sign convention,
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Equation (9.21) is known as the lens makers for mula. It is useful to design lenses of desired focal length using surfaces of suitable radii of curvature. Note that the formula is true for a concave lens also. In that case R1 is negative, R 2 positive and therefore, f is negative. From Eqs. (9.19) and (9.20), we get n1 n1 n + = 1 OB DI f (9.22)
Again, in the thin lens approximation, B and D are both close to the optical centre of the lens. Applying the sign convention, BO = u, DI = + v, we get 1 1 1 = v u f (9.23)
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Equation (9.23) is the familiar thin lens formula . Though we derived it for a real image formed by a convex lens, the formula is valid for both convex as well as concave lenses and for both real and virtual images. It is worth mentioning that the two foci, F and F, of a double convex or concave lens are equidistant from the optical centre. The focus on the side of the (original) source of light is called the first focal point, whereas the other is called the second focal point. To find the image of an object by a lens, we can, in principle, take any two rays emanating from a point on an object; trace their paths using
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(9.21)
n1 1 1 = (n 2 n1 ) + f BC1 DC2
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(9.20)
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Solution The refractive index of the liquid must be equal to 1.47 in order to make the lens disappear. This means n1 = n 2.. This gives 1/f = 0 or f . The lens in the liquid will act like a plane sheet of glass. No, the liquid is not water. It could be glycerine.
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EXAMPLE 9.7
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length bends the incident light more, while converging it in case of a convex lens and diverging it in case of a concave lens. The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light falling at unit distant from the optical centre (Fig. 9.20).
P=
1 f
EXAMPLE 9.8
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Example 9.8 (i) If f = 0.5 m for a glass lens, what is the power of the lens? (ii) The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive index of glass? (iii) A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is focal length in water? (Refractive index of air-water = 1.33, refractive index for air-glass = 1.5.) Solution (i) Power = +2 dioptre. (ii) Here, we have f = +12 cm, R 1 = +10 cm, R2 = 15 cm. Refractive index of air is taken as unity. We use the lens formula of Eq. (9.22). The sign convention has to be applied for f , R 1 and R 2. Substituting the values, we have
1 1 1 = (n 1) 12 10 15 This gives n = 1.5. (iii) For a glass lens in air, n 2 = 1.5, n1 = 1, f = +20 cm. Hence, the lens formula gives 1 1 1 = 0.5 20 R1 R 2 For the same glass lens in water, n 2 = 1.5, n1 = 1.33. Therefore,
1 1.33 1 = (1.5 1.33) f R1 R 2 Combining these two equations, we find f = + 78.2 cm.
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The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1D = 1m1. The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens. Thus, when an optician prescribes a corrective lens of power + 2.5 D, the required lens is a convex lens of focal length + 40 cm. A lens of power of 4.0 D means a concave lens of focal length 25 cm.
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(9.25)
(9.26)
value of . Thus,
tan =
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1 1 1 1 = + f2 v u f1 1 1 1 = v u f so that we get 1 1 1 = + f f1 f 2 1 1 1 1 = + + + f f1 f 2 f3 In terms of power, Eq. (9.31) can be written as P = P1 + P 2 + P3 +
If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, we have
The derivation is valid for any number of thin lenses in contact. If several thin lenses of focal length f1 , f2 , f3 ,... are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is given by (9.31)
where P is the net power of the lens combination. Note that the sum in Eq. (9.32) is an algebraic sum of individual powers, so some of the terms on the right side may be positive (for convex lenses) and some negative (for concave lenses). Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification. It also enhances sharpness of the image. Since the image formed by the first lens becomes the object for the second, Eq. (9.25) implies that the total magnification m of the combination is a product of magnification (m 1, m 2, m 3 ,...) of individual lenses (9.33) m = m1 m 2 m 3 ...
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(9.28) (9.29) (9.30) (9.32)
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(9.27)
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Such a system of combination of lenses is commonly used in designing lenses for cameras, microscopes, telescopes and other optical instruments.
Example 9.9 Find the position of the image formed by the lens combination given in the Fig. 9.22.
FIGURE 9.22
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1 1 1 = v2 10 10
or v1 = 15 cm The image formed by the first lens serves as the object for the second. This is at a distance of (15 5) cm = 10 cm to the right of the second lens. Though the image is real, it serves as a virtual object for the second lens, which means that the rays appear to come from it for the second lens.
or v2 = The virtual image is formed at an infinite distance to the left of the second lens. This acts as an object for the third lens.
