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FAA-H-8083-6 (1) Advanced Avionics Handbook
FAA-H-8083-6 (1) Advanced Avionics Handbook
Advanced Avionics
Handbook
2009
The Advanced Avionics Handbook is a new publication designed to provide general aviation users with comprehensive
information on advanced avionics equipment available in technically advanced aircraft. This handbook introduces the pilot
to flight operations in aircraft with the latest integrated “glass cockpit” advanced avionics systems.
Since the requirements can be updated and the regulations can change, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
recommends that you contact your local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO), where FAA personnel can assist you
with questions regarding advanced avionics equipment flight training and/or advanced avionics equipment questions about
your aircraft.
This publication is available free of charge for download, in PDF format, from the FAA Regulatory Support Division
(AFS‑600) on the FAA website at www.faa.gov.
This handbook is published by and comments should be sent in email form to:
[email protected]
iii
iv
Acknowledgments
The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following aviation manufacturers and companies that provided images used in this
handbook:
Avidyne Corporation
Cirrus Design, Inc.
Garmin Ltd.
Rockwell Collins, Inc.
S-Tec Corporation
The FAA would also like to extend its appreciation to the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) for its
assistance and input in the preparation of this handbook.
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Table of Contents
vii
The Active Waypoint................................................3-14 Awareness: Remembering To Make Needed
Desired Track.........................................................3-14 Mode Changes.......................................................3-26
Track......................................................................3-14 Intercepting and Tracking a Course to a Different
Groundspeed and ETA..........................................3-14 Waypoint...................................................................3-26
Fuel Used and Time Remaining............................3-14 Common Error: Setting the Wrong Inbound
Arriving at the Active Waypoint...............................3-14 Course During a Course Intercept.........................3-27
Waypoint Alerting.................................................3-15 Common Error: Setting the Wrong Active
Turn Anticipation...................................................3-15 Waypoint During a Course Intercept.....................3-27
Waypoint Sequencing............................................3-15 Catching Errors: A Helpful Callout Procedure
Awareness: Making Waypoint Callouts................3-15 for Course Intercepts..............................................3-27
Setting the Course to New Active Waypoint.........3-16 Essential Skills..........................................................3-28
En Route Sensitivity..................................................3-16 Holding.........................................................................3-28
GPS Signal Status..................................................3-16 Preprogrammed Holding Patterns..........................3-28
Accessing Navigational Information En Route.....3-16 Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/
Essential Skills..........................................................3-16 Nonsequencing Modes During a Hold..................3-30
En Route Modifications................................................3-17 Essential Skills..........................................................3-30
Adding and Deleting Waypoints From the ARCS............................................................................3-30
Programmed Route....................................................3-17 Essential Skills..........................................................3-30
Direct To...................................................................3-17 GPS And RNAV (GPS) Approaches............................3-30
Risk: What Lies Ahead on a Direct-To Route?.....3-18 LNAV...........................................................................3-35
Cancel Direct To....................................................3-18 LNAV/VNAV...............................................................3-35
LPV...............................................................................3-35
Selecting a Different Instrument Procedure or
GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach Waypoints.............3-35
Transition..................................................................3-18
Flying a GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach.................3-35
Proceeding Directly to the Nearest Airport...............3-18
Terminal Mode......................................................3-36
Essential Skills..........................................................3-18
Descent..........................................................................3-19 Approach Mode.....................................................3-36
Elements of Descent Planning Calculations..............3-19 Approach Not Active.............................................3-36
Manual Descent Calculations................................3-20 Vectored Approaches................................................3-36
Coordinating Calculations with Aeronautical Awareness: Briefing the Approach........................3-37
Charts.....................................................................3-21 Common Error: Forgetting To Verify the
Alternate Navigation Planning..............................3-21 Approach Mode.....................................................3-37
Calculating Descents with the FMS......................3-21 Common Error: Using the Wrong Approach
Minimums..............................................................3-37
Managing Speed....................................................3-22
Common Error: Forgetting To Reengage
Descent Flying Concepts.......................................3-22
Sequencing Mode Prior to Final Approach
Flying the Descent.................................................3-23
Waypoint................................................................3-37
Determining Arrival at the Top-of-Descent
Essential Skills..........................................................3-38
Point.......................................................................3-23
Course Reversals...........................................................3-38
Early Descents.......................................................3-23
Preprogrammed Course Reversals............................3-38
Late Descents.........................................................3-24
Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/
Common Error: Not Considering Winds During Nonsequencing Modes During a Course
Descent Planning...................................................3-25
Reversal.................................................................3-38
Essential Skills..........................................................3-25
Essential Skills..........................................................3-38
Intercept And Track Course..........................................3-25
Missed Approaches.......................................................3-40
Intercepting and Tracking a Different Course to
Recognizing the Missed Approach Point..................3-41
the Active Waypoint..................................................3-25
Complying With ATC-Issued Missed Approach
The Nonsequencing Mode........................................3-25 Instructions................................................................3-41
Common Error: Forgetting To Re-Engage Setting Up Next Procedure in Hold.......................3-41
Sequencing Mode After Course Intercept.............3-26
viii
Common Error: Noncompliance With Initial Vertical Speed with Altitude Capture.........................4-8
Missed Approach Instructions...............................3-42 Catching Errors: Armed Modes Help Prevent
Essential Skills..........................................................3-42 Forgotten Mode Changes.........................................4-8
Ground-based Radio Navigation...................................3-42 Common Error: Failure To Arm the Altitude
Configuring FMs To Receive Ground-Based............3-42 Mode......................................................................4-10
Radio Navigation Signals..........................................3-42 Awareness: Altitude Alerting Systems..................4-10
Tuning and Identifying Radio Navigation Awareness: Automatic Mode Changes..................4-10
Facilities....................................................................3-42 Learning: The Importance of Understanding........4-10
Displaying Radio Navigation Signals on the Power Management...................................................4-11
Navigation Indicator..................................................3-42 Essential Skills..........................................................4-11
Awareness: Using All Available Navigation Course Intercepts..........................................................4-11
Resources..................................................................3-42 Flying an Assigned Heading To Intercept a Course
Flying a Precision Approach Using Ground-based or VOR Radial...........................................................4-11
Navigation Facilities.................................................3-42 Essential Skills..........................................................4-11
Flying a Nonprecision Approach Using Coupled Approaches.....................................................4-12
Ground-Based Navigation Facilities.........................3-42 ILS Approaches.........................................................4-12
Maintaining Proficiency: Practicing All RNAV Approaches With Vertical Guidance ...........4-12
Navigation Skills.......................................................3-43 Power Management...................................................4-13
Essential Skills..........................................................3-43 Essential Skills..........................................................4-13
Chapter Summary.........................................................3-44 Deciding When To Use The FD/Autopilot...................4-14
Miscellaneous Autopilot Topics...................................4-15
Chapter 4 Autopilot Mode Awareness.......................................4-15
Automated Flight Control....................................4-1 Positive Exchange of Controls..................................4-15
Introduction.....................................................................4-1 Preflighting the Autopilot..........................................4-15
Autopilot Concepts.........................................................4-2 Autopilot and Electric Trim System Failures............4-15
How To Use an Autopilot Function............................4-2 Essential Skills..........................................................4-15
Specification of Track and Altitude.........................4-2 Chapter Summary.........................................................4-16
Engagement of Autopilot Function.........................4-3
Verification of Autopilot Function Engagement.....4-3 Chapter 5
How Autopilot Functions Work..................................4-4 Information Systems............................................5-1
Determination of Control Movements Required Introduction.....................................................................5-1
To Achieve Goals....................................................4-4 Multi-Function Display...................................................5-2
Carrying Out Control Movements...........................4-4 Essential Skills............................................................5-2
Flight Director.................................................................4-4 Moving Maps..................................................................5-2
Flight Director Functions............................................4-4 Using the Moving Map...............................................5-2
Using the Flight Director (FD)....................................4-5 Maintaining the “Big Picture”.................................5-3
Flight Director Without Autopilot...........................4-5 Maintaining Awareness of Potential Landing
Flight Director With Autopilot................................4-5 Sites..........................................................................5-3
Common Error: Blindly Following Flight Maintaining Awareness on the Airport Surface......5-3
Director Cues...........................................................4-5 Identifying Controlled Airspace..............................5-3
Common Error: Confusion About Autopilot Identifying the Missed Approach Point...................5-4
Engagement.............................................................4-5 Catching Errors: Using the Moving Map to Detect
Follow Route...................................................................4-5 Route Programming Errors.........................................5-4
Following a Route Programmed in the FMS..............4-5 Catching Errors: Using The Moving Map To Detect
GPS Steering (GPSS) Function...................................4-6 Configuration Errors....................................................5-4
Following a VOR Radial.............................................4-6 Maintaining Proficiency: Spatial Reasoning Skills.....5-5
Fly Heading.....................................................................4-7 Failure Indications...................................................5-5
Maintain Altitude............................................................4-7 Common Error: Using the Moving Map as a
Climbs And Descents......................................................4-8 Primary Navigation Instrument...................................5-5
Vertical Speed.............................................................4-8 Awareness: Overreliance On The Moving Map.........5-6
ix
Terrain Systems..............................................................5-6 Traffic Data Systems.....................................................5-14
Early Systems..............................................................5-6 Traffic Data Systems Using Onboard Sensing
Terrain Display............................................................5-7 Equipment.................................................................5-14
Monitoring Surrounding Terrain During Traffic Data Systems Receiving Information From
Departure and Arrival..............................................5-7 Ground-based Facilities.............................................5-14
Evaluating a Direct-To Routing...............................5-8 Advanced Traffic Data Systems Based On ADS-B..5-15
Using A Traffic Data System....................................5-15
Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems..................5-8
Setting Sensitivity on a Traffic Data System.........5-15
TAWS A and TAWS B...........................................5-8
Responding to Traffic Alerts.................................5-15
TAWS Alerts...........................................................5-8
Error: Overreliance on Traffic Data
Risk: Silencing TAWS Alerts.....................................5-8
Risk: Flying in Close Proximity to Terrain.................5-9 System/Failure To Scan.........................................5-15
Cockpit Weather Systems...............................................5-9 Using a Traffic Data System on the Ground..........5-15
Thunderstorms and Precipitation................................5-9 Fuel Management Systems...........................................5-15
Onboard Weather Radar Systems.............................5-10 Initial Fuel Estimate..................................................5-16
Ground Weather Surveillance Radar.........................5-10 Estimating Amount Of Fuel on Board......................5-16
Limitations of Both Types of Weather Radar Predicting Fuel at a Later Point in the Flight............5-16
Systems..................................................................5-11 Determining Endurance.............................................5-17
Lightning................................................................5-12 Risk: Stretching Fuel Reserves.................................5-17
Other Cockpit Information System Features................5-17
Clouds....................................................................5-12
Electronic Checklists.................................................5-17
Other Weather Products.........................................5-12
Electronic Charts.......................................................5-18
Using Advanced Weather Data Systems...................5-12
FMS/RNAV Pages on the MFD................................5-18
Preflight Overview.................................................5-13
Chapter Summary.........................................................5-19
Track Progress of Significant Weather En Route..5-13
Investigate Weather Phenomena Reported by Essential Skills Checklist................................... E-1
Radio......................................................................5-13
Broadcast Weather Products Versus Onboard Glossary...............................................................G-1
Weather Sensors....................................................5-13
Common Error: Skipping the Preflight Weather
Briefing......................................................................5-14
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Chapter 1
Introduction to
Advanced Avionics
Introduction
This handbook is designed as a technical reference for
pilots who operate aircraft with advanced avionics systems.
Whether flying a conventional aircraft that features a global
positioning system (GPS) navigation receiver or a new
aircraft with the latest integrated “glass cockpit” advanced
avionics system, you should find this handbook helpful in
getting started. The arrival of new technology to general
aviation aircraft has generated noticeable changes in three
areas: information, automation, and options.
1-1
Advanced avionics systems can automatically perform many logic the system uses to perform its function, and discusses
tasks that pilots and navigators previously did by hand. For each system’s general limitations. It is important to note
example, an area navigation (RNAV) or flight management that this handbook is not intended as a guide for any one
system (FMS) unit accepts a list of points that define a manufacturer’s equipment. Rather, the aim is to describe the
flight route, and automatically performs most of the course, basic principles and concepts that underlie the internal logic
distance, time, and fuel calculations. Once en route, the FMS and processes and the use of each type of advanced avionics
or RNAV unit can continually track the position of the aircraft system. These principles and concepts are illustrated with
with respect to the flight route, and display the course, time, a range of equipment by different manufacturers. It is very
and distance remaining to each point along the planned route. important that the pilot obtain the manufacturer’s guide for
An autopilot is capable of automatically steering the aircraft each system to be operated, as only those materials contain
along the route that has been entered in the FMS or RNAV the many details and nuances of those particular systems.
system. Advanced avionics perform many functions and Many systems allow multiple methods of accomplishing a
replace the navigator and pilot in most procedures. However, task, such as programming or route selection. A proficient
with the possibility of failure in any given system, the pilot pilot tries all methods, and chooses the method that works
must be able to perform the necessary functions in the event best for that pilot for the specific situation, environment,
of an equipment failure. Pilot ability to perform in the event of and equipment. Not all aircraft are equipped or connected
equipment failure(s) means remaining current and proficient identically for the navigation system installed. In many
in accomplishing the manual tasks, maintaining control of instances, two aircraft with identical navigation units are
the aircraft manually (referring only to standby or backup wired differently. Obvious differences include slaved versus
instrumentation), and adhering to the air traffic control (ATC) non-slaved electronic horizontal situation indicators (EHSIs)
clearance received or requested. Pilots of modern advanced or primary flight display (PFD) units. Optional equipment is
avionics aircraft must learn and practice backup procedures not always purchased and installed. The pilot should always
to maintain their skills and knowledge. Risk management check the equipment list to verify what is actually installed
principles require the flight crew to always have a backup in that specific aircraft. It is also essential for pilots using
or alternative plan, and/or escape route. Advanced avionics this handbook to be familiar with, and apply, the pertinent
aircraft relieve pilots of much of the minute-to-minute parts of the regulations and the Aeronautical Information
tedium of everyday flights, but demand much more initial Manual (AIM).
and recurrent training to retain the skills and knowledge
necessary to respond adequately to failures and emergencies. Advanced avionics equipment, especially navigation
equipment, is subject to internal and external failure. You
The FMS or RNAV unit and autopilot offer the pilot a must always be ready to perform manually the equipment
variety of methods of aircraft operation. Pilots can perform functions which are normally accomplished automatically,
the navigational tasks themselves and manually control and should always have a backup plan with the skills,
the aircraft, or choose to automate both of these tasks and knowledge, and training to ensure the flight has a safe
assume a managerial role as the systems perform their ending.
duties. Similarly, information systems now available in the
cockpit provide many options for obtaining data relevant to Which Advanced Avionics Systems To
the flight. Use and When
The second challenge is learning to manage the many
Advanced avionics systems present three important learning
information and automation resources now available to you
challenges as you develop proficiency:
in the cockpit. Specifically, you must learn how to choose
1. How to operate advanced avionics systems which advanced cockpit systems to use, and when. There
2. Which advanced avionics systems to use and when are no definitive rules. In fact, you will learn how different
features of advanced cockpit avionics systems fall in and
3. How advanced avionics systems affect the pilot and
out of usefulness depending on the situation. Becoming
the way the pilot flies
proficient with advanced avionics means learning to use the
right tool for the right job at the right time. In many systems,
How To Operate Advanced Avionics
there are multiple methods of accomplishing the same
Systems
function. The competent pilot learns all of these methods and
The first challenge is to acquire the “how-to” knowledge chooses the method that works best for the specific situation,
needed to operate advanced avionics systems. This handbook environment, and equipment. This handbook will help you
describes the purpose of each kind of system, overviews the get started in learning this important skill.
basic procedures required to use it, explains some of the
1-2
How Advanced Avionics Systems Affect negative effect on pilot risk-taking behavior. You will learn
the Pilot about situations in which having more information can
tempt you to take more risk than you might be willing to
The third challenge is learning how advanced avionics
accept without the information. This series will help you use
systems affect the pilot. The additional information provided
advanced information systems to increase safety, not risk. As
by advanced avionics systems can affect the way you make
much as advanced information systems have improved the
decisions, and the ability to automate pilot tasks can place you
information stream to the cockpit, the inherent limitations of
in the role of system supervisor or manager. These ideas are
the information sources and timeliness are still present; the
presented throughout the handbook using a series of sidebars
systems are not infallible.
illustrating some of the issues that arise when pilots work
with advanced avionics systems. This series is not a complete
When advanced avionics systems were first introduced, it
list; rather, its purpose is to convey an attitude and a manner
was hoped that those new systems would eliminate pilot
of thinking that will help you continue to learn.
error. Experience has shown that while advanced avionics
systems do help reduce many types of errors, they have also
The Learning series provides tips that can help expedite
created new kinds of errors. This handbook takes a practical
mastery of advanced avionics. You will learn why taking the
approach to pilot error by providing two kinds of assistance in
time to understand how advanced systems work is a better
the form of two series: Common Errors and Catching Errors.
learning strategy than simply memorizing the button-pushing
The Common Errors series describes errors commonly made
procedures required to use each system. The importance of
by pilots using advanced avionics systems. These errors have
committing to an ongoing learning process will be explained.
been identified in research studies in which pilots and flight
Because of the limits of human understanding, together with
instructors participated. The Catching Errors series illustrates
the quirks present in computerized electronic systems of
how you can use the automation and information resources
any kind, you will learn to expect, and be prepared to cope
available in the advanced cockpit to catch and correct errors
with, surprises in advanced systems. Avionics equipment
when you make them.
frequently receives software and database updates, so you
must continually learn system functions, capabilities, and
The Maintaining Proficiency series focuses on pilot skills that
limitations.
are used less often in advanced avionics. It offers reminders
for getting regular practice with all of the skills you need to
The Awareness series presents examples of how advanced
maintain in your piloting repertoire.
avionics systems can enhance pilot awareness of the aircraft
systems, position, and surroundings. You will also learn
how (and why) the same systems can sometimes decrease
Chapter Summary
awareness. Many studies have demonstrated a natural This introductory chapter provided a broad perspective into
tendency for pilots to sometimes drift out of the loop when the advanced avionics now found in many aircraft. This new
placed in the passive role of supervising an FMS/RNAV and equipment relieves the pilot of some tedious tasks while
autopilot. You will learn that one way to avoid this pitfall adding new ones and the requirement for more preflight
is to make smart choices about when to use an automated study to learn the advanced capabilities and how to use
system, and when to assume manual control of the flight; the features. The pilot now has more and sometimes better
how cockpit information systems can be used to keep you in means of fixing position, but has to contend with greater
touch with the progress of the flight when automated systems data loss when equipment breaks. It is important to maintain
are used; and how some advanced cockpit systems can be proficiency with the standby instruments and be proficient
set to operate in different modes, with each mode exhibiting with the emergency tasks associated with the advanced
a different behavior. Keeping track of which modes are avionics. Since these are electrical devices, the electrical
currently in use and predicting the future behavior of the generation and backup systems on the aircraft are even more
systems is another awareness skill that you must develop to important than ever.
operate these aircraft safely.
Advanced avionics generally incorporate displays allowing
The Risk series provides insights on how advanced avionics pictures of the flight route as well as basic flight instrument
systems can help you manage the risk faced in everyday data. While this can be most helpful to you, it can also
flight situations. Information systems offer the immediate lead you into areas where the pilot has no recourse, if any
advantage of providing a more complete picture of any circumstances such as weather or equipment operation
situation, allowing you to make better informed decisions changes for the worse. You should never fly further into
about potential hazards, such as terrain and weather. Studies marginal conditions with advanced avionics than you would
have shown that these same systems can sometimes have a
1-3
fly with conventional instruments. Advanced avionics do not
enable an aircraft and pilot to break the laws of physics.
1-4
Chapter 2
2-1
Primary Flight Display (PFD) Cross-Checking the Primary Flight Instruments
A PFD presents information about primary flight instruments, The PFD is not intended to change the fundamental way in
navigation instruments, and the status of the flight in one which you scan your instruments during attitude instrument
integrated display. Some systems include powerplant flying. The PFD supports the same familiar control and
information and other systems information in the same performance, or primary and supporting methods you use
display. A typical primary flight display is shown in with conventional flight instruments. For example, when
Figure 2-1. using the primary and supporting method to maintain level
flight, the altimeter is still the primary instrument for pitch,
Primary Flight Instruments while the attitude indicator is a direct indicator and the
Flight instrument presentations on a PFD differ from vertical speed indicator provides supporting information.
conventional instrumentation not only in format, but However, you need to train your eyes to find and interpret
sometimes in location as well. For example, the attitude these instruments in their new formats and locations.
indicator on the PFD in Figure 2-1 is larger than conventional
round-dial presentations of an artificial horizon. Airspeed and Common Errors: Altitude Excursions and Fixation
altitude indications are presented on vertical tape displays Pilots experienced in the use of conventional flight
that appear on the left and right sides of the primary flight instruments tend to deviate from assigned altitudes during
display. The vertical speed indicator is depicted using their initial experience with the PFD, while they adjust to the
conventional analog presentation. Turn coordination is tape display presentation of altitude information. Another
shown using a segmented triangle near the top of the attitude common error is the tendency to fixate and correct deviations
indicator. The rate-of-turn indicator appears as a curved line as small as one to two feet at the expense of significant
display at the top of the heading/navigation instrument in the deviations on other parameters.
lower half of the PFD.
5100 FT
5200 20 DI
DIM
160
20 20 10
An analog gauge is used to
10 10 5100 5 depict vertical speed.
150
4 40
14 3 50 20 0
1402 00
10 10 -5
ILS
130 4900
OAT 7°C
20 20 -10
TAS 157 KTS
ILS -20
GS 140 KTS 29.92"
Nav
avv SAV
S Hdg Bug
DTK
D 020°
0 0°
02 0 display is 270°
GPS1
GP
PSS11 A curvilinear
61.3
61.3 NM
61
6 NM 300°
used to
0 show rate of turn.
00:26:18
Bearing
Beaarri
rin
in
ng O
VOR Alt Bug
VLOC1
VLOC C1
113.10
10
113.10 5020 FT
323°°
BRG 323°
2-2
Enhancements to the Primary Flight Instruments Other valuable enhancements include trend indicators, which
Some PFDs offer enhancements to the primary flight process data to predict and display future performance. For
instruments. Figure 2-2 shows an airspeed indicator that example, some systems generate “trend vectors” that predict
displays reference speeds (V-speeds) and operating ranges the aircraft’s airspeed, altitude, and bank angle up to several
for the aircraft. Operating ranges are depicted using familiar seconds into the future.
color coding on the airspeed indicator. One negative human
factor concerning this type of presentation should be Primary Flight Instrument Systems
remembered: while most of the displays are intuitive in that The primary flight instruments that appear on a PFD are driven
a high indication (such as climb pitch or vertical speed) is by instrument sensor systems that are more sophisticated than
corrected by lowering the nose of the aircraft, the situation conventional instrument systems. The attitude of the aircraft
with the usual airspeed vertical tape is the opposite. In most may be measured using microelectronic sensors that are more
current displays, the lower speeds are at the lower side of the sensitive and reliable than traditional gyroscopic instruments.
airspeed indicator, while the upper or higher speeds are in the These sensors measure pitch, roll, and yaw movements away
top portion of the airspeed display area. Therefore, if a low from a known reference attitude. Aircraft heading may be
airspeed is indicated, you must lower the nose of the aircraft determined using a magnetic direction-sensing device such
to increase, which is counterintuitive to the other indications. as a magnetometer or a magnetic flux valve.
90 General cruising speed Attitude and heading systems are typically bundled together as
G an attitude heading reference system (AHRS), which contains
Best rate of climb speed
not only the sensors used to measure attitude and heading,
Airborne airspeed
80 Y
but also a computer that accepts sensor inputs and performs
calculations. Some AHRSs must be initialized on the ground
70 prior to departure. The initialization procedure allows the
4 Best angle of climb speed
63 X
Rotation speed
system to establish a reference attitude used as a benchmark
for all future attitude changes. As in any navigation system,
60 R
attitude heading reference systems accumulate error over
time. For this reason, AHRSs continually correct themselves,
50 using periods of stable flight to make small corrections to the
Ground airspeed
Flap range
reference attitude. The system’s ability to correct itself can
40 be diminished during prolonged periods of turbulence. Some
AHRSs can be reinitialized in flight, while others cannot. The
TAS 64KT pilot must become familiar with the operating procedures and
capabilities of a particular system.
Figure 2-2. Vertical airspeed (tape type) indicator. Information on altitude and airspeed is provided by sensors
that measure static and ram air pressure. An air data computer
Figure 2-3 shows an attitude indicator that presents red (ADC) combines those air pressure and temperature sensors
symbols to assist in recovery from unusual attitudes. The with a computer processor that is capable of calculating
symbols on the display recommend a lower pitch attitude. pressure altitude, indicated airspeed, vertical speed, and
true airspeed. An air data attitude heading reference system
050 060 070 080 090 100 110 120
(ADAHRS) combines all of the systems previously described
into one integrated unit.
