Introduction to Korean Architecture

July 4, 2006 1:30-3:30 pm. Instructor: Heekyung Lee

This course is a selective survey of major developments in Korean architecture history. We will study the relationship between architecture, religion and the ideology of Three Kingdoms Period, Koryo and Choson dynasties. Examination will also be made on the differences between the Korean architecture history and that of other part of East Asia, and the environments in which such diversities arose.

Course Topics 1. Ancient Period

Tombs and Monasteries City Planning and Palaces

2. United Silla Dynasty 3. Koryo Dynasty

Monasteries City planning and palaces

4. Choson Dynasty
Monasteries City Planning and Palaces Sowon

Select Bibliography
Yun, Changsop, Hanguk ui Konchug (Korean Architecture), Seoul, 1996. Kim, Won-yong, An, Hwi-joon, Hanguk Misul ui Yoksa (Art History in Korea), Seoul, 2003. Evelyn McCune, The Art of Korea, Tokyo, 1962. Kim Dong-uk, Palaces of Korea, Seoul, 2006. Kang, Woobong. "Bulguksa Temple and Seokbulsa Temple." Korea Journal 41:2 (Summer 2001): 320-344. Kang, Woo-bang. The Art of Avatamsaka Sutra in the Unified Silla Period: The Sanctuary of Sokkuram and Hwaom-kyong Pyonsangdo (Narrative Portrayal in the Avatamsaka Sutra). In Washizuka Hiromitsu, Park Youngbok, and Kang Woo-bang, eds. Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan . New York: Japan Society, 2003

Introduction to Korean Architecture

The origin of Korean architecture traditions may be traced back to Northeast Asian culture, namely the scytho-Siberian origins. Since the introduction of the Chinese culture of the Han dynasty the basic system of wooden building frames has been passed down to recent years. Such structures blended with other architectural details that were affected by a number of Oriental thoughts: Yin and yang, Interpretation of the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire and earth), Geomancy, Taoism and Confucianism. . In architectural design, Korean architects took full notice of the surrounding terrain in their effort to create harmony with nature. Traditional Korean buildings give an impression of coziness and tidiness, and are far from being overpowering or imposing. The Koreans wisely tried to make the best use of nature prior to artificial rendering in terms of both technique and beauty. Thus, the aesthetics of Korean traditional architecture can be characterized by moderate elegance in decoration and humble openness in architectural design.

1. Ancient Period
Traces of architecture from the Neolithic period can be found in ondol , the unique Korean floor panel heating system. The evidence was found at the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture. The development of the vertical wall was also evident in the primitive houses of this culture. Dolmens, which were primitive tombs of important persons, have been found all over the Korean peninsula. Archaeological remains show that on the Korean peninsula, the building technique of houses evolved from a pit dwelling to that of a earthen wall with thatched roof, then to that of a log cabin construction, and finally, to a raised floor construction. The kingdom located in north Korea, Koguryo, began as a small tribal unit whose headquarters were near Mt. Paektu (Paektu-san) on the upper reaches of the Amnok river around 37 B. C. It grew until it included half of Manchuria and after the fall of Lolang, the Chinese colony in the Korean peninsula in 313, all of north Korea. Paekche was founded in 18 B.C. and its territory included the west coast of the Korean peninsula, extending from near the 38th parallel to the southern tip of the peninsula. Being situated in Korea's most fertile land around the Han River and its vicinity, was marked by fruitful foreign relations with southern China on the one hand and with the emerging imperial clan in Japan on the other. Due to its geographical isolation, the growth of Silla was delayed. Because of the geographical element, Silla, however, concentrated on overseas trade activities through sea routes that eventually increased its wealth that then provided a broad basis for the unification of the peninsula. Tombs and Monasteries

