Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DCDN 082
DCDN 082
!:¡".1.
I DonaldE.J.Kilmer,Jr.,(SBN:179986)
LAW OFFICESOF DONALD KILMER
2 A Professional
Corporation
126l Lncoln Avenue,Suite I I I
3 SanJose,California95125-3030
Telephone: 408/998-8489
FIIHM
4 Facsimile: 408/998-8487 JAN $ 2005
E-Mail: [email protected]
5
6
Attorney for Plaintiffs
^,,#imiìiî#+å
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Ui\IITED STATES DISTRICT COT]RT
9
FOR THE NORTMRN DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA
,{_ ì l0
tl
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RUSSELLALLEN NORDYKE andSALLIE CaseNo.: C 99 04389 MJJ
13 ANN NORDYKE, dbaTS TRADE SHOV/S,
JESSB. GUY, DUANE DAR& WLLIAM REQTIESTFOR JT]DICTALNOTICE
t4 J. JONES,DARYL N. DAVIS,,TASIANA AND MEMORAI\IDTJM IN ST]PPORT
WERTYSCTTYNI, JEAN LEE, TODD PLATNTIFFS' REQUESTFOR
l5 JT]DICIAL NOTICE
BALTES,DENNIS BLAIR, R. L. @ob)
t 6 ADAMS, ROGERBAKER, MIKE
FOURNIERand V{RGIL MoVICKER
t7
Plaintiffs,
18 Hearing Date: Feb.15.2005
j\
t9 vs.
Hearing Time: 9:30A.M.
20 GAIL STEELE,SCOTTTIAGGERTY, Judge: Martin J. Jenkins
KEITH CARSON,NATE MILEY, ALICE Courthouse: U.S.Court House
2l LAI-BITKER, The COUNTY OF 450 Golden GateAve.
ALAMEDA, and The COUNTY OF SanFrancisco
22 California 94102
ALAMEDA BOARD OF SUPERVISORS,
23 Defendants.
24
25 Plaintiffs hereby ask the court to takejudicial notice of facts, as authorizedby Federal
26 Rule of Evidence201.
27 l. Plaintifß are set forth in the caption.
Don¡¡d K¡lær
.A,ttoæy at Iåw 28 2. Defendantsare set forth in the caption.
126l Li¡æln Avc.
SuiteI l1
Sa JoP, CA 95125
Vq 408/9984489
Fx: 408/998-8487
Nordvke v. Steele Page
I of 4
G@PyuestrorrudNotice
I 3. Plaintifß havesueddefendantsfor violations of their civil rights, includingbut not
6 certiorari,thepetitionwasdeniedon October4,2004.
7 7. The denialof a petition for certiorari"importsnothingaboutthe meritsof a case."
1l precedentialvalue.
1 5 9. Plaintiffs alsowish to assurethe court that eventhoughthis court may be boundby the
t6 currentlaw in this circuit, that Plaintiffs aresimply making a good faith argumentfor a
t7 changeof that law andthat their goodfaith is amply supportedby the opinionsissuedby
18 the electedbranchesof the federalgovernment.
t 9 10. The court hasthe authorityto takejudicial noticeof adjudicativefacts. The court can
23 reasonably
bequestioned.Fed.R. Evid.201(b);U.S.v. Boyd,289 F.3d 1254,1258(l}th
24 Cn. 2002);LaSalleNat'l Bankv. First Conn.Holding Group.L.L.C., 287F.3d 279,290
3 herebyaskthat the court hold a hearingto considerthis requestfor judicial noticeif the
6 Conclusion
7 13. For thesereasons,Plaintiffs ask the court to takejudicial notice of the requestedfacts.
9 Respectfu
lly Submitted.
10 Date:December29,2004
11
t2
13 DonaldE. J. Kilmer, Jr.
LAW OFFICESOF DONALD KILMER
l4 A ProfessionalCorporation
126l LincolnAvenue,Suite 111
15 SanJose,California95125-3030
Phone:408/998-8489 Fax 408/998-8487
t6 E-Mail: [email protected]
18
L9
20
21,
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23
24
25
26
27
Dotr¡¡d KIloq
At(omey at [åw 28
126l Limln Ave.
suite I I I
Sa Jow, CA 95125
Vc: ¡108/9984469 Nordvkev. Steele Page4 of 4 Requestfor JudNotice
Fx: ,108/998-8487
I Re: Nordykev. Steele
U.S.District Court,CaseNo. C 99 04389MJJ
2
PROOFOF SERVICE
3
I, SamRoza,declarethatI amemployedin theCityof SanJose,CountyofSant¿Clara,State
4
of Califomia. I am overthe ageof 18yearsandnot a partyto this action;my businessaddressis:
5
126l Lncoln Avenue,Suite111;SanJose,Califomiag5l25-3030
6
On December30, 2004,I servedthe following documents:
7
1. REQTJESTFOR JI'DICIAL NOTICE A¡ID MEMORAI\DT]M IN SUPPORT OF'
I PLATNTTFT'S'REQUESTF,ORJUDTCTALNOTTCE.
9 on the following interestedparty(s)in this action:
1 0 SayreWeaver RichardWinnie
RICIIARDS, TVATSON& GERSHON CountyCounsel
ll 355 SouthGrandAvenue,406Floor Countyof Alameda
los Angeles,CA 90071-3101 l22l OakStreet,Suite463
t2 Oakland,CA946l2
l3 WA MAIL - CCP $$ 10311a).2015.5
t4 tXXl Byplacing a üue copythereofenclosedin a sealedenvelope(s),
addressed
asst¿tedabove,
and placilg each for collectionand mailing on the datèd-fo[owing ordinarybusinesé
15 practices.I amreadilyfamiliarwith my firm'sbusinesspracticeof colleõtionandþrocessing
of correspon,lgntgfor mailing with the United St¿tes?ost¿lServiceand cone.ñpondencõ
t6 placedfor collectionandmailing would be depositedwith the UnitedStatesPostälService
at SanJoqe,California, with poitage thereonfully prepaid,that sameday in the ordinary
t7 courseofbusiness.
18
19 I declareunder penalty of perjury that the foregoing is true and correct and that this
-california.
declarationwasexecutedon Dêcembei3(i, 2004,at san Jõse,
20
2l
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
EXHIBIT A
TWHETHER
THE SECOND "{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDfVf - \L RIGHT . e - - PageI of 103
- -
August24,2004
Table of Contents
Introirrc_tiou
II. TexEalatd5eçurclArclyslq
A. illhe Àiehta{thqP-e-oplf
B. lTqKeepandBearAnnsl
C. lAlvçllBesulated Mililia-heirg-ìSqc-ç.srarylq-the-Sççurity-af
a-&ee$-þte"
D. Structural
Considerations:
TheBill of RightsandtheMilitia Porvers
m. fte llrgual_t¡Ld€r$IaüdtreoftheRightto KeepandBearArms
A. TtleRrghlIqh_erited
&=o_a_EnglaÐd
B
C. T e leyqlqpmerrtof theSegondÄmcu<Lrugat
ry. TheEarlylnterpretations
O * U,rrt-Çqmmc-n-tatqrs
B. 3he-,Enst-C-as-es
C. Iteconstruction
D. BeLo¡dRqçaÉgfiuclion
-C-o"-uElusisn
lntroduction
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WHETHERTHE SECOND' {ENDMENTSECURES
AN INDTVII-- q.LRIGHT Page2of 103
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WHETHERTHE SECOND 'æNDMENT SECURESAN INDTVI]ì-IA.LRIGHT Page3 of 103
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WHETTIERTHE SECOND '{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIF.-- A,LRIGHT Page4 of 103
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V/HETHERTI{E SECOND 1'\4ENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVIIT-'A,LRIGHT PageTof 103
uright"is conjoinedwith
. . In anyevent,anypossibledoubtvanisheswhen "thepeople,"as
it is in theSecondAmendment.Sucha right belongstõ individuãls:The "people'iarenot a
"State,ulor Íuetheyidenticalwith the "Militia." Indeedthe SecondAmendmentdistinctly
usesall tbreeof theseterms,yet it securesa "right" only to the "people."Thephrase"the
right of thepeople"appearstwo othertimesin theBill of Rights,*ã both timesrefersto a
personalright, which belongsto individuals.The First Amendmentsecures"the right of the
peo-pfe peaceablyto assemble,andto petition the Govemmentfor a redressof grievances,"
andthe Fourthsafeguards'[t]he right of the peopleto be securein their p"rsoo-s,houses,
papers,andeffects,againstunreasonable searchesandseizures."In addition,the Ninth
Amendmentrefersto "rights . . . retainedby the people."We seeno reasonto readthe
phrasein the SecondAmendmentto meansomethingotherthanwhat it plainly meansin
theseneighboringandcontemporaneous amendments.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIr :4.L RIGHT PageI of 103
In eighteenth-century
English,an individual could "keeparms,"andkeepthem for
privatepurposes,unrelatedto militia duty,just ashe couldkeepany otherprivateproperty,
andthephrasewascommonlyusedin this sense.For example,in Rexv. Gardner(K.8.