40
40 Navigation Instruments
30
30 1040 B
PFDs and multi-function displays (MFDs) typically combine
20 several navigation instruments into a single presentation.
20 The instrument appearing at the bottom of the PFD in
10
Figure 2-1 contains two navigation indicators: a course
10
deviation indicator and a bearing pointer. These instruments
can be displayed in a variety of views, and can be coupled
to many of the navigation receivers (e.g., instrument landing
Figure 2-3. Attitude indicator with symbols to assist in recovery
system (ILS), global positioning system (GPS), very high
from unusual attitude. frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range (VOR)) available
2-3
in the aircraft. The pilot must, therefore, be sure to maintain identify communication and navigation radio frequencies at
an awareness of which navigation receivers are coupled to the top of the display.
each navigation indicator.
Making Entries on the PFD
MFDs may provide the same type of display as installed in PFDs have evolved and have become more than flight
the PFD position, but are usually programmed to display just displays in many cases. The amount of data available for
the navigation information with traffic, systems data, radar display can overwhelm the pilot with data. Therefore,
Stormscope®/ Strikefinder®. However, in many systems, the many manufacturers have integrated data control and
MFD can be selected to repeat the information presented display controls into the display unit itself, usually around
on the PFD, thereby becoming the standby PFD. The pilot the perimeter of the unit. These data and display controls
should be absolutely certain of and proficient with the standby provide different ways of selecting necessary information,
modes of operation. such as altimeter settings, radials, and courses. Figure 2-6
illustrates two different kinds of controls for making entries
More sophisticated PFDs present three-dimensional (3D) on primary flight displays. Some PFDs utilize a single knob
course indications. The primary flight display in Figure 2-4 and button-selectable windows to determine which entry is
shows a 3D course indication, called a highway-in-the-sky to be made. Other PFDs offer dedicated knobs for making
(HITS) display. This display provides both lateral and vertical entries; quantities are sometimes entered in one location and
guidance along the planned flight path, while simultaneously displayed in another. Still other units retain all controls on
presenting a 3D picture of the surrounding terrain. Keeping a separate control panel in the console or on the instrument
the symbolic aircraft within the green boxes on the display panel.
ensures that the flight remains within the selected GPS
route and altitude. Consult the AFM and avionics manual Failures and the Primary Flight Display
for required navigational configuration for this function to Instrument System Failure
be available. The competent pilot is familiar with the behavior of each
instrument system when failures occur, and is able to
Other Flight Status Information recognize failure indications when they appear on the primary
An important feature of the PFD is its ability to gather flight display. Manufacturers typically use a bold red “X”
information from other aircraft systems and present it to over, or in place of, the inoperative instruments and provide
the pilot in the integrated display. For example, the PFD in annunciator messages about failed systems. It is the pilot’s
Figure 2-5 presents many useful items about the status of the job to interpret how this information impacts the flight.
flight. The top bar shows the next waypoint in the planned
flight route, the distance and bearing to the waypoint, and the The inoperative airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed
current ground track. The outside air temperature (OAT) is indicators on the PFD in Figure 2-7 indicate the failure of
shown in the lower left corner of the display. The transponder the air data computer. As do all electronic flight displays,
code and status are shown with the current time in the lower navigation units (area navigation (RNAV)/flight management
right corner. This PFD also allows the pilot to tune and systems (FMS)) and instrumentation sensors rely on steady,
050 060 070 080 090 100 110 120 uninterrupted power sources of 24 VDC or 12 VDC power.
Any interruptions in the power supplies, such as alternator/
regulator failure, drive belt failure, lightning strikes, wiring
harness problems, or other electrical failures, can completely
20 20
disrupt the systems, leading to erratic indications or
completely inoperative units. Especially in standard category
aircraft not designed or built with the redundancy inherent
10 10
in transport category aircraft, a proficient and prudent pilot
plans for failures and has alternate plans and procedures
880 B readily available.
10 10
2-4
Next waypoint in the planned route Distance to the active waypoint Current track of aircraft
Cu
4000
130 4300
2
120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1
80 3800
270° 2
TAS
70
100KT
4300
VOR 1
BRT
4000
5100 FT 4300
5100 20 DIM
2
20 20 10 Other primary
4200 flight displays offer
dedicated knobs for making entries.
10 10 5000 5 1
4100
40
50 20 0 60
00 44000
000
10 10 -5 20
ILS
4900 3900
20 20 -10 1
Alt Bug
5020 FT
VSI Bug
Window displays values. 500 FPM Button selects window.
Baro Set
29.92"
29.9
Hdg
Hdg Syn
Sync
S c XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
Knob enters value.
ALERTS
2-5
Every aircraft equipped with electronic flight instruments
BRT
must also contain a minimal set of backup/standby
0 FT
DIM
instruments. Usually conventional “round dial instruments,”
20 20
they typically include an attitude indicator, an airspeed
10 10
indicator, and an altimeter. Pilots with previous experience in
10 10
conventional cockpits must maintain proficiency with these
20 20
instruments; those who have experience only in advanced
OAT 7°C
TAS - - - KTS
GS 135 KTS 29.92" cockpits must be sure to acquire and maintain proficiency
0Q5
Nav
GPS1
BRG 270°
32.8 NM
00:14:34
270° Hdg Bug
300° with conventional instruments.
Bearing Alt Bug
GPS2 6500 FT
Aux
OFF
VSI Bug
0 FPM
Awareness: Using Standby Instruments
Range Baro Set Because any aircraft system can fail, your regular proficiency
View 29.92"
Range View Hdg Sync flying should include practice in using the backup/standby
instrumentation in your aircraft. The backup/standby
instrument packages in technically advanced aircraft pro vide
considerably more information than the “needle, ball, and
Figure 2-7. A PFD indicating a failed air data computer.
airspeed” indications for partial panel work in aircraft with
The inoperative attitude indicator on the PFD in Figure 2-8 conventional instrumentation. Even so, the loss of primary
indicates the failure of the AHRS. By understanding which instrumentation creates a distraction that can increase the
flight instruments are supported by which underlying systems risk of the flight. As in the case of a vacuum failure, the wise
(e.g., ADC, attitude heading reference system (AHRS)), you pilot treats the loss of PFD data as a reason to land as soon
can quickly understand the source of a failure. It is important as practicable.
to be thoroughly familiar with the operation of the systems
and the abnormal/emergency procedures in the pilot’s Essential Skills
operating handbook (POH), aircraft flight manual (AFM), 1. Correctly interpret flight and navigation instrument
or avionics guides. information displayed on the PFD.
2. Determine what “fail down” modes are installed and
available. Recognize and compensate appropriately
for failures of the PFD and supporting instrument
BRT
0 FT
5100 20 DIM
160 [ATTITUDE FAIL] 10 systems.
5000 5
150 REFER TO BACKUP GAUGES
4
14 3 50
40
20 0
3. Accurately determine system options installed and
1402 00
-5
actions necessary for functions, data entry and
130
4900
-10 retrieval.
TAS 143 KTS -20
GS 135 KTS 29.92"
2-6
information is available in a smaller space in easier to read
colors. These convenient displays receive data from sensors
such as magnetometers or magnetic flux valves to determine
heading referenced to magnetic north. The attitude (pitch and
roll) of the aircraft is sensed by the attitude heading reference
system (AHRS) and displayed as the attitude gyro would
be in conventional instrumentation. The altitude, airspeed,
and outside temperature values are sensed in the air data
computer (ADC) and presented in the PFD on vertical scales
or portions of circles.
2-7
2-8
Chapter 3
Navigation
Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of navigation in the advanced
cockpit. You will learn about flight management systems
(FMS) and area navigation (RNAV) systems, an increasingly
popular method of navigating that allows pilots to make more
efficient use of the national airspace system. The increasing
number of users is attributable to more economical and
accurate satellite signal receivers and computer chips. RNAV
systems may use VHF omnidirectional range (VOR); distance
measuring equipment (DME) (VOR/DME, DME/DME)
signals; inertial navigation systems (INS); Doppler radar;
the current version of LOng RAnge Navigation (LORAN),
LORAN-C (and eLORAN, as it becomes operational);
and the global positioning system (GPS), to name a few.
Ground-based LORAN-C is a reliable complement to space-
based GPS systems (United States Department of Defense
(DOD) GPS, Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS), and European Galileo in the future).
3-1
Wide area augmentation system (WAAS) of the standard GPS the present position of the aircraft. Using this positional
furnishes additional error correction information, allowing information, the equipment can calculate the bearing and
Category I precision approaches (similar to basic instrument distance to or from any waypoint and permit navigation
landing system (ILS) minimums) to units equipped to receive directly between any two waypoints. In this way, RNAV
and integrate the data. Most general aviation pilots learn overcomes a fundamental limitation of conventional
to work with an FMS unit primarily using GPS signals, navaid point-to-point navigation techniques, which require
possibly with WAAS and LORAN-C options. Older RNAV navigating between electronic navigation transmitters on the
units made use of VOR and DME information to compute ground. The following examples illustrate this limitation.
positions within range of the navaids. Newer units contain
databases that allow route programming with automatic An aircraft equipped with conventional VOR receivers is
sequencing through the selected navigation points. Therefore, positioned at Point A as shown in the diagram at the top
flight management system (FMS) is the best descriptor of the of Figure 3-1, and the pilot wishes to navigate directly to
current GPS units integrating VOR (and DME, optionally) Point B. Although there appear to be a few VOR stations in
to allow point-to-point navigation outside established flight the vicinity of the aircraft, it is not clear whether reception
routes. You will learn to use the FMS data entry controls to is possible from the aircraft’s present position. If the VOR
program a flight route, review the planned route, track and stations are within reception range, the pilot has two choices:
make modifications to the planned route while en route, plan (1) fly to intercept the closest airway, then track it to the
and execute a descent, and fly an approach procedure that is intersection; or (2) fly to intercept an extension of the radial
based solely on RNAV signals. You should remember that that defines Point B (assuming reception is possible). Neither
FMS/RNAV units requiring external signals for navigation alternative provides the pilot with a means of flying directly
are usually restricted to line-of-sight reception (LORAN-C to the intersection.
being somewhat of an exception). Therefore, navigation
information in valleys and canyons that could block satellite Suppose the same aircraft is positioned at Point A as shown
signals may be severely restricted. Users in those areas at the bottom of Figure 3-1 and the pilot wishes to navigate
should pay particular attention to the altitude or elevations directly to Point C, which is neither a VOR station nor airway
of the satellites when depending on space-based signals and intersection. This pilot has an even more difficult situation.
plan flight altitudes to ensure line-of-sight signal reception. Assuming the VOR stations are within reception range, the
Review the GPS unit’s documentation sufficiently to pilot needs to create two makeshift airways using a navigation
determine if WAAS is installed and how WAAS corrections plotter and chart, fly to intercept one of them, then track
are indicated. to Point C (which the pilot has defined as the intersection
between the two courses). Flying a direct course to Point C
You will learn how the FMS can automatically perform many with any degree of accuracy is not possible. Since RNAV
of the flight planning calculations that were traditionally systems are not bound by these limitations, the entire airspace
performed by hand, and the importance of keeping flight is available for navigational use. The national airspace system
planning skills fresh. You will also discover how the FMS can can thus accommodate more aircraft. However, when the
help you detect and correct errors made in the flight planning pilot leaves the established airways, he or she also leaves the
process, how the complexities of the FMS make some new guaranteed obstruction clearances designed into the airway
kinds of errors possible, and techniques to help avoid them. system. Always plan flights above the maximum elevation
figure (MEF) displayed on sectional charts when flying
Last, you will see how advanced cockpit systems can be used off airways, and be aware that manmade obstructions such
to navigate using ground-based navigation facilities such as as towers may not be added to charts for some time after
VOR and DME. Maintaining pilot skills using ground-based construction. If flying a new routing, allow for construction,
navigation facilities is a simple matter of occasionally using which may not be published yet.
them as the primary means of navigation, and as a backup to
verify position and progress when RNAV is used. FMS/RNAV Computer
RNAV is possible through use of a variety of navigation
Area Navigation (RNAV) Basics facilities and installed aircraft equipment operated in the
RNAV Concept U.S. National Airspace System. This handbook focuses
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a navigation technique that on the more common GPS RNAV, a satellite-based radio
allows pilots to navigate directly between any two points navigation system available to aircraft equipped with a GPS
on the globe. Using RNAV, any location on the map can be receiver. In addition to its ability to receive signals from
defined in terms of latitude and longitude and characterized GPS satellites, a GPS receiver also contains a computer
as a waypoint. Onboard RNAV equipment can determine processor and a navigation database that includes much of the
3-2
2. The aircraft can intercept
the closest airway and
track it to Point B...
A
3. ...or attempt to intercept
1. The aircraft positioned at an extension of the
Point A wishes to navigate radial that defines
directly to Point B. Point B.
A
C
1. The aircraft positioned at
Point A wishes to navigate The pilot must define Point C as the intersection
directly to Point C. between two radials, fly to intercept one of them,
then track the radial to Point C.
information found on en route and terminal procedure charts. allow the pilot to enter information and program the avionics
The newer, more capable units provide map displays, traffic to accomplish the desired operations or tasks. The display and
and weather overlays of data, contain VOR/DME/localizer/ controls for a typical FMS are shown in Figure 3-2.
glideslope receivers, and can compute fuel usage in addition
to the navigation route information. For this reason, the more The display allows you to view information stored in the FMS.
descriptive term “FMS” is used in this handbook to refer to
these GPS receivers. . nm
RNG
PROC CRSR
DTK
An FMS allows you to enter a series of waypoints and TK MENU
PUSH ON
instrument procedures that define a flight route. If these BRT LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX
waypoints and procedures are included in the navigation MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-3
Pages appear on the display and organize
information by topic. Some topics span
several pagers to form chapters.
. nm
RNG
PROC CRSR
DTK
PUSH ON TK MENU
BRT LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX Individual pages are accessed
by rotating the inner knob.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
page presents information about a particular topic, and bears FMS/ RANGE
a page title reflecting its content. For example, the airport NAV-COM
PFD MENU
chapter may be divided into several airport pages, each page − +
displaying different information about that airport. One page FPL PROC
might be navaids. Another page might be the airport taxiway PUSH CRSR/PUSH 1-2 PUSH PAN
information and levels of data are available and require NAV COM I J K L
updates. Usually, only one page can be displayed at a time.
The airport page is displayed on the FMS in Figure 3-3. 1 2 3
M N O P
Q R S T
4 5 6
Figure 3-3 shows how to access pages and chapters on one
manufacturer’s FMS. Different FMS units have different 7 8 9
U V W X
ways of allowing the pilot to switch between chapters and Y Z SPC BKSP
− 0 +
pages, and different ways of informing the pilot which chapter DFLT MAP
3-4
pushing and knob-twisting procedures needed to access and
2 Use the inner knob to dial letters and numbers.
enter data. One very important function that every pilot of
Flashing cursor programmable avionics should learn and remember is how
to cancel entries and functions. Turbulent flight conditions
C 119.000
APT 5 RING
R ING
make data entry errors very easy to make. Every pilot should
C
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
121.600 know how to revert quickly to the basic aircraft controls and
V 114.10 functions to effect recovery in times of extreme stress. These
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM GPS
programs are extremely useful not only for initial learning,
WPT
but also for maintaining proficiency. For more sophisticated
training, many manufacturers of flight simulators and flight
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
training devices are now developing devices with advanced
cockpit systems. These training platforms allow the pilot to
Press the inner knob to engage cursor mode.
A flashing cursor then appears over one of the work through realistic flying scenarios that teach not only
1 items on the page, indicating that it is ready
the operating procedures required for each system, but also
for editing.
how to use the systems most effectively.
Use the outer knob to move the flashing
3 cursor between items on the page. Flight Planning
Preflight Preparation
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91,
Figure 3-5. Making entries using cursor mode. section 91.103 requires you to become familiar with all
Learning: Simulators for Learning and Practice available information before beginning a flight. In addition
Avionics simulators can assist the pilot in developing to the required checks of weather, fuel, alternate airports,
proficiency in the advanced cockpit. Some manufacturers runway lengths, and aircraft performance, there are a number
offer computer-based simulators that run on a personal of requirements unique to the use of avionics equipment.
computer and let the pilot learn how the unit organizes Many of these considerations apply specifically to the use of
and presents information, as well as practice the button- FMS/RNAV under instrument flight rules (IFR). However,
NAV1 113.90 115.60 GAG WPT KBFK DIS 23.5NM DTK 274° TRK 274° 122.900 122.800 COM1
NAV2 112.90 112.30 118.425 121.600 COM2
TRAFFIC 4000
130 4300
2
120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1
80 3800
274° 2
TAS
70
100KT
4300
PFD pages appear here.
FLIGHT PLAN
GPS ENR KAVK / KBFK
DTK DIS
KAVK
KBFK 274 23.9NM
ALERTS
PFD controls
3-5
a check of these same requirements before operating under
visual flight rules (VFR) enhances safety and enforces good AMERICAS AERO Database
PROC Expires 15 FEB 2006 RNG
CRSR
habit patterns, which have been proven to greatly enhance AMERICAS LAND Database
aviation safety. PUSH ON Created 06 OCT 2004 MENU
BRT
Acknowledge?
FMS/RNAV Approval for IFR Operations MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-6
frequency (1575.42 MHz). The user GPS receiver uses the time spent focused inside the cockpit on advanced avionics
downlink WAAS data to correct received navigation data. versus staying synchronized with the flight events, possibly
The goal of WAAS is to obtain at least a 7-meter horizontal creating a life-threatening total flight situation.
and vertical accuracy.
Programming the Flight Route
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), when it becomes The procedures used to program an FMS with your intended
available, is another DGPS mode which is designed to route of flight are fundamentally the same in all types of
provide 1-meter accuracy for precision approaches. It uses systems, yet many differences are evident. The primary
a local error VHF transmitter near the runway providing a difference between systems lies mainly in the “knob or
direct link from the sensor to the aircraft GPS receiver. switchology”—the specific design features, operational
requirements, and layout of the controls and displays used
Alternate Airports to operate the avionics. Be thoroughly familiar with the
It is very important to know what equipment is installed procedures required for each FMS or RNAV unit to be used.
in the aircraft. GPS-based FMS/RNAV units certified to
TSO-C145A or TSO-146A may be used when an alternate Suppose you have planned a flight from San Carlos Airport
airport is required in the flight plan for the approaches at the (KSQL) to Oakdale Airport (O27), as shown in the flight
destination and alternate airport if the WAAS is operational. plan appearing in Figure 3-8. The planned route proceeds
No other navigation avionics would be required. Units directly to SUNOL intersection, then follows V195 until
certified under TSO-C129 are not authorized for alternate reaching ECA, the initial approach fix for the GPS Runway
approach requirements. The aircraft must have stand-alone 10 approach into Oakdale. The distances, bearings, estimated
navigation equipment, such as VOR, and there must be an times en route, and fuel requirements for the flight have
approved instrument approach at the alternate airport based all been calculated. The next step is to enter some of these
on that equipment. (However, once diverted to the alternate details into the FMS.
airport, the pilot could fly a GPS-based approach there, as
long as there is an operational, ground-based navaid and NAVIGATION LOG
airborne receiver in the aircraft for use as a backup.) Aircraft Number: Dep: Dest: Dest:
N1361M KSQL 027 11/06/06
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes Clearance: C – 027
Since air traffic control (ATC) issues clearances based
R – Direct SUNOL, V195 ECA, Direct 027
on aircraft equipment suffixes, consult the Aeronautical
A – CLB 5000
Information Manual (AIM) Table 5-1-2, Aircraft Suffixes,
F – 12L3
to ensure that the flight plan includes the correct equipment
suffix for a particular aircraft. Use the suffix that corresponds T – 0356
Estimated Time En Route = 0.49
to the services and/or routing that is needed. For example, if
Check Points Ident. Fuel Dist. GS Time Off
the desired route or procedure requires GPS, file the suffix as (Fixes) Leg Leg
Freq. Est.
“/G” or “/L,” as appropriate to that aircraft, and operational Course Attitude Mag Rem. Rem. ETE ETA
KSQL DEP Route Crs.
equipment installed. (Remember that minimum equipment list TWR 119.0 12L3 48 78.6. Act. ATE ATA
(MEL) deferred items can change the status of the aircraft.) SJC 21 21.5 81 016
SUNCL 060 5000
1141 45.9 57.1
Suitability of an RNAV Unit for VFR Flight ECA 1.2 18 120 0.09
Even when an RNAV receiver is to be used only for TRACY 049 5000
116.0 44.7 39.1
supplemental (“supplemental” meaning a situation enhancing ECA 1.1 15 120 0.08
ECA (IAF) 049 3000
source of navigation information, but not the primary or sole 116.0 43.6 24.1
source of navigation information) navigation information ECA 0.7 8 1000 0.05
MOTER 084 2000
during VFR flight, you should consider these suitability 116.0 42.9 16.1
factors in the interest of safety. The use of an expired ECA 0.6 55 90 0.04
ZOSON (FAF) 084 2000
navigation database might cause you to stray into airspace 116.0 42.3 10.6
that was not yet designated at the time the expired navigation ECA MDA 0.4 4.5 90 0.03
RW 10 (MAP) 096
database was published. Some VFR-only GPS units do not 116.0 720 41.9 61
alert you when signal reception has faded, which could LIN 0.6 61 90 0.04
WRAPS (HOLD) 352 3000
lead to reliance on erroneous position information. Lack of 114.8 41.3 0
attention to the “see and avoid” basic principle of every visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) flight means too much Figure 3-8. A conventional flight plan.
3-7
The Flight Planning Page Engage cursor mode when the flight plan page is selected.
Every FMS unit includes a page dedicated to entering a flight
plan. Typically, entering a flight plan is a simple matter of COM ACTIVE FLIGHT
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN RING
FPL
Entering a flight route into the FMS unit requires you to
enter the waypoints that define your route. FMS distinguish NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
have disastrous consequences. Any changes to the selected NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
REANS
073° YUCCA 254°
RAVON CAJON TWENTYNINE
POMONA
PALMS
NOT FOR USE IN NAVIGATION
3-8
endpoint for that airway are selected, all waypoints that Reviewing the Flight Route
occur along the airway are automatically inserted into the Once a route has been entered into the FMS, the next step
flight plan. Figure 3-11 shows a navigation unit that allows is to review the route to ensure it is the desired route. It is
airways to be selected. particularly important to ensure that the programmed route
agrees with the pilot’s clearance, the en route and terminal
Entering Procedures area charts, and any bearing, distance, time, and fuel
Every IFR-capable FMS offers a menu of published calculations that have been performed on paper.
instrument procedures, such as departures, arrivals, and
approaches. When you choose one of these procedures, the Catching Errors: Using the FMS Flight Planning
FMS automatically inserts all waypoints included in that Function To Cross-Check Calculations
procedure into the flight plan. Figure 3-12 illustrates how you Using the FMS’s flight planning function to check your
might choose an approach procedure using one popular FMS. own flight planning calculations is one example of how
advanced cockpit systems can decrease the likelihood
Risk: Taking Off Without Entering a Flight Plan of an error. Alternatively, cross-check the computer’s
The convenience of the FMS, especially the “direct to” calculations against your own. (Remember the old computer
feature common to all units, creates the temptation to program programmer’s adage, “Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO).”)
only the first en route waypoint prior to takeoff and then enter
additional waypoints once airborne. Keep in mind, however, The flight planning page can also be used to review the route
that no matter how skilled you become with the avionics, that you entered into the FMS, as illustrated in Figure 3-13.
programming requires “heads down” time, which reduces Be sure to check at least four things when reviewing your
your ability to scan for traffic, monitor engine instruments, route.
etc. A better strategy is to enter all of the flight data before
you take off.
119.000 Modified
A
DIST
C
T Modify
121.600 KSQL 027
S
B
Y
A
C
T
114.10 KSQL
BRG 060° 21.7 This FMS allows you to insert
--.- vor
SUNOL 21.7 mn Wpt an entire airway into your route.
discontinuity
116.00
S
B
Y BRG --- ---
Arwy
1200 027 21.7 mn
S
B
Y
FLAGGED
GPS ENR No Active Leg FPL
BACK EXEC XPND
A
119.000 SUNOL The navigation database looks up
C
T V195 all of the airways that connect to
S
121.600 V195 ECA
B
Y the previous waypoint in the route.
50nm V301
A
C
T
114.10
--.- vor N V334 11
119.000
19.00
000 Modified
0 Mo
Moddifi
dif
di fied
d
A
ECA C DIST
Modify
S
116.00
T
KSQL
121.600 BRG 060°
B S
Y SUNOL B 21.7
Y
1200 114.10 SUNOL 21.7
S n
B A m
The software performs a
Y C
FLAGGED
T
--.- vor
V195 ECA:
BRG 060° 18.3 database search for all of the
GPS ENR FPL
116.00 TRACY 40.0 mn airways, causing all waypoints
S
B
BACK Y BRG 060°
SHARR
9.6
49.6 mn along the airway to be inserted
1200
S
B
BRG 049° 5.4
Y
into the route.