A number of Koguryo tombs remain up to the present time. These can be divided into two groups according to the materials used. The stone pyramid type, those from an earlier period and found in the Amnok river area, and the later earth mound type, found both on the Amnok river and to the south, usually containing murals. The former are believed to have been related to the similar tradition of stone tombs widely seen in Siberia and the adjacent areas. Among tombs in the shape of square and round as usually found in Chinese tombs, the square shaped tombs were oriented to the four points of the compass. Their chamber walls leaned slightly inward, and the vaulted construction of the ceiling was topped by a single slab. These domed ceilings were generally made up of several corbels, some of which were parallel to the walls, with others were across them. This tradition was observed remotely in Asia Minor, and also in cave monasteries at Kizil in Central Asia and northern China. As for the treatment of walls, all were stone, some were plastered, and others were smoothed, polished, and painted. The stone masonry in all the tombs showed a high order of skill in terms of cutting, fitting, and finishing of large blocks of hard stone such as granite. The mural paintings constitute their chief claim to glory. Before the sixth century, the dominant subjects were genre scenes and heavenly spirits in combination with stylized floral and geometrical decoration, and they were drawn on lime walls. Buddhist influences are also visible in certain subjects such as a Buddhist ceremonial practice scene and lotus flowers. After the sixth century, the four cardinals spirits emerged as the central subject drawn on brick walls. Murals also reveal a great deal about the architecture of that period as many of them depict buildings which have pillars. The murals reveal that the wooden bracket structures and coloring on timbers, all characteristic of later Korean structures, were already in use at that time. With the official introduction of Buddhism in the late fourth century, Koguryo constructed a number of Buddhist monasteries as can be observed in a series of excavations unearthed sites near Pyongyang. The monasteries were built in a Koguryo style known as the "three Halls-one Pagoda," with a hall to the east, west, north, and an entrance gate to the south. In most cases, the central pagodas had an octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been arranged in this way as well. The architectural techniques are believed to have been transmitted by the Han dynasty through Lolang. Among extant remains in Korea, the tombs in the vicinity of the three capitals of Paekche offer the best clues as to construction methods and materials. Tomb No. 6 of Songsn-ni and the tomb of King Muryong also in Songsan-ni had a feature unique in Korea that is similar to those found in the Southern Dynasties in China. This type of tomb had a vaulted ceiling and the laid in alternate vertical and horizontal blocks with bricks that are similar in size and shape to the brick of tombs built in the period of the Laing Dynasty (A.D. 502-587) of southern China. Subterranean channels, also made of bricks, were constructed to drain off water, and small niches were let into the brick walls to accommodate Buddhist images. The stone tombs were frequently composed of granite slabs of great size, were highly polished, and often showed traces of paintings of the Four Spirits and other themes similar to those of the murals of Koguryo Paekche introduced Buddhism officially in the late fourth century. The plans of Buddhist monasteries were characterized by one centrally located pagoda, an entrance gate, main hall, lecture hall and rectangular cloister enclosure; all were arranged in a symmetrical layout along a north-south axis. Given that Paekche

exercised influence to Japan, the Buddhist monastery of Horyuji in Japan might help to visualize a similar example of Paekche monasteries. Several surviving stone pagodas exhibit the calibre of their architects. The earliest stone Pagoda of Miruk-sa (Miruk Monastery) in Iksan county is of particular interest because it shows the transitional features from the wooden pagoda to the stone pagoda. The pagoda of the Chongym-sa (Chongyim Monastery) in Puyo is one of the most beautiful pagodas with its simple dignity, manifesting superb proportions and the impression of massive strength. Silla has a unique method of tomb construction. Wooden-chamber tombs with stone mound are most typical for those of power and wealth of the period. Above the wooden chamber where burial goods were placed were heaped mounds of river boulders. These were covered with a great mound of earth. While the origin of this type of tomb is not known, the similarity between them and those in the Altai region of Siberia indicates some relationship. The burials of golden crowns and belt ornaments also denote a close relationship with objects found in North Eurasia and Central Asia. In Silla, Buddhism was recognized as the state religion in 528. The monastery architecture was also well developed, as can be observed in the remains of the state monastery, Hwangryong-sa (Yellow Dragon Monastery or Monastery of the Imperial Dragon). One of the earliest Silla monasteries, Hwangnyong-sa, was excavated and found to have been of considerable magnitude. It stood in a squarewalled area enclosed by corridors, which alone comprised about 19,040 square meters. Another major Silla Monastery was Punhwang-sa (Punhwang Monastery) on the site of which still stands three stories of what is recorded to have been a nine-storey pagoda. As the remains show, the pagoda was made of stones cut to look like bricks. A set of stone flagpole pillars in addition to other stone relics also remain. Apart from monasteries, one of the distinctive buildings of this dynasty include Chomsong-dae . The earliest stone observatory in Asia was constructed during the reign of Queen Sondok(r. 632-646). City Planning and Palaces We are not left with much information on the appearance of cities or palaces from the Three Kingdoms Period. With reference to textual sources, however, we can glimpse that the capitals of the period were usually built on hilly ground beside a river. A fortress was usually constructed at nearby mountain for refuge in times of emergency. An inner wall was constructed within the outer wall which surrounded the city, particularly around the core of the city where the royal court was located. Kyongju, the capital of Silla, was laid out in a grid pattern. In the sixth century, inside the city walls was constructed the state monastery, Hwangryong-sa. Within the walls is a royal complex of a villa and its garden located with a beautifully landscaped lotus pond entitled Anapji, (Wild Goose and Duck Pond). It was made after Silla's unification of the peninsula for the commemoration of the event. While the royal palace constructed beside it did not survive, the pond, fully alive with its natural landscape curves and protrusion of rocks, provides us with a hint of the ideal beauty as perceived by the Silla elite.