1738),a defendantchargedwith "keepinga gun" in violationof a 1706Englishstatute
(whichprohibitedcommonersfrom keepingspecifiedobjectsor "otherengines"for the
.destructionof game)arguedthat "thoughtherearemanythingsfor the barekeepingof
which a manmay be convicted;yet they areonly suchascanonly be usedfor destructionof
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WHETHERTHB SECOND ' MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVLr'-'AL RIGHT Page9 of 103
2. "To . .. BeørArms.,'
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'
\ryHETHERTHE SECOND \4ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI|:'A.L RIGHT Pagel0 of 103
l. TheLímíts of PreføtoryLønguage.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND '4ENDMENT SECURESAII INDIVITT:AL RIGHT Page12of 103
gov/olc/secondamendment2.htm
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2. The "Mílitìut'
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WHETHERTHE SECOND {ENDMENT SECURESAN INDNIT \L RIGHT Page16of 103
3. The'tllell Regaløted"Mílítía
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WHETHERTHE SECOND '{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI' \L RIGHT Page2}of 103
gov/olc/secondamendment2.htm
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WHETIIERTHE SECOND''@NDMENT SECURESAN INDIVT' q.LRIGHT Page2lof 103
2. TheMilítía Powers.
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\ /HETHERTHE SECOND \{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVTT-'AL RIGHT Page22 of 103
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WIIETHER THE SECONI. MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIW -AL page23of 103
: RIGHT
rrr. The original understanding of the Right to Keep and Bear Arms
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WHETHERTHE SECOND '{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI 'AL
RIGHT Page24of 103
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\4/HETHERTIIE SECOND TIENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVI. A.LRIGHT Page25of 103
F. By causingseveralgoodsubjects,beingprotestants,
to be disarmed,at the
sametime whenpapistswere both armedandemployed,contraryto law.
gov/olc/secondamendment2.htm
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WHETHERTHE SECOND {ENDMENT SECURESAN INDMI¡ 'AL
RIGHT Page26of 103
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'dENDMENT
\TVHETIIER
THE SECOND SECURESAN INDIVIT- '{L RIGHT Page27 of 103
gov/olc/secondamendment2.htm
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WHETHERTHE SECONI .\{ENDMENTSECURESAN INDIW :AL RIGHT Page29of 103
Similarsentiments
appearedin North Carolina.SoonafterLexingtonandConcord,the
royal governordenouncedthoseurging people"to be preparedwith Arms" and train under
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WHETHERTHE SECOND {ENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVI {,L RIGHT Page30 of 103
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WHETHERTHE SECOND VENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVT 4.LRIGHT page3t of 103
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvanía. adoptedits Declarationof Rightsin Septemb er 1776.
Article 13,immediatelyfollowing an articleproviding"[t]hatthep.opi. havea right to
freedomof speech,"read:
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WHETHERTHE SECONT .\{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI {L RIGHT page32of 103
State,shallnot be questione¿.Ie)
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WHETHERTHE SECOND-'MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI|-'AL RIGHT Page33 of 103
Massachusetts.
Article 17of theMassachusetts
Declarationof Rightsof 1780provided:
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WHETIIER THE SECOND ' MENDMENT SECURESAN IND[VII--"'AL RIGHT Page34of 103
citizens.
Second,Anti-Federalists
denounced
the militia powersto be grantedto the federal
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WHETHERTHE SECOND'^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI-'TAL RIGHT page35 of 103
Pennsylvania's
Convention,the secondto meet,ratifiedthe Constitutionby a2to I
marginin December 1787, withoutproposingamendmenls.{2óQ A week latet,2l of the 23
9it:TFg delegates
published thetr
Addressând Reasons of Dissent("MinorítyReport',),
includingamendmentsthat they hadproposedbut the convêntionhadrefusedio coìsider. It
drewheavilyfroatle 1776Pennsylvania Declarationof Rights.The proposalregarding
armswasArticleT,.immediatelyfollorvingonestatingthat'the peoplèhâvea rigãt to tñe
freedomof speech,"andit readasfollows:
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WHETHERTHE SECONTÌ MENDMENT SECURESAN INDWT- 'AL RIGHT PAgE36 Of 103
Four monthslatel
-\.ew Hampshire'sConvention,alsocloselydivide{ adaptedsomeof
Adams'sproposals.f266)It recommended the nine amendments that Massachusetts had,but
addedthree:one calling for a supermajoritybeforeCongresscouldkeepup a standingarmy
in peacetime;the next 6a¡ringCãngressfróm making lavysregardingreligion or infrñging'
therightsof conscience; andthefinal oneprovidingthat "Coñgress-shall-never disarm-an!
Citizenunlesssuchasareor havebeenin Actual Rebellion."l2Ø\New Hampshirethus
becamethe first Statewhoseratising conventionas a body recommended that the
Constitutionprotecta right to arms.Again, the right belongedto the individual citizen.
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WHETHERTHE SECONT veNDIvfENT SECURESAN INDTVT 'AL RIcHT page37 of 103
Only in its separatelist of amendments for the body of the Constitutiondid the Virginia
conventiondirectly protectthepower of Statesto maintainmilitias andrestrict the fedãral
powerto raisestandingarmies.It recommendeda supermajorityvote for Congressto
qøintain a peacetimearmy (in the spirit of SamuelAdamsândihe New Hamf,shire
Convention),andit soughtto protectstatepower over the militia (much asthe pennsylvania
Minority had) with the following provision:
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WHETIIER THE SECOND \4ENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVII" :AL RIGHT PAgE38 Of 103
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WHETHERTHE SECONDAMENDMENT SECLJRES
Al.I INDTVIDTTAL
RIGHT page43 of 103
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WHETIIER THE SECONDAMENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIDUAL RIGHT Page45 of 103
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WHETHER't'HESECONDAMENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIDUAL RIGHT page46of 103
The corollary,
-þm the fnst position,is, thattheright of thepeopleto keepand
bear armsshall not be infringed.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND^-MENDMENTSECURESAN INDTVIF'TALRIGHT PAgE
47 Of IO3
collective.
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WHETIIERTHE SECONI {VÍENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVTTì.IôL RIGHT page48 of 103
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'YENDMENT
WHETHERTHE SECOND SECURESAN INDIVIT--'AL RIGHT Page49 of 103
.. \ J..
l. CøsesBeþre 1840.
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WHETHERTIIE SECONT''{MENDMENTSECURESAN INDIW--IAL RIGHT page50 of 103
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WHETHERTHE SECOND^ MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIJìr,TAT.
RIGHT Page51 of 103
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WHETHERTHE SECOND ^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVTT'ITAL
RIGHT PAgE52Of103
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WHETHERTrrE SECOND ^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDfvrn-'AL RIGHT page53 of 103
The court also wrote that the people"may keeparmsto protectthe public liberty, to keepin
awethosein power,andto mainøinthesupremacyof the lawsandthe constitution."
Citizensneedto be prepared"to repelany encroachments upon their rights by thosein
authority,"and the right "ís a greatpoliticalright. It respectithe citizens,ott ihe onehand
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND ^ MENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVIP"AL RIGHT Page54 of 103
SecondAndrewsread"keep"expansivelyto includebroad"incidentaluse,"
emphasizingthat the goal of the right wasto ensurethat "the citizensmakingup the
yeomanryof the land,thebody of themilitia," wouldbe preparedwhenneeded.Thus:
text.
The concurringopinion citedno history or authorityand asfar aswe are aware,no court
or evenjudge hasevercited it in interpretinga right to beararms,whethersecuredby the
SecondAmendmentor by any of the analogousprovisionsin stateconstitutions.-ßOÐ It did
nolþresentwhatwould now be considereda standardcollëdtive-rightor quasi-collective-
'Whereas
right view. thoseviews addressthe limits of federalpow"i to intãrferewith state
law, JudgeDickinson addressed the casefrom the oppositevantagepoint, statingthe
questionaswhetherthe State'sbanon carryingweaponsconcealeduinterfere[slfuittrany
regulationsmadeby Congress, asto the organizing,arming,or discipliningthe militia, ór in
the mannerin which that militia areeitherto keepor beartheir arms."tLD-!)In modern
terminology,thejudge seemedto recastthe caseasturring on possiblefederalpre-emption
of the st¿telaw. The SecondAmendment,in settingout what he describedas "dhepo*ìt
glventhe militia to keepandbeararms,"merelyrephrased the expressfederalpowersin
Article I, Section8, Clause16of the Constitution,ihe Amendmentbeing "but an assertion
of that generalright of sovereigntybelongingto independentnationsto iegulate their
C. Reconstruction
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WHETHERTHE SECOND' \@NDMENT SECURESAN INDIff-'AL RIGHT Page57 of 103
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WHETIIER THE SECOND ^ VTENDMENTSECURESAN INDN-¡I}Ì-'AL RIGHT PAgE58 Of 103
9r in any Statethat had not beenrestoredto the Union, variousrights, largely paralleling
thosein the Civil RightsAct, should"be securedto andenjoyedty uit Aã citiiens
withoutrespectto raceor color,or previousconditionof slavery."Amongthesewere"the
right . . . to havefull andequalbenefitof all lawsandproceedings ron""ãting personal
liberty, personalsecurity,andthe acquisition,enjoyment,and diõpositionof esàte,real and
personal,íncludíngthe constitutionalright to bear arms.u{419) The Congressthusnot only
enactedthe understandingthat the SecondAmendmentprotectedan individual right,
includingtheright to "bear"arms,but alsodid soin a way thatrestedon Blacftstone's
expositionof the individual right to armsasa critical auxiliary to the threeprimary
individual rigtts of life, liberty, andproperty.
