Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electrochemistry IPE
Electrochemistry IPE
Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 1 adichemadi @ gmail.com
VISIT THE FOLLOWING SITE FOR OTHER FILES AND UPDATES IF ANY
http://www.adichemistry.com
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
* Electrochemistry deals with
1) The processes in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy.
2) The processes in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.
3) Preparation of metals and alloys using electricity.
AN
e.g. Diamond, Glass, Plastics etc....
OM
The electrical conductors are again divided into two types as follows;
DH
C
i) Metallic or electronic conductors:- The conductors which conduct the electricity through the elec-
Y.
trons.
TR
by
IS
* No chemical reaction occurs during the conduction of electricity.
VA
ar
EM
* Conductivity decreases with increase in temperature due to vibrational disturbances.
ep
Pr
CH
ii) Electrolytes :- The substances which furnish oppositely charged ions for the conduction of electricity.
A
* During conduction of electricity through electrolytes, oxidation occurs at anode whereas reduction
W
DI
* The conductivity increases with increase in temperature as the extent of ionization increases.
//W
A
Non electrolytes :- The substances which do not furnish ions for electrical conduction are called non -
P:
V.
electrolytes.
TT
Resistance and ohm's law :- According to Ohm's law, resistance (R) offered by an electrolyte in a
solution is proportional to length (l) and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area (a) of electrodes.
length (l )
Resistance (R)
area (a)
l
i.e., R
a
l
or R=s.
a
Where s = specific resistance (resistivity)
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 2 adichemadi @ gmail.com
a
s = R. l
When a = 1 cm2 and l = 1 cm
Then s=R
Specific resistance (s) : The resistance shown by a material of 1 cm length and 1 cm2 of cross sectional
area is called specific resistance (or) resistivity.
Units of 's'
a
s=R.
l
cm 2
ohm .
cm
ohm . cm. (in CGS)
or ohm . m (in SI)
AN
OM
Conductance (C) :- It is the reciprocal of resistance.
DH
1
C
C=
Y.
R
TR
by
1 a
R
x
ed
C= IS
s l
VA
ar
EM
ep
a
Pr
C=kx
CH
l
A
1
DI
TY
l
Cell constant : The quantity, is called cell constant.
W
a
//W
A
Specific conductance (k) :- The conductance of 1 cm3 solution is called specific conductance or
conductivity.
H
AN
* In aqueous solutions the extent of hydration affect the mobility of the ion, which in turn affect the
OM
conductivity. Heavily hydrated ions show low conductance values.
E.g.,In aqueous solutions Li+ ion (with high charge density) is heavily hydrated than Cs+ ion (with low
DH
C
charge density). Hence hydrated Li+ bigger than hydrated Cs+ . As a result, lithium salts show lower
Y.
TR
conductivities compared to those of cesium salts in water.
by
R
* Specific conductance (k) decreases with decrease in concentration of solution as the number of
ed
EM
* Equivalent or molar conductances increase with decrease in concentration (upon dilution) as the
ep
Pr
* Weak electrolytes undergo complete dissociation at infinite dilution and show the maximum con-
DI
TY
ductance. The equivalent conductance and molar conductance of solutions at infinite dilutions are denoted
.A
Λc = Λo A c
TT
H
0
ΛC
Conductance ratio ( ) : The ratio of the equivalent conductance ( Λc ) at given concentration to that at
infinite dilution ( Λ o ) is called conductance ratio ( )
Λc
Λo
For weak electrolytes, ' ' is called degree of ionization.
AN
KOHLRAUSCH LAW OF INDEPENDENT MIGRATION OF IONS
OM
The equivalent conductance of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is the algebraic some of equiva-
lent conductances of constituent ions (cations and anions) at infinite dilution.
DH
C
Y.
electrolyte = +
TR
by
R
= equivalent conductance of cation at infinite dilution
ed
IS
VA
ar
EM
= equivalent conductance of anion at infinite dilution
ep
Pr
and are also called ionic conductances at infinite dilution. These are proportional to ionic
CH
A
mobilities u o+ and u -o .