1 1 1 = f3 v3 u 3
EXAMPLE 9.9
or or
1 1 1 = + v3 30 v3 = 30 cm
9.6 REFRACTION
THROUGH A
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Figure 9.23 shows the passage of light through a triangular prism ABC. The angles of incidence and refraction at the first face AB are i and r1, while the angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face AC is r2 and the angle of refraction or emergence e. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is called the angle of deviation, .
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PRISM
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2r = A or r = A 2 In the same way, Eq. (9.35) gives Dm = 2i A, or i = (A + Dm )/2 n 2 sin [( A + Dm )/ 2] = n1 sin [ A / 2] (9.36) (9.37) The refractive index of the prism is n 21 = (9.38) n 21 = sin [( A + Dm )/ 2] sin [ A /2]
= (i r 1 ) + (e r2 ) that is, = i + eA (9.35) Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence. A plot between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence is shown in Fig. 9.24. You can see that, in general, any given value of , except for i = e, corresponds to two values i and hence of e . This, in fact, is expected from the symmetry of i and e in Eq. (9.35), i.e., remains the same if i and e are interchanged. Physically, this is related to the fact that the path of ray in Fig. 9.23 can be traced back, resulting in the same angle of deviation. At the minimum deviation Dm, the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base. We have = Dm, i = e which implies r1 = r2 . Equation (9.34) gives
The angles A and D m can be measured experimentally. Equation (9.38) thus provides a method of determining refractive index of the material of the prism. For a small angle prism, i.e., a thin prism, Dm is also very small, and we get
FIGURE 9.24 Plot of angle of deviation ( ) versus angle of incidence ( i ) for a triangular prism.
( A + Dm ) /2
A/2
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9.7 DISPERSION
BY A
PRISM
It has been known for a long time that when a narrow beam of sunlight, usually called white light, is incident on a glass prism, the emergent light is seen to be consisting of several colours. There is actually a continuous variation of colour, but broadly, the different component colours that appear in sequence are: v iolet, indigo, b lue, green, y ellow, orange and r ed (given by the acronym VIBGYOR). The red light bends the least, while the violet light bends the most (Fig. 9.25). The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is known as dispersion . The pattern of colour components of light is called the spectrum of light. The word spectrum is now used in a much more general sense: we discussed in Chapter 8 the electroFIGURE 9.25 Dispersion of sunlight or white light magnetic spectrum over the large range on passing through a glass prism. The relative of wavelengths, from -rays to radio deviation of different colours shown is highly waves, of which the spectrum of light exaggerated. (visible spectrum) is only a small part. Though the reason for appearance of spectrum is now common knowledge, it was a matter of much debate in the history of physics. Does the prism itself create colour in some way or does it only separate the colours already present in white light? In a classic experiment known for its simplicity but great significance, Isaac Newton settled the issue once for all. He put another similar prism, but in an inverted position, and let the emergent beam from the first prism fall on the second prism (Fig. 9.26). The resulting emergent beam was found to be white light. The explanation was clear the first prism splits the white light into its component colours, while the inverted prism recombines them to give white light. Thus, white light itself consists of light of different colours, which are separated by the prism. It must be understood here that a ray of light, as defined mathematically, does not exist. An actual ray is really a beam of many rays of light. Each ray splits into component colours when it enters the glass prism. When those coloured rays come out on the other side, they again produce a white beam. FIGURE 9.26 Schematic diagram of We now know that colour is associated with Newtons classic experiment on wavelength of light. In the visible spectrum, red dispersion of white light. light is at the long wavelength end (~700 nm) while the violet light is at the short wavelength end (~ 400 nm). Dispersion takes place because the refractive index of medium 332 for different wavelengths (colours) is different. For example, the bending
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9.8 SOME N ATURAL PHENOMENA
DUE TO
The variation of refractive index with wavelength may be more pronounced in some media than the other. In vacuum, of course, the speed of light is independent of wavelength. Thus, vacuum (or air approximately) is a non-dispersive medium in which all colours travel with the same speed. This also follows from the fact that sunlight reaches us in the form of white light and not as its components. On the other hand, glass is a dispersive medium.