D. BeyondReconstruction
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THE SECOND ^ MENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVIT.TAL RIGHT
WHETTTER Page59 of 103
The law is perfectly well settledthat the first ten amendmentsto the
Constitution,coÍtmonly knownasthe Bill of Rights,werenot intendedto lay
downanynovgfprinciplesof government, but simplyto embodycertain
guarantiesandimmunitieswhich we had inheriteðfromour en4istr ancestors,
andwhich hadfrom time immemorialbeensubjectto certainwéil-recognized-
exceptionsarisingfrom the necessities of the case.In incorporatingthese
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WHETHERTHE SECOND ^ MENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVIDITALRIGHT PAgE60 Of 103
,
Not until 1905was a view rejectingthe individual.right view truly born, andthenin a
decisioninterpretingnot the SecondAmendmentbut ratler a provisiãn in a state
constitution.InCity of Salinav. Bløkslqt,theKansasSupremêCourthetdthat a clausein
theKansasBill of.Rights,providingthat "'[t]hepeoplehãvetheright to beararmsfor their
defenceandsecurity,"'referredonly "to thepeopleãsa collective-body"anddealt
"exclusively-*i|h the military. Individual rights arenot consideredin ihis section."Rather,
þ "Peopleshall exercisethis right" throughthepower of their legislature,setout in the
body of the stateconstitution,to organize,equip,andOistiptinetÈemilitia. The right
extended"only to the right to beararmsasa memberof thê statemilitia, or someother
militaryorganizationprovidedfor by 1u*.rr(434)The courtseemsto havebeeninfluenced
by aprovisionin the stateconstitutionadmonishingagainststandingarmiesin time of
peace,.andpraisingcivilian control of the military, thàt immediatelyfollowed thetext of the
right.{43ÐThe court also,without citing historicalauthorityandwith little explanation,
pointedto the SecondAmendmentasanalogousandreinforcing its reading.{43QSahna,s
Tltlq w?slot missed.Onestatesupremecourt soonafter, inã surveyreãchingbackto
Bliss,Reid,Nunn, and.Aymette,descnbedSalínaashavinggone"fuftder than añy other
case"by holdingthat the right to beararmsin the KansasÓõnstitutionimposedno limit on
the legislature'spower to prohibit private individualsfrom carrying arms.1437)
Conclusion
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WHBTHERTIIE SECOND ^ MENDMENT SECURESAN INDI\rII"'-.AL RIGHT Page61 of 103
StevenG. Bradbury
PrincipalDeputyAssistant
Attorney General
HowardC. Nielson,Jr.
DeputyAssistantAttorney
General
C. Kevin Marshall
Acting DeputyAssistant
Attorney General
3 Emerson,27}F.3dat2l9 (describing
view); seealso,e.g.,Casesv. (Jnited
intermediate
States,l3l F.2d916,923(tsr Cir. lg42).
8 SeeNationalFirearmsAct: Hearings
on H-R.9066Beþre theHouseComm.on Waysand
Means,73dCong.90 (1934)(statement of Ass'tAtty. Gen.Keenan);(JnítedStatesv.
Lopez,2F.3d1342,1348 (5rhCir. 1993),afrfd,5t4U.S.549(1995).
e¡ozu.s.at t75-77.
L0Id. ut 178(citingAymette
v. State,2l Tenn.(2 Hum.) 154,158(1840)).We discuss
Aymettebelowin ParttV.B.2.
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WHETHERTTIESECONÎ ' MENDMENT SECURESAN INDMI- -IAL RIGHT PAgE
62Of 103
rr Id.
12Id. at 179;seeid. at
179-82(describingmilitia regulations,
includingarmsrequirements).
'j tubelow, Partq
tr.C (discussing SecondAmendment's preface),III.B-C (discussing
Founders'recognitionthat the individual right to armsfurtheredtbe citizen-ititiu¡, rvlA
(discussingearlycomment{otÐ,IV.B.2 (dìscussingearlycases),tV.D (discussingviewsof
ThomasCooleysoonafterCivil War).
16Id. atg23.
17l3l F.2d,261,266
(3d,cir. 1942),
rev'don othergrounds,3l9u.s.463(1943).
18Id- T]nesameground
appearsto havebeenavaílable in Cases.SeeCases,l3l F.2d at9l9
n.l.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND ^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIP:TAL RIGHT Page63 of 103
l
22PrcpertyRequisitionAct, ch.445,
$ l, 55 Stat. 742,742.
23Memorandumfor LawrenceE.
Walsh,Deputy Attorney General,from Paul A. Sweeney,
Acting AssistantAttorneyGeneral,Office of LegalCounsel,Re:H.R. 232, 86th Cong., Iit
,Sess.,
a bill "Toprovideþr thesecuringof custodyand dßpositionby the (Inited Støes of
missiles,rockets,earthsatellites,and símilar devícesadaptøbleto military uses,andþr
otherpurposes,"at l-2 (Apr. 9, 1959)(emphasisadded).
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WHETHERTHE SECOND'âMENDMENT SECURESAN INDITT-'AL RIGHT page64of 103
no basisfor suggestingthat the [1963 Gun Control] Act so interfereswith the powersof the
Statesto raisen-uli_tias
asto transgressthe SecondAmendment");FirearmOwners'
Prorection Acr,pub.L. No. gg-30g,$ l(b), 100st¿t. 449,Mg lilae;, lg u.s.c. g g2l note
(2000)(law signedby PresidentReaganthatrecognízed ithe ¡ì+q
1'óf citizens. . . to k".p
andbeararmsunderthesecondamendment.").
'lt:",":g.;!!i!1dStatesv.Hale,g7lt.2dl016,
l0l9-20(SrhCr..l99Z);Unitedstatesv.
Oa4res,564F.2d384,387 (lOth Cr. 1977);UnitedStates v. Wright,nl f Sa 1265,lZ72-
74 (1lth Cir- 199,7),
yacatedin part on othergrounds,133r.ldlqiz (1998).Thesécourrs
makeclearthat the right underthe quasi-collective-rightview protectsonly membersof
organizedmilitia units suchasthe NationalGuard,nõt membersof the "m-ilitia,'defined
morebroadly.
!1kes,-for example,reþcted a claim basedon the defendanfsmembershipin
the Kansasmilitia, which consistedof all able-bodiedmenbetweentwenty-oneandfofti-
fwe.564F-2dat387;seealsoWright,llTF.3d atl27l-74(simitar); HatL,978F.2dat
1020(similar);Warin,530F.2dar 105,106,l0g (similar).
3r Sílveira,312F.3dat 1063-64
& n.I I .
3a270F.3dat 227-60.
3s 3t2F.3dar l060-87.
36Silveirav. Locþer,328
F.3d 567,570(9thCir.) (Kleinfeld,J.,joined by Kozinski,
O'Scannlain, andT.G.Nelson,JJ.,dissentingfrom denialof rehearingen tanc), cert.'
denied,124s. cr. 803(2003);see328r'.3dãt 56g(pregerson, J., ruti"¡; íd. ad56g
(Kozinski,J., same)¡íd. at 592(Gould,J.,joined by Koiinski, J., samej.For otherrecent
opinionsof Ninth Circuit judgesendorsingthe individual-rightvíew andcriticizing Silveira,
seeNordyke,3l?r'.3d at ll95 (Gould J.,concurring); Nordykev.King,364E3d102s,
1025(9thCh.2004) (Kleinfeld"J., dissentingfrom ãenialof rehearingâ banc);id. at 1026
(Gould,J.,joined by o'scannlain,Kleinfeld,Tallmar¡ andBea,JJ.,same).
37Fot example,Article tr of
the Articles of Confederation,drafteda decadebeforethe
Constitution,reservedto eachState"everypower,jurisdiction, andright" not expressly
delegatedto the federalGovenrment.
,,exclusive
18.tn uOaition,the CopyrightandPatentClauseauthorizesCongressto grantan
Righf' to authorsandinventorsfor a limitedtime. u.s. const. utt. r, $ s, cl. g.
395""., e.g.,U.S.Const.art.
I, $ l; art.I, $ 8; art.n,$ l; art.III, $ l; amend.X.
41ThomasM. Cooley,The
GeneralPrínciplesof ConstitutionalLaw in the (InitedStatesof
America26T-68
(1880;reprinr2000)(emphasisadded).
42Of the "people"might chooseto exercisethoseindividualrights in groupsrather
"ourse
thanalone, asin the First Amendmentright to assemble andpetition,but that doeJnot make
their rights "collective"or quasi-collective
in the senseof dependingon the will or actions
of a St¿teor on one'sserviceto it.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND 'VIENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVID-ÌAL RIGHT Page67 of 103
462 SttattgeRep.1098,1098(applying
5 Ann., c. 14(1706));see Rexv. Gardner,S7Eng.
Rep.1240,7 Mod. Rep.279K.B. 1739)(apparentlylatercase,but similar);íd. at l24l
(defendant,arguingthat "to chargeonly that he kept a gun is improper,for it includesevery
manthat keepsa gun," andthat gunsarekept "for the defenceof a man'shouse");id. (Lee,
C.J.)(wordsof statute"do not extendto prohibit a man from keepinga gun for his
necessarydefence");id. @robyn,J.) ('farmers aregenerallyobligedto keepa gun, and are
no morewithin the Act for doing so thanthey are for keepinga cabbage-net"¡.
47Mailockv.Easþ,87 Eng.Rep.
1370,1374,7Mod.Rep.4g2(C.p.l7M).
a8mogfì"ldv. Stratþrd,96Eng.Rep.787,
7B7,SayerRep.
15(K.8. l75Z).
ot Kng v. Silcot,87 Eng.Rep.186,186,
3 Mod. Rep.280 (K.8. 1690)(italicsomftred)
(interpreting33 Hen.VIII, c. 6 (1541),andquashingindictmentbecauseit did not
specificallyallegethat defendant'sincomewas insufficient whenhe kept the gun).
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND ' IIENDMENT SECURESAN INDI\¿I-'IAL RIGHT Page68 of 103
elsewhere,
or in the possession
of anyotherpersonto his use,or at his disposition,any
arms,tveapons,gunpowder,or ammunition").
55SamuelJohnson,A Dictionary
of theEnglishLanguage(I755)(unpaginated).SeeNoah
Webster,
An American,Dictionary of theEngtßhLanguãge(1828)'(unpãginateá)
(defuring
"Keep"fnst as"To hold; to retainin one'spoweror póssãssion").
57Johttsorr,
Dictíonary(unpaginated).
59IoM^"orello v. (Jnited
States,524U.S. 125(1998),which involveda statute,the Court
wasunanimousin understanding"beararms"to refer generallyto a personcarrying arms
upon his personfof the purposeof beingarmedandreadyfor ôffensiveörlefensivi action,
the dissentciting the SecondAmendmentin supportof this view. The majority gave
"carriesa firearm"a broadermeaning.Id. at 130;id. at 139-40,143(Ginsburg,i.,
dissenting).