2. United Silla (688-935)

Through Buddhist initiative and skill at organization and financing, a great spurt of building took place as the peninsula was unified in the late seventh century. Dozens of great monasteries were built, many of them similar to those of the popular Buddhist sects of Tang China. Pulguk-sa (Buddha Land Monastery) is built in a series of stone platforms on the foothills of Mt. Toham. First founded early in the sixth century and later repaired under King Munmu (r. 661-80), it was entirely rebuilt and expanded by King Kyongdok (r. 742-765) during a time frame ending in 752. The original foundations of Pulguk-sa have survived to the present. The core of the monastery site is the complex of Taeung-jeon (Taeung Hall), the main hall built in 681 CE, which houses the statue of the Shakyamuni Buddha, and that of Kungnak-jon (Kungnak Hall or Hall of Western Paradise), which houses the gilt-bronze statue of Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise. Behind the main hall stands Musol-jeon (Musol Hall or Hall of Silence), one of the oldest constructions in the monastery presumably built in 670. The Kwanum-jon ( Kwanum Hall or Avalokitesvara's Hall) houses an image of the Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Perfect Compassion and stands at the highest point of the complex. The Piro-jon (Piro Hall), which sits below the Kwanum-jon houses the Vairocana Buddha statue. At the foot of the regaining wall of the first terrace there was originally located a lotus pond which was bridged by the first flight of steps. As the pilgrim mounts the steps, crosses the bridge, and passes through the entrance gate, he symbolically leaves the world behind him and enters "Buddha Land." On the high platform before the worshipper stands the Daeung-jon. Two pagodas (in Korean, tap, ) are placed in front of it, one, Sokka-tap (Pagoda of Shakyamuni) simple in construction and the other, Tabo-tap (Pagoda of Prabutaratna ) complex, complement one another. The simple pagoda represents the Buddha absorbed in transcendent calm; the complex one symbolizes his manifestation in a diversified universe. This helps the worshipper to realize that as he leaves behind the samsar of everyday existence, he enters the Gate of Deliverance, proceeds past the pairs of opposites that are characteristic of creation, and enters Nirvana, which is the last stage of his journey. The Sokka-tap is located to the left of the entrance. The style of Tabo-tap to the right that may have been built when the monastery was founded is unique in north Asia. The first story is a platform provided with four stone stair cases leading up to an enclosed area which is thought at have accommodated a Buddhist image at one time. Sokku-ram (Grotto Shrine) is located about a mile away from Pulguksa, on the crest of Mt. Toham. The Sokku-ram cave shrine was artificially built with stones. The basic layout of the cave-style monastery includes an arched entrance which leads into a rectangular antechamber and then a narrow corridor, lined with bas-reliefs, and then finally leads into the main rotunda. The centerpiece of the granite sanctuary is a Buddha statue seated in the main chamber. The Buddha is seated on a lotus throne with legs crossed. The Buddha has a serene expression of meditation. The Buddha is surrounded by fifteen panels of bodhisattvas, arhats and ancient Indian gods in the rotunda and is accompanied by ten statues in niches along the wall. The top of the ceiling of the Seokgu-ram grotto is decorated with a lotus flower. Silla architects used symmetry and apparently employed the concept of the golden rectangle. The cave is skillfully constructed by hundreds of different granite stones. There was no mortar used and it was held together by stone rivets. The construction of the grotto also utilized natural ventilation.