DI
TY
.A
or λ + k u +o and λ - = k u -o
W
'k' is a proportionality constant and its value is equal to one Faraday (96,500 coulombs)
//W
A
λ + = F u o+ and λ - = F u -o
P:
V.
electrolyte F u +o F u -o
H
or
electrolyte
F u +o u -o
Applications :
1) It is not possible to experimentally determine the equivalent conductances of weak electrolytes at
infinite dilution. But by using this law it is possible to calculate the equivalent conductance of weak electro-
lytes at infinite dilution.
The equivalent conductance of acetic acid at infinite dilution can be calculated as follows
- +
e.g. CH
3COOH
λ CH 3COO λ H
- +
CH
3COONa
λ CH3COO λ Na
+ -
HCl
λ H λ Cl
+ -
NaCl λ Na λ
Cl
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 5 adichemadi @ gmail.com
Therefore CH3 COOH CH3 COONa HCl NaCl
2) The degree of ionization of a weak electrolyte ( ) can be calculated by using Kohlrausch law as
follows.
equivalent conductance of solution of given concentration ( c )
Degree of ionization ( ) =
equivalent conductance of solution at infinite dilution ( )
c
i.e.,
Problems:-
1) At 250C, the specific conductance of acetic acid of 0.01N concentration is 0.000163 ohm-1 cm-1. What
is c at this concentration ?
2) At 250C, the equivalent conductances of CH3COONa, HCl and NaCl at infinite dilution respectively
AN
are 91.0, 426.16 & 126.45 ohm-1. cm2. eq-1. What is o of CH3COOH ?
OM
3) c of acetic acid at 250C is 16.3 ohm-1 cm2 eq-1. The ionic conductances of H+ and CH3COO - are
DH
349.83 & 40.89 ohm-1 cm2 eq-1. What is of CH3COOH ?
C
Y.
TR
by
ELECTROLYSIS
R
ed
The decomposition of chemical compound in the molten state or in solution state into it's constituent
IS
VA
ar
Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell, provided with two electrodes. The electrode con-
Pr
CH
nected to negative end of a battery is called cathode and which is connected to positive end is called
A
anode.
DI
TY
An electrolyte either in molten state or in solution state is taken into this cell and electrolyzed by
.A
applying E.M.F. The cations are reduced at cathode and anions are oxidized at anode.
W
DI
W
Battery
//W
A
+ e-
e-
P:
V.
Anode + - cathode
TT
H
electrolyte
Examples:
Electrolysis of molten KCl
Following reactions will occur at electrodes when molten KCl is electrolyzed using platinum elec-
trodes.
KCl K + + Cl-
molten
At cathode
K + +1e-
K Reduction
At anode
2Cl-
Cl 2 2e - oxidation
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 6 adichemadi @ gmail.com
Complete redox reaction
2KCl
2K + Cl 2
AN
Electrolysis of water
OM
Following reactions will occur during the electrolysis of water.
At cathode
DH
C
Y.
4H2O + 4e-
2H2 + 4OH-
TR
by
At anode
R
ed
O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
2H2O IS
VA
ar
EM
Net reaction
ep
Pr
2H2O 2H2 + O2
CH
A
1) The ions of highly reactive metals like alkaline and alkali earth metals do not undergo reduction in
W
DI
presence of water. These metals have low reduction potentials than water and hence, water molecules
W
2) The metals with low reactivity, like transition metals, can undergo reduction even in presence of
P:
V.
3) Oxy anions like SO-24 , NO3- , CO32- , PO3-4 etc. are very stable and can not undergo oxidation at
H
At cathode: Ag + (aq) 1e -
Ag
At anode: 2H 2 O 4H + + O 2 + 4e -
4) Electrodes which do not participate in the electrochemical reaction are called inert or passived
electrodes. Usually platinum and graphite electrodes are used as inert electrodes.
But some electrodes may participate in the electrochemical reaction. These are said to be active
electrodes.
e.g. When aqueous solution of AgNO3 is electrolysed by using copper electrodes, silver is deposited
at cathode and dissolved at anode.
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 7 adichemadi @ gmail.com
At cathode: Ag + (aq) 1e -
Ag Deposition of silver on cathode
AN
Where c = current in amperes
OM
t = time in seconds
DH
C
m = ect
Y.