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ÏVHETHER TTTESECOND ^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVIT-'ê,L RIGTIT Page69 of 103
6l Malcolm,ToKeepandBearat 139.
Quoted¿n
p.
!, *: Papersof rhomasJefferson4[3-M(Julian Boyded., 1950).concerningthe
Committeeof Revisors,seeid. at 305; I Tucker'sBlackstone,
NoteF, at 444-45.
63Thesearecollectedthroughthe
MichiganConstitution of 1835,in Emers;on,Z701.3dat
230n.29.T[e discussthe Pennsylvania andVermontconstitutions below in PartIII.B.2. For.
an 1822judicial interpretationconfirming the plain meaningof the Kentucþ provisionas
grantinganindividualright, seebelow,ParttV.B.l. Regardingratificationofihe Bill of
Rights,seebelow,Paftm.C.2
&
"Legalityof theLondonMilitary Foot-Association" (hu\y24,1780),reprinted¿z'William
B.liz.añ,DesultoryReflectionson Police: Wíthøn Essayon theMeansof PreventingCrímes
aryd!ryendíngCríminals59,59 (London17S5)(emphasis omitted).ReþardingthiJopinion,
which was"of wide interest,!'LeonRadzinowicz,,4 A Historyof EnglíshCriiinal Liw 107
(1968),seeid. at 107-10;Malcolm, ToKeepandBearat 133-34;andour furtherdiscussion
belowin PartIII.A. Regardingthe Recorder,seeI Blackstoneat *76;3lZ at *80-8| n.i; id.
at*334; JohnH. Langbein,ShapingtheEighteenth-Century Criminal Trial: A Viøufrom
theRyderSources,50 U. Chi.L. Rev.1,8,17-19,34-36 (1933).
65This essayby TenchCoxeis discussed
belowin part m.C.z.
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WHETTIERTHE SECOND^ \4EI.{DMENTSECURESAN INDIVIì-{AL RIGHT Page70 of 103
. 1
7.rcop"*on v. Gallant,24Eng.
Rep.404, 407,|p. wms. Rep.314(ch. 17l6); id. at 405
(quotingstatute)(emphases added);seeSinger,2A SutherlønãE+l.O+, at220(,'Copeman .
. . establishedthe rule that the preamblecouldnot be usedto restrict the effect of thè words
ry9d in thepurview.").In Ryall v. Rolle,26Eng.Rep.107,1 Atk¡msRep. 165(Ch. l74g), '
althoughthe questionwasnot at issue,seeid. at 116(Lee,C.J.);id. at 178(Hardwicke,
Ch.),somejudgesvoiceddisagreement withCopeman'sinterpref¿tion of that statute
becauseof the great"inconvenience"it would causeto cornmercialarrangementssuchas
trusts,agency,andbailment,but they still recognizedthe generalrule,seeid. at ll3
(Parker,C.B.) (recogniznganothercaseholding'[t]hat thepreambleshallnot restrainthe
enactingclause"andrecognizíngthatCopeman"explodedthenotion of the preamble's
govemingthe enactingclause,"but addingthat "if thenot resfiainingthe generalityof the
enactingclausewill be attendedwith aninconvenience, thepreamblèshailrestrainít'); id.
at I l8 (Hardwicke,Ch.) (agreeingwith parker).
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WHETHERTHE SECOND *,TVÍENDMENT
SECURESAN INDIVI.I-"I+L RIGHT Page71 of 103
75JosephStory | Commentaries
on theConstitutionof the (JnitedStates$g 459-460,at
443-M (1833;reprint1991).
76Jacobson
v. Massachusetts,lgT
U.S. 11,22(1905).
77See[1.5.TermLimits,Inc. v. Thornton,sl4
U.S.77g,821n.31,838(1995);id. at846&
n.l (Thomas,J., dissenting);seealsostenbergv. carhart,53Ou.s. 914,953(2000)
(Scalia,J.,dissenting).
80Mass.Const.pt. I, 21 (1780),reprinted
$ ín 3 Fed.and StateConsts.at 1892;N.H:
Const.art.I, $ 30 (1784),reprintedín 4 Fed.andStateConsts.at2457; Vt. Const.ch. I, g
l6 (1786),repríntedín 6 Fed.and StateConsts.at3753..
82CreatingtheBitl of Rights:TheDocutnentary
Recordfrom the FirstFederal Congress
12(HelenE. Veit et.al. eds.,1991)(emphasis
added).
on
"' Madison, Notesof Debatesat 639(Sept l4). Mason'sproposalwasdefeated,apparently
on the groundthat it improperlyimpugnedsoldiers.Id. at63940.
84Athos,SMod. Rep.at
f44.
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WHETHERTIIE SECONT,^,MENDMENTSECURESAN IVDIVT-trAL RIGHT Page72of 103
"ii
86UnìtedStates
v. Miller,307 U.S. 174,l7g (1939).
87Sr", e.g.,Sílveíra,312F.3dat
1069-72
nl
fu!(opel, 93 Mich. L. Rev.at 1355("[O]ne of thereasonsCongressguaranteed the
right of the peopleto keepandbeararnx¡was so that a popularmilitia could be drawn from
fu.b9¿t ofthe people.")(footrroteomitted).Thus,the Si[veiracourt's descriptionof the
and-organizedmilitary force," 3l2F.3dat 1069,is technically
militia as"the state-created
truebut critically incomplete,becauseit ignoresthe compositionof themilitia.
91on theformerdistinction,see
u.s. const. art. I, $ B,cls. lz-16;art. I, $ 10,cl. 3; art.tr, $
2, cl. l; amend.V; Articlesof Confed.art.VI (contrastinga "body of forces"with "a well
regulatedanddisciplinedmilitia, suffrcientlyarmedandaccoutered."); Authorityof
Presídentto sendMilitia Into a ForeignCountry,zg op.Att'y Gen.322,322 6g|z)
(Wickersham, A.G.) ("[T]he militia hasalwaysbeenconsiderêdandtreatedasa military
body quite distinct and different from the Regularor standingarmy.").
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WHETI{ER THE SECONT MENDMENT SECURESAN INDM RIGHT Page73 of 103
. l
104W"brt"r, AmericanDictionary(unpaginated)
(emphasis
added).
los I Blackstone
at *134,138,413.
109S"e,e.g.,Silveira,312F.3dat 1069-72
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\ryHETIIERTHE SECONDd MENDMENT SECURESAN IND[V[I-'\AL RIGHT PAgE75Of 103
128Burgh,PolitícalDisquisítions,reprínted
ín 3 Founders'Const.at 124,126.As Fletcher
put it: "I cannotsee,why armsshouldbe deniedto any manwho is not a slave,sincethey
arethe only true badgesof liberly . . . neithercanI understandwhy any manthat hasarms,
shouldnot be taughtthe useof them."A Discourseof Governmeni,reprinted ínEletcher,
Polítical Worksat23.
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND ' MENDMENT SECURESAN INDMI--'AL RIGHT Page76of 103
. ' .
r33Cf.PlannedParenthoodv.Casey,505
U.S. 833,847(lgg2)(rejectingargumentthatthe
personal"liberlyu that the FourteenthAmendmentprotects"encompasses no morethan
thoserights alreadyguaranteedto the individual againstfederalinterferenceby the express
provisionsof theJirst eíghtAmendments")(emphasisadded)(citation omitted);Moore v.
City of EaßtCleveland,43l U.S. 494,502(1977)(pluralityopinion)(similar,quotingPoe
v. Ullman,367U.S. 497,542-43(1961)(Harlan,J.,dissenting));Johnsonv. Elseúrãger,
339U.S.763,784(1950)(describingFirst,Second,Fourth,Fifth, andSixthAmendments
asthe "civil-rightsAmendments");Robertsonv.Baldwin, 165U.S. 275,281(1897)
(describingBill of Rights as embodying"certainguarantiesandimmunitieswhich we had
inheritedfrom our English ancestors").While somemight arguethat, asan original mîtteç
the First Amendment'sEstablishmentClause(which makesno referenceto any "right" or
"freedom")was an exceptionto this rule, the SupremeCourthasheld that it too createsan
individualright, applicableevenagainstStates.SeeZelmanv. Simmons-Harrís,536 U.S.
639,678Q002)(Thomas,J.,concurring);Eversonv.Boardofùd.,330u.s. l,B(1947);
DavidCurrie,TheConstitutíonîn theSupremeCourt: TheSecondCentury339-40(1990).
134Cooley,GeneralPrincíples at}00.
135Story,Abrídgement 984,at698(commencing
$ discussionof FirstthroughFourth,and
EighthtbroughTenth Amendments).
l4l 2 Tucker'sBlaclcstoneat*143-44m.38-41.
Seealso UnitedStatesv. Cruikshank,g2
U.5.542,551-53(1876)(analyzngthetwo rightssimilarly);Loganv. UnítedStates,144
U.S.263,286-87(1892)(same).
146Story,Commentaru'es1202,at85-86.
$
r47 l8U.S. (5 Wheat.)I (1820).Seepaftfv.B.l,below.
153Rob-ertson
v. Baldwín, 165U.S.275, 281(1897),discussed
furtherbelowin PartIV.D.
1545"" I Blackstone
at * 15l.
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WHETIIER THE SECOND^MENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIn-'AL RIGIIT Page78 of 103
l
l5TMalcolm,ToKeepønd\earat36,38,43,45-4g,50-53,85,
100,l15-16,123;seealso
id. at92-93,95;Lois G. Schwoerer,TheDeclaratíonof Ríghts,168g,at76 (1981)("Charles
II hadmadeeffectiveuseof' themilitia acts"to ûy{o snuffoutpolitical andreligious
dissent,"disarmingindividualsandtownsandconfiscatingweapons). He hadbegundoing
so assoonashe assumed thethrone.An interim actin 1661approvedhis actionsand
providedindemnityto militiamen. 12 Car. II, c. 6, $ 3 (favorablyrecognizingthat "divers
armshavebeenseizedandhousessearchedfor arms");cf. FederalßtNo.69, at 465n. (4.