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http://www.eo.ucar.edu/rainbows http://www.atoptics.co.uk/bows.htm
Formation of rainbows
The interplay of light with things around us gives rise to several beautiful phenomena. The spectacle of colour that we see around us all the time is possible only due to sunlight. The blue of the sky, white clouds, the redhue at sunrise and sunset, the rainbow, the brilliant colours of some pearls, shells, and wings of birds, are just a few of the natural wonders we are used to. We describe some of them here from the point of view of physics.
The rainbow is an example of the dispersion of sunlight by the water drops in the atmosphere. This is a phenomenon due to combined effect of dispersion, refraction and reflection of sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain. The conditions for observing a rainbow are that the sun should be shining in one part of the sky (say near western horizon) while it is raining in the opposite part of the sky (say eastern horizon). An observer can therefore see a rainbow only when his back is towards the sun. In order to understand the formation of rainbows, consider Fig. (9.27(a). Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes the different wavelengths (colours) of white light to separate. Longer wangelength of light (red) are bent the least while the shorter wavelength (violet) are bent the most. Next, these component rays strike
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FIGURE 9.27 Rainbow: (a) The sun rays incident on a water drop get refracted twice and reflected internally by a drop; (b) Enlarge view of internal reflection and refraction of a ray of light inside a drop form primary rainbow; and (c) secondary rainbow is formed by rays undergoing internal reflection twice inside the drop.
the inner surface of the water drop and get internally reflected if the angle between the refracted ray and normal to the drop surface is greater then the critical angle (48, in this case). The reflected light is refracted again as it comes out of the drop as shown in the figure. It is found that the violet light emerges at an angle of 40 related to the incoming sunlight and red light emerges at an angle of 42. For other colours, angles lie in between these two values.
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9.9 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
As sunlight travels through the earths atmosphere, it gets scattered (changes its direction) by the atmospheric particles. Light of shorter wavelengths is scattered much more than light of longer wavelengths. (The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering). Hence, the bluish colour predominates in a clear sky, since blue has a shorter wavelength than red and is scattered much more strongly. In fact, violet gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter wavelength. But since our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet, we see the sky blue. Large particles like dust and water droplets present in the atmosphere behave differently. The relevant quantity here is the relative size of the wavelength of light , and the scatterer (of typical size, say, a). For a << , one has Rayleigh scattering which is proportional to 1/4. For a >> , i.e., large scattering objects (for example, raindrops, large dust or ice particles) this is not true; all wavelengths are scattered nearly equally. Thus, clouds FIGURE 9.28 Sunlight travels through a longer which have droplets of water with a >> distance in the atmosphere at sunset and sunrise. are generally white. At sunset or sunrise, the suns rays have to pass through a larger distance in the atmosphere (Fig. 9.28). Most of the blue and other shorter wavelengths are removed by scattering. The least scattered light reaching our eyes, therefore, the sun looks reddish. This explains the reddish appearance of the sun and full moon near the horizon.
A number of optical devices and instruments have been designed utilising reflecting and refracting properties of mirrors, lenses and prisms. Periscope, kaleidoscope, binoculars, telescopes, microscopes are some
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examples of optical devices and instruments that are in common use. Our eye is, of course, one of the most important optical device the nature has endowed us with. Starting with the eye, we then go on to describe the principles of working of the microscope and the telescope.
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Example 9.10 What focal length should the reading spectacles have for a person for whom the least distance of distinct vision is 50 cm? Solution The distance of normal vision is 25 cm. So if a book is at u = 25 cm, its image should be formed at v = 50 cm. Therefore, the desired focal length is given by 1 1 1 = f v u 1 1 1 1 = or = f 50 25 50 orf = + 50 cm (convex lens).
FIGURE 9.29 (a) The structure of the eye; (b) shortsighted or myopic eye and its correction; (c) farsighted or hypermetropic eye and its correction; and (d) astigmatic eye and its correction.
Similarly, if the eye-lens focusses the incoming light at a point behind the retina, a convergent lens is needed to compensate for the defect in vision. This defect is called farsightedness or hypermetropia [Fig. 9.29(c)]. Another common defect of vision is called astigmatism. This occurs when the cornea is not spherical in shape. For example, the cornea could have a larger curvature in the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane or vice-versa. If a person with such a defect in eye-lens looks at a wire mesh or a grid of lines, focussing in either the vertical or the horizontal plane may not be as sharp as in the other plane. Astigmatism results in lines in one direction being well focussed while those in a perpendicular direction may appear distorted [Fig. 9.29(d)]. Astigmatism can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens of desired radius of curvature with an appropriately directed axis. This defect can occur along with myopia or hypermetropia.