TR
by
R
When q = 1 Coulomb or when c=1 ampere and t = 1 sec
ed
Then e=m IS
VA
ar
EM
Hence
ep
CH
A
trodes when 1 coulomb of electricity is passed through the electrolyte in molten or solution state is called
electrochemical equivalent of that substance.
DI
TY
or
.A
The amount of substance deposited or liberated or dissolved at electrodes when 1 ampere current
W
DI
is passed through the electrolyte in molten or solution state for one second is called electrochemical
W
Faraday :- The amount of charge transported during the migration of 1 mole of electrons is called
P:
V.
Faraday.
TT
= 96,500 coulombs
Equivalent weight (E) :- The amount of substance formed at electrodes when one Faraday of electricity
is passed through the electrolyte.
Hence E=Fxe
E
or e=
F
Ect Eq
m or m
F F
Atomic weight
Where E=
Valency
Faraday's Second law :- If the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytic cells
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 8 adichemadi @ gmail.com
connected in series containing different electrolytic solutions or melts, the amounts of substances deposited
or liberated or dissolved are directly proportional to their equivalent weights.
mE
m1 E
or 1
m2 E2
Illustration :- When three electrolytic cells containing different electrolytes i.e., CuSO4 , AgNO3 and
H2SO4 in aqueous solutions are connected in series and same quantity of electricity is passed through
them, then from Faraday's second law the ratio of amounts of Cu, Ag, H2 and O2 formed at different
electrodes can be given as follows.
m Cu : m Ag : m H 2 : m O 2 = E Cu : E Ag : E H 2 : E O 2
mCu E
or Cu
mAg E Ag
mH2 EH2
AN
or
mO2 EO 2
OM
mCu E
DH
C
or = Cu etc.......
Y.
m O2 E O2
TR
by
R
ed
IS Battery
VA
ar
EM
ep
Pr
CH
A
+ - + - + -
DI
TY
.A
W
DI
Problems :
P:
V.
1) A current of 10 amperes is passed through molted AlCl3 for 96.5 sec. Calculate the mass of
TT
2) What is the ratio of weights of Ag and Al deposited at respective cathodes when the same current
is passed for same period through aqueous AgNO3 and Al2(SO4)3 solutions.
Construction of a galvanic cell : A galvanic cell consists of two half cells called single electrodes which
are connected to each other.
Single electrode: A single electrode consists of a metal or a non metal in contact with their ions.
While representing a single electrode, the metal or non metal and its ion are written by separating with
a vertical line.
e.g: Metal electrodes
Zn2+ / Zn
Cu2+ / Cu
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 9 adichemadi @ gmail.com
Ag+ / Ag
AN
OM
Total reaction Zn + Cu+2 Zn2+ + Cu
DH
C
Note: In galvanic cell, anode is indicated by negative sign whereas cathode is indicated by positive sign.
Y.
TR
by
Reactive resistance
R
ed
Ammiter IS
VA
ar
e-
EM
ep
e- e-
Pr
CH
A
Anode Cathode
Zn rod Cu rod
DI
TY
.A
Zn-2 Cu+2
CuSO4 solution
W
DI
ions ions
W
ZnSO4 solution
Porous diaphragm
//W
A
P:
V.
Voltaic cell :
TT
Daniel cell is modified by connecting two half cells internally by a salt bridge. One half cell contains a
zinc rod immersed in ZnSO4 solution and another half cell consist of a copper rod immersed in CuSO4
H
solution.
These two half cells are connected externally by a metallic wire whereas a salt bridge is used to
connect them internally.
Salt bridge is a U-shaped tube filled with Agar - Agar solution of KCl or NH4NO3. This is used to
avoid junction potential.
Following reactions occur in this cell.
In Zn half cell (anode) Zn Zn+2 + 2e- oxidation
In Cu half cell (cathode) Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Reduction
Ammeter
e- Reactive resistance
e-
e-
e-
Anode cathode
salt bridge
Electrolyte - I Electrolyte - II
Representation of galvanic cell :- According to IUPAC convention the oxidation half cell is written on
the left hand side and reduction half cell is written on the right hand side. Two vertical lines are used to
indicate the salt bridge. Negative sign is used to indicate the oxidation half cell (anode) and a positive sign
AN
is used to indicate the reduction half cell (cathode).