Hamilton) (discussing166l act).
158Mulcolm,ToKeepandBear at36-3g.
159Id. at63.SeealsoSchwoerer,
Declaratíonat75-76(describing
CharlesII's actions,
includingdisarmament,
andnotingrise of complaintsfrom Commonsbeginningin 1663).
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TWIIETHER
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justicesof thepeace. . .þr thedefenceof hishouseor person."I 'W.& M., Sess.1, c. 15,$
4 (1689)(emphasis added).
170I Blackstone
at *271.
r1s ltring1fr"ldv.
stratford,g6Eng.Rep.787,787-88, sayerRep.l5 (K.8. 1752)(Lee,c.J.,
citingRexv. Gardner,2StrangeRep.1098(K.8. 1738));Mallockv. Eastly,87Eng.Rep.
1370,1374,7 Mod. Rep.482 (c.P.l7M), respectively; seealsopartII.B.l, above
(discussing useof "keep"in theseandothercases);Malcolm,ToKeepsnd Bear at 128
(quotingcommentator of early 1800'sreaffirmingrule of thesecases).In addition,it appears
that courtsstrictly interpretedindictmentsunderthe gamelaws.,SeeKing v. Sílcot,87 Eng.
Rep.186,186n.(b),3 Mod. Rep.280 (K.8. 1690)(reporrer'snotefrom 1793).
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WHETIIERTHE SECOND ^ MENDMENT SECITRES
AN INDIVII-'TAL RIGHT Page80 of 103
. l
176Mailock,87Eng.Rep.at 1374;
Wingfield,96Eng.Rep.at 7g7 (Lee,C.J.).
179I Blackstone
at *l2l; id. at*123,124.
1831 Blackstone
at *140-41.
18sJd. at*141,143-44.
186¡¿. at*144.
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WHETHERTHE SECONDAMENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIDT-IALRIGHT Page81 of 103
Catholicskeepingarmsashopefully temporarysuspensions
of rights). He summarizedthe
militia in Chapter13, I id. at*4lZ-13.
1 8 8 1¿ a t*l M.
1934 Blackstone
at *174-75.
196Uo¡t"dStotesv. Miller,307
U.S. 174, l7g-80(1939)(internalquotationmarksomitted).
^leeKates,82 Mich. L. Rev. at2l5-16 ("With slightvariations,the differentcolonies
imposeda duty to keeparmsandto musteroccasionallyfor drill upon virtually everyable-
bodiedwhite manbetweenthe ageof majorityanda dðsignated curoff age.Itioreover,the
duty to keeparmsappliedto everyhousehold, not just to thosecontainingpersonssubjectto
militia service.Thus,the over-agedandseamen, who wereexemptfrom militia servicê,
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND \ßNDMENT SECURESAN INDIVII-'A.L RIGHT Page83 of 103
207S""Gross,Minutemenat 59.In
Concord,"Minutementrainedtwice a weekon the
commonandcarriedtheir musketseverywhere,in the fields, in shops,evenin church."
lVhenthey weremusteredin March l775,lt "presented a revealingportraitof the
community.This tvasa citizenarmyof rural neighbors.. . . The Concordmilitia included
nearlyeveryonebetweenthe agesof sixteenandsixt¡r."Id. at69-70.
2r2¡¿. at2l2.
2r3Id. at229-il.
215RichardCaswell,William Hooper,
& JosephHewes,'To the Committeesof the Several
TownsandCountiesof theProvinceof North Carolina,"N.C. Gazette(Newburn),at2, col.
3 (July 7, 1775),excerptedin id. at29.
216See4 AdamsPapersat78n.6(note).
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WHETIIER THE SECOND \@NDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIT-:A,L RIGHT Page84 of 103
217¡o6t Adams,Thoughts
on Government (Apr.1776),reprintedin 4 id. at9t. This
pamphlet,writte¡ for political leadersin North Carolin4 Vírginia, andNew Jersey,was
widely reprintedanddiscussedfor severalyears.Seeid. at6i,68-72(note).
218Lefferfrom Greeneto
Jefferson(Nov. 20, t780), ín 4 ThePapersof ThomasJefferson
130-31(JulianP.Boyded.,l95l).
2195"",
!;E;,"ADemocratic Federalist,"Penn.Herald(Oct. 17, l7B7),reprintedin 2 Doc.
!Ißt. at 197 (arguingthat "a well-regulatedmilitia" is "sufficientfor everypurposeof
intemaldefense,"asshownby victoriesat LexingtonandBunkerHill); Va. nâtif. Conv.,ín
9 Doc.Híst.at 981(remarksof EdmundRandoþh,June6, l7S8) ("I will pay thelasttribute
of gratitudeto themilitia of my country:theypèrformedsomeofìhe mosìgallantfeats
during thelast war, and actedasnobly asmenenuredto otheravocations.o-ut¿be expected
to do: But, Sir, it is dangerous
to look to themasour soleprotectors.");Federalßt Ni. 25,at
16l-62 (4. Hamilton)þraising militias'valorbut emphasizing insufficiencyfor defense).
GeneralGreenerecognizedthat the militia should"nót þe] depended.rpon'*aprincipal
but employedasanAuxilliary." Letterto Jefferson,tn 4legercon pape-rsat l3l'.
221Thefust constitutions
of New Jersey,SouthCarolina,Georgi4 andNew york did not
¡ncfude separate bills of rights.Their constitutions
did protecta-fewrights,but did not
in{ude therightto armsor generalstatements regardingthe militia. SáefiemardSchwartz,
I Jhe Bill of Rights:A DocumentaryHístory256(t97tj CN.J.1776); id. at29t (Ga. 1777);
id. at 301(N.Y. 1777);id. at325 (S.C.l77S).Georgiadid providefor forming -ititiu
bftalion in uny county with "two hundredandfifty men,andupwards,liableîo"beararms,"
id. at297,andNew York declaredtheduty of all to providepeisonalserviceto protect
society,seeíd. at3l2, muchasthe Pennsylvania Declaration,discussedbelow,äid.
ConnecticutandRhodeIslanddid not adoptnewconstitutions. Id. at2B9.
222Va. Bill of Rights 13(1776),
ç reprintedin 7 Fed.and StateConsts.at3gl4.
2]3 Reg_araingthis point andthe meaningof both "militia" and "well regulatedmrlitia,,,see
above,PartsII.C.2-4, andm.8.1, at note 196(quotingJefferson's Noteson theStateof
Virginîa).
Ð5 Delaware,Maryland,and
New HampshireadaptedVirginia's language,omitting
definitionof the.militiaandchanging"freestate"to "freegõvertt*ent" *hil" retainingthe
implicit connectionbetween"a well regulatedmilitia" attdth" avoidanceof standingãr-i"t
andmilitary insubordination.SeeDel.Decl.of Rights$$ 18-20(1776),reprintedii 5
Founders'Const.at 5,6; Md. Decl. of Rightsgg 25-27(1776),repríniedln 3 Fed.andState
Consts.at 1688;N.H. Const.pt. I, arts.24-26(1784),reprintedú q fed. and StateConsts.
at2456.TheDelawareConstitutionalsospeciallyprovidedthat "[t]o preventanyviolence
or forcebeingusedat . . . elections,no personshallcomearmedtó anyof them,andno
musterof themilitia shallbe madeon thatday."Del. Const.art. XXVItr (1776),reprinted
in I Fed.andStateConsts.at 567.
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TTTESECOND \4ENDMEN SECURESAN INDTVIP-'AL RIGHT
\4/HETTIER PAgE85 Of IO3
2285 FedandStateConsts.at
3083.Suchpersonalservicewouldbe difficult if onecould
not own privateÍilms. This duty may havebeenbroaderthanthe obligationof militia duty,
perhapsincþding the possecomit¿tus.SeegenerallyFederalístNo.ig,at 182-83(A.
Hamilton).NgwHampshire'sconstitution,while praisingthewell-reguiatedmilitia,
recognized_tr!¿uty separately, N.H. Const.pt. I, arl.;s.
12-13,reprinledîn 4 Fed.andState
Consts.at2455,althoughNew York's connected thetwo, N.Y. Const.$ 40 (1777),
reprintedin 5 id. at2637.
229Pa-Planor Frameof
Gov't $ 5 (1776),reprintedin 5 Fed.and StateConsts.at3084.
' - j 230¡¿. 43,reprintedin
$ 5 Fed.and StateConsts.at3091.
2315"" Halbrook,Right to
Bear at23-25.Somein Englandsharedthis concern.,See
Schwoere4T6 Chi.-KentL. Rev. at52-53.
232P^-Const.d. X,
$$ 20 &21, reprintedin 5 Fed.andStateConsts.at3101.Section22
addressedstandingarmiesandcivilian controlof the military. Kentucþ admitted:rr_lZgl
asthefileenth state,copiedthis languageon theright verbatim.SeeKy. Const.art.)ilI, $
23 (1792),reprintedin3 Fed.and StateConsts.at1275.
233pu.Const.ffi. H, 2, reprinted
$ in 5 Fed.andStateConsts.at3099.Kentucþ also
copiedthisprovision.SeeKy. Const.art.VI, $ 2, reprintedín 3 Fed. and StateConsts.at
t271.
Consts.at27gg.
23s¡¿.
236Stot"v. Huntly,25N.C. (3
Ired.)418, I 843WL 89I , at *2.Anotherearþ decision
recognizedthat the right of "free peopleof color" to beararmsmight be abridged- but only
because thecourtbelievedthat they "cannotbe considered-as citizens,,'or at lõastnot full
citizens,_not
becauseof any exclusionfrom themilitia (a subjectthe courtdid not mention).