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EXAMPLE 9.10
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Example 9.11 (a) The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front of the eye. What is the power of the lens required to enable him to see very distant objects clearly? (b) In what way does the corrective lens help the above person? Does the lens magnify very distant objects? Explain carefully. (c) The above person prefers to remove his spectacles while reading a book. Explain why?
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EXAMPLE 9.12
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EXAMPLE 9.11
Solution (a) Solving as in the previous example, we find that the person should use a concave lens of focal length = 80 cm, i.e., of power = 1.25 dioptres. (b) No. The concave lens, in fact, reduces the size of the object, but the angle subtended by the distant object at the eye is the same as the angle subtended by the image (at the far point) at the eye. The eye is able to see distant objects not because the corrective lens magnifies the object, but because it brings the object (i.e., it produces virtual image of the object) at the far point of the eye which then can be focussed by the eye-lens on the retina. (c) The myopic person may have a normal near point, i.e., about 25 cm (or even less). In order to read a book with the spectacles, such a person must keep the book at a distance greater than 25 cm so that the image of the book by the concave lens is produced not closer than 25 cm. The angular size of the book (or its image) at the greater distance is evidently less than the angular size when the book is placed at 25 cm and no spectacles are needed. Hence, the person prefers to remove the spectacles while reading. Example 9.12 (a) The near point of a hypermetropic person is 75 cm from the eye. What is the power of the lens required to enable the person to read clearly a book held at 25 cm from the eye? (b) In what way does the corrective lens help the above person? Does the lens magnify objects held near the eye? (c) The above person prefers to remove the spectacles while looking at the sky. Explain why?
Solution (a) u = 25 cm, v = 75 cm 1/f = 1/25 1/75, i.e., f = 37.5 cm. The corrective lens needs to have a converging power of +2.67 dioptres. (b) The corrective lens produces a virtual image (at 75 cm) of an object at 25 cm. The angular size of this image is the same as that of the object. In this sense the lens does not magnify the object but merely brings the object to the near point of the hypermetric eye, which then gets focussed on the retina. However, the angular size is greater than that of the same object at the near point (75 cm) viewed without the spectacles. (c) A hypermetropic eye may have normal far point i.e., it may have enough converging power to focus parallel rays from infinity on the retina of the shortened eyeball. Wearing spectacles of converging lenses (used for near vision) will amount to more converging power than needed for parallel rays. Hence the person prefers not to use the spectacles for far objects.
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Now according to our sign convention, v is negative, and is equal in magnitude to D. Thus, the magnification is h tan o = o D
D m = 1 + (9.39) f Since D is about 25 cm, to have a magnification of six, one needs a convex lens of focal length, FIGURE 9.30 A simple microscope; (a) the f = 5 cm. magnifying lens is located such that the Note that m = h / h where h is the size of the image is at the near point, (b) the angle object and h the size of the image. This is also the subtanded by the object, is the same as ratio of the angle subtended by the image that at the near point, and (c) the object to that subtended by the object, if placed at D for near the focal point of the lens; the image comfortable viewing. (Note that this is not the angle is far off but closer than infinity. actually subtended by the object at the eye, which is h/u. ) What a single-lens simple magnifier achieves is that it allows the object to be brought closer to the eye than D. We will now find the magnification when the image is at infinity. In this case we will have to obtained the angular magnification. Suppose the object has a height h. The maximum angle it can subtend, and be clearly visible (without a lens), is when it is at the near point, i.e., a distance D. The angle subtended is then given by (9.40)
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We now find the angle subtended at the eye by the image when the object is at u. From the relations h v =m = h u we have the angle subtended by the image h h v h . The angle subtended by the object, when it = = v v u u is at u = f. tan i =
i = f
D m = i = f o
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h L = fo h where we have used the result mO = h h tan = = fo L
This is one less than the magnification when the image is at the near point, Eq. (9.39), but the viewing is more comfortable and the difference in magnification is usually small. In subsequent discussions of optical instruments (microscope and telescope) we shall assume the image to be at infinity. A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification ( 9) for realistic focal lengths. For much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one compounding the effect of the other. This is known as a compound microscope. A schematic diagram of a compound microscope is shown in Fig. 9.31. The lens nearest the object, called the objective, forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the object. This serves as the object for the second lens, the eyepiece , which functions essentially like a simple microscope or magnifier, produces the final image, which is enlarged and virtual. The first inverted image is thus near (at or within) the focal plane of the eyepiece, at a distance appropriate for final image formation at infinity, or a little closer for image formation at the near point. Clearly, the final image is inverted with respect to the original object. We now obtain the magnification due to a FIGURE 9.31 Ray diagram for the compound microscope. The ray diagram of formation of image by a compound Fig. 9.31 shows that the (linear) magnification microscope. due to the objective, namely h / h, equals (9.43)
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[9.44(b)]
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Thus, the total magnification [(according to Eq. (9.33)], when the image is formed at infinity, is L D m = mome = (9.45) fo fe Clearly, to achieve a large magnification of a small object (hence the name microscope), the objective and eyepiece should have small focal lengths. In practice, it is difficult to make the focal length much smaller than 1 cm. Also large lenses are required to make L large. For example, with an objective with fo = 1.0 cm, and an eyepiece with focal length fe = 2.0 cm, and a tube length of 20 cm, the magnification is L m = mome = fo = D fe
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9.9.3 Telescope
20 25 = 250 1 2 Various other factors such as illumination of the object, contribute to the quality and visibility of the image. In modern microscopes, multicomponent lenses are used for both the objective and the eyepiece to improve image quality by minimising various optical aberrations (defects) in lenses.