OM
e.g : Above galvanic cell can be represented as follows.
DH
Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu
C
Y.
Where Zn / Zn2+ = Zn half cell
TR
by
2+
Cu / Cu = Cu half cell
R
ed
// = salt bridge IS
VA
ar
EM
ep
CH
A
3) Anode is indicated by positive sign whereas 3) Anode is indicated by negative sign whereas
//W
A
Note: 1) Oxidation occurs at anode and reduction occurs at cathode in both the cells.
H
2) The flow of electrons is always from anode to cathode in both the cells.
Single electrode potential (E) :- The potential difference existing at the surface of contact between
metal (or) non metal and its ionic solution is called single electrode potential.
Standard electrode potential (E0) :- The potential difference at the surface of contact between metal
(or) non metal and its ionic solution at unit concentration and at 250C is called standard electrode potential
(E0).
Single electrode potential can be written for oxidation half cell or reduction half cell. Both oxidation
electrode potential and reduction electrode potential have same magnitude but have opposite signs.
e.g : Zn / Zn2+ is oxidation half cell and its E0 value is + 0.762V.
Zn2+ / Zn is reduction half cell and its E0 value is - 0.762V.
H2 (1 Atm)
Pt rod
hole
AN
OM
1M HCl
DH
C
Black Pt foil
Y.
TR
by
EMF of galvanic cell : The potential difference between two different electrodes in the galvanic cell is
R
ed
EM
E Cell = E Reduction - E Oxidation
ep
Pr
E Cell = ER - EL
DI
TY
According to IUPAC convention, EMF of a galvanic cell is calculated by substraction of the reduc-
.A
tion electrode potential of left hand cell from that of right hand cell.
W
DI
Electrochemical series :- The standard reduction electrode potentials of various electrodes are deter-
mined relative to that of SHE.
P:
V.
These electrodes are arranged in their increasing order of standard reduction potentials in a series
TT
In this series, the electrodes with negative Eo values are placed above hydrogen electrode whereas
the electrodes with positive Eo values are placed below hydrogen electrode.
Problems
1) Construct a galvanic cell containing two electrodes Ag+ / Ag and Zn2+ / Zn calculate the EMF of cell.
Write the cell reactions.
Eo for Ag+ / Ag = + 0 .799 volts
Eo for Zn2+ / Zn = - 0 .762 volts
NERNST EQUATION
The electrical energy (nFE cell ) produced in a reversible galvanic cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs
free energy ( G)
AN
Hence G = - nFEcell
OM
Where n = no. of electrons transferred in redox reaction
F = Faraday
DH
C
E = EMF of the cell
Y.
Under standard conditions
TR
by
R
Go = - nFEocell
ed
IS
VA
ar
EM
Consider the following equilibrium for a redox reaction occurring in a Galvanic cell;
ep
Pr
cC + dD
aA + bB
CH
A
For above reaction, the equilibrium constant from law of mass action can be written as
DI
TY
c d
C D
.A
W
(Kc) =
DI
a b
A B
W
From laws of thermodynamics, the relation between Gibbs free energy and equilibrium constant (Kc)
//W
A
is given as
P:
V.
G = G o + RTlnK c
TT
RT
-E = -E o + ln K c
nF
RT
E Eo ln K c
nF
2.303RT
E Eo log K c
nF
c d
EE
2.303RT
o
. log
C D
a b
nF A B
2.303RT product of equilibrium conc. of products
E Eo . log
nF product of equilibrium conc. of reactants
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 13 adichemadi @ gmail.com
This equation is also applicable to single electrodes.
AN
0.059
OM
E = Eo + . log[M n+ ]
n
DH
C
For non metal or cathode electrodes represented by A / An-
Y.
An-
A, Pt + ne-
TR
by
R
ed
Kc =
[A n- ] IS
VA
ar
EM
[A,Pt]
ep
Pr
CH
0.059
E = Eo - .log[A n- ] [ (A, Pt)=1]
A
n
DI
TY
0.059 1
.A
E = Eo + . log n-
n [A ]
W
DI
W
Problems :
//W
A
1) Calculate EMF of the cell constructed by using electrodes Cl-(0.1 M) / Cl2,Pt and Ni / Ni2+ (0.01 M)
write the cell reactions
P:
V.