Statev.Newsom,27 N.C.(5 hed.)250,IBM WL 1059,at*i,2.
2375"" infra,note239.
238ThiswasRichardCaswell,
who becamethe first govemor.Anothermemberof the
committeealsohadbeenoneof thethreedelegates. SeeHalbrook,RíShtto Bear at29-31;
seealso5 Fed.and StateConsts.at2794.
240Vt. Const. l,
$ 14,repríntedin 6 Fed. and StateConsts.at374l (speech);id. g 9,' at
374.9-41(duty "h-.
of personalservice,andconscientious objectors);id. ch.ù, $ S, íll,iZ
(militia of "freemen. . . andtheir sons");id. ç 39, at374g
@unting).
24r5""Vt. Const.ch.I,
$$ 10,15& 18(1786),reprtntedin 6 id. at3753(dutyof personal
serviceandconscieltiougobjectors,speech,andarms,respectively); id.."È.U, $ lõ, at 3758
(militia, includingall "inhabiønts"raiherthanall freemenan¿theií sons);id.-g-37,'at3760
(hunting);Vt. Const.ch. I, arts.9,13 &, 16(1793),reprintedin id. at3763-64(¿"tí of
personalserviceandconscientious objectors,speecþ-and
atms,respectively);ld. c-n.n, ç
22, at 3768(militia); íd. g 40, ar 3720(hunting).
o"
a lla
Reprintedín 3 Fed. and StateConsts.at 1992.
http://www.usdoj.
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WHETIIER THE SECOND ^ \4ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIDT"IALRIGHT Page87 of 103
2554t oneFederalistcriticizedLutherMartin, an
Anti-Federalistwho hadbeena delegate
257S"¿,e.g.,regardingall of theseconcerns,
"JohnDe Wítt" No.5 (1787),repríntedin 4
Complete Antí-Fed.at36-37 (warningthat federalgovernmentwould neglectto armmilitia,
not fusting thepeople,and enforceunjust laws throughstandingarrny); Pa.Ratif. Conv.,ín
2 Doc.Hist. at 509(remarksof JohnSmilie,Dec.6, 1787)("'Whena selectmilitia is
formed;thepeoplein generalmay be disarmed.");Fed.Farmer No.3 (1787),reprintedín2
Complete Anti-Fed.at242 (discountingsafeguard of armed"yoemanryof thepeople,"
whom Congresswould underminethroughcreatingselectmilitia); The Genuine
Inþrmøtion Deliveredto theLegislatureof theStateof Maryland Relativeto the
Proceedíngsof the GeneralConventíonLately Held at Phíladelphia;By Luther Mørtin,
Esquíre(1788),reprintedin 2 CompleteAntí-Fed.at 59-60(wamingthat Congresswould
useits militia andarmy poweñ¡"to subverttheliberties of the Statesandtheir citizens,since
we [allow anunlimited standingarmy and,]by placingthe militia under l'fspower,enableit
to leavethemilitia totally unorgarlized,undiscíplíned,
andevento dísarmthem"');Va.Ratif.
Conv.,in l0 Doc.Hist. at 1271(remarksof Mason,June14, 1788)(warningthat Congress
would "disarmthepeople"gradually,ratherthan"openly,"by "totally disusingand
neglectingthemilitia"). Henry repeatedlydenouncedthe allegedlyexclusivepower.,See9
Doc.Hist. at957(June5) (.Of whatservicewouldmilitia be to you, whenmostprobably
you will not havea singlemusketin the State;for asaÍns areto be providedby Congress,
theymayor maynot furnishthem.");id. at 1066(June9) ("Thepowerof armingthe militia,
andthe meansof purchasingaüns,aretakenfrom the States. . . . If Congresswill not arm
them,theywill not be armedat all.").
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WHETIIER THE SECOND VENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVI,:'r'AL RIGHT Page89 of 103
1307(June16).
260Deluwarealreadyhad ratified
unanimously.After Pennsylvania'svote,New Jersey,
Georgia,andConnecticutratifiedby largemajorities.No proposedamendments emerged
from theseconventions. SeeSchwartz,2 Bítl of Rightsat SZl,674.Marylandratifiedõn
April 26, 1788,without proposingamendments, althougha committeehadapproved
several,including a prohibition on subjectingthe militia to martial law "exceptin time of
war,invasion,or rebellion."The committeeunderstood the militia to consistãf"all men,
ableto beararms,"which would makemartial law for the militia a pretextfor applyingit to
thepopulace. Seeid. at729-30,734-35.
261Schwarø,2Bítl of Rights
at665.TenchCoxe,in a critiqueof the Minority, described
thisproposalasa "provisionagainstdisarmingthepeople.ul?hilanthropos,"Þenn.Gazette
(1788),reprintedin 15Doc. Hist.at3gl,393..
264Id. at67t-72.
26s¡¿. at 674-75,681.South
Carolinaratifiedin May 1788without proposinganyrelevant
amendments. Seeid. at739,756-57.
266^¡6"conventionhad adjoumed
in February1788to avoid a vote againstratification.
Whenit reconvenedin the suûrmer,it ratifiedby a vote of 57 to 47.Seeid. at758.
'TrO.at758.,See
U.S.Const.arr.VII.
269S""Schwartz,
2 Bílt oin¡sho at762,764.
2705"" id. at765-66.
272Id. atB43.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND i MENDMENT SEC{JRES
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27sId. at932-33,968-69;Halbrooþ
Ríghtto Bear at33-j4.
276¡irst InauguralAddress(Apr.
30, l78g), reprintedín I A Compilatíonof theMessages
andPapersof thePresídents43,45 (JamesD. Richardsoned., 1897).
277speechofMadison(June
8, 1789),reprintedínyeit, creating atTg-79.
278
¡¿.
282MudisonResolution(June
8, lz89), reprintedinyeit, creating at 12.
2835"" above,PartIII.B.2, at
note225 (discussing
differencesfrom Virginia Declaration).
28412MadtsonPapers atl93 (emphasis
added);seeid. at194-95;Speech
of Madison,
reprintedinYeít, Creatíngat 80.
N Thearguableexception,as
discussed abovein PartII.D.l regardingthe Establishment
Clause,wasa prohibitionon "any nationalreligion."Madisonproposedotheramendments
that did not relateto private rights, suchasalteringthe ratio of representationin the House
of Representatives andbanningincreases of legislatorpay without an ensuingelection,but
he proposedto placetheseelsewherein theconstitution.Id. at rz.
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND ^.YENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVIF 'AL RIGHT Page91 of 103
29s¡¿. at6,102-03;seeLetterfrom
Madisonto WilsonCaryNicholas(Aug. 2, l7B9),in íd.
at27l (refeningto !'theconcord"of thecommittee);Letterfrom RogerShermanto Henry
Gibbs(Aug. 4,1789), in id. (anothercommitteemember,predictingthatcommittee's
proposals"will probablybe harmless& Satisfactoryto thosewho arefond of Bills of
rights," althoughnoting his desireto placethem at the endof the Constitution).
297LetterfromRep.FrederickA. Muhlenberg
to BenjaminRush(Aug. 18, 1789), inYeit"
Creatíng at280 (writing after the first day of debatethat involved the armsprovision, in
which no changesweremade,anddescribingproposedamendments to datqas"nearlythe
sameas" the committee"hadreportedthem").
299Atthe ConstitutionalConvention,
Gerryhadbitterly opposedthefederalpowersover
the militia in Article I, Section8, Clause16.Madison,Notesof Debatesat 513-16(Aug.
23). Regardinghis Anti-Federalistwritingsduringratification,seeSchwartz,1Bitl of
Rightsat 464-65,480-93.He hadattendedthe Massachusetts Conventionasan invited
3ol SeeYeit,Creatingat183-85.
304Jd. at37-4t.
3085""Yeit, Creatingat39n.l3;Schwartz,
2 Bitt of Rightsat ll53-54(Sen. Journal).
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WHETIIERTIIE SECOND ' MENDMENT SECTJRES
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32rJd.
328Jd.at 125-26.
329Id. at l26.RegardingBlackstoneseeParttrI.A
, above.For Tucker'sannotationsof
someof Blackstone's discussions
of improperusesof arms,see5 Tucker'sBlackstoneat
*126, 142-149,175.RegardingthePennsylvania Minority, Adams,andNew Hampshire,
seePartIII.C.]above.
335JosephStory,3 Commentaries
on the Constitutionof the (JnitedStates$ 1890,at746
n.l (1833;reprint1991).In UnitedStatesv. Miller,307u.S. 174,l82n.t 1t939),the
SupremeCourt includedthis passage(from a later edition) in a stringcitation.
338StoryAbridgemenr
g 1001,at 708-09.
340¡¿.
342Foladditionalantebellumcommentato
rs, seeDavidB. Kopel,TheSecondAmendment
in theNineteenth
Century,l998BYU L. Rev.1359,1399-1403,143541; seealsoíd. at
1397-98(discussingHenryTucker).
345Id. at*2.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND " VÍENDMENTSECURESAN INDIVD--"AL RIGHT page96of 103
347SeeKy.Const.
art.)(III, $ 25 (1850),reprinted
in3 Fed.andStateConsts.atl3l4.
3aBAldrtdg"v. commonwealth, ya.
eva. cas.) 447,lgzlwL ll1z,at *3 (va. Gen.
cr.).
3495 Tucker'sBlackstoneat*175
n.l7(7)(listing asamongthe "offencesagainstthepublic
police,or [e]conomy,"therestrictionagainst"any" blackor mulatto"keepiãgor rutryiog
any gun-powder,shot,club, or otherweapon,"including a "gun"). Seeølio Waters,. Stãt",
1 Gill. 302,1843WL3024 (Md.) (explaining,vrith regardto freeblaclcs,that "lawshave
beenpassedto preventtheir migrationto this State;to makeit unlawful for them to bear
arms;to guardeventheir religiousassemblages with peculiarwatchfulness.").