3. Koryo Dynasty (918-1392)

On the basis of the architectural tradition of United Silla, Koryo developed its unique style partly incorporating elements from contemporary China. Monasteries Buddhism was further encouraged and promoted in this dynasty. In the early period, the palace and monasteries were built with a columnar bracket set system which was put on columns to support the massive overhang eaves. The Kungnakjon of Pongjong-sa (Pongjong Monastery) in Andong built at the end of the twelfth century is the oldest and one of the most beautiful existing wooden structures in the country and expresses the typical architectural characteristics of the early period of Koryo. The pagoda style of United Silla was maintained in the early period, while a special trend emerged to reflect regional styles originating from the ancient Three Kingdoms Period.) The middle period of Koryo developed the wooden building style that seemed to be affected by the cultural influence of Fukien province along the southern coastal area of China as can be observed in Muryangsu-jon (Muryangsu Hall) at Pusok-sa (Pusok Monastery) in Yunju, built in the middle of the thirteenth century, and the Main Hall of Sudok-sa, (Sudok Monastery) in Yesan, built in 1308. The columnar bracket sets were made up of transverse members only with a unique single spreader at the top of the columns. The transverse horizontal beam was constructed on the top of columnar bracket sets and the beam ends projected out to the eaves. The projecting beam and bracket ends were shaped into an ox-tongue. The ends of columnar bracket arms and the ends of the single spreader bracket arm were carved out in the shape of a brace. Stone pagodas evolved into something distinctively unique in style with eclectic qualities in appearance and detail. The later period of Koryo was under Mongol control, and artistic activities were greatly hampered. In this period the intercolumnar bracket set system was adopted in building construction. To support intercolumnar bracket sets between the columns, the upper plate member was placed over the lintels and the columns, so as to compose a T-shaped section. Pokwang-jon (Pokwang Hall) at Simwon-sa (Simwon Monastery), built in 1374 and located in Yontan county of North Korea, is the oldest building of this style. A tall marble pagoda of ten stories, located originally at the site of Kyongchon-sa , (Kyongchon Monastery), displays features of the intercolumnar bracket set system. Upon three tiers of pedestals, the lower three stories of the pagoda have the plan of the Greek cross shape, while the upper seven storey of the pagoda have a square plan. The cornice of each story was exquisitely carved so as to represent the inter-columnar bracket set system with rafters and roof tiles which were also carved elaborately.

City planning and palaces The capital of Koryo was Kaegyong, the present day, Kaesong. Kaegyong was located in a natural basin surrounded by the hilly Mt. Songak. Owing to the natural landscape of the city, the non axial arrangement of buildings developed throughout

the city. The palace and monasteries in the city clustered along the flanks of Mt. Songak was enclosed by a meandering irregular city wall. The lengthy fortress wall built with twelve gates protected the city. Originally the city had two layers of walling, its inner and outer walls. Towards the end of the dynasty, amid of the instability of the states political situation and economy, the outer wall and the living complex situated in the area were all destroyed and never reconstructed. Geomancy was one of the significant principles of the blue print of the city. The main idea was to make the best and scientific use of nature as healthy and efficient living environments for people. The architects did not attempt to overcome the natural landscape but rather they respected the existing physical environment in their architectural design and town planning. Mountains provide shelters from wind, and rivers became resources of water. The concept evolved by incorporating certain Daoist religious elements such as astrology. The palace was located at a hilly corner in the north-west. With the city surrounded by mountains, and the palace having two streams of water from a hill met in front of the palace, Kaegyong was the best place in terms of Geomancy. The palace at Manwol-dae, (Full moon Terrace) was laid out according to the north-south axis, and because of the hilly topography the complexes were connected from one level to the next by flights of stone steps. The palace attracted considerable attention for its size, elegance and beauty during the period, but was later burnt down under foreign invasion. The platforms, flights of steps and foundations can still be seen on the empty site.

4. Choson Dynasty (1392-1910)

Choson was established with the support of Neo-Confucian scholar-officials in the late Koryo dynasty. The dissemination of Neo-Confucianism had already begun around the late period of the Koryo dynasty. This new trend of Confucian studies provided intellectual fulfillment to the new literati class of that time. The growth of Neo-Confucian philosophy eventually brought in its train a growing repudiation of Buddhism, and exercised significant influence over wider society. In the early period, architecture inherited the traditon of the previous dynasty incorporating the new political guiding principles of Confucianism that displaced Buddhism. In building technique, the inter-columnar bracket set system was used in building the most important edifice on the premises. The columnar bracket set system and the eclectic bracket system, which consist of architectural elements from both columnar and intercolumnar systems, were also used for monasteries and other important buildings. Monasteries In the Choson dynasty many Buddhists monasteries were moved away from the cities to remote mountainous areas. The arrangement of the monastery buildings were, thus, determined by the terrain and natural surroundings of the hilly topography. Most of the Buddhist monasteries were, however, founded early in the United Silla and the Koryo dynasty. Ever since, some monastery buildings have been continuously rebuilt and renovated.