3) Calculate the electrode potential of the single electrode ? Cu2+ (C = 0.01 M) /Cu ? Eo = 0.337V)
H
4) Calculate the electrode potential of the single electrode. Ag+ (0.01 M) / Ag ? (Eo = 0.799V)
Battery or cell : It is a galvanic cell which is used as source of electrical energy. These are of two types
viz., 1) Primary cells, 2) Secondary cells
1) Primary cell
It is an electrochemical cell which acts as a source of electrical energy without being previously
charged up by an electric current from an external source.
In this cell, the reaction occurs only once and it becomes dead after using over a period of time. This
cell cannot be reused again as the reaction cannot be reversed.
E.g.,
1) LACLANCHE CELL
It consists of a carbon rod placed in a porous pot containing a mixture of MnO2 and carbon powder.
It acts as cathode whereas an amalgamated zinc acts as anode. The porous pot and zinc rod are placed in
20% NH4Cl solution.
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 14 adichemadi @ gmail.com
Following reaction occur in this cell
At cathode :
2MnO 2 2H 2O 2e
2MnO OH 2OH
MnO 2 NH 4 e
MnO OH NH3
At anode :
Zn 2 2e
Zn
Zn 2 2OH + 2MnO OH
Zn 2MnO2 2H 2 O
Some secondary reactions are
2NH 4 Cl 2OH
2NH 3 2Cl 2H 2O
AN
OM
- +
DH
C
C
Y.
Amalgamated Zn
TR
porous pot
by
R
Glass Jar
ed
IS C+MnO 2
VA
ar
EM
mixture
20% NH4Cl
ep
solution
Pr
CH
A
2) DRY CELL
DI
TY
It is a modified Laclanche cell. It consists of a cylindrical zinc vessel acting as anode (negative elec-
trode). It is covered with a cardboard and sealed with pitch. A carbon rod acting as cathode (positive
.A
electrode) is introduced at the centre of Zn vessel. It is surrounded by a paste of (C+MnO2). The remain-
W
DI
ing empty space is filled with NH4Cl + ZnCl2 paste. These two pastes are separated by a porous sheet.
W
At cathode :
P:
V.
2MnO 2 2H 2O 2e
2MnO OH 2OH
TT
MnO 2 NH 4 e
MnO OH NH3
H
At anode :
Zn 2 2e
Zn
Zn 2 2OH + 2MnO OH
Zn 2MnO2 2H 2 O
Some secondary reactions are
2NH 4 Cl 2OH
2NH 3 2Cl 2H 2O
Carbon rod
(cathode)
MnO2+
Zinc cup carbon black
(anode) +NH4 Cl paste
SECONDARY CELL
The cell in which electrical energy from an external source is first converted to chemical energy and
AN
then made to operate in opposite direction by removing the external source.
OM
In this cell, the reaction can be reversed practically. It can be recharged after its discharging.
DH
E.g., 1) Acid storage cell (lead accumulator)
C
Y.
2) Alkali storage cell ( Edison battery)
TR
by
R
LEAD ACCUMULATOR
ed
IS
VA
ar
Lead accumulator is an acid storage secondary cell which can be charged and discharged for several
EM
ep
times.
Pr
It can be represented as
W
DI
Pb H2SO4 PbO2
W
//W
A
or
P:
V.
Pb 2+ + SO 2-4
PbSO 4 s
Pb 4+ + 2e
Pb 2+ reduction
Pb 2+ + SO 24
PbSO 4 s
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 16 adichemadi @ gmail.com
4OH - + 4H +
4H 2O
Net Reaction PbO 2 + 4H + + SO 42- + 2e
PbSO 4 s + 2H 2 O
In the discharging process, equal amount of water is formed in place of sulfuric acid. After charging
the lead accumulator, sulfuric acid is formed again. Hence the specific gravity of H2SO4 is changed during
charging and discharging processes. The voltage of the cell is changed from 2.15 V (40% H2SO4) to 1.88
V (5% H2SO4) during the discharging process.
FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which the chemical energy of fuel-oxidant system is converted
directly into electrical energy.
In fuel cells, the fuel and oxidant are supplied continuously on to the two different electrodes. The fuel
AN
is oxidized at the anode and the oxidant is reduced at cathode. Theoretical efficiency of fuel cells is 100%.
OM
Fuels used may be gases or liquids. E.g., H2, alkanes, carbon monoxide, Methanol, Ethanol, hydra-
DH
zine, formaldehyde etc.,
C
Y.
Oxygen, air, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid etc., are used as oxidants.
TR
by
Platinum, porous PVC or PTFE (Teflon) coated with silver, nickel boride, raney nickel etc., can be
R
used as electrodes.
ed
IS
VA
ar
EM
ep
Examples
Pr
H2 - O2 Fuel cell
CH
A
In this fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen gases are continuously bubbled over porous carbon electrodes
DI
TY
suspended in concentrated NaOH solution. These electrodes are embedded with finely divided Pt or Pd
catalysts.
.A
W
- -
At cathode: O 2 (g) + 2H 2O (l) + 4e 4OH
//W
A
- -
At anode: 2 x [ H2 (g) + 2OH (aq) 2H2O (aq) + 2e ]
P:
V.
TT
AN
Metals with more negative reduction potentials than that of hydrogen can undergo oxidation by liber-
OM
ating hydrogen gas from aqueous solutions.
DH
The electrode potentials of metal and hydrogen depend on PH, nature of metal and impurity. Hence
C
Y.
the corrosion also depends on these conditions.
TR
by
E.g. Pure zinc does not undergo corrosion in salt solution or in neutral conditions. But it undergoes
R
corrosion in presence of Cu as impurity or in 2M acid solutions.
ed
IS
VA
ar
EM
ep
A metal can undergo corrosion if concentration of O2 over the metal surface is not uniform.
CH
A
The portion at which O2 concentration is more acts as cathode and the portion at which the O2
DI
TY
concentration is less acts as anode. Hence the metal undergoes corrosion at points where O2 concentra-
.A
tion is less.
W
E.g. When half portion of iron rod is immersed in NaCl solution, the immersed portion undergoes
DI
W
1) Nature of impurity: Corrosion is favored when the impurity is a more cathodic metal.
TT
E.g. When a half portion of iron rod is immersed in NaCl solution, the immersed portion
undergoes corrosion due to less oxygenation.
3) Highly conducting solutions favor rapid corrosion.
Prevention of corrosion
1) By avoiding the contact with surroundings by painting the surface of metal.
2) By adding another metal which is more anodic than the metal to prevent corrosion.
e.g. Zinc is more anodic than iron. Hence zinc is added to iron to prevent corrosion. This is
called galvanization.
3) By avoiding the contact of metal with other materials which are good electical conductors.
PASSIVITY
The state of non reactivity reached after an initial state of reactivity is called passivity.
Passivity of metals can be classified into
1) Chemical passivity
Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan
Electrochemistry 18 adichemadi @ gmail.com
2) Mechanical passivity
3) Electrochemical passivity
2) Mechanical passivity: An invisible thin film of oxide formed over metal surface prevent it from reacting
with acids. This is called mechanical passivity.
E.g. An invisible layer of PbO2 formed over the surface of Pb makes it passive and hence Pb is not
soluble in acids. This type of passivity is also shown by Fe, Co, Ni, Mn etc.,
3) Electrochemical passivity: During electrochemical processes, the dissolution of metal at anode is stopped
after some time. This is called electrochemical passivity.
E.g. Zn, Fe, Ni metals acting as anodes dissolve in the solution due to oxidation as follows.
Zn --------> Zn2+ + 2e-
AN
Ni --------> Ni2+ + 2e-
OM
But they stop dissolving after some time during electrochemical processes.
DH
C
Theory of passivity
Y.
A metal becomes passive due to the formation of invisible thin film of its oxide over the surface which
TR
by
R
prevents further reaction. Usually a thick layer of oxide is also formed beneath the thin film.
ed
IS
VA
ar
EM
ep
Pr
CH
A
DI
TY
.A
W
DI
W
//W
A
P:
V.
TT
H