350(-loit"dStatesv. Sheldon,SBlume
Sup.Ct. Trans.337, l82gWL 30Zl, at + l2(Mich.
Ten.). Seealso Commonwealthv. Blandlng,20Mass.(3 Pick.) 304,338(igzS) (iivoking
right to keeparmsto draw sameanalogy).
35rJohrronv. Tompkins,13F.
Cas.840,850(C.C.E.D.pa. lS33)(No. 7,416).
3531833v,rL1227,at*r.
35aft¿.Formoreregardingthe
relevantcommonlaw, seethe discussionin Statev. Huntly,
25 N.C. (3 hed.) 418, 1843WL 891, at*2-3 (surveyingcoÍrmonlaw andnoting "thatthe
9!"Ting of a gunper se constitutes no offence"). SeealsoStatev. Langþrd, 10Ñ.C. (3
Hawks)381,1824WL 380;4 Blackstoneat*149;William Hawkins,I A Treatíseon the
Pleasof the Crownch. 63, $ 9, at 136(1724;reprint 1972).An Englishcasethatthe court
citedin Huntly,.predating the EnglishDeclaration of Rights,hadcõnstrueda seemingly
restrictivemed!9valstatuteasonly punishing"peoplewho go armedto terriff the kin$s
subjects,"not all who go armed.SírJohnKnight'sCase,,87Eng.Rep.75, 26, 3 Vtod.-Rep.
117(K.8. 1686).The courtrecognized that "now therebe a generalõonnivanceto
gentlemento ride armedfor their securiqr,"suchthat violating the statuterequiredriding
"maloanimo."1d.,90Eng.Rep.330,330,Comberbach Rep.3g.
3s51833wL l2z7,ar*1.
356I Ala.612,lg4owL229,at*2.
3s7ß4owLz2g.atx2.
3s8Jd. at*3.
3s9Id. at*5-6.
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WHETHERTIIE SECOND' {ENDMENT SECURESAN INDTVID'E\L RIGHT Page97of 103
I
363Id. at *8.
364Jd.at *lo.
36s¡¿.
366¡¿. at *10,9.
370Stot"v.Jumel,13La.Ann.399,
1858WL 5151,at *1.
37s312F.3dar 1073.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND^'{ENDMENT SECURESAN INDfVID"{L RIGHT Page98 of 103
. '
383Id. at*Z.
387lï7lwL357g,at * 3.
388Id. at*ll.
390¡¿.at *8 (emphasisadded).
39rId. at*9.
392Id. at*6-7.
393Jd. at*ll.
394Jd. at*13.
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WHETHERTHE SECOND4 \4ENDMENT SECURESAN INDIVIDTT{L RIGHT Page100of 103
401St" id. at*4 (explainingthat uthemilitia, without arms. . . might be unableto resist,
successfully,the effort of thosewho shouldconspireto overthrowthe established
institutíonsof the country,or subjugatetheir coÍlmon liberties" andthat "the people
designedandexpectedto accomplishthis objectby the adoptionof the article under
consideration,which would foreverinvestthemwith a legalright to keepandbeararmsfor
that purpose");id. at *6 (*The act in questiondoesnot . . . detractanythingfrom the power
of the peopleto defendtheir free stateandthe establishedinstitutionsof the country.");see
also id. at *2 (expresslyequatingSecondAmendmentright with rights in First); íd. at*7
(noting thatReid andMitchellhadupheld similar laws notwithstandingconstitutional
provisionsexpresslyprotectingbearingarmsin self-defense).As rn Aymette,the courtwas
facedwith an absoluteclaim that the right wassubjectto no restrictions,and responded
similarly.Seeid. at *3, *5.
Seeid. at*9.
N6 Id.at *8.
410Id. at*12-14.
413Co'lg.Globeat 1838-39
@ep.Clarke); id. at 1266(Rep.Raymond).See alsoíd. at 1629
(Rep.Hart, explainingthat Act would guaranteeto free blacLs"[a] govemment. . . where
ho law shallbe madeprohibiting the free exerciseof religion'; where'the right of the people
to keepandbeararmsshallnot be infringed"').
i. ; ara¡¿. at llï2.
4rsJd. at2765(Sen.Howard).
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\ryHETHERTIIE SECOND ' ì {ENDMENT SECLJRES
AN INDIVIDF q.LRIGHT Paget02 of 103
427¡¿. ar 88-89.
431Cooley,ConstitutíonalLimitatíonsat 18.
a 8l p. 619,620(Kan. 1905).
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EXHIBIT B
TheRightto KeepandBearArms
REPORT
of the
ST]BCOMIVtrTTEEON THE CONSTITUTIONI
of the
UNITED STATESSENATE
NINETY- SEVENTH CONGRESS
SecondSession
February1982
Printedfor theuseof the Committeeon the Judiciary
U.S. GOVERNMENTPRINTINGOFFICE
WASHINGTON:1982
8 8 -6 1 80
COMMITTEEOffi
STROM THURMOND,SouthCarolina,Chairman
CHARLES McC. MATHIAS, Jr., Maryland
JOSEPHR. BIDEN, Jr., Delaware
PAUL LAXALT, Nevada
EDWARD M. KENNEDY,Massachusetts
ORRIN G. HATCH, Utah
ROBERT C. BYRD, V/estVirginia
ROBERTDOLE,Kansas
HOV/ARD M. METZENBAUM. Ohio
CONTENTS
Orrin G. Hatch,Chairman
Subcommittee on the Constitution
January20,1982
The right to beararmsis a traditionwith deeprootsm
Americansociety.ThomasJeffersonproposedthat"nofreeman
shall everbe debarredthe useof arms,"and SamuelAdams
called for an amendmentbanning any law "to preventthe
peopleof the United Stateswho are peaceable citizensfrom
keepingtheir own arms." The Constitutionof the Stateof
Arizona,for example,rccognizesthe "right of an individual
citizento beararmsin defenseof himselfor the State."
Eventhoughthetraditionhasdeeproots,its application
to modern America is the subject of intensecontroversy.
Indeed,it is a controversy intowhichtheCongress is beginning,
once again, to immerse itself. I have personally been
disappointedthat so importantan issueshouldhavegenerally
been so thinly researched and so minimally debatedboth in
Congressand the courts.Our SupremeCourt has but once
touchedon its meaningat the Federallevel andthat decision,
now nearlya half-centuryold, is so ambiguousthatanyschool
of thought can find somesupportin it. All SupremeCourt
decisionson the secondamendment's applicationto the States
came in the last cenftiry,when constitutionallaw was far
differentthan it is today.As rankingminority memberof the
Subcommittee on the Constitution,I, therefore,welcomethe
effort which led to this report- a reportbasednot only upon
the independent researchof the subcommitteestaft but also
upon full and fair presentationof the casesby all interested
groupsandindividualscholars.
I personallybelieve
thatit is necessary
for the Congress
to amend the Gun Control Act of 1968. I welcome the
opportunityto introducethis discussionof how best these
amendments mightbe made.
staff haspreparedthis
The Constitutionsubcommittee
monographbringingtogetherproponentsof both sidesof the
debate over the 1968 Act. I believe that the statements
contained herein present the arguments fairly and thoroughly.
I commend SenatorHatch, chairman of the subcommittee,for
having this excellent referencework prepared.I am surethat it
will be of great assistanceto the Congressas it debatesthe
secondamendmentand considersleeislationto amendthe Gun
Control Act.
Dennis DeConcini,
Ranking Minority Member,
Subcommitteeon the Constitution
January20,1982
History:
SecondAmendmentRightto "KeepandBearArms"
Followingtherevolutionbutprevious to theadoptionof
theConstitution,debatesovermilitia proposalsoccupiedalarge
partof thepolitical scene.A varietyof planswereput forth by
figuresrangingfrom GeorgeWashingtonto Baronvon Steuben.
32 All theproposalscalledfor a generalútty of all citizensto
be armed, although some proposals(most notably von
Steuben's) alsoemphasized a "selectmilitia" whichwouldbe
paid for its servicesandgivenspecialtraining.In this respect,
this"selectmilitia"wasthesuccessorofthe "trainedbands"and
the predecessor of what is todaythe "nationalguard".In the
debatesover the Constitution,von Steuben's proposalswere
cnttcizedasundemocratic.In Connecticutonwriter complained
of aproposalthat"thislookstoomuchlike Baronvon Steuben's
militia, bywhich a standingarmywasmeantandintended."33
In Pennsylvania, a delegateargued"Congressmay give us a
selectmilitia which will, in fact, be a standingarmy - or
Congress,afraidof a generalmilitia, may saytherewill be no
militia at all.'When a selectmilitia is formed,the peoplein
generalmaybedisarmed."34RichardHenrylee, in his widely
read pamphlet "Letters from the Federal Farmer to the
Republican"worried that the peoplemight be disarmed"by
modelingthemilitia. Shouldonefifth or oneeighthpart of the
peoplecapableof bearingarmsbemadeinto a selectmilitia, as
hasbeenproposed,andthosetheyoungandardentpartsofthe
community,possessed of little or no propeúy,the formerwill
answerall the purposesof an army,while the latter will be
defenseless. " Heproposed that"theConstitutionoughtto secure
a genuine,andguardagainsta selectmilitia," addingthat "to
preserveliberty,it is essential thatthewholebodyof thepeople
always possessarms and be taught alike, especiallywhen
young,how to usethem."35
Nor weretheantifederalists,
to whomwe owecreditfor
a Bill of Rights,aloneon this account.Federalistarguments
alsoprovidea sourceof supportfor an individualrightsview.