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects (Fig. 9.32). It also has an objective and an eyepiece. But here, the objective has a large focal length and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece. Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image. The magnifying power m is the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle which the object subtends at the lens or the eye. Hence h fo f . = o m (9.46) fe h fe In this case, the length of the telescope tube is fo + fe .
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http://astro.nineplanets.org/bigeyes.html
The worlds largest optical telescopes
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Terrestrial telescopes have, in addition, a pair of inverting lenses to make the final image erect. Refracting telescopes can be used both for terrestrial and astronomical observations. For example, consider a telescope whose objective has a focal length of 100 cm and the eyepiece a focal length of 1 cm. The magnifying power of this telescope is m = 100/1 = 100. Let us consider a pair of stars of actual separation 1 (one minute of arc). The stars appear as though they FIGURE 9.32 A refracting telescope. are separated by an angle of 100 1 = 100 =1.67. The main considerations with an astronomical telescope are its light gathering power and its resolution or resolving power. The former clearly depends on the area of the objective. With larger diameters, fainter objects can be observed. The resolving power, or the ability to observe two objects distinctly, which are in very nearly the same direction, also depends on the diameter of the objective. So, the desirable aim in optical telescopes is to make them with objective of large diameter. The largest lens objective in use has a diameter of 40 inch (~1.02 m). It is at the Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin, USA. Such big lenses tend to be very heavy and therefore, difficult to make and support by their edges. Further, it is rather difficult and expensive to make such large sized lenses which form images that are free from any kind of chromatic aberration and distortions. For these reasons, modern telescopes use a concave mirror rather than a lens for the objective. Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes. They have several advantages. First, there is no chromatic aberration in a mirror. Second, if a parabolic reflecting surface is chosen, spherical aberration is also removed. Mechanical support is much less of a problem since a mirror weighs much less than a lens of equivalent optical quality, and can be supported over its entire back surface, not just over its rim. One obvious problem with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror focusses light inside the telescope tube. One must have an eyepiece and the observer right there, obstructing some light (depending on the size of the observer cage). This is what is done in the very large 200 inch (~5.08 m) diameters, Mt. Palomar telescope, California. The viewer sits near the focal point of the FIGURE 9.33 Schematic diagram of a reflecting mirror, in a small cage. Another solution to telescope (Cassegrain). the problem is to deflect the light being focussed by another mirror. One such arrangement using a convex secondary mirror to focus the incident light, 342 which now passes through a hole in the objective primary mirror, is shown
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SUMMARY
1. Reflection is governed by the equation i = r and refraction by the Snells law, sini /sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same plane. Angles of incidence, reflection and refraction are i, r and r, respectively. The critical angle of incidence ic for a ray incident from a denser to rarer medium, is that angle for which the angle of refraction is 90. For i > i c, total internal reflection occurs. Multiple internal reflections in diamond (ic 24.4), totally reflecting prisms and mirage, are some examples of total internal reflection. Optical fibres consist of glass fibres coated with a thin layer of material of lower refractive index. Light incident at an angle at one end comes out at the other, after multiple internal reflections, even if the fibre is bent.