FLAGGED ECA 55.0mn
GPS ENR No Active Leg FPL
BACK EXEC XPND
Figure 3-11. Inserting an airway into a flight route.
3-9
COM PROCEDURES RING
C
C 123.850 Activate Vector-To-Final?
125.100
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
Activate Approach?
V 116.00 Select Approach?
VOL/ PUSH 114.10 Select Arrival? Press the PROC button and choose the type of procedure you wish to add.
ID
COM GPS
GPS
Select Departure?
PROC
COM 7
APT O27 Public RING
C
C 123.850 APR
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
125.100 RNAV
G
Dial your destination airport and press .
VLOC 10 PS
V 116.00 TRANS
VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 VECTORS
VLOC ECA IA 10 PS
V 116.00 MOTER IA TRANS
VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 VECTORS Choose your transition from the transition menu.
COM Load? GPS
35nm Activate?
WPT
VLOC
ECA 10 PS
V 116.00 ZOSON TRANS
114.10
RW10
ECA IA
VOL/ PUSH
ID
WPT
Press to load the approach into your flight plan.
3-10
route that connects two points, imagine a geometric plane
Check the sequence of waypoints. cutting through the earth that passes through the two points
and the center of the earth.
FLIGHT
FLI GHT PL
PLAN
AN
KSQL / O27
DTK DIS
On the great circle route from SFO to LGA in
KSQL Figure 3-14, departing SFO, the desired track is a little less
SUNOL 060° 1.8 NM than 90 degrees. Upon arrival at LGA, it appears to be greater
TRACY 051° 18.0 NM than 90 degrees. The desired track heading is constantly
Approach - RNAV 10 changing since it is a circle, not a line. If, however, the
difference exceeds several degrees, you need to investigate
further to determine the cause.
ALERTS
3-11
119.000 Library
A
DIST
C
T Modify
121.600 KSQL
S
B
Y BRG 060° 21.7
A
C
T
114.10 SUNOL
V195
21.7 mn
33.3
--.- vor ECA 55.0 mn Wpt
discontinuity
116.00 Arwy
S
B BRG --- ---
027 21.7 mn
Y
1200
S
B
Y
FLAGGED
GPS ENR FPL
BACK EXEC XPND A route discontinuity appears when the
FMS cannot proceed from one waypoint
to the next. A route discontinuity can
simply be deleted.
119.000 Active
A
C DIST ETE
T
KSQL 027
121.600 KSQL
S
B
Y
A
C
T
114.10 BRG 060° 21.7
--.- vor SUNOL 21.7 mn
V195 33.3
116.00 ECA 55.0mn
S
B
When a route discontinuity is deleted, Y
BRG 049° 18.3
the FMS proceeds directly to the next 1200
S
was selected in the FMS. Every advanced cockpit offers can be significant: you may think you are steering along one
buttons or switches that allow you to choose which navigation course when in fact you are steering along a different one.
indications will be shown on which display or instrument. Be sure to verify these settings prior to departure, and again
each time you make changes to any navigation instrument.
This situation becomes complicated in aircraft that contain Some installations compound this potential with automatic
dual FMS/RNAV installations and redundant selectable source switching. The most common switching mode is a
displays or instruments. The pilot must learn how to configure GPS source to be automatically deselected when the VOR
each navigation instrument to show indications from each is set to an ILS localizer frequency and a signal is present.
possible navigation source. Typically, that is not a problem since the pilot intends to
switch to the ILS anyway. However, the error arises upon
Figure 3-16 shows an example of a primary flight display missed approach, when the pilot selects another frequency
(PFD) navigation indicator that combines a course deviation to follow a VOR missed approach routing. At that point,
indicator (CDI) and a radio magnetic indicator (RMI), and some units revert back to the previous GPS or other RNAV
allows the pilot to display indications from one of two FMS routing selected instead of the VOR frequency that the
on either indicator. pilot just picked. This can result in gross navigation errors
and loss of obstruction clearances. In some units, this is a
Common Error: Displaying the Wrong Navigation shop programmable or jumper selected option. Check your
Source unit’s features. Always check for correct navigation source
The annunciations showing which navigation sources are selection and cross-check against the published procedure.
displayed on which navigation instruments are often small, so Be ready and able to fly and navigate manually.
there is significant potential for displaying a navigation source
other than the one you intended to select. The consequences
of losing track of which navigation signals you are following
3-12
COM RING
C
C 122.700 1.0 1.0
133.000
PWR
COVAR FOGON FA
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 117.30
VOL/ PUSH 113.90 2.8nm m m
160
ID
00:26:18 C
C 122.700 1.0 1.0
GPS2
BRG 051° VLOC
2.2 NM DIS DTK BRG
0:01:06 V 117.30
113.90 2.2nm m m
Aux VOL/ PUSH
ID
Awareness: Mode Awareness 5. Determine which navigation sources are installed and
Mode awareness refers to the pilot’s ability to keep track of functional.
how an advanced avionics cockpit system is configured. As 6. Determine the status of the databases.
shown in Figure 3-16, every advanced avionics system offers
7. Program the FMS/RNAV with a flight plan, including
an annunciation of which mode is currently set—somewhere
en route waypoints, user waypoints, and published
in the cockpit! There is no guarantee that you will notice these
instrument procedures.
annunciations in a timely manner. The configuration of these
systems must remain part of your mode situational awareness 8. Review the programmed flight route to ensure it is
at all times. One strategy is to include “mode checks” as part free from error.
of your checklist or callout procedures. For example, after 9. Find the necessary pages for flight information in the
programming a route into the FMS, verify that the navigation databases.
indicator shows course guidance from the desired source, and
10. Determine which sources drive which displays or
that the indication agrees with your estimate of the correct
instruments, and where the selection controls are
direction and distance of flight.
located.
Essential Skills 11. Determine and understand how to use and program
optional functions and equipment installed with FMS/
1. Determine whether the FMS is approved for the
RNAV basic unit.
planned flight operation.
2. Determine if your FMS can be used as a primary En Route Navigation
navigation system for alternate requirements.
The FMS provides guidance toward each waypoint in the
3. Understand how entries are made and how the entries programmed flight route, and provides information to help
can be canceled. you track your progress.
4. Understand how that unit(s) is installed, and how it is
programmed or jumpered for optional functions.
3-13
The Active Waypoint If the aircraft is flying a heading of 090 degrees and the track
In normal navigation, at any given time, the aircraft is is 080 degrees, the winds are coming from the south. Notice
progressing to the next waypoint in the programmed flight that having a track indication makes it easy to maintain the
route. This next waypoint is called the active waypoint. FMSs desired track. To follow the 049-degree desired track to
typically display the active waypoint on a page dedicated TRACY upon leaving SUNOL, simply fly the heading that
to showing flight progress. While “going to” is the normal results in a track of 049 degrees. The track display eliminates
function for navigation, nearly all FMSs have the provision the traditional method of “bracketing” to find a heading that
to select a point, waypoint, or navaid to navigate “from” that lets you fly the desired track.
point or position. This can be useful for holding, tracking
NDB bearing, grids, etc., and allows the tracking of a bearing Groundspeed and ETA
with the autopilot engaged and coupled to a navigation The display in Figure 3-17 also shows groundspeed. Again,
source. However, if you are doing an ADF approach, the the navigation display eliminates the need to calculate
primary navigation source must be available to support that groundspeed using distance and time. Based on groundspeed
approach. The page shown in Figure 3-17 indicates that and distance from the active waypoint, the navigation page
TRACY is the active waypoint. The primary flight display also provides an estimated time of arrival at the active
in Figure 2-5 shows the active waypoint (ECA) at the top waypoint.
of the display.
Fuel Used and Time Remaining
Active waypoint Many advanced avionics navigation units offer fuel
calculations and fuel state monitoring. Some units
Distance to the active waypoint Estimated time of
arrival at the active automatically load the initial fuel load, while many require the
Groundspeed waypoint pilot to correctly enter the amount of fuel into the unit as the
beginning fuel on board. Some can have installed transducers
1.8nm (sensors) to measure the fuel used, and display fuel used
RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
and time remaining at the current consumption rate. Some
DTK049
PUSH ON TK 049 LEG
MENU
lower cost units indicate computed fuel consumption values
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX based on fuel burn rates entered by the pilot. This produces
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN an estimate of fuel used and fuel remaining. This estimate
is only as accurate as the values entered by the pilot for fuel
Track of the aircraft over the ground on board and the consumption rate. Since the pilot is often
using the AFM chart data, there is potential for interpretation
Desired
ed track to the active waypoint
error. Then, there is the variation error from the factory charts
to the specific aircraft being flown. These factors all tend to
Figure 3-17. Active waypoint, desired track, track, and ETA at
degrade the accuracy of the fuel calculation based solely on
active waypoint.
pilot entered data. Other factors such as a fuel burn that is
higher than normal, leaks, or other problems are not displayed
unless the system actually registers and senses fuel tank real-
Desired Track time status. These errors can affect both types of systems. The
The FMS/PFD/MFD navigation display also shows the pilot must determine what equipment is installed.
desired track to the active waypoint. The desired track is
the intended course for the active leg in the programmed Arriving at the Active Waypoint
flight plan. It is the track that connects the waypoint the As the aircraft reaches the active waypoint, there are four new
aircraft just passed to the active waypoint. On the display tasks for the pilot: (1) recognizing imminent arrival at the
in Figure 3-17, the current desired track is the 049-degree active waypoint; (2) leading the turn to avoid overshooting
course between the SUNOL and TRACY waypoints. the course to the next waypoint; (3) making the next waypoint
the new active waypoint; and (4) selecting the desired course
Track to the new active waypoint.
The navigation display shows the aircraft’s track over the
ground. The track, which is the result of aircraft heading All FMS/RNAV computers offer a sequencing mode that
and winds, tells you which direction the aircraft is actually greatly simplifies the performance of the first three of these
flying. Winds make it likely that the track and heading will tasks. Sequencing mode provides three services: waypoint
be different. You can get a very good sense of what the winds alerting, turn anticipation, and waypoint sequencing.
are doing by comparing the track and heading of the aircraft.
3-14
Waypoint Alerting
The first service performed by the sequencing mode
is waypoint alerting. Just prior to reaching each active
waypoint, waypoint alerting advises the pilot of imminent
arrival at the active waypoint. Waypoint alerting is illustrated
in Figure 3-18.
WPT
0.3
0 3nm RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
0.01nm :5.0nm
DTK060
MENU
PUSH ON TK 060 00:10 LEG
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX Fly-over
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Turn Anticipation
The second service performed by the sequencing mode is Figure 3-19. Fly-by and fly-over waypoints.
turn anticipation. During waypoint alerting and prior to Waypoint Sequencing
reaching the active waypoint, the FMS indicates that it is
The third service performed by sequencing mode is waypoint
time to begin the turn to fly the desired track to the new
sequencing. Once the aircraft reaches the active waypoint,
active waypoint. The timing of turn anticipation is based on
the FMS automatically makes the next waypoint in the flight
the aircraft’s observed groundspeed and the angle of the turn
plan sequence the new active waypoint. Waypoint sequencing
required to track to the next waypoint. If a standard rate turn
is illustrated in Figure 3-20.
is begun when the waypoint alerting indication is presented,
the pilot should roll out on course when the aircraft reaches The waypoint sequencing function makes the next
the center of the desired track to the new active waypoint. waypoint in the flight plan sequence the new active
waypoint.
Turn anticipation is also illustrated in Figure 3-18.
DTK051
commands a turn that “rounds the corner” to some degree, PUSH ON TK 049
MENU
BRT LEG
giving priority to having the aircraft roll out on the new APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
desired track to the new active waypoint. This function is MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Turn anticipation occurs only when the active waypoint is Figure 3-20. Waypoint sequencing.
designated as a fly-by waypoint. A fly-by waypoint is one
for which the computer uses a less stringent standard for Awareness: Making Waypoint Callouts
determining when the aircraft has reached it. By contrast, To help you stay in touch with the progress of the flight while
some waypoints are designated as flyover waypoints. The the FMS automatically performs the navigation task, it is
FMS will not use turn anticipation for a fly-over waypoint; a good practice to announce your arrival (mentally, single
instead, the navigation will lead the aircraft directly over the pilot; or orally, to the flight crew) at each waypoint in the
waypoint (hence the name). A missed approach waypoint is a programmed route. For example, when arriving at SUNOL
typical example of a fly-over waypoint. A fly-over waypoint intersection, you might announce, “Arriving at SUNOL.
is illustrated in Figure 3-19.
3-15
TRACY is next. The course is 051 degrees, and the ETE is FMS to deliver unequalled reliability in navigation. Many
10 minutes.” more complex FMS units also search or scan for distance
measuring equipment (DME) signals and VOR signals as
Setting the Course to New Active Waypoint additional navigational sources to compute a “blended”
The last step required when arriving at the active waypoint is position, which is the best calculation from all of the sources
to set the course to the next waypoint in the planned route. A and how the FMS is programmed to “consider” the signals
PFD such as the one shown in Figure 3-16 automatically sets for accuracy. GPS RNAV units usually use only GPS signal
the new course on the navigation indicator when the RNAV sources, but may be able to receive VOR and DME signals
computer is engaged in sequencing mode. When an FMS is as well. In the future, many GPS units will probably receive
combined with a traditional course deviation indicator, the eLORAN as well, since it is a long range navigation system
pilot must manually set the new course using the OBS knob, with greatly improved accuracy as compared to the older
unless it is an EHSI, or is slaved. “Slaved” means that there LORAN-C. One advantage of the LORAN (“e” or “C”)
is a servo mechanism in the instrument that will respond to system is that it is ground based and can be easily maintained,
the navigation unit. as compared to space-based navigation sources.
3-16
Adding a Waypoint
Use cursor mode to select the waypoint you
15.8nm want to insert the new waypoint before.
RNG
PROC TRACY CRSR
TRACY
DTK051
MENU
PUSH ON TK
BRT LEG
*CRSR* FPL 0 *CRSR*
D l ti a W
Deleting Waypoint
i t
Use cursor mode to highlight the
5.2nm RNG
waypoint you want to delete.
PROC REIGA CRSR
REIGA
Then press CLR .
DTK050
MENU
PUSH ON TK
BRT LEG
*CRSR* FPL 0 *CRSR*
Adding and Deleting Waypoints From the The direct-to waypoint now becomes the active waypoint.
Programmed Route After reaching this waypoint, the system proceeds to the next
All FMS/RNAV units allow en route (not published waypoint in the programmed route.
departure, arrival or approach) waypoints to be added and
deleted to the programmed route. These techniques are In other cases, you may be asked to fly directly to a waypoint
illustrated in Figure 3-22. that does not already appear in the programmed flight
route. In this case, one strategy is to add the waypoint to
ATC may issue instructions to a point defined by a VOR the programmed route using the technique illustrated in
radial and DME value. The pilot must know how to enter Figure 3-22, and then proceed directly to the waypoint using
such a waypoint as a user waypoint, name it, and recall it. If the technique illustrated in Figure 3-23. Another option is
the unit’s memory is very limited, the pilot should also be to use the direct-to function to get the flight started toward
adept at removing the waypoint. the assigned waypoint, and then add the new waypoint to the
appropriate place in the programmed flight plan.
3-17
Press the direct-to button ( ).
COM ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN RING
C
C 125.400 00 KSJC / O27
123.850 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
116.00
MOTER 8.0 mn
VOL/ PUSH
ID
M
COM GPS
ZOSONFA M 5.6 mn
FPL
Risk: What Lies Ahead on a Direct-To Route? Press , then to access the cancel
direct-to feature.
The direct-to function offers a convenient way to shorten your
time and distance en route if ATC authorizes that track. When
COM SELECT D WAYPOINT RING
you perform a direct-to operation, though, remember that the C
C 125.400 ECA SW USA
123.850 MANTECA
PWR
VLOC STOCKTONPAGE
USA
MENU
new waypoint. This track does not necessarily correspond V 114.10 Cancel Direct-To NAV?
FPL ECA IA NRST KLVK
116.00
to any previously planned airway or route, so it is critical to
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM
CRS 053 m GPS
W121 Activate?
ensure that your new direct route is clear of all significant DRCT
obstructions, terrain, weather, and airspace. NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
Cancel Direct To
ATC may sometimes cancel a previously issued direct-to Figure 3-24. Canceling a direct-to operation.
clearance and ask you to resume the previously cleared
Proceeding Directly to the Nearest Airport
route. Most FMSs offer a simple way of canceling a direct-to
One of the most useful features of an FMS is its ability to
operation. Figure 3-24 illustrates the procedure for one FMS.
provide you with immediate access to a large navigation
database. This feature is particularly useful when a suitable
Selecting a Different Instrument Procedure or
Transition nearby airport or navigation facility must be located quickly.
Figure 3-26 shows how to locate and proceed directly to the
ATC will sometimes issue an instrument procedure or
nearest suitable airport using one manufacturer’s system.
transition that is different from what you would expect.
Entering a new procedure or transition is usually a simple
Essential Skills
matter of making new menu choices, as illustrated in
Figure 3-25. In most units, if you are training or wish to fly 1. Proceed directly to a waypoint in the programmed
the approach again, you must learn how to set the selector or route.
cursor back to the initial fix, which will restart the approach
sequence.
3-18
9.8 nm Press PROC and choose Select Approach.
ENT RNG
PROC ECAi CRSR
Select Approach?
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* PROC 2 *CRSR*
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
9.3nm
PROC ECAi
ENT RNG
CRSR Finally, a list of transitions appears for the selected
approach. Choose one and press ENT .
DTK050 MOTER
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
9.1nm ENT
PROC ECAi
RNG
CRSR Press ENT to add your
approach to the flight plan.
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT ADD TO FPL 0? LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
2. Cancel a programmed or selected waypoint or fix. Highlight any airport in cursor mode and press to
receive guidance directly to that airport.
3. Select a different instrument procedure or transition.
4. Restart an approach sequence. COM APT
NEAREST AIRPORT
BRG DIS APR
RING
C
C 123.850 KTCY 5.7nm GPS
5. Immediately find the nearest airport or facility. PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
125.100 uni 122.800 rwy 4000ft
VLOC
1Q4 6.7nm VFR
116.00
6. Edit a flight plan. V
VOL/ PUSH 114.10
mul 122.900 rwy 4000ft
C83 12.1nm GPS
ID
COM GPS
7. Enter a user waypoint. uni 123.050 rwy 4500ft
NRST
Descent
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
Making the transition from cruise flight to the beginning Use the outer knob to select the nearest page
The first subpage shows the nearest airports.
of an instrument approach procedure sometimes requires
arriving at a given waypoint at an assigned altitude. When this
requirement is prescribed by a published arrival procedure or
Figure 3-26. Proceeding directly to the nearest airport.
issued by ATC, it is called a crossing restriction. Even when
ATC allows a descent at the pilot’s discretion, you need to
choose a waypoint and altitude for positioning convenient
3-19
Cruising speed 2 7 0 knots Top-of-descent point
To
Wind
Cruising altitude 1 1 0 0 0 ft
Descent speed
eed and rate
Bottom-of-descent point
ECA VOR
to start the approach. In either case, descending from a and a descent rate of 1,000 feet per minute (fpm). Assuming a
cruising altitude to a given waypoint and altitude requires 10-knot headwind component, groundspeed in the descent is
both planning and precise flying. 180 knots. Referring to the table in Figure 3-28, the planned
descent speed and rate indicate a ratio of 3.0. This means that
Elements of Descent Planning Calculations you will need 3 NM for every 1,000 feet of descent. You
Figure 3-27 illustrates the basic descent planning task. The must descend a total of 8,000 feet (11,000 feet – 3,000 feet).
task begins with an aircraft flying at an assigned cruising A total of 24 NM is needed to descend 8,000 feet (3 NM ×
altitude. The aircraft must descend to an assigned altitude 8 = 24 NM), and must, therefore, begin the descent 24 NM
and reach that assigned altitude at a designated bottom-of- away from the end-of-descent point.
descent point. The next step is to choose a descent rate and
a descent speed. The ultimate goal is to calculate a top-of- Another technique for calculating descents is to use the
descent point, which is the point at which, if you begin the formula shown in Figure 3-29. A descent table can be found
descent and maintain the planned descent rate and airspeed, in the front of each set of U.S. Terminal Procedures on
you will reach the assigned altitude at the designated bottom- page D-1. Working through the formula for the ECA VOR
of-descent point. crossing restriction example, 8 minutes is needed to descend
8,000 feet at the planned descent rate of 1,000 fpm. At your
In a basic aircraft, you must rely on manual calculations to planned descent speed of 180 knots, you will cover 3 NM
perform the descent planning task. In an advanced avionics per minute. Thus, in 8 minutes, you will cover 24 NM. Once
aircraft, there are two descent planning methods available: again, you must start the descent 24 NM prior to ECA to meet
(1) manual calculations, and (2) the vertical navigation the crossing restriction.
features of the FMS unit. Skillful pilots use both methods
and cross-check them against one another in order to reduce Coordinating Calculations with Aeronautical
the possibility of error and help keep the pilot “in the loop.” Charts
Regardless of which method is used, it is always a good idea
Manual Descent Calculations to locate the top-of-descent point chosen on the aeronautical
The simplest technique for calculating the distance required chart. Figure 3-30 shows a chart that covers the area
to descend uses a descent ratio. The table in Figure 3-28 lists surrounding the ECA VOR. A top-of-descent point 24 NM
a descent ratio for many combinations of planned descent prior to ECA is located 3 NM before PATYY intersection.
speeds and descent rates. Calculating a descent is a simple
matter of looking up the descent ratio for your target descent Alternate Navigation Planning
rate and groundspeed, and multiplying the descent ratio by Using the aeronautical chart to locate the top-of-descent point
the number of thousands of feet in altitude that you must has a second advantage. Since regulations require you to have
descend. For example, suppose you are asked to descend from an alternate means of navigation onboard if the computer
11,000 feet to meet a crossing restriction at 3,000 feet. Since does not comply with TSO 146B, the aeronautical chart
there is a 200-knot speed restriction while approaching the allows you to check minimum altitudes for VOR reception
destination airport, you choose a descent speed of 190 knots
3-20
DESCENT RATIO TABLE
A descent ratio table is provided for use in planning and executing descent procedures under known or approximate ground speed
conditions and rates of descent. The ratio expresses the number of nautical miles needed to descend 1,000 ft.
DESCENT
GRADIENT GROUND SPEED (knots)
RATE
(ft./min) 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
500 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.7 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10.0
600 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.2 7.8 8.3
700 2.1 2.4 2.6 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6.7 7.1
800 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.4 5.8 6.3
900 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6
1000 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.7 5.0
1100 1.4 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5
1200 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2
1300 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8
1400 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.6
1500 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3
1600 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1
1700 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.9
1800 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
1900 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6
2000 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.5
3-21
The VNAV function then calculates a top-of-descent
requires much forethought. Slowing from a cruising speed
2 point and displays the time remaining to reach it. of 120 knots to an approach speed of 100 knots requires little
planning and can be accomplished quickly at almost any
point during a descent. Flying higher performance aircraft
12 5 nm V n v i n 2 : 1 5
12.5
PROC
ECAi 11000 to : 3000 RNG
CRSR
requires a closer look at concepts of excess altitude and
DTK050 ECA : -00 nm
excess speed. Higher performance piston engines usually
TK 050 GS : 180 -1000fpm MENU
PUSH ON
LEG
BRT
*CRSR* ALT 2 *CRSR* require descent scheduling to prevent engine shock cooling.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Either the engines must be cooled gradually before descent,
or power must be constant and considerable in the descent to
VNAV allows you to enter a descent waypoint and
1 altitude, descent speed, and descent rate. prevent excessive cooling. In such instances, a much longer
deceleration and gradual engine cooling must be planned to
prevent powerplant damage. Additionally, the turbulence
penetration or VA speeds should be considered with respect
Figure 3-31. Planning a descent with an advanced avionics unit. to weather conditions to avoid high speeds in turbulent
It is a good idea to cross-check the results of your manual conditions, which could result in overstressing the airframe.
descent calculations with the results produced by the Drag devices such as spoilers can be of great advantage for
computer. Many RNAV units do not display a waypoint for such maneuvers. In the scenario in Figure 3-27, a cruising
the planned top-of-descent point. However, there may be an speed of 270 knots is inappropriate as the aircraft descends
“approaching VNAV profile” message that anticipates the below 10,000 feet, and even more so as it enters Class C
descent point and cues the pilot to begin descending. Caution airspace. Therefore, descent planning must include provisions
is advised that some systems calculate the vertical flight for losing excess airspeed to meet these speed restrictions.
path dependent on the current airspeed/groundspeed values.
Lowering the nose and gaining airspeed in the descent may Some sophisticated FMSs are able to build in a deceleration
confuse you into perceiving a false vertical goal or vertical segment that can allow the aircraft to slow from the cruise
rate, resulting in failure to meet the crossing restriction speed to the desired end-of-descent speed during the descent.
with some systems. Determine if the system recomputes This type of navigation system allows you to maintain the
the airspeed/groundspeed, or if you must enter the descent cruise speed up until the top-of-descent point and calculates
airspeed during the VNAV programming. the deceleration simultaneously with the descent. A
deceleration segment is illustrated in Figure 3-32.