City Planning and Palaces Two years after the establishment of the new dynasty, King T'aejo (r. 1392-1398) relocated the capital to Hanyang on the bank of the Han River, the present day Seoul. A grid pattern for the street system was applied in general, but it was modified due to existing terrain with many spontaneous irregularly curved roads and detours. The capital city planning was laid out to harmonize with the natural terrain which was surrounded by beautiful hills and mountains. The stone wall of sixteen kilometers encircling the capital was completed with eight principal gates. After the establishment of Kyongbok-gung (Kyongbok Palace) as the main palace, a number of palaces were additionally constructed. They include Changdokgung , Changgyong-gung (Ch'anggyong Palace), Kyonghee-gung (Kyonghee Palace) and Tuksu-gung (Tuksu Palace) in the capital, as well as royal villas outside the city. The main palace was constructed on the flat plain at the foot of Mt. Pukak, located in the north-west area of the city, facing south. The main ancestral hall of the Choson dynasty, Chongmyo , is located to the south-east of Kyungbok-gung. The altar for Sajik (Land God and Grain God ) was also established to the south-west of the palace in accordance with Confucian principles. A thoroughfare ran from the East gate to the West Gate and the curved broad avenue from the South Gate extended toward the north to Chongru (Bell tower) where the city signal bell was hung at the central location of the east-west thoroughfare, creating a T-shaped intersection. One broad avenue from Kyongbokgung located at the foot of Mt. Pukak ran to the south, and another broad avenue from another palace, Ch'angdok-gung (Ch'angdok Palace) also ran south parallel to it. Both avenues reached the great east-west thoroughfare at a T-shaped intersection. Along these broad avenues and the main part of the great thoroughfare, long linear buildings of stores, shops, and work rooms were built on both sides of the road to create a busy street front. Palaces, shrines, government edifices and other important buildings were carefully oriented in relation to the north-south axis. Most of these buildings were located along the T-shaped road intersections to create terminal vistas of townscape. As a result, the overall townscape of the city had a much different quality in comparison with other capital cities of Asia.

Kyongbok-gung (Kyongbok Palace) The forty-acre palatial area of Kyongbok-gung was laid out in 1395. This palace was ruined during the Japanese invasion and rebuilt by the Prince Regent in l870. The lay-out of the court is rectangular and the court was surrounded on four sides by walls. Watch towers were constructed at the outer foot of the southern palace wall. In the middle of the southern wall is the main gate of the palace. Thus, the main gate, main hall, halls of state, and the royal bed-rooms were all arranged in a straight line running from north to south. This layout also follows the Confucian outlook specifying the ideal structure of a royal palace having the court at the front and, sleeping quarters at the back.