2.
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3. 4. Cartesian sign convention: Distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are positive; those measured in the opposite direction are negative. All distances are measured from the pole/optic centre of the mirror/lens on the principal axis. The heights measured upwards above x-axis and normal to the principal axis of the mirror/ lens are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken as negative. Mirror equation: 5.
1 1 1 + = f v u where u and v are object and image distances, respectively and f is the focal length of the mirror. f is (approximately) half the radius of curvature R. f is negative for concave mirror; f is positive for a convex mirror. For a prism of the angle A, of refractive index n 2 placed in a medium of refractive index n 1,
n 21 =
n 2 sin ( A + D m ) /2 = n1 sin ( A / 2)
6.
where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation. For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1 to 2 of refractive index n 1 and n 2 , respectively)
1 1 1 = f v u
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Lens makers formula
1 (n 2 n1 ) 1 1 = f n1 R1 R 2
R 1 and R 2 are the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces. f is positive for a converging lens; f is negative for a diverging lens. The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m1. If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2 , f3 ,.. are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination, is given by
7. 8.
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9.
1 1 1 1 = + + + f f1 f2 f3 The total power of a combination of several lenses is P = P1 + P 2 + P3 + Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours. The Ey e: The eye has a convex lens of focal length about 2.5 cm. This focal length can be varied somewhat so that the image is always formed on the retina. This ability of the eye is called accommodation. In a defective eye, if the image is focussed before the retina (myopia), a diverging corrective lens is needed; if the image is focussed beyond the retina (hypermetropia), a converging corrective lens is needed. Astigmatism is corrected by using cylindrical lenses. Magnifying power m of a simple microscope is given by m = 1 + (D/f ), where D = 25 cm is the least distance of distinct vision and f is the focal length of the convex lens. If the image is at infinity, m = D/f. For a compound microscope, the magnifying power is given by m = m e m0 where me = 1 + (D/fe ), is the magnification due to the eyepiece and mo is the magnification produced by the objective. Approximately, m= L D fo fe
where fo and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece, respectively, and L is the distance between their focal points. 10. Magnifying power m of a telescope is the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object.
m=
fo = fe
where f0 and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece, respectively.
POINTS TO PONDER
1.
The laws of reflection and refraction are true for all surfaces and pairs of media at the point of the incidence.
2.
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The real image of an object placed between f and 2f from a convex lens can be seen on a screen placed at the image location. If the screen is removed, is the image still there? This question puzzles many, because it is difficult to reconcile ourselves with an image suspended in air
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EXERCISES
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
FIGURE 9.34
A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the mirror, how would the screen have to be moved? A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the location of the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved farther from the mirr or. A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. What is the refractive index of water? If water is replaced by a liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height, by what distance would the microscope have to be moved to focus on the needle again? Figures 9.34(a) and (b) show refraction of a ray in air incident at 60 with the normal to a glass-air and water-air inter face, respectively. Predict the angle of refraction in glass when the angle of incidence in water is 45 with the normal to a water -glass interface [Fig. 9.34(c)].
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9.5 A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80 cm. What is the area of the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is 1.33. (Consider the bulb to be a point source.) A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on a face of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation is measured to be 40. What is the refractive index of the material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60. If the prism is placed in water (refractive index 1.33), predict the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel beam of light. Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length is to be 20 cm? A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 1 2 cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal length 20 cm, and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16 cm? An object of size 3.0 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Describe the image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved further away from the lens? What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30 cm in contact with a concave lens of focal length 20 cm? Is the system a converging or a diverging lens? Ignore thickness of the lenses. A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.25 cm separated by a distance of 15 cm. How far from the objective should an object be placed in order to obtain the final image at (a) the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm), and (b) at infinity? What is the magnifying power of the microscope in each case? A person with a normal near point (25 cm) using a compound microscope with objective of focal length 8.0 mm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5 cm can bring an object placed at 9. 0 mm from the objective in sharp focus. What is the separation between the two lenses? Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope, A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.0 cm. What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between the objective and the eyepiece? (a) A giant refracting telescope at an observatory has an objective lens of focal length 15 m. If an eyepiece of focal length 1. 0 cm is used, what is the angular magnification of the telescope? (b) If this telescope is used to view the moon, what is the diameter of the image of the moon formed by the objective lens? The diameter of the moon is 3.48 106 m, and the radius of lunar orbit is 3.8 108 m. Use the mirror equation to deduce that: (a) an object placed between f and 2 f of a concave mirror produces a real image beyond 2 f. (b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of the location of the object. (c) the virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always diminished in size and is located between the focus and the pole.