Managing Speed
Up to this point the focus has been on the task of losing Simple FMS units such as GPS RNAV receivers assume
excess altitude. For example, in the situation shown in that you will slow the aircraft to the planned descent speed
Figure 3-27, you are faced with the requirement to reduce before reaching the top-of-descent point. ATC timing may
altitude from 11,000 feet to 3,000 feet. Most descent scenarios preclude this plan.
also present the challenge of losing excess speed. In piston
aircraft of modest performance, losing excess speed seldom
1 1 0 0 0 ft
2 7 0 knots
1 0 0 0 0 ft
Deceleration segment
ECA
3-22
Top-of-descent point
1 1 0 0 0 ft
9 0 0 0 ft
7 0 0 0 ft
5 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
2 4 NM 1 8 NM 1 2 NM 6 NM
ECA
Descent Flying Concepts and speed as closely as possible and be mindful of altitude
Probably the most important descent flying concept to and position while approaching the crossing restriction fix.
understand is that a planned descent is basically a “pathway
in the sky,” similar to the glideslope associated with an ILS Determining Arrival at the Top-of-Descent Point
procedure. If you start down at the planned top-of-descent All navigation systems provide some type of alert informing
point, fly a groundspeed of 180 knots, and descend at 1,000 the pilot of arrival at the planned top of descent point, and that
feet per minute (fpm), you will be flying on a fixed path it is time to begin the descent at the speed and rate entered
between the top-of-descent point and the bottom-of-descent into the FMS.
point. If you maintain the 180-knot and 1,000-foot-per-
minute descent, you will cross a point 18 NM from ECA at If air traffic control is able to accommodate your request,
exactly 9,000 feet, a point 12 NM from ECA at 7,000 feet, the ideal point to begin the descent is at the planned top-of-
and a point 6 NM from ECA at exactly 5,000 feet, as shown descent point. If air traffic control is unable to accommodate
in Figure 3-33. such a request, one of two scenarios will ensue: an early
descent or a late descent.
If you are at a different altitude at any of these points, you
will not cross ECA at the required 3,000 feet unless corrective Early Descents
action is taken. Four things can cause you to drift from a Beginning descent before reaching the planned top-of-
planned descent path: descent point means you must set aside descent planning and
1. Not following the planned descent rate proceed without the benefit of vertical guidance offered by
the navigation system. If, during the descent, the navigation
2. Not following the planned descent speed
computer does not display position with respect to the
3. Unexpected winds planned descent path, you must simply do the best possible
4. Navigation system not recalculating for airspeed to arrive at the crossing restriction at the assigned altitude.
change of descent If the navigation system does display position with respect
to the planned descent path, you can usually recapture
Figure 3-34 shows the effect of each situation on the position the planned descent path and resume flying with vertical
of the aircraft with respect to the planned descent path. guidance from the computer. The basic technique is to
initiate descent at a reasonable descent rate that is less than
Flying the Descent the planned descent rate. If you follow this initial descent
rate, you will eventually intercept the planned descent path,
The key to flying a descent is to know your position relative
as shown in Figure 3-35.
to the pathway-in-the-sky at all times. If you drift off the
path, you need to modify the descent speed and/or descent
rate in order to rejoin the descent path. Many FMSs do not
give a direct indication of progress during a descent. You
must be very familiar with the indirect indications of the
VNAV descent. In this case, follow the planned descent rate
3-23
Flying a greater than planned descent rate
causes you to descend too quickly and Flying a greater than planned descent rate
end up below the planned descent path.
ath. causes you to descend too quickly and
end up below the planned descent path.
ath.
1 1 0 0 0 ft
1 1 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm
ECA
ECA
3 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
1 1 0 0 0 ft
20-knot headwind
3 0 0 0 ft
20-knot
20-k
knot tailwind
1 6 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm
ECA
3 0 0 0 ft An unanticipated headwind
causes you to slow down
and cover less ground
1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm during the descent and end
ECA up below the descent path.
Figure 3-34. Drifting off the planned descent path. Figure 3-35. Early descent scenario.
Late Descents Since flying beyond the planned top-of-descent point leaves
Beginning the descent beyond the planned top-of-descent less time to lose excess altitude, your goal is to minimize the
point means that you will have the same amount of excess “overrun” distance by slowing the aircraft as soon as a late
altitude, but a shorter distance and time to lose it, as shown descent scenario is suspected. A lower speed means you will
in Figure 3-36.
3-24
Actual descent point Planned top-of-descent point
1 1 0 0 0 ft
ECA VOR
3-25
9 12 C
COM
121.300
RING
6 C 5.0 5.0
N VLOC
15
TO DIS DTK BRG
A
114.10
3
V V
VOL/ PUSH 116.00 6.9nm m m
ID
18
0
GS TRK ETE
NAV
21
Once in the non-
33
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
sequencing mode, 24
use the OBS knob OBS
OB 30 27
to dial the inbound To switch to the nonsequencing mode, press OBS .
course of 009°. OBS displays above the button to indicate that the
nonsequencing mode is in use.
2. Nonsequencing mode stops the waypoint sequencing the course has been intercepted. The result is that the FMS
feature of the FMS/RNAV unit. If engaged in will not sequence to the next waypoint in the flight route
nonsequencing mode, the FMS/RNAV program does upon reaching the active waypoint. The best indicator of this
not automatically sequence to the next waypoint in event is the “To/From” navigation display showing “From.”
the flight plan when the aircraft arrives at the active Normally all FMS fly “To” the waypoint, unless that unit
waypoint. does holding patterns. Flying “From” a waypoint can only
be done in the “OBS”/“Hold”/“Suspend” mode.
Every FMS/RNAV offers a way to switch to the nonsequencing
mode. There is typically a button marked OBS (or Hold), and Awareness: Remembering To Make Needed Mode
an OBS or course selection knob to select an inbound course Changes
to the active waypoint. Figure 3-38 illustrates the procedure The use of the sequencing and nonsequencing modes
for one particular FMS. illustrates another aspect of maintaining good mode
awareness—remembering to make required mode changes
Once you switch to nonsequencing mode and select the at future times during the flight. Remembering to do tasks
inbound course of 009°, the navigation indicator reflects planned for the future is a particularly error-prone process
aircraft position with respect to the 009° course. The for human beings. Aviation’s first line of defense against
navigation indicator in Figure 3-38 shows that you are such errors is the checklist. Creating your own checklist or
west of course. The assigned heading of 080° provides an callout procedures for maneuvers such as course intercepts
acceptable intercept angle. As you fly the 080° heading, the is a good way to minimize this error. For example, a simple
needle centers as you reach the 009° course. Once the 009° callout procedure for the course intercept maneuver might
course is reached and the needle has centered, you can turn commence when the aircraft nears the point of interception.
to track the 009° course inbound to SUNOL. “Course is alive. Course is captured. Changing back to
sequencing mode.”
It is important to remember that the nonsequencing
mode suspends the FMS/RNAV’s waypoint sequencing Intercepting and Tracking a Course to a Different
function. If you reach SUNOL and the unit is still set in the Waypoint
nonsequencing mode, it will not sequence on to the next Figure 3-39 illustrates a slightly more complicated request
waypoint. Generally, once established on a direct course to often made by air traffic control. While en route to SUNOL,
waypoint or navaid, switching back to sequencing (releasing ATC instructs you to fly a heading of 060° to intercept and
the Hold or Suspend function) mode allows the FMS/RNAV track the 049 course to TRACY. This situation requires two
to continue to the programmed point and thence onward separate tasks: changing not only the inbound course, but
according to the programmed routing. Setting the computer also the active waypoint.
back to the sequencing mode is usually accomplished by
pressing the OBS (Hold or Suspend) button again. The first step is to change the active waypoint using the
direct-to function, as illustrated in Figure 3-40. Remember,
Common Error: Forgetting To Re-Engage though, that if you use the direct-to function to make TRACY
Sequencing Mode After Course Intercept the active waypoint, the FMS calculates a desired track that
By far the most common error made with the nonsequencing takes you from the present position to TRACY intersection.
mode is forgetting to re-engage the sequencing mode once
3-26
SUNOL is the currently the active waypoint,
1 which must be changed.
055°
COM RING
R
C
C 119.000
119 1.
1 .0
0
TRACY 121.600 KSQL SUNOL
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
116.00
SUNOL V
114.10 8.05 nm 060 m 060 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
now continue on the assigned heading until the needle centers, 121.600
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ WAYPOINT DTK DIS
VLOC KSQL ___ M ___ n
m
then set the FMS back to the sequencing mode, and continue V 116.00 SUNOL M 7.6 nm
114.10
inbound on the assigned course to TRACY intersection. TRACY 18.3 nm
VOL/ PUSH
ID
M
COM GPS
ECA M 15.0 nm
FPL
Common Error: Setting the Wrong Inbound Course NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
125.100
PWR
D TRACY
VOL/ PUSH
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
116.00
assigned to fly to intercept the course instead of the inbound V
VOL/ PUSH 114.10 18.2 nm 070 m 070 m
ID
course. The outcome of this error is illustrated in Figure 3-41. COM 121 kt 060 m 09:06 GPS
GS TRK ETE
NAV
6
9 12
Common Error: Setting the Wrong Active Waypoint NRST OBS MSG F
FPL PROC
N
TO
15
During a Course Intercept
A
3
V
18
Another common error is failing to realize that ATC has
21
33
instructed you to intercept a course to a different waypoint. 30 27
24
OBS
Figure 3-42 shows the outcome when the pilot neglects to Switch the FMS to the
4 nonsequencing mode.
set TRACY as the active waypoint in the previous example. 5 Dial the inbound course.
The FMS offers guidance along the correct course, but to
COM RING
the wrong waypoint. C
C 125.100 66.00 1.0
1.0
0
122.800 CRS049
PWR
TRACY
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 116.00
Catching Errors: A Helpful Callout Procedure for VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 21.5 nm 049 m 051 m
120 kt 055 m 10:45
Course Intercepts COM
GS TRK ETE
GPS
NAV
The following is a useful technique for avoiding two errors
commonly made during course intercept maneuvers. Ask NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
3-27
3. Reactivate the sequencing function for route
COM RING
navigation.
C
C 121.300 5.0 5.0
Holding
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 114.10
116.00 6.9 nm 080 028 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
m
The FMS/GPS unit’s nonsequencing mode provides an easy
COM 85 kt 040 m 04:52 GPS
GS TRK ETE way to accomplish holding procedures. When instructed to
NAV
hold at a waypoint that appears in the route programmed in
the FMS/GPS unit, simply engage the nonsequencing mode
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 114.10
VOL/ PUSH
ID
116.00 6.9 nm 080 m 028 m Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed holding patterns
COM 85 kt 040 m 04:52 GPS
into published instrument procedures. The purpose of a
GS TRK ETE
NAV
preprogrammed holding pattern is to relieve you of many of
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC the tasks described above for flying a holding pattern.
The course to be intercepted is entered correctly, Figure 3-44 illustrates a preprogrammed holding pattern that
but the waypoint is not.
appears at the end of a missed approach procedure.
The FMS provides guidance along the wrong course.
As the FMS/GPS unit shown in Figure 3-44 sequences to
049° a preprogrammed holding pattern, the navigation displays a
message indicating the type of holding entry required based
TRACY on the aircraft’s current track. The system then automatically
switches to a special nonsequencing mode that not only stops
SUNOL
waypoint sequencing, but also sets the inbound course to
DO NOT USE FOR
the holding waypoint. This special nonsequencing mode
NAVIGATION
is different from the nonsequencing mode you engage
manually. In Figure 3-44, this system uses the term suspend
Figure 3-42. Setting the wrong active waypoint. mode (SUSP) to signify the nonsequencing mode that is
Essential Skills automatically engaged during a preprogrammed holding
procedure. Depending on the type of holding procedure,
1. Program and select a different course to the active the unit may or may not automatically switch back to the
waypoint. sequencing mode after the aircraft crosses the holding fix.
2. Select the nonsequencing waypoint function (OBS, As always, you must be careful to maintain constant mode
Hold, or Suspend) to select a specified navigation awareness.
point.
3-28
115 SANTY
122 V2
9 15 5 COM RING
N
C
C 133.000 5. .0
6
A TO
127.150 CRS115° SNS
PWR
18
SNS VOR
V VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
3 DIS DTK BRG
117.30
21
V
114.30 4.79 nm 115 m 115 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
24
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
115 SANTY
V2
122 5
9 15 COM RING
N
C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
6
A TO
SNS VOR 127.150 CRS115° SNS
PWR
18
V VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
3
117.30
21
V
114.30 2.49 nm 115 m 071 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
115 SANTY
122 V2
9 15 5 RING
COM
N
C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
6
TO
127.150
A
CRS115° SNS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
18
V SQ
VLOC
SNS VOR DIS DTK BRG
3
117.30
21
V
114.30 2.05 nm 115 m 115 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
SANTY
126 V2 COM RING
1122 15 5 C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
9 127.150 SNS PRB
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
N
18
A TO VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
117.30
V
6
SNS VOR V
74.5 nm 126 126 m
114.30
21
m
VOL/ PUSH
3
ID
GS TRK ETE
0
27 NAV
OBS
S 33 30
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
3-29
on its length, an arc requires you to follow a gradually
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN
C
C
COM
125.400 00 KSJC / O27
RING
changing heading toward the active waypoint. The example
123.850 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
in Figure 3-45 illustrates how an FMS is used to fly a DME
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC ZOSONFA _ _ _M _ _ _m
n
V 114.10 RW10 MA _ _ _M _ _ _m
n
arc procedure.
116.00
WRAPSMH _ _ _M _ _ _m
VOL/ PUSH
n
ID
COM GPS
hold _ _:_ _
M
HOLD PARALLER
Essential Skills
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC 1. Select an approach procedure with an arc.
A preprogrammed hold is indicated 2. Select the course, or determine that automatic course
by a special waypoint in the flight plan. CDI setting will occur.
The FMS displays the appropriate type of hold entry.
GPS and RNAV (GPS) Approaches
The FMS automatically starts a timer for the outbound leg. An IFR-capable GPS RNAV/FMS with qualified GPS
receiver(s) can be used as the sole means of navigation
C
COM
125 100
125. 1.
1
RING
for several kinds of instrument approach procedures, but
C .0
0
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
123.850 00:05 WRAPS you need to know which approaches can be used with your
VLOC
V 116.00
DIS DTK BRG
particular GPS RNAV unit. The following paragraphs review
114.10 0.6 nm 124 m 130 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
3-30
DYNER
KENIW
1.0 nm RNG
PROC CRSR
150 kt 0.01nm :1.0nm
DTK 040° APR
TK 040° 048° To 00:24 ARM MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG 048
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX 3 6
0
9
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN N
A
V
TO
12
33
15
30
1.3 nm
27
18
RNG
PROC CRSR
150 kt 0.01nm :1.0nm
OBS 24 21
duties to miss a waypoint change and be of the mindset that Since the FMS/GPS automatically switches to the approach
you have one more waypoint to go before descent, or even sensitivity, you must not attempt to use the “approach”
worse, before a missed approach. Two main values always mode of the autopilot at that time, unless the autopilot
to include in the cross-check are: documentation specifically directs the use of that mode
1. Verification of the waypoint flying “to.” at that time. Using that mode would make the autopilot
hypersensitive and too responsive to navigation signals.
2. Verification that the distance to the waypoint is
decreasing. Upon reaching the missed approach point GPS stand-alone approaches are nonprecision approaches
(MAP), the system will automatically go to “Suspend,” based solely on the use of the GPS and an IFR-capable FMS
“Hold,” or “OBS” at the MAP, and the distance to go with GPS navigation receiver or GPS RNAV. A GPS stand-
will begin counting up or increasing as the distance alone approach is shown in Figure 3-47.
from the MAP behind increases. Acknowledge the
MAP and the beginning of the MAP segment by an RNAV (GPS) approaches are designed to accommodate
action (button, knob, etc.) to allow sequencing to the aircraft equipped with a wide variety of GPS receivers. An
holding point or procedure. RNAV (GPS) approach procedure is shown in Figure 3-48.
A GPS approach typically offers different approach
Not all units delay commanding a turn prior to reaching minimums (and sometimes different missed approach
the specified turn altitude. You must know the required points) depending on the type of GPS receiver, aircraft, and
navigation courses and altitudes. The FMS/GPS unit may not installation being used to complete the approach.
be 100 percent correct, especially if an ADC is not installed.
3-31
Figure 3-46. A GPS overlay approach.
3-32
Figure 3-47. GPS stand-alone approach.
3-33
Figure 3-48. RNAV (GPS) approach.
3-34
LNAV LPV
LNAV (lateral navigation), like a conventional localizer, LPV can be thought of as “localizer performance with
provides lateral approach course guidance. LNAV minimums vertical guidance.” Procedures with LPV minimums use GPS
permit descent to a prescribed minimum descent altitude information to generate lateral guidance, and IFR-approved
(MDA). The LNAV procedure shown on the chart in GPS/WAAS receivers to generate vertical guidance similar
Figure 3-48 offers an MDA of 1,620 feet. to an ILS glideslope. Several manufacturers now offer FMS/
GPS RNAV units capable of flying approaches to LPV
LNAV/VNAV minimums.
LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical navigation)
equipment is similar to ILS in that it provides both lateral GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach Waypoints
and vertical approach course guidance. Since precise vertical Figure 3-50 shows a GPS approach loaded into an FMS/GPS
position information is beyond the current capabilities of RNAV. As previously noted, approaches must be selected
the global positioning system, approaches with LNAV/ from a specific approach menu in the FMS. The software
VNAV minimums make use of certified barometric VNAV then loads all of the waypoints associated with that procedure
(baro-VNAV) systems for vertical guidance and/or the from the database into the flight route. It is not possible for
wide area augmentation system (WAAS) to improve GPS you to enter or delete, separately or individually, waypoints
accuracy for this purpose. (Note: WAAS makes use of a associated with the approach procedure.
collection of ground stations that are used to detect and
correct inaccuracies in the position information derived from Initial approach waypoint Final approach waypoint
the global positioning system. Using WAAS, the accuracy
of vertical position information is increased to within 3 0.1nm RNG
meters.) To make use of WAAS, however, the aircraft must PROC
QUADSi CRSR
OBS285
be equipped with an IFR approved GPS receiver with WAAS PUSH ON TK 285
MENU
LEG
signal reception that integrates WAAS error correction
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
signals into its position determining processing. The WAAS MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
346°
C
T
--.- vor
waypoint; (2) final approach waypoint; (3) missed approach
116.00
S
B
1200 GS ETE
S
B
FLAGGED
GPS ENR C345 SUNOL RW34Lm
MSG PROC FPL NAV
Flying a GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach
Most FMS require the pilot to choose whether to simply
load, or load and activate, instrument approach procedures.
When ATC tells you to expect a certain approach, select
that approach from the menu and load it into the flight plan.
Figure 3-49. WAAS data provides lateral and vertical guidance.
Loading an approach adds its component waypoints to the
end of the flight plan, but does not make them active. Once
It is very important to know what kind of equipment is ATC clears you for the approach (or, alternatively, begins
installed in an aircraft, and what it is approved to do. It is providing radar vectors to intercept the final approach
also important to understand that the VNAV function of course), you must remember to activate the approach to
non-WAAS-capable or non-WAAS-equipped IFR approved receive course guidance and auto-sequencing. You must be
GPS receivers does not make the aircraft capable of flying careful not to activate the approach until cleared to fly it,
approaches to LNAV/VNAV minimums. however, since activating the approach will cause the FMS
to immediately give course guidance to the initial approach
3-35
fix or closest fix outside the final fix, depending on the unit’s RNAV unit automatically switches to approach sensitivity.
programming. In the case of a vectors-to-final approach, At this stage, the FMS/GPS RNAV further increases RAIM
activating the vector-to-final causes the FMS to draw a course requirements, and increases the CDI sensitivity from 1 NM
line along the final approach course. to 0.3 NM (i.e., a full-scale CDI deflection occurs if you are
0.3 NM or more from the desired course).
Once you have loaded and activated the GPS or RNAV
(GPS) approach procedure, flying it is similar to flying As long as the annunciation for approach mode is displayed,
between any other waypoints in a programmed flight route. you may continue the approach. If, however, the computer
However, you must be prepared for two important changes fails to switch to approach mode, or the approach mode
during the approach. annunciation disappears, you must fly the published missed
approach procedure. You are not authorized to descend
Terminal Mode further or to the MDA. Making changes to the FMS/
The first important change occurs when the aircraft reaches GPS RNAV after reaching the 2 NM point could result in
a point within 30 NM of the destination airport. At this automatic cancellation of the approach mode.
point, regulations require that every GPS-based FMS/
RNAV unit increase its sensitivity and integrity monitoring Approach Not Active
(receiver autonomous integrity monitoring, or RAIM, which If you arrive at the final approach waypoint and the approach
continuously checks GPS signal reliability and alerts you if mode is not active, you must fly the missed approach
RAIM requirements are not met). If the system determines procedure. There should be no attempt to activate or
that RAIM requirements are met, the FMS/GPS RNAV unit reactivate the approach after reaching the final approach fix
automatically switches from en route sensitivity to terminal using any means—simply fly the missed approach procedure.
sensitivity within 30 NM of the destination airport. Terminal
mode increases the sensitivity of the course deviation Vectored Approaches
indicator (CDI) from 5 NM to 1 NM. The FMS/GPS RNAV As in conventional approaches, it is common for air traffic
displays an annunciation to let you know that it has switched control to issue vectors to a GPS or RNAV (GPS) final
from en route sensitivity to terminal mode. approach course. Flying a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
approach is a simple matter of using the course intercept
Approach Mode technique described in the previous section. The technique
The second important change occurs 2 NM prior to reaching is illustrated again in Figure 3-51.
the final approach waypoint. At this point, the FMS/GPS
089° Course
08 RW 10 150 10
4
060° Heading 14 3
1402
10
ATC gives you a vector tto the final approach course.
130 20
1 Set the final approach fix as the active waypoint. Nav ELTRO
DTK 089°
GPS1 22.1 NM
00:13:18
Bearing
COM RING
OFF
C
C 125 100
125. 6.0
6 0 1.0
10
3-36
Many FMS/GPS RNAV units offer an automated solution to A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed
the problem of flying an approach in which the pilot receives approach segments
vectors to the final approach course. Once ATC begins T Timing/Distance(s)
providing vectors to intercept the final approach course, you
should activate the computer’s “vectors-to-final” feature, M Missed approach procedure
which draws a course line along the final approach course.
This feature helps you maintain situational awareness while Another briefing technique uses the mnemonic FARS:
being vectored because the assigned heading is clearly seen F Frequencies set and identified
in relation to the final approach course. As already noted,
A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed
you should monitor carefully to ensure that the FMS/GPS
approach segments
RNAV unit switches to approach mode within 2 NM of the
final approach fix (FAF). R Radial (inbound course) noted and set
S Special notes (including missed approach procedure)
Figure 3-51 shows the vectors-to-final feature. The procedure
required to use the vectors-to-final feature is illustrated in Common Error: Forgetting To Verify the Approach
Figure 3-52. Mode
The most common error made during a GPS/RNAV approach
Press PROC and choose this option. is to forget to ensure that the approach mode has indeed
engaged prior to beginning a descent to minimums. Routinely
9.2nm ENT RNG
checking for the approach indication 2 NM before the final
PROC CRSR
ECAi
approach waypoint not only prevents this type of error, but
DTK 049 Ac t i v t e V e c t o r s ?
PUSH ON
BRT
TK 060 ELTROf DTK 089 ?
LEG
MENU
also gives you a minute or so to remedy some situations in
*CRSR* PROC 1 *CRSR* which the approach mode has not engaged.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-37
Essential Skills The FMS/GPS unit in Figure 3-55 includes a preprogrammed
course reversal. This unit automatically sets the outbound
1. Load and activate a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
course for the outbound portion of the course reversal. Once
approach.
the turn inbound has been made, the unit automatically sets
2. Select a vectored initial approach segment. the inbound course back to the final approach waypoint.
3. Determine the correct approach minimums and
identify all pertinent mode transitions. This FMS/GPS unit does not switch between sequencing
and nonsequencing modes for a 45-degree course reversal
4. Determine the published missed approach point
(although it does for a holding-type course reversal). Whether
(MAP), courses, altitudes, and waypoints to fly.
it is done manually, automatically, or not at all, you must be
5. Determine how missed approach guidance is selected. sure that the system is engaged in sequencing mode before
reaching the final approach waypoint after the course reversal
Course Reversals is completed. The FMS/GPS will switch to the approach
Figure 3-53 shows three common course reversals: mode only if the system is engaged in the sequencing mode.