The layout of the main buildings is in the north-south axial pattern of the magic square with the enclosed space by covered colonnades. On the east of the Kyongbok palace is Mt. Inwang while to the west is Mt. Naksan, and to the south, Mts. Namsan. Thus, against mountains to the rear, the north, and also guarded by two other mountains to the right and left and front, the court overlooks the city. In the palace construction, great efforts were made that all the architecture in the palace created the best harmony with the curves created by the mountain slopes which surrounded the city. The builders took special care to create windows of an appropriate size and in the right position so that the beauty of these mountains, so well-balanced with combination of rocks and trees, could be fully appreciated from inside the buildings. The areas inside the royal court were divided into the inner palace and the outer palace. In the outer palace located to the front are halls where formal events or ceremonies were carried out. The main throne hall or the center of the outer quarter was Kunjong-jon (Kunjong Hall, Hall for Diligent Administration). The inner palace was that for the royal family's residence. At the center of the inner palace were the halls of the royal residence, again, directly north of the halls of state. Both the courtyard and the main hall, Kunchong-jon, had an important function for state ceremonies and events. The large size of the Kunchong-mun (Gate to the courtyard of Kunchong-jon) and subjects of decorative motifs carved on the building complex, for example, phoenixes symbolizing the sovereign decorated on the steps leading up to Kunchong-mun - were all carefully chosen under consideration of its function. Kunjong-jon is built as a two-storey wooden structure, standing on a two-tiered stone platform. The platform is decorated with balustrade posts carved with the guardian spirits of the four directions and the twelve animals of the zodiac cycle. The large stone slab on the center of southern stairs to the platform is carved with phoenixes. Inside Kunjong-jon has a two-storey roof, is, but it creates a single space. Various motifs symbolizing the majesty and orthodoxy of a monarch is colorfully and elaborately painted on the wooden beams under the ceiling as well as on the ceiling and the wall. The throne is placed on a wooden platform situated in the centre to the north side of the hall. On all four sides of the platform are steps carved with dragons which signify the sovereign. Setting up behind the throne is a screen adorned with the sun, moon rising above five mountain peaks. A wooden structure in the shape of two large dragons holding the magic pearls of the sovereign is attached to the ceiling. The quarters specifically built for the purpose of entertaining foreign missionaries and court officials is Kyonghoi-ru (Kyonghoi Pavilion). A huge rectangular lotus pond and a two storey open-air building on stone pillars against the background of Mt. Inwang and Mt. Pukak which screen the palace, orchestrate a panoramic view. The present building is part of the overall reconstruction done in the mid-nineteenth century. Ch'angdok-gung (Ch'angdok Palace) Ch'angdok-gung is located in the center of the north side of the capital at the foothills of Mt. Unbongs southward slopes. The palace was built on this rugged hilly land amidst a number of small streams. The relatively small palace was constructed as a royal villa in 1405. Thus, the design was centered on the peaceful rest and comfortable living of the royal family,

not on state ceremonies or formal occasions. For this reason, the palace came to have distinctive features, particularly, in the way in which its buildings fully live up to the natural landscape, preserving the irregularity in the topography. The palace complexes were not made in accordance with a grand plan from the beginning, but were formed gradually over time by the incorporation of buildings, one after another, whenever necessary. Buildings are not laid out in precise straight lines, and they face different directions. This also helps their architecture to harmonize with nature. The intentional breaking of the symmetrical order is observed in most of the palaces. Ch'angdok-gung also underwent a major reconstruction in accordance with the original structure after its destruction by fire during the Japanese invasion that occurred at the end of the sixteenth century, and again later. In particular, there were further changes in the palace buildings due to destruction by fire in 1920 and the subsequent reconstruction. Many buildings were also demolished after the death of the last sovereign of the dynasty. Since the mid 1990s, some buildings have been reconstructed. The main gate of the palace is in the southwest corner of the palace wall. To main hall is not located in the straight line from the main gate. One has to make two or three 90 degree turns. Both the walls around the main gate and the main hall deliberately avoid using sharp right angles. At glance, the walls look square; in fact, they were set at a variety of angles, which bring about the general harmony between the buildings and their surroundings. At the back yard of the palace, in seclusion from the quarters of administration and the residence is a garden called huwon (rear garden), representing the culmination of the beauty of the garden. A spacey lotus pond and pavilions of various designs in the vicinity of the pond, were embraced by the rich woods and rugged hills with meandering streams. Fully living in the original landscape, artificiality is reduced to a minimum. The buildings designed to complement the lotus pond with - the elegant and exquisite lines made by the arch-shaped roof overlooking the pond in the vicinity include Chuham-nu (Heavenly Cottage). This most aesthetical spot in the palace was also used to invite those who passed the civil service examination, where they were presented with a cup of wine by the king. Chuham-nu was built by King Chongjo (r. 1776-1800) as the royal family's library. Neighboring to this is Sohyang-gak (Pavilion of Fragrant Tomes), with a specific design to facilitate good ventilation and moderate sunlight thus preventing books and documents from being ruined by unnecessary high proportion of moisture in the air. A number of dilapidated pavilions of smaller size are also placed in the area. These were built by successive kings as for their scholarship.

Sowon (private Confucian schools) During the Choson dynasty, many private Confucian schools were built to educate young men in their provinces. The best example is Tosan Sowon, built in l574 by the famous scholar Yi, Hwang. Some of the educational buildings, shrines, and houses for these scholars still exist.

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