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FIGURE 9.35
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Answer the following questions: (a) You have lear nt that plane and convex mirrors pr oduce virtual images of objects. Can they produce real images under some circumstances? Explain. (b) A virtual image, we always say, cannot be caught on a screen. Yet when we see a virtual image, we are obviously bringing it on to the screen (i.e., the retina) of our eye. Is there a contradiction? (c) A diver under water, looks obliquely at a fisher man standing on the bank of a lake. Would the fisher man look taller or shorter to the diver than what he actually is? (d) Does the apparent depth of a tank of water change if viewed obliquely? If so, does the apparent depth increase or decrease? (e) The refractive index of diamond is much greater than that of ordinary glass. Is this fact of some use to a diamond cutter? The image of a small electric bulb fixed on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall 3 m away by means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal length of the lens required for the purpose? A screen is placed 90 cm from an object. The image of the object on the screen is formed by a convex lens at two different locations separated by 20 cm. Determine the focal length of the lens. (a) Determine the effective focal length of the combination of the two lenses in Exercise 9.10, if they are placed 8.0 cm apart with their principal axes coincident. Does the answer depend on which side of the combination a beam of parallel light is incident? Is the notion of effective focal length of this system useful at all? (b) An object 1.5 cm in size is placed on the side of the convex lens in the arrangement (a) above. The distance between the object
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Physics
9.22 and the convex lens is 40 cm . Determine the magnification produced by the two-lens system, and the size of the image. At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60 so that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.524. You are given prisms made of crown glass and flint glass with a wide variety of angles. Suggest a combination of prisms which will (a) deviate a pencil of white light without much dispersion, (b) disperse (and displace) a pencil of white light without much deviation. For a normal eye, the far point is at infinity and the near point of distinct vision is about 25 cm in front of the eye. The cornea of the eye provides a converging power of about 40 dioptres, and the least converging power of the eye-lens behind the cornea is about 20 dioptres. From this rough data estimate the range of accommodation (i.e., the range of converging power of the eye-lens) of a normal eye. Does short-sightedness (myopia) or long-sightedness (hyper metropia) imply necessarily that the eye has partially lost its ability of accommodation? If not, what might cause these defects of vision? A myopic person has been using spectacles of power 1.0 dioptre for distant vision. During old age he also needs to use separate reading glass of power + 2.0 dioptres. Explain what may have happened. A person looking at a person wearing a shirt with a pattern comprising vertical and horizontal lines is able to see the vertical lines more distinctly than the horizontal ones. What is this defect due to? How is such a defect of vision corrected ? A man with normal near point (25 cm) reads a book with small print using a magnifying glass: a thin convex lens of focal length 5 cm. (a) What is the closest and the farthest distance at which he should keep the lens from the page so that he can read the book when viewing through the magnifying glass ? (b) What is the maximum and the minimum angular magnification (magnifying power) possible using the above simple microscope? A card sheet divided into squares each of size 1 mm2 is being viewed at a distance of 9 cm through a magnifying glass (a converging lens of focal length 9 cm) held close to the eye. (a) What is the magnification produced by the lens? How much is the area of each square in the virtual image ? (b) What is the angular magnification (magnifying power) of the lens ? (c) Is the magnification in (a) equal to the magnifying power in (b)? Explain. (a) At what distance should the lens be held from the figure in Exercise 9.29 in order to view the squares distinctly with the maximum possible magnifying power? (b) What is the magnification in this case ? (c) Is the magnification equal to the magnifying power in this case? Explain. What should be the distance between the object in Exercise 9.30 and the magnifying glass if the virtual image of each square in the figure is to have an area of 6.25 mm2. Would you be able to see the squares distinctly with your eyes very close to the magnifier ?
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FIGURE 9.36
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Physics
9.38 Figure 9.37 shows an equiconvex lens (of refractive index 1.50) in contact with a liquid layer on top of a plane mirror. A small needle with its tip on the principal axis is moved along the axis until its inverted image is found at the position of the needle. The distance of the needle from the lens is measured to be 45. 0 cm. The liquid is removed and the experiment is repeated. The new distance is measured to be 30.0 cm. What is the refractive index of the liquid?
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FIGURE 9.37
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