(1) 45-degree procedure turn, (2) holding pattern, and
(3) teardrop procedure. Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/
Nonsequencing Modes During a Course Reversal
Course reversals are handled in the same way as holding Neglecting to switch the FMS/GPS from the nonsequencing
procedures, by using the FMS/GPS’s nonsequencing mode. mode prior to reaching the initial approach waypoint and
As you arrive at the initial approach waypoint, the unit’s neglecting to switch the system back to the sequencing mode
nonsequencing mode should be engaged to prevent it from prior to passing the final approach waypoint are common
immediately sequencing to the next waypoint in the approach. errors made during course reversals.
After completing the course reversal, be sure to re-engage
the system’s sequencing mode to continue the approach. Essential Skills
1. Select a type of course reversal procedure.
The navigation unit in Figure 3-54 requires that you manually
switch between the sequencing and nonsequencing modes. 2. Determine the correct sequence of mode control
actions to be accomplished by the pilot.
Preprogrammed Course Reversals
Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed course reversals
into published instrument approach procedures. The purpose
of a preprogrammed course reversal is to relieve you from
the mode switching and course selection tasks associated
with course reversals.
1 236
° 2 3
LODI (1O3)
056°
RW26 285° 131°
191° QUADS
285°
CCR
105°
292
°
171°
3-38
* RUXKO
318°
333°
…switch to the nonsequencing mode prior to reaching the initial
approach fix, twist the inbound course, then fly the procedure 153°
turn. The IAF remains the active waypoint.
* RUXKO
318°
3.8nm WOHLIf
WOHLI
RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
0.01nm :1.0nm
DTK 333
VNV Off
DO NOT USE FOR
MENU
PUSH ON TK 153 333° To 01:44 LEG
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX NAVIGATION
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
GIRUC
When you turn inbound, switch back to sequencing mode.
When you cross the IAF, the system sequences to the final 333°
approach waypoint. 153°
3-39
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN °
236
COM RING
C
C 119.900 00 KSJC / KCCR
119.700 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
COM GPS
CC FA 191°m 8.0 nm
FPL 191°
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
119.700
PWR
CC IA
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 117.00
VOL/ PUSH 114.80 0.49 nm 011 m 181 m
00:29
ID
119.900 CCf
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
117.00
DIS DTK BRG CC
V
114.80 2.05 nm 191 m 191 m DO NOT USE FOR
NAVIGATION
VOL/ PUSH
01:01
ID
The unit automatically sets the inbound course after the turn is made.
DO NOT USE FOR To address this issue, all FMS/GPS RNAV units automatically
NAVIGATION suspend waypoint sequencing when you reach the missed
approach point. The unit waits until you acknowledge the
Figure 3-56. A missed approach procedure.
passing of the MAP before it continues the sequencing. When
the aircraft has gained the published altitudes and complied
3-40
with the initial MAP procedures, you can safely proceed
The aircraft is 1.4 NM short of the missed approach point.
to the missed approach holding waypoint, being mindful
of any altitude requirements. A waypoint for the missed
1.4nm QUADSf
QUADSff MAPYN
MAP
MAPYNm
YNm
approach holding point is included as part of the missed PROC
90 kt
RNG
CRSR
0.01nm :0.3nm
approach procedure. In the example above, you can make DTK 285
VNV Off
APR
MENU
ARM
TK 285
the missed approach holding waypoint the active waypoint, PUSH ON
BRT 285° To 00:42
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
and re-engage the sequencing mode upon reaching 6,000
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
feet. You now have sequencing mode guidance to the missed
approach holding waypoint. The procedure for one FMS/GPS Arrow pointing TO
is illustrated in Figure 3-57.
The aircraft is 0.9 NM past the missed approach point.
0.01nm :0.3nm
technique used to perform a holding pattern. Some FMS/GPS DTK 285
VNV Off
APR
ARM MENU
TK 285
units will automatically switch to the nonsequencing mode
PUSH ON
BRT 285° To 00:27
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
when you reach the hold fix. Other units may advise you to MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
switch manually to the nonsequencing mode.
Arrow pointing FROM
VLOC
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
V 110.70 CORYNMA 264°m _ _._ mn
117.30 the pilot flies, the distance may never reach 0.0 NM. Rather,
SNS MH
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM APR
hold 084°m 01:00
GPS
it may simply begin to increase once you have passed abeam
FPL
the missed approach point. It is, thus, important to check not
CDI OBS MSG FPL PROC only the distance from the missed approach point, but also the
TO/FROM flag or arrow. In the rush of a missed approach,
After executing the climbs and turns, you must switch
back to the sequencing mode to proceed to the missed this small clue (arrow direction change) can be difficult to
approach hold waypoint. read and very easy to misinterpret.
VLOC
110.70
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn ATC sometimes issues missed approach instructions that
V
CORYNMA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
VOL/ PUSH
ID
117.30
SNS MH _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
are different from those published on the approach chart. In
COM TERM GPS
hold 084°m 01:00 this case, use the techniques described earlier to insert new
FPL
waypoints into the route, and/or to intercept and track courses
CDI OBS MSG FPL PROC
to those waypoints.
When you reach the missed approach hold waypoint,
the system will switch back to the nonsequencing mode Setting Up Next Procedure in Hold
and allow you to fly the hold.
Once in the missed approach holding pattern, the next task is
deciding where to go next and programming the new flight
Figure 3-57. Flying a missed approach procedure. plan into the FMS/GPS unit. In this high workload situation,
3-41
it is especially important to be very proficient with the menus, Displaying Radio Navigation Signals on the
functions, and “switchology” of a particular unit. If the Navigation Indicator
aircraft is equipped with an autopilot, it is also essential to The second fundamental skill is displaying indications from
have a thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts a ground-based radio navigation facility on the navigation
and interfaces with the FMS/GPS navigation equipment. display indicator in the aircraft. In addition to setting the
navigation indicator to display indications from different
Common Error: Noncompliance With Initial navigation sources, you must also know where to look
Missed Approach Instructions to double-check which indications are currently being
The immense capability of the FMS/GPS may tempt you displayed. It is crucial to remain constantly aware of the
to follow its directions rather than fly a missed approach navigation source for each indicator. Many systems use color
procedure exactly as published on the instrument approach coding to make a visual distinction between different RNAV
procedure chart. Always fly procedures as published, navigation sources (GPS, INS, etc.) and ground-based radio
especially with respect to the initial climb and turn navigation sources.
instructions. GPS as a line-of-sight navigation aid can display
courses and distances to a ground-based navaid even though Awareness: Using All Available Navigation
the navaid is on the other side of a mountain range and itself Resources
cannot be received, because GPS signals are spaced based. Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 3-59, you can
see that two VOR frequencies appear in the active windows
Essential Skills at all times, regardless of whether VOR or GPS is being used
as the primary navigation source. To maximize situational
1. Acknowledge a missed approach procedure.
awareness and make best use of this resource, it is a good
2. Set the FMS/GPS for a return to the same approach practice to keep them tuned to VOR stations along your route
to fly it again. of flight. If you have two navigation indicators, you can have
3. Select a different approach while holding at a missed one indicator set to show GPS course indications, with the
approach holding waypoint. other to show VOR indications. Used in this way, VOR and
GPS can serve as backups for each another.
4. Program an ATC specified hold (user waypoint) point
for selection after the published MAP/hold procedure. Flying a Precision Approach Using Ground-based
Navigation Facilities
Ground-Based Radio Navigation Flying a precision approach requires tuning the required
Configuring FMS To Receive Ground-Based frequencies, configuring the navigation indicator to display
Radio Navigation Signals localizer course indications, and flying the approach. For
Most advanced avionics systems include receivers for aircraft equipped with multiple navigation radios, the
conventional radio navigation signals from VOR, localizer, localizer frequency can go into one receiver, while a second
and glideslope transmitters. To display these signals on the navigational facility used as a cross-radial can be set in the
navigation display indicator(s), you need two fundamental other receiver. As you come within range of the localizer and
skills. glideslope, the course deviation and glideslope indicators will
show position with respect to the localizer and glideslope.
Tuning and Identifying Radio Navigation Facilities
The first fundamental skill in ground-based radio navigation Flying a Nonprecision Approach Using Ground-
is tuning and identifying a ground-based radio navigation Based Navigation Facilities
facility. Figure 3-59 illustrates how a VOR station can be Nonprecision approaches such as VOR, localizer, and LDA
tuned using two different systems. approaches are flown using the same procedures used to
fly a precision approach. If the aircraft is equipped with an
Some systems automatically attempt to identify ground-based autopilot, be sure to develop a thorough understanding of
radio navigation facilities that are selected by the pilot. Note how the autopilot works with the FMS. While these systems
the identifier that appears beside the selected frequency in the automate some tasks, others (e.g., flying the procedure turn
upper left corner of the PFD in Figure 3-59 (116.00 = ECA). course reversal) maybe left to the pilot.
3-42
1 Dial the VOR frequency using the knobs to the left.
COM RING 30 33
C
C 125.100 1.0 1.0 27
0
123.850
N
TRACY
TO
ECA
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ A
V
24
VLOC
3
DIS DTK BRG
2 Identify the VOR. V 116.00
114.10 12.0 nm 049 m 049 m
21
6
05:48
VOL/
VOL/ PUSH
ID
C
COM 124 kt 350 m GPS
18
9
GS TRK ETE
NAV OBS 15 12
5000
130 4200
2
120 4100
1
110 4000
1 60
100 33900
900
9 20
90 3800 1
80 3700
HDG 080°
350° CRS 316°
2
TAS
70
100KT
3600
VOR 1
3-43
Chapter Summary You now have access to a tremendous amount of data. The
methods of data selection and display must be learned and
Navigation has been freed from the constraints of channeling
then decisions made about which display formats to use at
all flight traffic along one path. The area navigation
which times. VOR/DMEs are simple receivers to tune and
capabilities found in advanced avionics receiving signals
use. To use current flight management systems and area
from other than conventional line-of-sight ground-based
navigation units, you may need to study books that are
aviation navaids and the compact size and reliability of
larger than the actual units themselves. You must know the
microchips now allow efficient, accurate air travel. Integrated
quality of maintenance for advanced avionics units and the
databases facilitated by large reliable memory modules
qualifications of the systems to determine appropriate uses
help you to select routes, approaches, and avoid special use
of the equipment.
airspace.
Since advanced avionics have different displays, navigation
With this freedom of movement, you must expend more
sources, functions, and features, the pilot must always be
time learning the system and how to do the preflight entries
aware of the mode selected, the data source(s), and the
or programming. In addition to current charts, you must now
function selected. Pilot lack of attention to navigation can
verify the currency of the advanced avionics databases. The
have dire consequences, including notification of the next
aircraft owner must also allocate the funding to maintain the
of kin.
currency of the databases.
3-44
Chapter 4
4-1
You will learn how the autopilot and the flight management In every instance, you must be absolutely sure what modes the
system (FMS)/area navigation (RNAV) unit combine to FD/autopilot is in and include that indicator or annunciator
create a fairly automated form of flight that places you in in the crosscheck. You must know what that particular
a managerial role. While the autopilot relieves you from mode in that specific FD/autopilot system is programmed to
manually manipulating the flight controls, you must maintain accomplish, and what actions will cancel those modes. Due to
vigilance over the system to ensure that it performs the numerous available options, two otherwise identical aircraft
intended functions and the aircraft remains within acceptable can have very different avionics and autopilot functional
parameters of altitudes, airspeeds, and airspace limits. capabilities.
The FD is designed with the computational power to Specification of Track and Altitude
accomplish these tasks and usually displays the indications to A track is a specific goal, such as a heading or course. A
the pilot for guidance as well. Most flight directors accept data goal can also be a level altitude, a selected airspeed, or a
input from the air data computer (ADC), Attitude Heading selected vertical speed to be achieved with the power at
Reference System (AHRS), navigation sources, the pilot’s some setting. Every autopilot uses knobs, buttons, dials,
control panel, and the autopilot servo feedback, to name or other controls that allow the pilot to specify goals.
some examples. The downside is that you must program the Figure 4-1 shows an autopilot combined with conventional
FD to display what you are to do. If you do not preprogram navigation instruments. Most autopilots have indicators for
the FD in time, or correctly, FD guidance may be inaccurate. the amount of servo travel or trim being used. These can be
early indicators of adverse conditions, such as icing or power
The programming of the FD increases the workload for the loss. Rarely will a trim indicator ever indicate full travel in
pilot. If that increased workload is offset by allowing the normal operation. Consistently full or nearly full travel of
autopilot to control the aircraft, then the overall workload the trim servos may be a sign of a trim servo failure, a shift
is decreased. However, if you elect to use the FD display, in weight resulting in a balance problem, or airfoil problems
but manually fly the aircraft, then your workload is greatly such as icing or inadvertent control activation.
increased.
4-2
9 12
6
Primary flight displays (PFDs) often integrate all controls
N
15
3
A
V
18
modes without turning attention away from the primary flight
33
21
24
SET OBS
BS
30 27
instruments. Modes entered using the controls on a PFD are
transferred to the autopilot.
A heading knob on the Th OBS knob on the
The
direction indicator is used CDI is used to specify
CD
to specify target headings. target courses.
ta Engagement of Autopilot Function
Every autopilot offers a collection of buttons that allow you
YD ARM BARO to choose and engage autopilot modes and functions. Buttons
ALT SEL
FT used to engage autopilot modes appear along the bottom
UP
of the autopilot shown in Figure 4-1. The system shown
AP FD HDG NAV APR REV ALT DN in Figure 4-3 does not use a separate device for autopilot
controls; it integrates the autopilot function buttons into
Knobs on the autopilot control panel can be used another cockpit display.
to enter assigned altitudes and vertical speeds.
BRT
5000 FT
5200 20 DIM
160
20 20 10
150 10 10 5100 5
4 40
14 3 50 20 0
1402 00
Vertical speed
10 10 -5 indicator
130 4900
OAT 7°C
20 20 -10
TAS 143 KTS -20
GS 135 KTS 29.92"
This primary flight display offers separate windows used to input course, heading, altitude, and vertical speed targets.
4-3
How Autopilot Functions Work
Once an autopilot mode has been engaged, the autopilot:
NAV1 10
NAV2 10 1. Determines which control movements are required to
follow the flight profile entered by the pilot, and
2. Moves the controls to affect tracking of the flight
profile.
23
Determination of Control Movements Required To
Achieve Goals
Suppose you wish to use the autopilot/FD to turn to an
230
assigned heading of 270°. The heading knob is used to
select the new heading. Before any control movements are
made, the autopilot/FD must first determine which control
AP YD
movements are necessary (e.g., left or right turn). To do so,
the FD/autopilot must first determine the aircraft’s current
FD HDG
heading and bank angle, determine amount and direction
NAV APR of the turn, and then choose an appropriate bank angle,
ALT MENU
usually up to 30° or less. To make these determinations, the
FD gathers and processes information from the aircraft’s
NOSE
VS
UP
ADC (airspeed and altitude), magnetic heading reference
FLC NOSE
DOWN instrument, and navigation systems.
4-4
Heading
Common Error: Blindly Following Flight Director
050 060 070
0 080
080
80 090 100
100 110 120
Cues
The convenience of flight director cues can invite fixation or
overreliance on the part of the pilot. As with all automated
systems, you must remain aware of the overall situation.
20 20
20 Never assume that flight director cues are following a route
Degrees of attitude or course that is free from error. Rather, be sure to include
navigation instruments and sources in your scan. Remember,
10 10
10 the equipment will usually perform exactly as programmed.
Always compare the displays to ensure that all indications
Horizon
880 B agree. If in doubt, fly the aircraft to remain on cleared track
and altitude, and reduce automation to as minimal as possible
during the problem processing period. The first priority for
a pilot always is to fly the aircraft.
10 10
Common Error: Confusion About Autopilot
Figure 4-5. A flight director. Engagement
Pilots sometimes become confused about whether or not
inputs necessary to achieve the selected targets. To use the
flight director cues are being automatically carried out by
flight director command bars, which are usually shaped as
the autopilot, or left to be followed manually by the pilot.
inverted chevrons, or V-shaped symbols, the pilot simply flies
Verification of the autopilot mode and engagement status
to the bars. Some older models use crossed bars, leading the
of the autopilot is a necessary technique for maintaining
pilot to the selected point. In both types, you simply keep
awareness of who is flying the aircraft.
the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator aligned with the
command bars, or allow the autopilot to make the actual
control movements to fly the selected track and altitude.
Follow Route
The FD/autopilot’s navigation function can be used to guide
Using the Flight Director (FD) the aircraft along the course selected on the navigation
Flight Director Without Autopilot indicator. Since the navigation display in most advanced
The FD and autopilot systems are designed to work together, avionics cockpits can present indications from a variety of
but it is possible to use the flight director without engaging navigation systems, you can use the autopilot’s navigation
the autopilot, or the autopilot without the FD, depending function to follow a route programmed into the FMS using
on the installation. Without autopilot engagement, the FD VOR, global positioning system (GPS), inertial navigation
presents all processed information to the pilot in the form of system (INS), or other navigation data sources.
command bar cues, but you must manually fly the airplane
Following a Route Programmed in the FMS
to follow these cues to fly the selected flightpath. In effect,
you “tell” the FD what needs to happen and the FD command Figure 4-6 demonstrates how to use the navigation function to
bars “tell” you what to do. This adds to your workload, since follow a route programmed into the FMS. With the navigation
you must program the FD for each procedure or maneuver to function engaged, the FD/auto-pilot steers the aircraft along
be accomplished, while actually flying the aircraft. In many the desired course to the active waypoint. Deviations from
cases, you will have a decreased workload if you simply the desired course to the new active waypoint are displayed
disable the FD and fly using only the flight instruments. on the navigation indicator. When the aircraft reaches the
active waypoint, the FMS computer automatically sequences
Flight Director With Autopilot to the next waypoint in the route, unless waypoint sequencing
is suspended.
When the aircraft includes both a flight director and an
autopilot, you may elect to use flight director cues without
It is important to note that the normal navigation function
engaging the autopilot. It may or may not be possible to use
provides only lateral guidance. It does not attempt to control
the autopilot without also engaging the flight director. You
the vertical path of the aircraft at any time. You must always
need to be familiar with the system installed. When you
ensure the correct altitude or vertical speed is maintained.
engage the autopilot, it simply follows the cues generated by
the flight director to control the airplane along the selected
lateral and vertical paths.
4-5
AP
NAV
VS x 100
R INC
EC
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
The autopilot NAV function steers the aircraft to keep the CDI needle centered.
-10
-20
20
Nav
N SU
UNOL
SUNOL Hdg B
Hd Bug
BRG 060° 270°
GPS1 6.8 NM 270°
00:04:15
Bearing Alt Bug
OFF 5000 FT
The CDI is coupled to the area navigation computer, so the autopilot streets the aircraft
along the desired track to the active waypoint showing on the navigation computer.
COM RING
C
C 119.000 1.0 1.0
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 11 00
114.
116.00
11 6.80 nm 059 m 060 m
04:15
VOL/ PUSH
GPS
ID
CO
CO
OM
COMM 96 kt 060 m GPS
GS TRK ETE
NAV
Figure 4-6. Using the navigation function to follow the programmed flight route.
When combined, use of the FMS and the FD/autopilot’s Following a VOR Radial
navigation function result in an automated form of flight that The FD/autopilot’s navigation function can also be used to
was formerly limited to very complex and expensive aircraft. directly track VOR radials. The navigation display must be
This same level of avionics can now be found in single-engine configured to show indications from one of the aircraft’s VOR
training airplanes. While it is easy to be complacent and let receivers. Once you have tuned and identified a VOR station
down your guard, you must continuously monitor and stay and selected the desired radial, you can select the navigation
aware of automated systems status and function and the mode to track the selected radial. Figure 4-7 demonstrates
track of the aircraft in relation to the flight plan and air traffic how to use the navigation mode to follow a VOR radial.
control (ATC) clearance.
When the navigation mode is used to follow a route defined
GPS Steering (GPSS) Function by VOR radials, you must still tune and identify each new
Many autopilots offer a global positioning system steering VOR facility manually and select the appropriate radials
(GPSS) function. GPSS does all of the same actions as along the way. The autopilot’s navigation function cannot
the navigation function, but achieves a higher degree of automatically manipulate the VOR receiver. However, some
precision by accepting inputs directly from the GPS receiver. highly automated FMS units tune and identify VORs along a
Consequently, the GPSS function follows the desired track to defined route, such as Victor or Jet routes. You should check
the active waypoint more aggressively, permitting only small the FMS documentation and installed options.
excursions from the desired course. On some installations,
pressing the autopilot NAV button twice engages the GPSS
function.
4-6
AP
NAV
VS x 100
R INC
EC
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
-10
-20
20
COM
CO RING
C
C 119.000 1.0 1.0
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 114.00
116.00 6.80 nm 059 m 060 m
04:15
VOL/ PUSH
ID
Depending on the FMS, the highly automated flight that autopilots make an abrupt bank if engaged when there is a big
results when the navigation mode is used to follow a change to be made in heading or track. The heading function
published route from the database uses a different skill set is illustrated in Figure 4-8.
from using the navigation mode to track discreetly tuned VOR
radials. Learning how to select preprogrammed routes from You should note that, when using the heading mode, the FD/
the database of airways can be challenging. Programming autopilot ignores the pilot-programmed route in the FMS or
or tuning discreet VORs en route in turbulent conditions any VOR radials you set. When in heading mode, the FD/
presents different challenges. Either skill set can result in a autopilot will fly the selected heading until fuel starvation.
greater sharing of duties between pilot and technology and
an increase in safety. Maintain Altitude
The autopilot’s altitude mode maintains an assigned
Fly Heading barometric altitude. When the altitude mode is engaged, the
The heading mode is used to steer the aircraft automatically autopilot seeks to maintain the same barometric pressure
along a pilot selected heading. Using the FD/autopilot to fly (altitude) that the aircraft was flying at the time that the
a heading is a simple matter of selecting the assigned heading altitude mode was engaged. Figure 4-9 shows how to engage
and then engaging the heading function or, more commonly, the altitude mode for one manufacturer’s autopilot.
accomplished by first engaging the heading mode and gently
turning the heading selection knob to the new heading. Gently In addition to determining and carrying out the pitch
turning the knob with the mode already engaged allows you commands necessary to maintain the flight’s assigned
to make a smooth change from level to turning flight. Many altitude, most autopilots are also able to trim the aircraft.
4-7
or the autopilot is disconnected. If an altitude selector is not
The autopilot maintains the heading until fuel starvation. installed or functioning, the pilot has the task of leveling off
at the assigned altitude, which requires monitoring progress
and manually engaging the autopilot’s altitude hold function
060°
06
60° Heading
once the aircraft reaches the desired altitude. You must be
very careful to specify an appropriate vertical speed, as the
SET aircraft will fly itself into a stall if you command the autopilot
to climb at a rate greater than the aircraft’s powerplant(s) is/
Set the heading bug to the desired heading. are capable of supporting. You also need to monitor descent
airspeeds diligently to ensure compliance with VNE/VMO and
YD ARM BARO
VA or turbulence penetration speeds if there is doubt about
FT ALT SEL
smooth air conditions. As discussed in the previous chapter,
UP
you should be cognizant of the powerplant temperatures
AP FD HDG NAV APR REV ALT DN
reciprocating powered aircraft and bleed air requirements
for turbine-powered aircraft.
Press HDG to engage the heading function.
4-8
5000 FT
Baro Set
AP 29.92"
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
Figure 4-10. Performing a constant-rate climb or descent using the vertical speed function.
7000 FT
5200 20 DIM
10
7 0 0 0 ft 5100 5
40
5 0 0 fpm 50 20 0
00
-5
4900
-10
-20
29.92"
AP
Hdg Bug
NAV ALT VS 270°
VS x 100
Alt Bug
R INC
EC 7000 FT
R
D
Figure 4-11. Climbs and descents to capture using the altitude select/capture feature.
4-9
The indications on the autopilot in Figure 4-11 do not alerting system, when the alerting system is missed, or you
distinguish between functions that are armed or engaged. are distracted, nothing is left to prevent an altitude deviation.
You must remember that the altitude alerting system is
The more sophisticated annunciator shown in Figure 4-12 uses designed as a backup, and be careful not to let the alerting
color coding to distinguish between armed and engaged system become the primary means of monitoring altitude.
autopilot functions. Most airline operators have a standard operating procedure
that requires pilots to call out approaching target altitudes
Engaged functions are shown in green.
before the altitude alerting system gives the alert. Common
errors occur when setting 10,000 feet versus 11,000 feet.
Too many ones and zeros can confuse a fatigued, busy pilot,
0 WPT KGNB DIS 53.5
53 5NM DTK 274° TRK 274° resulting in setting an incorrect altitude.
0 GPS AP YD VS 800 FPM ALT
4-10
or descend, the pilot must select only the vertical mode. In Figure 4-13 illustrates selecting the assigned heading, setting
many systems, the vertical speed mode is indicated and the up your FD/FMS autopilot for the assigned course, engaging
altitude mode is indicated as “armed” and ready to capture the heading mode, and arming the navigation function. Once
the selected altitude. Only the power requires pilot manual the aircraft reaches the course, the autopilot automatically
control. disengages the heading function and engages the navigation
mode.
Power Management
Unless the aircraft has an autothrottle system, you must adjust On most FD/autopilots, courses can be intercepted by first
the power to an appropriate setting when performing any using the heading “bug” to select an intercept course and then
climb, descent, or level-off. You cannot allow the aircraft engaging the heading function. Alternatively, engaging the
to exceed any applicable speed limitations during a descent. navigation function in some units causes the FD/autopilot
During a climb at a vertical speed that the aircraft cannot to select an intercept heading, engage the heading function,
sustain, the FD/autopilot may command a pitch that results and arm the navigation function. This can be a cause for
in a stall. conflict if ATC assigns an intercept heading, but the FD is
programmed to use one angle. In those instances, you need
Essential Skills to set the heading into the FD/autopilot, fly, and control
the intercept until the aircraft is close enough to complete
1. Use the FD/autopilot to climb or descend to and
the intercept and capture without deviating from the ATC
automatically capture an assigned altitude.
instructions. At that point you can select and arm the
2. Determine the indications of the armed or capture navigation mode, which completes the intercept and begins
mode, and what pilot actions will cancel those modes. tracking the selected course.
3. Determine if the system allows resetting of the armed
or capture mode, or if manual control is the only option Essential Skills
after cancellation of these modes. 1. Use the FD/autopilot to fly an assigned heading to
4. Determine the available methods of activating the capture and track a VOR and/or RNAV course.
altitude armed or capture mode. 2. Determine if the FD/autopilot uses preprogrammed
5. Determine the average power necessary for normal intercepts or set headings for navigation course
climbs and descents. Practice changing the power to interceptions.
these settings in coordination with making the FD/ 3. Determine the indications of navigation mode armed
autopilot mode changes. conditions.
6. Determine and record maximum climb vertical speeds 4. Determine parameters of preprogrammed intercept
and power settings for temperatures and altitudes. modes, if applicable.
Ensure the values are in agreement with values in
AFM/POH for conditions. Make note of highest 5. Determine minimum and maximum intercept angle
practical pitch attitude values, conditions, and loading. limitations, if any.
Remember powerplant factors (e.g., minimum
powerplant temperature, bleed air requirements) and
airframe limitations (e.g., VA in setting power).
Course Intercepts
Flying an Assigned Heading To Intercept a
Course or VOR Radial
You can use the navigation mode in combination with the
heading function to fly an assigned heading to intercept
a course. The procedure illustrated in Figure 4-13 takes
advantage of the ability to arm the navigation mode while
the heading mode is engaged.
4-11
-10
-20
HDG NAV
VS x 100
R INC
EC
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
AP
NAV
VS x 100
R INC
EC
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
4-12
YD ARM BARO
ALT SEL
UP
X
AP FD HDG NAV APR REV ALT DN
APR EC
R INC
R
D
HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
functions of the autopilot are used in the same way to carry VS x 100
EC
R INC
R
D
out the lateral and vertical guidance and control of the aircraft. HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
R
D
both. The FD/autopilot attempts to perform as programmed HDG NAV APR REV ALT VS
VS
by you, the pilot. If the climbing vertical speed selection
is too great, the aircraft increases the pitch attitude until it
achieves that vertical speed, or the wing stalls. Selection of Figure 4-15. Flying a coupled precision approach.
an airspeed or descent rate that is too great for the power
selected can result in speeds beyond the airframe limitations. 3. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to an RNAV approach.
Leveling off from a descent, without restoring a cruise power 4. Determine the power setting required to fly the
setting results in a stall as the FD/autopilot attempts to hold approaches.
the altitude selected.
5. Determine the power settings necessary for leveloff
during nonprecision approaches and go-around
Essential Skills
power settings for both precision and nonprecision
1. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to a precision approach. approaches.
2. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to a nonprecision
approach.
4-13
6. Determine the speeds available for the minimum Disadvantages of using the FD/autopilot include the
recommended powerplant settings. It is useful to following:
determine if an ATC clearance can be accepted for 1. Forgetting to maintain manual flying skills. It is
climbs, altitudes, and descents. important to practice flying without the FD/autopilot
often enough to maintain proficiency in basic flying
Deciding When To Use the FD/Autopilot skills and the instrument cross-check and scan. One
In addition to learning how to use the FD/autopilot, you must common pitfall of advanced avionics is the pilot’s
also learn when to use it. Since there are no definitive rules tendency to forget to maintain hard-earned skills for
about when an FD/autopilot should or should not be used, instrument flight. All equipment will fail at some time.
you must learn to consider the benefits and disadvantages of The competent pilot is ready and prepared to make a
using the FD/autopilot in any given situation. transition to aircraft piloting at any time.
2. Turbulence. The pilot’s operating handbook (POH)
One of the most valuable benefits of using the FD/autopilot
and FD/autopilot flight manual supplements for many
is delegating the constant task of manipulating the aircraft’s
aircraft discourage or prohibit use of the autopilot’s
controls to the equipment, which do nothing other than
altitude hold function during moderate or severe
comply with the pilot’s programming. This allows you
turbulence. Some FD/autopilot systems may default
more time to manage and observe the entire flight situation.
or disengage if certain trim or control limits are
Managing the flight versus actually moving the controls
encountered during turbulent conditions. You should
allows more time for:
consult the flight manual to ensure the aircraft is
1. Programming. Especially when flying under IFR, not operated outside specified limits. The aircraft’s
changes to a route are inevitable. Even when the flightpath and mode indications should always be
pilot is proficient in using FMS/RNAV, this task monitored to ensure what modes are active.
requires focusing some attention on the programming
3. Minimum altitude. Autopilots are certified for use
task. The FD/autopilot keeps the aircraft on the
above a specified minimum altitude above ground
programmed heading or course and altitude while the
level (AGL). Some higher performance and higher
pilot makes the necessary changes to the flight plan.
service ceiling aircraft require autopilot control above
If programmed correctly, the aircraft maintains the
certain airspeeds and altitudes. The flight manual
correct track and altitude.
and operations manual (if any) should be consulted
2. Distracting tasks/workload. Similarly, the FD/ to ensure that the pilot does not operate the aircraft
autopilot is used to control basic aircraft movement outside specified limits. For higher safety standards,
while the pilot focuses attention on tasks such as commercial operators must observe restrictions in
reviewing charts, briefing and configuring for an Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
instrument approach, updating weather information, sections 121.579, 125.328, and 135.93, according to
etc. The FD/autopilot can also be a great help in their regulatory classification. Adoption of these limits
other high workload situations, such as flying in a by private operators would add a safety margin to
busy terminal area or executing a missed approach in flights conducted under 14 CFR part 91 regulations
adverse weather conditions. in many cases.
3. Maintaining autopilot skills. The FD/autopilot’s ability 4. Possible malfunction. If at any time the pilot observes
to help manage pilot workload depends heavily on the unexpected or uncommanded behavior from the
pilot’s proficiency in using it. Regular practice with the autopilot, he or she should disengage the autopilot
various autopilot functions (especially the approach until determination of the cause and its resolution.
functions) is essential to develop and maintain the Most autopilot systems have multiple methods of
knowledge and skills necessary to maximize its disengagement; you should be immediately aware of
utilization. all of them. Also be aware of the methods to cancel
4. Emergencies. The FD/autopilot can be extremely the FD display to avoid confusing information.
useful during an emergency. It can reduce pilot
workload and facilitate efforts to troubleshoot the
emergency.
4-14
Miscellaneous Autopilot Topics Autopilot and Electric Trim System Failures
Autopilot Mode Awareness It is vital that you become immediately familiar with the
procedures required to disconnect or disable the electric trim
In addition to performing the basic aircraft control and
and autopilot systems. Electric trim and autopilot failures can
navigation function described previously, some autopilots
occur in the form of failure indications; unusual, unexpected,
are capable of automatically switching from one function
or missing actions; or, in the extreme case, a runaway servo
to another. These automatic mode changes can complicate
actuator in the autopilot or trim system.
the task of maintaining mode awareness, but every autopilot
has some form of flight mode annunciator that shows which
The first and closest method of disconnecting a malfunctioning
autopilot functions are currently engaged. The autopilot
autopilot is the autopilot disconnect switch, typically mounted
shown in Figure 4-4 displays the name of any autopilot
on the control yoke. This switch is usually a red button, often
mode that is currently engaged just above the button used to
mistaken by new pilots for the radio transmit button. You
engage the function. It is important to develop two habits:
need to know which buttons activate which functions.
1. Checking the flight mode annunciator after entering a
command to ensure that the selected function is indeed Most systems may be disconnected by the mode buttons on
armed or engaged, as appropriate. the autopilot control panel. However, there are some failures
2. Including the flight mode annunciator in the scan to (shorted relays, wires, etc.) that remove control of the servo
maintain continuous awareness of what mode is active actuator from the control unit itself. In those rare instances,
and what is armed to activate next. the pilot must find and pull the circuit breakers that interrupt
power to both the trim and autopilot systems. Some trim
Positive Exchange of Controls systems have separate circuit breakers for trim motors that
When control of the aircraft is transferred between two pilots, operate different control surfaces (roll, pitch, yaw). Many
it is important to acknowledge this exchange verbally. The pilots have installed small plastic collars on the autopilot
pilot relinquishing control of the aircraft should state, “You to facilitate finding and pulling the correct autopilot circuit
have the flight controls.” The pilot assuming control of the breaker to kill the power to that circuit. Ensure that you
aircraft should state, “I have the flight controls,” and then understand all functions and equipment are lost if those (and
the pilot relinquishing control should restate, “You have in fact, any circuit breaker) are disabled. In too many cases, a
the flight controls.” Following these procedures reduces the circuit breaker installed in an aircraft supplies power to more
possibility of confusion about who is flying the aircraft at functions than the label implies. To be absolutely sure, check
any given time. the wiring diagrams, and do not pull circuit breakers unless
the POH/AFM directs that specific action.
Using an FD/autopilot system can present an opportunity for
confusion. When engaging the autopilot, it is a good idea to Another method of maintaining flight control when faced
announce that the autopilot is being engaged, what autopilot with a failed trim or autopilot system is the control yoke. Most
mode is being used, and then to confirm the settings using autopilot and trim systems use a simple clutch mechanism
the flight mode annunciator. It has been general practice that allows you to overpower the system by forcing the
for many years in many aircraft to first engage the FD to control yoke in the desired direction. This is usually checked
determine what instructions it was going to transmit to the during the afterstart/pretakeoff/ runup check.
autopilot. This is determined by reading the FD’s command
bars. If the commands shown agree with your perception of Essential Skills
the control motions to be made, then engage the autopilot 1. Demonstrate the proper preflight and ground check of
to fly the entered course and vertical mode. A caution at the FD/autopilot system.
this point: some FDs cancel the altitude hold mode when
2. Demonstrate all methods used to disengage and
the autopilot is engaged. Always ensure that, after autopilot
disconnect an autopilot.
engagement, the desired modes are still active.
3. Demonstrate how to select the different modes and
Preflighting the Autopilot explain what each mode is designed to do and when
The POH or aircraft flight manual (AFM) supplement it will become active.
for each FD/autopilot system contains a preflight check 4. Explain the flight director (FD) indications and
procedure that must be performed before departure. As autopilot annunciators, and how the dimming function
with other preflight inspection items, this check allows you is controlled.
to ensure that the autopilot is operating correctly, before
depending on it in the air.
4-15
Chapter Summary
Automated flight control can make a long flight easy for
you by relieving you of the tedious second-by-second
manipulation and control of the aircraft. Overdependence
on automated flight controls can cost you hard-earned
aircraft handling skills, and allow you to lose the situational
awareness important to safe flight. You must practice your
skills and cross-check.
4-16
Chapter 5
Information Systems
Introduction
This chapter introduces information systems available in
the advanced avionics cockpit. These systems support you
in following flight progress, and in avoiding terrain, traffic,
and weather hazards en route. A moving map continuously
displays the aircraft’s position relative to the intended route
of flight, and helps you maintain the “big picture” (situational
awareness) as your flight progresses. A Terrain Awareness
and Warning System (TAWS) color codes surrounding
terrain to make it easily apparent when terrain poses a
threat. Weather systems provide in-flight access to many of
the same weather products available on the ground. A fuel
management system makes predictions about fuel remaining
at each waypoint along the route, and helps monitor actual
fuel use as your flight progresses.
5-1
Since the volume of information now available in the cockpit Essential Skills
cannot be presented on a single display, or would clutter
1. Program the multi-function display to show data
a single display to the point of unintelligibility, you must
provided by any aircraft system.
decide what information is needed at any given point in your
flight. You will learn how information systems can be used to 2. Determine how many data displays can be combined
enhance situational awareness and increase the safety margin. in one display.
It is important to avoid the pitfalls of using enhanced weather, 3. Know how to select the PFD displays on the MFD, if
traffic, and terrain information to fly closer to hazardous available.
situations. This negates any safety advantage created by
4. Determine which data displays can be overlaid onto
advanced avionics. Advanced avionics aircraft crash due to
the PFD as well as the MFD.
the same causes as aircraft with traditional instrumentation.
OAT
O AT 7°C MAP WPT AUX NRST
TOPO TERRAIN STRMSCP NEXRAD XM LTNG BACK
5-2
NAV1 116.00 114.00 GS 156kts DIS 38.2NM ETE 00:15 ETA 04:10 125.900 121.600 COM1
NAV2 113.90 114.80 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.850 119.000 COM2
TRACK UP
WAGER
23.0
2300
13.7
46
200
1652
1
ECA
338 30NM
5
MAP WPT AUX NRST
ENGINE MAP DCLTR
5-3
Identifying the Missed Approach Point NAV1
NAV2
116.00
113.90
114.00
114.80
GS 156kts DIS 53.2NM
MAP - NAVIGATION MAP
ETE 00:21 125.900
123.850
121.600
119.000
COM1
COM2
200
1652
1
ECA
338 30NM
5
MAP WPT AUX NRST
ENGINE MAP DCLTR
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 117.30
113.90 0.2 nm 308 m 308 m
00:24
VOL/ PUSH
the aircraft is too high, too far, or moving too fast. Manual 030
KLVK
you are constantly aware of the distances and closure rates SUNOL
000
Traffic View
to points. Above
ALTAM
Center
15 33
Lightning Declutter
Strike
Catching Errors: Using the Moving Map to Detect
Route Programming Errors Base Map
C83
Clear
Strikes Base
12 N
Moving maps are particularly useful for catching errors
made while entering modifications to the programmed 3
E
route during flight. Misspelled waypoints are often difficult Emerg.
Checklist 6
to detect among a list of waypoints. The moving map in Map TAWS Trip Nrst Chkist Setup Engine Range
5-4
The moving map shown in Figure 5-7 allows you to discover
a more serious programming error quickly. In this situation,
the pilot is attempting an RNAV approach. However, the 3 6
course deviation indicator (CDI) has erroneously been set 9
0
to display very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range N
A TO
(VOR) course indications. The CDI suggests that the aircraft V
12
is well to the west of course. The moving map display shows
33
the true situation—the aircraft is on the RNAV approach
course, but is about to depart it.
15
30
348° The pilot turns to intercept
the course shown on the
18
mis-set course deviation 27
indicator.
OBS 24 21
VOR 1
The moving map suggests
that something is wrong
with the indications shown
on the course deviation
indicator: the aircraft is
about to depart the RNAV
approach course. Figure 5-8. Can you determine your position from a simple CDI?
Failure Indications
FAFIX Failure indications on the moving map can be quite subtle.
The MFD in Figure 5-9 reflects a loss of position information,
indicated by the removal of the aircraft symbol, compass
labels, and other subtle differences. Be familiar with the
failure indications specific to your equipment.
PWR RPM
IH TO - - -
NG
FUEL
- - -
GPH USED
REM SB3 C44
DEST - - -
Gal h m
- - -
OIL F UTC 22:59:26
3B0
LEAN PSI TIME 22:59:26
KPVD OB5
OAT C 037
43M BB5 030
+ ABV 11nm KORH KGRE
/ STRK
1B6
IAFIX KGDM
of the aircraft with respect to the VOR station? Interpreting Map TAWS Trip Nrst Chkist Setup Engine Range
this type of display requires more effort than interpreting the Figure 5-9. An MFD indicating a loss of position information.
moving map, which automatically displays the solution to
the position-finding problem. Pilots should expend the effort Common Error: Using the Moving Map as a
to practice this skill set. Those who learn to navigate using Primary Navigation Instrument
ground-based radio navigation aids are forced to develop
The rich detail offered by the moving map display invites
spatial reasoning and visualization skills, but a Federal
you to use the display as a primary navigation instrument, but
Aviation Administration (FAA) study showed that this type
you need to resist this temptation. The moving map display
of skill tends to fade quickly when not used. Be sure to keep
is designed to provide supplemental navigation information,
your spatial reasoning and visualization skills sharp.
5-5
but is not approved as a substitute for primary navigation map turned off, these pilots performed as well as anyone else.
instruments. The moving map is not required to meet any The simple task of pointing out geographical features was
certification standards for accuracy or information as are enough to avoid the out-of-the-loop phenomenon.
the primary navigation CDI and related system components.
Bear in mind that the apparent accuracy of the moving map A moving map provides a wealth of information about your
display can be affected by factors as simple as the range route of flight and gives you the opportunity to consider many
setting of the display. An aircraft 10 miles off course can similar questions along the way. Where would you land if you
appear to be centered on an airway when the range is set to lost engine power? Which alternate airport would you use if
cover great distances. weather at your destination deteriorated below minimums?
Which nearby VOR stations could be used (and should be
Awareness: Overreliance on the Moving Map tuned as the flight progresses) in the event that the global
With the position of the aircraft conveniently displayed at positioning system (GPS) signal or other RNAV navigation
all times on a color screen in front of you, it is easy to let data source is lost? Is a more direct routing possible? Diligent
the computers do the work of monitoring flight progress. pilots continually ask questions like these.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that pilots have a
tendency to monitor and process navigational information Terrain Systems
from conventional sources (e.g., outside reference or Terrain systems provide information about significant
conventional navigation instruments) much less actively terrain along your route of flight. Terrain systems were
when a moving map display is available. In a National designed to help reduce controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) study, two accidents. Remember, however, that use of these terrain
groups of pilots were asked to navigate along a circuit of proximity information systems for primary terrain avoidance
checkpoints during a VFR cross-country flight. One group is prohibited. The terrain proximity map is intended only
navigated using a sectional chart and pilotage. The other to enhance situational awareness; it remains the pilot’s
group had the same sectional chart plus an RNAV computer responsibility to ensure terrain avoidance at all times.
and a moving map. After completing the circuit, both groups Safe flight practices include pilot knowledgeability of the
were asked to navigate the circuit again, this time with no maximum elevation figures (MEF), published in blue for each
navigational resources. Pilots who had navigated with only grid square on sectional charts, and planning flight altitudes
the sectional chart performed well, finding the checkpoints above those elevations. Despite all efforts by the charting
again with reasonable accuracy. The performance was less agency to be current, there will always be obstructions
favorable by pilots who had the FMS/RNAV and moving map in place before the documentation arrives for charting.
available. While half of these pilots found the checkpoints Therefore, the competent pilot always allows for sufficient
with reasonable accuracy, one-fourth of the pilots made larger clearance for unknown towers and buildings. Experienced
errors in identifying the checkpoints. The remaining pilots pilots have learned that many aircraft cannot outclimb certain
were wholly unable to find their way back to the airport of mountainous slopes. You should always fly down (descend)
origin. This study makes two important points: into a valley or canyon, rather than attempting to fly up the
1. The existence of information about aircraft position valley and become trapped in a box canyon too narrow for a
and geographical surroundings in an FMS/RNAV turn and too steep to climb over. One regularly overlooked
and moving map display does not mean that the pilot factor is the loss of power generally associated with the higher
maintains true situational awareness or involvement elevations at which canyons and steep slopes are often found.
with the operation of the flight to a degree needed for
a safe outcome. Early Systems
Various terrain avoidance systems have been certificated
2. The key to the successful use of a moving map display
and used in the past. One early system was termed Ground
is to use the display as a supplement—not a substitute—
Proximity Warning System (GPWS, often pronounced
for active involvement in the navigational process.
“GipWhiz”). One major shortcoming of the system was a lack
of predictive terrain warnings. Most early systems simply
What does it take to use a moving map and remain “in the
used a radar altimeter as the sensor. The radar altimeter
loop,” or situationally aware? In a second NASA study,
simply indicated the altitude of the aircraft above the ground
pilots who used an FMS/RNAV and moving map display
immediately below the airframe. The subsequently developed
were asked to act as “tour guides,” pointing out geographical
enhanced GPWS (EGPWS or eGPWS) used GPS location
features to a passenger while navigating the same set of cross-
data combined with a worldwide terrain database to predict
country checkpoints. When confronted with a surprise request
that a canyon wall was just ahead and a climb should be
to navigate around the circuit again with the FMS/RNAV and
5-6
started. The older GPWS had no indication of a very close Monitoring Surrounding Terrain During Departure
hazard. However, the system did prevent numerous gear-up and Arrival
landings and offered warnings when terrain presented a slope Terrain displays are especially useful during departure and
to much higher terrain. arrival phases of flight. For example, the aircraft shown
in Figure 5-10 has departed Denver and is heading for a
Terrain Display waypoint situated in high terrain in the Rocky Mountains.
The most basic type (not necessarily certified) of terrain A pilot with good situational awareness has many concerns
system is the terrain display. A terrain display uses the during the departure. For instance, is climb performance
MFD to plot the position of the aircraft against a pictorial meeting expectations? The terrain display reduces the need
presentation of surrounding terrain. A terrain display usually for you to perform mental calculations by verifying that
relies on a GPS location signal to compare the position and the depiction of the terrain that lies ahead of the aircraft is
altitude of the aircraft against the terrain found in an internal steadily changing from red to yellow to black. If the terrain
topographical database. Figure 5-10 shows the position of depiction remains red as the aircraft approaches, you know
the aircraft and surrounding terrain displayed on an MFD. there is a problem. Similarly, if the aircraft has been assigned
a heading and altitude vector by air traffic control, the terrain
Terrain displays use a simple color-coding convention to display provides a simple way of monitoring the safety of
portray the difference between the present altitude of the these directives. If the equipment is not certified as meeting
aircraft and the height of the surrounding terrain. Terrain TAWS requirements (see Title 14 of the Code of Federal
more than 1,000 feet below the aircraft is coded black. Terrain Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.223), the accuracy
less than 1,000 feet but more than 100 feet below the aircraft can be in doubt.
is coded yellow. Terrain less than 100 feet below the aircraft
is coded red. Man-made obstacles (e.g., radio towers, power
lines, buildings) generally do not appear in a topographical
database.
Color coding is used to depict the height of surrounding terrain relative to the current altitude of the aircraft.
At its present altitude, this aircraft will not clear the terrain on its way to KRIL.
NAV1 117.95 115.40 GS 123kts DIS 53.2NM ETE 25:58 ESA 16800 123.750 119.925
119
119.92
925
5 COM1
NAV2 108.00 117.95 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 135.975 120.050 COM2
COM2
KLAR
NORTH UP
308
31
L89
3000
KGHR
2300
W GPH
KGRN
25 KBJC
KDEN
1
KFTR
LAR
13.7 KBUC
HCT
KCEN
46
S H82
200
100
KLVL
S
1652
1
L
L 338 KHEF KCOS 30NM
R 5
MAP
MAP WPT
WPT AUX NRST
AUX NRST
5-7
Evaluating a Direct-To Routing you to upcoming terrain. At a closure time of approximately
One of the risks involved in proceeding directly to a waypoint 1 minute, a “Caution! Terrain!” alert is issued. This alert
is that you may be yet unaware of any significant terrain changes to the more serious “Terrain! Terrain!” alert when the
between the present position and the waypoint. A terrain closure time reaches 30 seconds. In some areas of the world,
display offers a convenient way of seeing clearly what lies this terrain warning may very well be too late, depending on
between here and there as reported and documented in the the performance of the aircraft. You need to determine the
database. Always consult the MEF values along the path of equipment’s criteria and note if the unit makes allowances for
flight to ensure terrain and obstruction clearance. lower power output of the powerplant(s) at higher elevations,
resulting in lower climb rates than may be programmed into
Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems the unit for that aircraft.
A terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) offers
you all of the features of a terrain display along with a A second type of aural alert warns about excessive descent
sophisticated warning system that alerts you to potential rates sensed by the system (“Sink Rate!”) or inadvertent loss
threats posed by surrounding terrain. A terrain awareness of altitude after takeoff (“Don’t Sink!”).
and warning system uses the aircraft’s GPS navigation signal
and altimetry systems to compare the position and trajectory The introduction of terrain awareness and warning systems
of the aircraft against a more detailed terrain and obstacle has sharply reduced the number of CFIT accidents. Despite
database. This database attempts to detail every obstruction this significant leap forward in safety, incidents and accidents
that could pose a threat to an aircraft in flight. involving terrain still happen. In the modern TAWS-equipped
cockpit, some of these incidents have been related to pilot
TAWS A and TAWS B reaction to TAWS alerts. TAWS sometimes gives nuisance
There are presently two classes of certified terrain awareness alerts that desensitize the pilot to TAWS alerts, which can
and warning systems that differ in the capabilities they result in the pilot’s decision to ignore a valid alert deemed
provide to the pilot: TAWS A and TAWS B. unnecessary by the pilot. Most TAWS systems contain
software logic that attempts to recognize and remain silent in
A TAWS A system provides indications for the following situations in which proximity to terrain is normal. This logic
potentially hazardous situations: is partly based on the aircraft’s distance from the runway
of intended landing. For example, flying at an altitude of
1. Excessive rate of descent 200 feet AGL when 3,500 feet away from the runway is
2. Excessive closure rate to terrain reasonable, but flying at an altitude of 200 feet AGL when
5 miles from the runway is not reasonable. TAWS’ logic
3. Altitude loss after takeoff
attempts to silence itself in normal situations, and to sound
4. Negative climb rate in abnormal situations.
5. Flight into terrain when not in landing configuration
Risk: Silencing TAWS Alerts
6. Excessive downward deviation from glideslope
Despite efforts to minimize nuisance alerts, they still occur
7. Premature descent occassionally. For this reason, most TAWS systems offer a
8. Terrain along future portions of the intended flight terrain inhibit switch that allows you to silence TAWS alerts.
route There have been cases in which pilots have used the inhibit
switch or ignored TAWS alerts, thinking they were nuisance
A TAWS B system provides indications of imminent contact alerts, when in fact the alerts were valid indications of a
with the ground in three potentially hazardous situations: dangerous situation. For this reason, you should train yourself
to respond to TAWS alerts just as you would to any other sort
1. Excessive rate of descent
of emergency. Always, if in any doubt, set “Full Power and
2. Excessive closure rate to terrain (per Advisory Circular Climb” at VX or VY, depending on the equipment manual
(AC) 23-18, to 500 feet above terrain) and AFM/POH. The practice of simply ignoring or disabling
3. Negative climb rate or altitude loss after takeoff TAWS alerts based on pilot intuition has not proved to be a
safe one. Your manufacturer’s reference manual and aircraft
TAWS Alerts flight manual supplement will prescribe specific procedures
for responding to TAWS alerts.
Aural alerts issued by a terrain awareness and warning system
warn you about specific situations that present a terrain
The only current, fully certified systems, known as TAWS,
collision hazard. Using a predictive “look ahead” function
are certified under Technical Standards Order (TSO)-C151.
based on the aircraft’s ground speed, the terrain system alerts
5-8
TAWS equipment is required for turbine-powered airplanes fly based on the TAWS display. It requires much precision
having six or more passenger seats and manufactured after flight training to learn the timing and skills to fly from a
certain dates (see 14 CFR part 91, section 91.223). TAWS is display depicting a myriad of data and converting that data
now an affordable option in many advanced avionics due to into close and low terrain flight directions. All advanced
decreased cost and increased capabilities of computer circuits avionics are designed to help the pilot avoid a hazard, not
and components. All aircraft would be safer with TAWS and enable the pilot to get closer to it. TAWS is not a terrain
crews trained to use the technology. flight following system.
Wilde does not support the idea of using technology to seek While onboard radar is real time, many downloaded radar
target levels of risk. Rather, he argues that safety measures images and other reports are delayed for some time period
such as seat belt laws and anti-lock brakes have not resulted for various reasons. Given the nature of thunderstorms and
in drastic reductions in highway fatalities in part because, other weather hazards, this delay could prove hazardous. You
in response to the added sense of safety provided by these must know the true quality and age of the data.
measures, drivers have emboldened their driving behavior
to maintain existing levels of risk. Most MFDs are capable of presenting radar data together
with aircraft position and the programmed route, as shown
Another issue is the lack of training in the new equipment in Figure 5-11.
and its uses. The functions of TAWS and basically how
it works have been previously described, yet there is no
training program outside the military that teaches anyone to
5-9
NAV1 117.95 115.40 GS 123kts DIS 53.2NM ETE 25:58 ESA 16800 123.750 119.925 COM1
NAV2 108.00 117.95 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 135.975 120.050 COM2
KLAR
NORTH UP
NORTH
NORTH UP
UP
NEXRAD
AGE: 5min
308
308 RAIN
L H
MIX
23.0 KFTC
KFTC KCLN
I
G
E
A
H SNOW V
L89
L89 T Y
KGHR
2300 KGRN
W GPH
25 KBJC
KBJC
KDEN
KFTR
13.7 KBUC
KBUC
LAR
HCT
KCEN
KCEN
46
H82
H82
200
KLVL
1652
1
338 KHEF
KHEF KCOS
KCOS 30
30NM
NM
5
MAP
MAP WPT AUX NRST
WPT AUX NRST
ENGINE NEXRAD ECHO TOP CLD TOP LTNG CELL MOV SIG/ AIR
V SIG / AIR METAR LEGEND MORE WX
Onboard Weather Radar Systems radar system in Figure 5-12 fails to detect the two cells that
Onboard weather radar uses an adjustable aircraft mounted lie below and beyond the radar beam.
radar antenna to detect, in real time, weather phenomena near
the aircraft. The coverage of an onboard weather radar system As illustrated in Figure 5-12, you must be careful not to
is similar to a flashlight beam, as illustrated in Figure 5-12. assume that the only cells in the area are the ones shown on
You should always remember that the radar displays only the radar display. The two additional cells in Figure 5-12 are
areas of water or moisture (rain, sleet, snow, and hail). Radar present, but not detected by the onboard weather radar
does not display turbulence or lightning. system.
Figure 5-12. A radar beam allows you to see some weather cells, Ground Weather Surveillance Radar
but not others. Ground weather surveillance integrates weather information
from many ground radar stations. The weather information
Although the tilt of the radar antenna can be adjusted upward collected from many sources is then used to create a
and downward, the weather phenomena that the weather composite picture that covers large volumes of airspace.
radar can detect are limited in both direction and range. The These composite radar images can then be transmitted to
aircraft equipped with weather data receivers.
5-10
40
30
20
10
takes time. Therefore, the radar data reflect recent rather than
current weather conditions.
40
The color-coding scheme used by one ground weather
surveillance radar system (NEXRAD) is shown in
Figure 5-15. Note that this color-coding scheme is slightly
more sophisticated than that for the onboard system in
Figure 5-13. It is capable of distinguishing rain, snow, and
30 mixtures of the two.
10
20
NEXRAD
Onboard weather radial symbology AGE: 5min
Level 4 (Magenta) Intense to Extreme
Level 3 (Red) Strong to Very Strong
RAIN
Level 2 (Yellow) Moderate L H
MIX
Level 1 (Green) Weak
Level 0 (Black) Background I E
G A
Figure 5-14. Color coding of intensity on an onboard weather H SNOW V
radar system. T Y
Except in those areas for which no ground radar coverage
Ground weather surveillance radar symbology
is available, the range of ground weather surveillance
radar systems is essentially unlimited. Ground radars have
the luxury of large antennas; big, heavy power supplies;
Figure 5-15. Color coding of intensity on a NEXRAD display.
and powerful transmitters—without the constraints of
aerodynamic drag, power, weight, and equipment volume
restrictions and concerns. Limitations of Both Types of Weather Radar
Systems
Unlike onboard weather radar systems, weather data received Weather radar does not detect most other kinds of hazardous
from a ground weather surveillance radar system is not real- weather such as fog, icing, and turbulence. The absence of
time information. The process of collecting, composing, radar return on a radar display does not in any way mean
transmitting, and receiving weather information naturally
5-11
“clear skies.” Skillful users of weather radar are able to electrical discharges provided by an onboard lightning system
recover clues of other weather phenomena, such as hail and are usually quite accurate. Estimates of the range (or distance)
turbulence, from radar data. of electrical discharges tend to be less accurate.
A second limitation of weather radar is that the earliest Broadcast (or data link) weather services are also capable of
(cumulus) stage of a thunderstorm is usually free of transmitting lightning data to the cockpit. The symbology
precipitation and may not be detected by radar. Convective used to present lightning data derived from these sources is
wind shear, severe turbulence, and icing are characteristic similar to that used by onboard lightning detection systems.
of thunderstorms during the cumulus stage. The lightning data provided by ground weather surveillance
systems is also a delayed weather product. Since the lightning
The pilot must beware of areas that offer no radar coverage. data provided by a broadcast service is derived from multiple
In many cases, these areas appear blank on a weather display. sensors, estimates of the range of electrical discharges are
The absence of weather hazards as shown on a screen does more accurate than those provided by onboard systems.
not imply the actual absence of weather hazards.
Clouds
Lightning Weather products that describe cloud coverage are generally
Most MFDs are also capable of depicting electrical activity available only from broadcast weather services. One popular
that is indicative of lightning. Like radar data, lightning data broadcast weather service offers graphical displays of visible
can come from two sources: onboard and broadcast weather cloud cover along with the cloud top altitude as determined
systems. Both systems have strengths and limitations and from satellite imagery. Figure 5-17 shows an MFD that
work together to present a more complete weather picture. depicts cloud cover and cloud tops.
Lightning data is an excellent complement to radar data for
116.00 114.80 123kts 53.2NM 25:58 16800 123.850 125.100
detecting the presence of thunderstorms.
NAV1 GS DIS ETE ESA COM1
NAV2 113.90 114.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 118.600 120.600 COM2
NORTH UP
CLD TOP
AGE: 18min
FRESNO
2300
discharges in the atmosphere and attempts to determine
which electromagnetic signals have the “signature” of 13.7
where there was no rain associated with the turbulence. The 338
5
MAP
MAP WPT AUX NRST
WPT AUX NRST
30
30NM
NM
ENGINE NEXRAD ECHO TOP CLD TOP LTNG CELL MOV SIG / AIR METAR LEGEND MORE WX
H
H H graphical wind data, SIGMETs and AIRMETs, freezing
H H
levels, temporary flight restrictions, surface analyses, and
n
H 25 m
H H
H
hurricane tracks. The MFD in Figure 5-18 shows METAR
and TAF data.
H
5-12
NAV1 116.00 115.40 GS 123kts DIS 53.2NM ETE 25:58 ESA 16800 123.850 125.100 COM1
NAV2 113.90 117.95 WPT - WEATHER INFORMATION 118.600 120.600 COM2
NORTH UP
AIRPORT
KHWD PUBLIC
HAYWARD EXECUTIVE
METAR
10L
WIND DIR: 300
WIND SPD: 6KT
VISIBILITY: 10SM
2300 CLOUDS:
9000FT FEW
10R
KHWD TEMPERATURE: 11 C
DEW POINT: 1 C
28R ALTIMETER: 30.11 IN
13.7 ORIGINAL METAR TEXT:
SA KHWD 162154Z TAF window
46 TAF
NONE
28L
200
1652
1
338
5
MAP
MAP WPT AUX NRST
WPT AUX NRST
ENGINE MAP INFO DP STAR APR WX
more than ever, weather briefing is an activity that begins airports. Since not all weather products can be viewed at once,
prior to departure and continues until the flight is completed. a key pilot skill is the ability to determine which weather
products to display at what times.
Preflight Overview
A broadcast weather service allows you to see these products Broadcast Weather Products Versus Onboard
in the cockpit. Most systems offer a movable cursor that Weather Sensors
allows scrolling through the display to center on any location Onboard weather sensor systems and broadcast weather
along the route. This capability, combined with the MFD’s services contribute to the weather decision-making process
range control, allows you to look for significant weather in slightly different ways. Broadcast weather services provide
anywhere along the planned route of flight prior to departure. delayed information over a wider coverage area. Broadcast
weather services are useful for making strategic decisions
Track Progress of Significant Weather En Route about which areas to fly into and which areas to avoid. Using
The same scroll and range control features allow you to look a broadcast weather product to attempt to find a hole in a line
ahead and check for weather conditions along upcoming of thunderstorms is inappropriate, since you cannot know if
portions of the flight route. Weather forecasts, such as TAFs, the current location of the thunderstorm cells is the same as
SIGMETs, and AIRMETs, issued after departure can be when the broadcast weather product was generated. Onboard
easily checked en route. weather sensor systems provide real-time information about
weather phenomena in the immediate proximity of the
Investigate Weather Phenomena Reported by Radio aircraft. Onboard weather sensor systems are useful when
You can use cockpit weather systems to further investigate making immediate, close-range decisions about flying in
advisories received from HIWAS and other radio broadcasts. the vicinity of potentially hazardous weather phenomena.
Another practical use is to check the METAR for a destination You must keep in mind the limitations of onboard weather
airport before flying in range of the airport’s ATIS broadcast. systems.
When you suspect that changing weather conditions have
made continuation to the destination airport inadvisable, the
radar and satellite features can be used to search for alternate
5-13
Common Error: Skipping the Preflight Weather approximately 40-second range of the aircraft. Traffic
Briefing advisories take the form of an aural alert: “Traffic! Traffic!”
The easy availability of weather information in the cockpit
can lure you to skip the preflight weather briefing. Time Advanced TCAS systems (TCAS II) can also issue a
pressure adds further incentive to simply jump in and go. resolution advisory (RA) when another active transponder-
Keep in mind that flight services stations (FSS)/automated equipped aircraft comes within an approximately 25-second
flight service stations (AFSS) offer many advantages over range of the aircraft. RAs take the form of an avoidance
an advanced weather data system, so do not use advanced command that instructs you how to fly the aircraft in order
avionics weather data systems as a substitute for a pre-flight to avoid the threat. An aural alert is issued that instructs the
weather briefing. As a simple example, when talking to an pilot to perform a vertical avoidance maneuver. Example
FSS/AFSS weather briefer, it is possible to get a better overall aural alerts are: “Climb! Climb!” and “Descend! Descend!”
picture of the weather system and pilot reports not yet entered
into the system. The FSS/AFSS briefer can also supply more TCAS and traffic advisory systems use similar symbology to
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) and other detailed information present traffic information. Figure 5-19 shows four common
for your particular route of flight; without such briefing, the traffic symbols used on traffic displays. The resolution
pilot might expend many precious moments searching for advisory symbols appear only when an advanced TCAS II
a critical bit of information, instead of managing the flight. system is used. The colors used to display traffic symbols
Often, it is much easier to get a thorough briefing on the vary with the capabilities of the display.
ground than attempting to read small reports on a bouncing
MFD in a small airplane in turbulent conditions. Traffic Display Symbology
Non-Threat Traffic
Traffic Data Systems Outside of protected distance and altitude range.
A traffic data system is designed to help you visually acquire
Proximity Intruder Traffic
and remain aware of nearby aircraft that pose potential Within protected distance and altitude range, but
collision threats. All traffic data systems provide aural alerts still not considered a threat.
when the aircraft comes within a certain distance of any other
Traffic Advisory (TA)
detected aircraft. Traffic data systems coupled with MFDs can Within protected range and considered a threat.
provide visual representations of surrounding traffic. Most +03 TCAS will issue an aural warning (e.g., Traffic!
traffic data systems allow you to set the sensitivity of the Traffic!).
system and display only traffic that exists within a specific Resolution Advisory (RA)
distance from the aircraft. Within protected range and considered an immediate
threat. TCAS will issue a vertical avoidance
There are two basic types of traffic data systems available command (e.g., Climb! Climb! Climb!).
5-14
and active transponders to be indicated on the ATC system. aircraft provided to the aircraft’s traffic data receiver are
Rather, TIS captures traffic information that appears on radar subject to error, you must widen your scan to all areas around
scopes at nearby air traffic control facilities and broadcasts the location presented on the traffic display.
that information to appropriately equipped aircraft. In order
to use TIS, aircraft must be equipped with a transponder When responding to air traffic control requests to acquire and
capable of receiving TIS broadcasts. When TIS is operational, maintain visual separation from nearby targets, be careful not
TIS-capable aircraft can observe traffic information in the to acknowledge contact with targets that have been observed
cockpit and receive traffic advisories for proximate aircraft. only on a traffic display. Do not report having the traffic “in
sight” before visual acquisition of a target.
There is an important limitation of TIS. TIS data is only
transmitted from approach radar facilities. No information Error: Overreliance on Traffic Data System/Failure
is broadcast from en route (air route traffic control center To Scan
(ARTCC)) facilities, so the effective coverage of TIS is Keep in mind that a traffic data system is designed to enhance
limited to larger metropolitan areas. Some approach radar “see and avoid” capabilities. You must avoid any tendency
facilities are not equipped to send TIS information. Note that to rely too much on traffic data systems, or to use traffic data
the aircraft must be within range (approximately 50 NM) and systems as a substitute for visual scanning and acquisition of
within line of site of the TIS station to receive broadcasts. surrounding traffic. Because of the limitations of advanced
traffic data systems, think of them as supplemental to your
Advanced Traffic Data Systems Based on ADS-B traffic awareness while you continue to assume primary
Future traffic avoidance systems will probably be able to responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft. Remember,
determine position and digitally exchange information with too, that systems can and do fail. Traffic data systems are
airborne and ground-based facilities. Using the automatic quite complex and any failure from the other aircraft’s
dependent surveillance—broadcast (ADS-B) system, transponder/GPS/encoder to your receiver/decoder/GPS/
participating aircraft will continuously broadcast their own traffic computer and display encoder will reduce data on
position, altitude, airspeed, trajectory, and identification to your display. Power spikes, weather (lightning), and other
air traffic control facilities. ADS-B aircraft continuously onboard aircraft disturbances are all unknown and changing.
receive the same information from like equipped aircraft As experience is gained with the system, better designs will
in the area (line of sight), which allows onboard displays eliminate problems yet to be discovered.
for surrounding traffic. ADS-B has been used with much
success in Alaskan trials and requires less infrastructure to Using a Traffic Data System on the Ground
be usable. ADS-B equipment is demonstrating promise for Most traffic data systems automatically switch to a standby
better traffic separation on transoceanic routes well out of mode when the aircraft is on the ground or operating below
range of land-based systems. ADS-B signals are transmitted a minimum speed. The same systems typically allow you to
on the 978 MHz channel. The information gathered from all override this feature and manually activate the traffic data
participating aircraft can then be transmitted back to each TIS system at any time. There are a number of ways to exploit
aircraft to provide a detailed picture of the traffic situation, this capability. When departing from an uncontrolled airport,
even if those aircraft do not have ADS-B onboard. the traffic data system can help you learn of other traffic in
the vicinity of the airport. When operating in low-visibility
Using a Traffic Data System
conditions, the same feature can help inform of other
Setting Sensitivity on a Traffic Data System aircraft operating on the airport surface. One potential future
Most traffic data systems allow you to adjust sensitivity and application of ADS-B is allowing controllers and pilots to
configure the system to track targets occurring only within a monitor aircraft better on taxiways and runways. You must
specified distance and altitude. More sophisticated traffic data check equipment documentation to determine when the
systems automatically adjust sensitivity throughout different transponder actually transmits, where the selection controls
phases of flight. It is important to become familiar with the are located, and how to use those controls.
use of these controls and features.
Fuel Management Systems
Responding to Traffic Alerts A fuel management system can help you make the fuel
You must develop skill in the task of visually acquiring calculations needed for in-flight decisions about potential
aircraft identified by an advanced avionics traffic data system. routing, fuel stops, and diversions. A fuel management
This task requires you to use angles and distances displayed system offers the advantage of precise fuel calculations
on a traffic display to help guide your visual search out the based on time, distance, winds, and fuel flow measured by
window. Since both the directions and altitudes of intruding
5-15
other aircraft systems. When a route has been programmed You must know the capacity of the aircraft fuel tanks and
into the FMS, the fuel management function is capable of amount of fuel required to fill the tanks to any measured
displaying currently available fuel and aircraft endurance and intermediate capacity (e.g., “tabs”). When full fuel capacity
providing an estimate of fuel remaining as the aircraft crosses is entered into the fuel management system, the tanks must
each waypoint in the programmed route. A fuel management be filled to the filler caps. For some aircraft, even a fraction
function is useful not only for making primary fuel of an inch of space between the filler cap and the fuel can
calculations, but also for backing up calculations performed mean that the tanks have been filled only to several gallons
by the pilot. If there are leaks, plumbing malfunctions, or under maximum capacity. Objects can plug lines, preventing
inadequate leaning, the fuel display can be deceptive. You the fuel from flowing to the pickup point. Some aircraft have
must always land at the earliest gauge indication of low bladders and dividers in the fuel system. A bladder can move
fuel in the tanks, time of normal landing, or any sign of fuel within the tank area and not actually hold the quantity of fuel
value disagreement with the flight planning. Errors can be specified. Always check to ensure that the fuel servicing
determined when the aircraft is safely on the ground. total matches the quantity needed to fill the tank(s) to the
specified level.
Initial Fuel Estimate
Many fuel management functions lack a fuel quantity Estimating Amount of Fuel on Board
sensor. Without access to this raw data of fuel quantity, fuel Since the fuel management function’s predictions are often
management functions perform calculations using an initial based on the initial quantity entered, it is important to
fuel estimate that was provided by the pilot prior to departure. monitor the fuel gauges to ensure agreement with the fuel
Figure 5-20 illustrates how an initial fuel estimate is given management function of the FMS as the flight progresses.
for one manufacturer’s fuel management unit. It is always prudent to use the most conservative of these
measures when estimating fuel on board.
BRT
Predicting Fuel at a Later Point in the Flight
A primary function of the fuel management function or
DIM
w
75.9 NM 0 h32m 4 4 Gal.RMNG
21
because the fuel management function uses this estimate in L EAN
O AT C
PSI UTC 22:59:26
T IME 22:59:26
5-16
When no route is programmed into the FMS/RNAV, the closer to fuel minimums or stretching fuel holdings farther
fuel management function may not display information due than would be appropriate with “back of the envelope”
to lack of data. calculations in a traditional aircraft. You must be aware of this
tendency and discipline yourself to using fuel management
Determining Endurance systems to increase safety rather than stretch the limits.
Most fuel management function or systems display the Refueling the aircraft offers a good opportunity to compare
amount of fuel remaining, as well as the endurance of the the amount of fuel burned with that predicted by the fuel
aircraft given the current fuel flow. Most systems display management system and your own calculations. It is always
the aircraft endurance in hours and minutes, as shown in a good exercise to determine why the fuel management
Figure 5-21. function or system’s numbers differ from what is actually
pumped into the tank(s). Was it improper leaning? More/
Some units show a fuel range ring on the MFD that indicates less winds? Are the EGT/CHT gauges indicating properly?
the distance the aircraft can fly given current fuel and fuel
flow. This feature, illustrated in Figure 5-22, is useful for Other Cockpit Information System
making fuel stop or alternate airport planning decisions. It Features
may or may not include allowances for winds. Many units Electronic Checklists
allow you to specify personal minimum fuel reserves. In Some systems are capable of presenting checklists that appear
this case, the fuel range ring indicates the point at which the in the aircraft operating manual on the MFD. The MFD in
aircraft will reach reserve fuel minimums. Figure 5-23 depicts a pretaxi checklist while the aircraft is
parked on the ramp.
Risk: Stretching Fuel Reserves
The availability of predictive information about fuel burn and In some cases, checklists presented on an MFD are approved
fuel availability introduces the possibility of flying closer and for use as primary aircraft checklists. It is important to note
The inner fuel ring indicates when the fuel will reach pilot-specified fuel reserve minimums.
NAV1 116.00 115.40ECA GS 123kts DIS 53.2NM ETE 25:58 ESA 16800 123.850 125.100
125
125.10
100
0 COM1
NAV2 113.90 117.95 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 118.600
118 600 120.600
120 600 COM2
NORTH UP
23.0
KTIP
2300
C16
KCMI
13.7 2KO
K96
46
200 KDEC
1652 DEC
338 30NM
5
MAP
MAP WPT
WPT AUX NRST
AUX NRST
ENGINE MAP OCLTR
5-17
BRT
PREFLIGHT
1. Cabin DIM
a. Required Documents ....................................................... On Board
b. Avionics Power Switch ............................................................ OFF
c. Bat 2 Master Switch ................................................................ ON
d. Voltmeter ..................................................................... 23-25 Volts
e. Flap Position Light ................................................................ OUT
f. Bat 1 Master Switch ................................................................ ON
g. Fuel Quantity ...................................................................... Check
h. Fuel Selector ..................................................... Select Fullest Tank
i. Flaps ........................................................... 100%, Check Light ON
j. Oil Annunciator ......................................................................... On
k. Lights ................................................................. Check Operation
l. Bat 1 and 2 Master Switches .................................................... OFF
m. Alternate Static Source .................................................... NORMAL
Before n. Fire Extinguisher ........................................... Charged and Available
Take-off o. Emergency Egress Hammer ............................................. Available
p. CAPS Handle ............................................................ Pin Removed
In- 2. Left Fuselage
Flight a. Com 1 Antenna (top) .................................. Condition and Attachment
b. Wing/fuselage Fairing ........................................................... Check
c. Com 2 Antenna (underside) .......................... Condition and Attachment
Landing d. Baggage Door ................................................... Closed and Secure
Shut down Done
e. Static Button ........................................................................ Clear
f. Parachute Cover ................................................. Sealed and Secure
Perf. 3. Empennage Back
Data a. Tiedown .......................................................................... Remove
b. Horizontal and Vertical Stabilizers ........................................ Condition
Emerg. c. Elevator and Tab ........................................ Condition and Movement
Checklist
Map Trip Nrst Chkist Setup
that electronic checklists are only available when the aircraft’s DIS: 22.3 NM 2026
.1)
2360
(7 2572 RNG
be able to find them in times of stress. Some climates dictate (IAF)
GIRUC 1960
Electronic Charts
Some systems are capable of presenting terminal and
Figure 5-24. An instrument approach procedure shown on an MFD.
approach procedure charts on the MFD. Figure 5-24 shows
an instrument procedure presented on an MFD. FMS/RNAV Pages on the MFD
Some advanced avionics systems are able to draw information
Note that the position of the aircraft is superimposed on the from the FMS/RNAV and present it on the MFD, in a larger
instrument approach chart. Electronic charts are also useful format. The MFD in Figure 5-25 lists nearest airports and
when taxiing, as they can help improve navigation on the allows you to select any airport to see information about
airport surface and reduce runway and taxiway incursions. that airport.
5-18
BRT
Some advanced avionics systems can integrate information In all cases, you must accurately determine what equipment
from several systems in a single display. The display in is installed and authorized. You must know the limitations
Figure 5-26 presents the route programmed into the FMS, of the data presented and all of the details of the displays,
together with fuel predictions for each waypoint made by the especially refresh rates and delays from data acquisition to
fuel management function. presentation. The onboard data is never an adequate substitute
for a timely and thorough preflight briefing.
Chapter Summary
In addition to primary flight instruments, advanced avionics
(utilizing microchips) can also display landmarks, weather
in real time or near real time, traffic, terrain, systems status
(including fuel state) and endurance in, with, or next to the
selected navigation route. None of these functions allows
you to disregard the requirement “to see and avoid” traffic,
obstructions, or hazardous weather. These options are
designed to enhance safety—not to extend the limits of
operations.
5-19
BRT
GS 2 0 0 kt s Time 1 1 :2 9 :0 0
DIM
TRK 3 0 5 5 nm UTC 1 8 :2 9 :0 0
Emerg.
Checklist
Map Trip Nrst
Map Trip Nrst Chkist
ChklstSetup
Set up
Figure 5-26. A trip page summarizes your route and predicted fuel consumption.
5-20
Essential Skills Checklist
Chapter 2: Electronic Flight Instruments 10. Determine which sources drive which displays or
instruments, and where the selection controls are
Primary Flight Display located.
1. Correctly interpret flight and navigation instrument 11. Determine and understand how to use and program
information displayed on the PFD. optional functions and equipment installed with FMS/
RNAV basic unit.
2. Determine what “fail down” modes are installed and
available. Recognize and compensate appropriately En Route
for failures of the PFD and supporting instrument
systems. 1. Select and monitor the en route portion of the
programmed flight route, determining waypoint
3. Accurately determine system options installed and
arrival, approving turn anticipation, and waypoint
actions necessary for functions, data entry and
sequencing.
retrieval.
2. Approve or select the correct course automatically
4. Know how to select essential presentation modes,
displayed or manually tuned.
flight modes, communication and navigation modes,
and methods of mode selection and cancellation. 3. Determine if the FMS makes fuel calculations and
what sensors and data entries are required to be made
5. Be able to determine extent of failures and reliable
by the pilot.
information remaining available, including procedures
for restoring function(s) or moving displays to the 4. Ensure that the track flown is that cleared by air traffic
MFD or other display. control (ATC).
5. Determine that the display CDI sensitivity is
Chapter 3: Navigation satisfactory for the segment being flown.
E-1
Descent Course Reversals
1. Determine the descent airspeed to be used with 1. Select a type of course reversal procedure.
concern to turbulence, aircraft descent profile, and 2. Determine the correct sequence of mode control
powerplant cooling restrictions. actions to be accomplished by the pilot.
2. Program, observe, and monitor the top of descent,
descent rate, and level-off altitude. Missed Approaches
3. Plan and fly a descent to a crossing restriction.
1. Acknowledge a missed approach procedure.
4. Recognize and correct deviations from a planned
2. Set the FMS/GPS for a return to the same approach
descent path, and determine which factor changed.
to fly it again.
Intercept and Track Course 3. Select a different approach while holding at a missed
approach holding waypoint.
1. Program and select a different course to the active
waypoint. 4. Program an ATC specified hold point (user waypoint)
for selection after the published MAP/hold procedure.
2. Select the nonsequencing waypoint function (OBS,
Hold, or Suspend) to select a specified navigation Ground-Based Radio Navigation
point.
1. Select any type of ground-based radio navigation
3. Reactivate the sequencing function for route
approach.
navigation.
2. Correctly tune and set up the conventional navigation
Holds receiver for the procedure in number 1.
1. Select a preprogrammed holding pattern, or 3. Correctly monitor the navaid for proper identification
nonsequencing mode. and validity.
2. Select and set up a non-preprogrammed holding 4. Correctly select and be able to use the desired
pattern inbound course. navigation source for the autopilot.
3. Determine the proper sequence of software commands Chapter 4: Automated Flight Control
for the holding pattern, transition to approach,
approach, and MAP navigation.
Climbs and Descents
Arcs 1. Use the FD/autopilot to climb or descend to and
automatically capture an assigned altitude.
1. Select an approach procedure with an arc.
2. Determine the indications of the ARM or capture
2. Select the course, or determine that automatic course modes, and what pilot actions will cancel those
CDI setting will occur. modes.
GPS and RNAV (GPS) Approaches 3. Determine if the system allows resetting of the armed
or capture modes or if manual control is the only
1. Load and activate a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS) option after cancellation of these modes.
approach.
4. Determine the available methods of activating the
2. Select a vectored initial approach segment. altitude armed or capture mode(s).
3. Determine the correct approach minimums and 5. Determine the average power necessary for normal
identify all pertinent mode transitions. climbs and descents. Practice changing the power to
4. Determine the published missed approach point these settings in coordination with making the FD/
(MAP), courses, altitudes, and waypoints to fly. autopilot mode changes.
5. Determine how missed approach guidance is
selected.
E-2
6. Determine and record maximum climb vertical speeds Miscellaneous Autopilot Topics
and power settings for temperatures and altitudes.
1. Demonstrate the proper preflight and ground check of
Ensure the values are in agreement with values in
the FD/autopilot system.
the AFM/POH for the conditions present. Make
note of the highest practical pitch attitude values, 2. Demonstrate all methods used to disengage and
conditions, and loading. Remember powerplant disconnect an autopilot.
factors (e.g., minimum powerplant temperature, bleed 3. Demonstrate how to select the different modes and
air requirements) and airframe limitations (e.g., VA in explain what each mode is designed to do and when
setting power). it will become active.
E-3
E-4
Glossary
Active waypoint. The waypoint being used by the Annunciator panel. Grouping of annunciator lights that is
FMS/RNAV as the reference navigation point for course usually accompanied with a test switch, which when pressed
guidance. illuminates all the lights to confirm they are in working order.
ADAHRS. See air data attitude and heading reference Approach mode/function. An autopilot function or mode
system. that allows the pilot to capture and track any VOR radial or
localizer with a higher degree of accuracy.
ADC. See air data computer.
Area navigation (RNAV). A method of navigation that
ADS-B. See automatic dependent surveillance—broadcast. permits operations along any desired flightpath within the
area of coverage of station-referenced navigation aids (e.g.,
Advanced avionics information system. Any cockpit GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME, eLORAN), or within the
electronic (avionics) system designed to provide information limits of a self-contained navigation system (INS, doppler
or data to the pilot about aircraft status or position, planned radar), or any combination.
routing, surrounding terrain, traffic, weather, fuel, etc.
Advanced avionics systems are generally evidenced by visual Armed. A system mode or function that is set to become
displays of integrated information in lieu of mechanical or actively engaged at a later time, when certain conditions
stand alone instruments for one or two data sets each. are met.
AHRS. See Attitude Heading Reference System. Attenuation. See radar attenuation.
Air Data Attitude and Heading Reference System Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS). An
(ADAHRS). An integrated flight instrument system that integrated flight instrument system that provides attitude,
combines the functions of an air data computer (the “AD” heading, rate of turn, and slip/skid information.
short for ADC) and an Attitude Heading Reference System
(AHRS) into one unit. Automatic dependent surveillance—broadcast (ADS-B).
A surveillance system in which an aircraft or vehicle to be
Air Data Computer (ADC). The system that receives ram detected is fitted with cooperative equipment in the form of
air, static air, and temperature information from sensors, and a data link transmitter. The aircraft or vehicle periodically
provides information such as altitude, indicated airspeed, broadcasts its GPS-derived position and other information
vertical speed, and wind direction and velocity to other (e.g., velocity) over the data link, which is received by
cockpit systems. a ground-based transmitter/ receiver (transceiver) for
processing and display at an air traffic control facility.
Altitude alerting system. The system that allows the pilot
to receive a visual and/or auditory alert when the airplane Automatic mode change. Any change in mode or system
approaches or deviates from a preselected altitude. status initiated by the system, rather than by a deliberate
mode change action taken by the pilot.
Altitude capture. An autopilot function that enables
the autopilot to level the airplane at a selected altitude
automatically.
G-1
Autopilot. An aircraft flight control system that automatically Desired track. The great circle course computed by the
manipulates the roll, pitch, and, in some cases, the yaw FMS/RNAV, it goes from the past waypoint to the next
control surfaces of the airplane to capture and track the route (active) waypoint.
programmed into the FMS/RNAV, or altitudes, vertical
speeds, headings, and courses selected by the pilot. Distance measuring equipment (DME). Line-of-sight
limited airborne equipment (transceiver) using paired pulse
Autopilot flight mode annunciator. A display that presents replies from ground-based transponder to determine slant
the names of autopilot functions that are either armed or range distance by time between airborne transmission of
engaged. It is the only reliable source of information about pulses and return of pulses from the ground transponder.
what autopilot functions are in use.
DME. See distance measuring equipment.
Autothrottle system. A system that automatically
manipulates the thrust setting of the airplane to help follow EHSI. See electronic horizontal situation indicator.
the vertical trajectory portion or selected airspeed of the
planned flight route. Electronic flight instruments. Flight instruments that use
electronic devices to prepare and/or present information such
Autotrim system. The system that automatically adjusts as airspeed, attitude, altitude, and position.
the pitch trim of the airplane in response to trim commands
generated by the autopilot. Electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI).
Electronically generated HSI display, either CRT or LCD
Bottom-of-descent point. The end point of the descent, as type, indicating all standard HSI functions on a video screen
calculated by the FMS/RNAV. instead of using mechanical components.
Broadcast weather service. A weather service that prepares eLORAN. See long range navigation.
weather products and transmits them to participating aircraft,
also known as a data link weather service. Engaged. A system mode or function that is actively
performing its function.
Chapter. Associated group of electronic “pages” of
information from databases found in FMS and GPS RNAV Error-evident display. Any display that presents information
units similar in contents, such as airports, VORs, software/ in a way that makes errors more obvious and detectable.
unit settings, and feature selections.
FD. See flight director.
Command bars. A flight director display that presents roll
and pitch instructions (generally, V-shaped visual cues) Faildown. The substitute display or backup instrument
to help the pilot maintain the flightpath/flight track to the mode available if the primary component fails. In some
selected point. The pilot keeps the airplane symbol aligned systems, for example, the MFD can substitute for the PFD
with the command bars on the flight director, or centered on if the PFD fails. The PFD information “fails down” to the
the FD crossbars (e.g., older Cessna units). MFD. In other systems, the substitute for the PFD might be
the conventional standby instruments and the standby or
Crossing restriction. A directive issued or published by secondary navigation CDI.
air traffic control that instructs the pilot to cross a given
waypoint at a specified altitude, and sometimes at a specified Flight director. Electronic flight calculator that analyzes
airspeed. the navigation selections, signals, and aircraft parameters.
It presents steering instructions on the flight display as
Cursor mode. The function offered by the FMS/RNAV command bars or crossbars for the pilot to position the nose
that allows data entry into an avionics unit such as the FMS of the aircraft over or follow.
and RNAV.
Flight management system (FMS). A computer system
Data link weather service. See broadcast weather service. containing a database to allow programming of routes,
approaches, and departures that can supply navigation data
Deceleration segment. A planned portion of a descent to the flight director/autopilot from various sources, and
designed to permit the aircraft to slow to meet a terminal can calculate flight data such as fuel consumption, time
area speed restriction, crossing restriction, or other speed remaining, possible range, and other values.
restriction.
G-2
Fly-by waypoint. A waypoint designed to permit early turns, GPSS. See Global Positioning System Steering.
thus allowing the aircraft to roll out onto the center of the
desired track to the next waypoint. Great circle route. The shortest distance between two
points when traveling on the surface of the earth; defined
Fly-over waypoint. A waypoint that precludes any turn by a geometric plane that passes through the two points and
until the waypoint is overflown, and is followed by either the center of the earth.
an intercept maneuver of the next flight segment or direct
flight to the next waypoint. Ground weather surveillance radar system. Any ground-
based facility equipped to gather information about significant
FMS. See flight management system. weather across a wide area.
Fuel management system or function. An advanced Heading function. The flight director/autopilot function that
avionics system that assists the pilot in managing fuel by steers the aircraft along a specified magnetic heading.
considering fuel flow, airspeed, and winds to help predict
fuel remaining at each waypoint along the programmed route, Highway in the sky (HITS). A type of electronic flight
total endurance, and the viability of alternative routings or instrument that superimposes a 3-dimensional portrayal
diversions. Stand-alone systems may integrate the output data of a planned lateral and vertical aircraft trajectory onto an
into the FMS/RNAV or provide a discreet display, while the artificial horizon display.
fuel management function is an integral portion of the FMS/
RNAV system. In either instance, the fuel data management HITS. See highway in the sky.
goals are similar.
ILS. See instrument landing system.
Fuel range ring. A graphical depiction of the point at which
an aircraft is predicted to exhaust its fuel reserves or reach a Inertial navigation system (INS). Self-contained internal
point at which only reserve fuel remains. navigation system using sensors to measure changes in
motion of aircraft, acceleration and deceleration, airspeed,
Glideslope (GS) function. The autopilot function that altitude, and heading to maintain current position of aircraft.
manipulates the pitch of the aircraft to track a glideslope Also called “position keeping” because an interruption of the
signal or APV guidance during a precision approach. system requires the pilot to initialize or enter the beginning
point of aircraft position reference.
Global Positioning System (GPS). A Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) navigation system that can INS. See inertial navigation system.
determine position and track the movement of an aircraft. A
global positioning system (GPS) receiver must be installed Instrument landing system. A ground-based precision
on board the aircraft to receive and interpret signals from the instrument approach system usually consisting of a localizer,
satellite-based system. glideslope, outer marker, middle marker, and approach
lights.
Global Positioning System Steering (GPSS). The autopilot
function that receives signals directly from the GPS/FMS/ LNAV. Lateral (azimuth) navigation guidance. A type of
RNAV to steer the aircraft along the desired track to the navigation associated with nonprecision approach procedures
active waypoint set in the GPS receiver. or en route navigation.
G-3
Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance (LPV). Navigation function. An autopilot function that allows
Provides lateral containment areas comparable to an ILS you to track the route programmed in the FMS/RNAV or
localizer and decision heights between those of LNAV/ navigation receiver, such as a VOR radial.
VNAV approaches and Category I ILS approaches. Approach
procedure minimums that use WAAS to provide Localizer Next Generation Radar System. A network of radar
Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV). WAAS avionics stations operated by the National Weather Service used to
equipment is required to fly to LPV minimums, which are detect precipitation and wind. These data are used to prepare
published as DA (decision altitude). weather radar products that can be supplied to the cockpit
via a broadcast weather service.
Long range navigation (LORAN). LOng RAnge Navigation
ground-based electronic navigation system using hyperbolic NEXRAD. See Next Generation Radar System.
lines of position determined by measuring the difference in
the time of reception of synchronized pulse signals from Nonsequencing mode. The FMS/RNAV navigation mode
fixed transmitters. LORAN-C and eLORAN operate in the that does not automatically sequence between waypoints in
100–110 kHz frequency band. Enhanced LORAN (eLORAN) the programmed route. The nonsequencing mode maintains
is planned to operate using more stable timing signals and the current active waypoint indefinitely, and allows the pilot
stations from other chains for greater accuracy than the to specify desired track to or from that waypoint.
current LORAN-C system.
No-further-input prediction. A technique to help pilots
LPV. See localizer performance with vertical guidance. maintain awareness of how advanced avionics systems are
configured, and of the likely future behavior of the aircraft.
LORAN-C. See long range navigation. No-further-input predictions are made by considering what
the aircraft will do if the pilot makes no further entries or
Magnetic flux valve. A type of magnetometer using coils of commands.
wire as the transmitting portion of a synchronous repeating
system, conventionally used to stabilize and correct a slaved Nuisance alert. A term used to describe a “false alarm”
gyroscopic heading (azimuth) indicator by sensing changes provided by an avionics system designed to detect surrounding
in the earth’s magnetic field. hazards such as proximate traffic and terrain.
Magnetometer. The device that measures the strength of OBS mode. The name for the nonsequencing mode on some
the earth’s magnetic field to determine aircraft heading, and FMS/RNAV units. See nonsequencing mode.
similar to the flux valve in function.
Onboard lightning detection systems. An onboard weather
MFD. See multi-function display. detection system that senses electrical discharges that suggest
the presence of thunderstorm cells.
Mode awareness. The pilot’s ability to monitor how system
settings are configured throughout the flight. Onboard weather radar. An onboard system capable of
detecting significant masses of precipitation. The primary use
Moving map. A graphical depiction of aircraft position, route of weather radar is to aid the pilot in avoiding thunderstorms
programmed into the FMS/RNAV, surrounding geographical and their associated hazards.
features, and any other information about the immediate
flight environment such as traffic and weather that may be Page. Any one of a collection of information displays that
available from other avionics systems. can appear on the FMS/RNAV unit. Every page has a title
and presents information related to a particular navigation
Multi-function display (MFD). A cockpit display capable of topic (e.g., airport elevation, runways, communication
presenting information received from a variety of advanced frequencies). Pages are usually in divisions called “chapters,”
avionics systems. which group pages of similar information by topic
(e.g., airports, approaches, VORs).
Navigation database. The information stored in the FMS/
RNAV; contains most of the time-sensitive navigational PFD. See primary flight display.
information found on en route and procedural charts.
G-4
Preprogrammed holding pattern (preprogrammed hold). Resolution advisory (RA). A warning issued by the Traffic
A hold that is published as a part of an instrument procedure Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) indicating an immediate
(e.g., approach, missed approach) and has been loaded into threat of collision with another aircraft. This warning takes
the FMS/RNAV. Some FMS/RNAV units automatically the form of a command to perform a vertical avoidance
enter and fly the holding procedure when it is encountered. maneuver (e.g., “Climb! Climb!”) These commands are
Others must be flown around the depicted holding pattern, products of TCAS II equipment. These commands take
usually by changing the heading (bug). Some units require precedence over ATC instructions, but must be reported to
switching to the nonsequencing or OBS mode so the active ATC immediately upon receipt and execution.
waypoint remains set to the designated holding fix.
Risk homeostasis. A term coined by psychologist Gerald J.
Preprogrammed course reversal. A course reversal S. Wilde, a tendency for humans to seek target levels of risk.
(commonly called a “procedure turn”) that appears as part
of an instrument approach procedure that has been loaded RNAV. See Area Navigation.
into the FMS/RNAV. Many FMS/RNAV units automatically
attempt to perform the course reversal procedure when it is RNAV (GPS) approach. An approach procedure based on
encountered. Others require the pilot to navigate the depicted GPS signals for guidance.
procedural track manually or by using the heading mode to
fly the depicted track. Route discontinuity. A point of uncertainty in a route that
has been programmed into an FMS/RNAV. Most systems
Primary flight display (PFD). An electronic flight display display this message when there is no routing to connect the
that presents the primary flight instruments, navigation last waypoint to the next point, or there is a missing next
instruments, and other information about the status of the point. FMS/RNAV units will not plan to go direct unless
flight in one integrated presentation. Primary-secondary task certain programming parameters are met.
inversion. Situation in which the pilot ceases to monitor the
situation directly and simply listens for system alerts. Sequencing mode. The FMS/RNAV mode that automatically
sequences along the waypoints in the programmed route. The
RA. See resolution advisory. sequencing mode alerts the pilot to upcoming waypoints, and
offers guidance to each successive waypoint in the route.
Radar attenuation. The absorption or reflection of radar
signals by a weather cell, preventing that radar from detecting Stand-alone approach. An instrument approach that relies
any additional cells that might lie behind the first cell. solely on the use of RNAV equipment. If flown with GPS/
WAAS enabled certified equipment in accordance with
RAIM. See receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. TSO-C145A or TSO-146A installed in accordance with
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. The self- the provisions of AC 20-130A or 138A, no conventional
monitoring function performed by a TSO-129 certified GPS navigation equipment alternate approach (VOR/ILS)
receivers to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being requirements are necessary, as when flying with TSO-C129
received at all times. The GPS will alert the pilot whenever certified equipment.
the integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do
not meet the criteria for safe navigation use. Subpage. An additional page of information about a
particular topic that can be displayed on an FMS/RNAV.
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. The self- Many pages require the use of several subpages to show all
monitoring function performed by a TSO-129 certified information pertaining to any one topic.
GPS receiver to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being
received at all times. The GPS alerts the pilot whenever the SUSP. See suspend mode.
integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do not
meet the criteria for safe navigation use.
G-5
Suspend mode. For some FMS/RNAV units, the name Terrain system. Any cockpit system that provides the pilot
used to describe the nonsequencing mode when it has been with a pictorial view of surrounding terrain, and in some
automatically set by the computer, or pilot. cases, visual and/or auditory alerts when the aircraft is
operating in close proximity to terrain.
TA. See traffic advisory.
TIS. See traffic information service.
Tape display. A vertical display format used to portray,
for example, airspeed and altitude on many primary flight Top-of-descent point. The point that the RNAV computer
displays. Also used for vertical speeds and many other value calculates to be the ideal location at which to begin a descent
displays such as power settings and powerplant speeds. to the planned crossing restriction, given the descent speed
and rate that has been entered by the pilot.
TAWS. See terrain awareness and warning system.
Topographical database. A volume of information stored
TCAS. See Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. in an advanced cockpit system that details the topographical
features of the earth’s surface. Used by several systems
Terminal Arrival Area. The published or assigned track to assess aircraft position and altitude with respect to
by which aircraft are transitioned from the en route structure surrounding terrain.
to the terminal area. A terminal arrival area consists of a
designated volume of airspace designed to allow aircraft Traffic Advisory (TA). A warning issued by a traffic system
to enter a protected area with obstacle clearance and signal that alerts the pilot to other aircraft that have moved within a
reception guaranteed where the initial approach course is prescribed “safety zone” that surrounds the aircraft.
intercepted.
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. An onboard
Terminal mode. One name used for the FMS/RNAV system that detects the presence of some aircraft operating
sensitivity mode in which the aircraft is operating within 30 in the vicinity of the airplane by querying the transponders
NM of an airport. In terminal mode, the required navigation of nearby aircraft and presenting their locations and relative
performance sensitivity of the course deviation indicator altitudes on a display. Alerts and warnings are issued when
becomes 1 NM. Also called approach arm mode. nearby aircraft are deemed to be a threat to safety. Traffic
advisory systems such as ADS-B are an offshoot of newer
Terrain and obstacle database. An electronic database technologies, but do not yet offer the reliability or accuracy
storing details of the significant terrain features and obstacles of proven, certified TCAS units.
that could potentially pose a threat to aircraft flight. Some
obstructions, especially manmade, may not be in the database, Traffic data system. An advanced avionics system designed
even if it is current. Do not plan a flight based on dependence to aid the pilot in visually acquiring and maintaining
on the database to keep the aircraft clear of obstacles and awareness of nearby aircraft that pose potential collision
obstructions to navigation. threats.
Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS). Traffic display. A pictorial display showing any aircraft
An onboard system that can alert the pilot to a number of operating in the vicinity that have been detected by a traffic
potential hazards presented by proximate terrain such as data system.
excessive rate of descent, excessive closure rate to terrain,
and altitude loss after takeoff. Traffic Information Service (TIS). A groundbased
advanced avionics traffic display system which receives
Terrain display. A pictorial display that shows surrounding transmissions on locations of nearby aircraft from radar-
terrain and obstacles that present a potential threat to equipped air traffic control facilities and provides alerts and
your aircraft, given your present altitude. Draws terrain warnings to the pilot.
information from a terrain and obstacle database.
Turn anticipation. The function performed by FMS/
Terrain inhibit switch. A switch that allows the pilot to RNAV units to advise the pilot when to begin a turn to
suppress all visual and auditory warnings given by a terrain the next waypoint in the programmed flight route to avoid
system. Often used to silence nuisance alerts when in overshooting the programmed track.
deliberate operation in the vicinity of terrain.
G-6
Vectors to final. A function of FMS/RNAV units allowing
the pilot to perform a vectored approach procedure without
being required to switch to the nonsequencing mode manually
and set the active waypoint and course.
G-7
G-8