Their argumentsin favor of the proposedConstitutionalso
relied heavily upon universal armament.The proposed
Constitutionhadbeenheavilycnticizedforits failureto banor
evenlimit standingarmies.Unableto denythis omission,the
Constitutionlssupportersfrequentlyarguedto the peoplethat
the universalarmamentof Americansmadesuch limitations
unnecessary. A pamphletwritten by NoahWebster,aimedat
swayingPennsylvania towardratification,observed.
Beforea standingarmycanrule,thepeople
must be disarmed;as they are in almost
every kingdom in Europe.The supreme
power in America cannotenforceunjust
lawsbythe slvord,becausethewholebody
of the peopleare armed,and constitutea
forcesuperiorto anybandof regulartroops
that canbe, on anypretense,raisedin the
United States.37
In theMassachusetts
convention,Sedgewickechoedthe
samethought,rhetoricallyaskinganoppressivearmycouldbe
formed or "if raised,whetherthey could subduea Nation of
freemen,who know how to pnzeliberty,andwho havearmsin
their hands?"38 In FederalistPaper46, Madison,laterauthor
ofthe SecondAmendment, mentioned"Theadvantage ofbeing
armed,which the Americanspossessover the people of all
other countries" and that "notwithstandingthe military
establishments in the severalkingdomsof Europe,which are
carriedasfar asthepublicresources will bear,thegovemments
areafraidto trustthepeoplewith arms."
REFERENCES
1. CharlesHollister,Anglo-SaxonMilitary Institutionsll-42
(OxfordUniversityPress1962);FrancisGrose,Military
AntiquitiesRespecting a Historyof the British Army, Vol. I
atl-2(London,1812).
8. E. G. Heath,TheGreyGooseWing 109(London,l97I).
9. 19Hen.Vtr c. 4 (1503).
11.64Hen.VItr c. 13(1514).
12.33Hen.VItr c. 6 (1514).
Vol. 2 at 412(St.
16.William Blackstone,Commentaries,
GeorgeTucker,ed.,Philadelphia1803).
22.Phrllip,Earl of Hardwicke,Miscellaneous
StatePapers
-17
from 1501-1726,vol. 2 at 407 (London,1778).
'Western,
23. J. R. MonarchyandRevolution:The English
Statein the1680's, at339(Totowa,N.J.,1972).
27.rd.
PoliticalPartiesin Revolutionary
30. StevenPatterson,
at 103(UniversityofWisconsinPress,1973).
Massachusetts,
31.SeeSprecher,
TheLostAmendment,
514.8.4.J.554,
66s(re6s).
32.Themostextensive studiesof thesemilitiaproposalsare
'Wilson:
JohnMacaulyPalmer,V/ashington,Lincoln, Three
'War
Statesmen(New Yorlq 1930);FrederickStem,Citizen
Army (New York, 1957);JohnMahon,The American
Militia: Decadeof Decision1789-1800 (Univ.of Florida,
1e60).
34.Id.,vol.2at 508.
36.DebatesandotherProceedings of theConventionof
Virginia, . . . takenin shorthandby David Robertsonof
Petersburg, at 27l, 275 (2nded.Richmond,I 805).
39.Merril Jensen,
supra,vol.2 at 597-98.
42.[d.at 1030.
43. AnnalsofCongress434(1789).
12Ken.(zLitt.)90,92(1822).
48. Blissvs. Commonwealth,
52.Nunnv. State,1Ga.243,251(1846).
53.DredScottv. Sanford.
60U.S.691.705.
54. The mostcomprehensive work in this field of
constitutionallaw is StevenHalbrook,TheJurisprudence
of
the SecondandFourteenthAmendments(Institutefor
HumaneStudies,Menlo Park,Califomía,1979),reprintedin
4 GeorgeMasonL. Rev.I (1981).
56.Id. at 478.
p. 3 (1871).
57.H.R.Rep.No.37,4lstCong.,3dsess.,
92 U.S.542(1876).
60.UnitedStatesv. Cruikshank,
62.}l{illerv. Texas,153U.S.535(1894).
64.Id,.at 178,179.
APPEIIDIX
CaseLaw
The UnitedStatesSupremeCourthasonlythreetimes
commenteduponthe meaningof the secondamendment to
our constitution.The first comment,in Dred Scott,indicated
stronglythat the right to keepandbeararmswas an
individualright; the Courtnotedthat,wereit to hold blacks
to be entitled to equality oî citizenship,they would be entitled
to keep andcarry arms whereverthey went. The second,in
Miller, indicated that a court cannottakejudicial notice tbat a
short-barrelledshotgun is coveredby the secondamendment
- but the Court did not indicate that National Guard statusis
in any way required for protection by that amendment, and
indeed defined "militia" to include all citizens able to bear
arms. The third, a footnote in Lewis v. United States,
indicated only that "theselegislative restrictions on the use of
firearms" - abart on possessionby felons - were
permissable[sic]. But since felons may constitutionally be
deprived of many of the rights of citizens, including that of
voting, this dict¿ revealslittle. Thesethree comments
constitute all significant explanationsof the scopeof the
secondamendmentadvancedby our SupremeCourt. The
caseof Adam v. V/illiams has been cited as contrary to the
principle that the secondamendmentis an individual right. In
fact,that reading of the opinion comesonly in Justice
Douglas's dissent from the majorityruling of the Court.
2. Statev. Kessler,289Or.359,614P.2d94,at95,at98
(1e80).
"'Wearenot unmindful that thereis current
controversyoverthewisdomof a right to bear
arrns,andthatthe originalmotivationsfor sucha
provisionmight not seemcompellingif debatedas
a new issue.Our task,however,in construinga
constitutionalprovisionis to respectthe principles
giventhe statusof constitutionalguarantees and
limitationsby the drafters;it is not to abandonthese
principleswhenthis fits theneedsof the moment."
6. CityofLakewood v. Pillow,180Colo.20,501P.2d744,
at745 (enbanc1972).
"As an example,we notethatthis ordinancewould
prohibit gunsmiths,pawnbrokers andsporting
goodsstoresfrom canyingon a substantialpart of
their business.Also, the ordinanceappearsto
prohibit individualsfrom transportinggunsto and
from suchplacesof business. Furthermore, it makes
it unlawfulfor a personto possess a firearmin a
vehicleor in aplaceof businessfor thepurposeof
self-defense.Severalof theseactivitiesare
I constitutionallyprotected.Colo.Const.art. II, sec
13."
13.Statev.Kemer,181N.C. 574,1075.8.222,at224
(re2r).
"'Weareof theopinion,however,that'pistol'exvi
termini is properlyincludedwithin theword'arms,'
andthat the right to bearsucharmscannotbe
infringed.Thehistoricaluseof pistolsas'arms'of
offenseanddefenseis beyondcontroversy."
"Themaintenance of theright to beararmsis a
mostessentialoneto everyfreepeopleandshould
not be whittleddownby technicalconstructions."
19TTICENTT]RY CASES
BIBLIOGRAPITY
Hays,TheRight to BearArms, a Studyin Judicial
Misinterpretation,
2Wm. &}ilary L. R. 381(1960)
a Sprecher,The LostAmendment,51 Am Bar Assn.J.
ss4 &.665(2 parts)(1965)
o Comment,The Right to KeepandBearArms: A
NecessaryConstitutionalGuarantee or an Outmoded
Provisionof the Bill of Rights?31 AlbanyL.R.74
(re67)
o Levine & Saxe, The SecondAmendment:The Right
to Bear Arms, 7 Houston L. R. I (1969)
o McClure, Firearms and Federalism,T ldaho L. R. 197
(re70)
o Hardy& Stompoly, Of ArmsandtheLaw,5l
Chi.-KentL. R. 62 (1974)
o Weiss,A Replyto Advocatesof GunControlLaw,52
Jour.UrbanLaw 577 (1974)
. Whisker,HistoricalDevelopmentandSubsequent
Erosionof the Right.toKeepandBearArms, 78 V/.
Va.L. R. 171(1976)
o Caplan,Restoringthe Balance:The Second
AmendmentRevisited,5 FordhamUrbanL. J. 3l
(re76)
. Caplan,HandgunControl:Constitutionalor
10N.C. CentralL. J. 53 (1979)
Unconstitutional?,
o Cantrell,The Right to BearArms,53 IVis Bar Bull.
2I (Oct.l980)
o Halbrook,The Jurisprudence of the Secondand
FourteenthAmendments.4 Geo.MasonL. Rev. I
(1e81)
Themid-1970'ssawrapidincreases in sugarprices,
andthesein turn drovethebulk of the "moonshiners" out of
business. Over 15,000illegaldistillerieshadbeenraidedin
1956;but by 1976thishadfallento a mere609.The BATF
thusbeganto devotethe bulk of its effortsto the areaof
fi rearmslaw enforcement.
Baseduponthesehearings,it is apparentthat
enforcementtacticsmadepossibleby currentfederalftrearms
laws areconstitutionally,legall¡ andpractically
reprehensible.AlthoughCongressadoptedthe Gun Control
Act with the primaryobjectof limiting accessof felonsand
high-riskgroupsto firearms,the overbreadth of the law has
led to neglect of precisely this areaof enforcement.For
example the Subcommitteeon the Constitution received
correspondencefrom two members of the Illinois Judiciary,
dated in 1980,indicating that they had beentotally unable to
persuadeBATF to acceptcasesagainstfelons who were in
possessionof firearms including sawed-off shotguns.The
Bureau's own figures demonstrate that in recent years the
percentageof its arrestsdevoted to felons in possessionand
personsknowingly selling to them have droppedfrom 14
percent down to 10 percentof their firearms cases.To be
sure, genuinecriminals are sometimesprosecutedunder other
sectionsof the law. Yet, subsequentto thesehearings,BATF
statedthat 55 percentofits gun law prosecutionsoverall
involve personswith no record of a felony conviction, and a
third involve citizens with no prior police contact at all. .
Thesepractices,amplydocumented in hearingsbefore
this Subcommittee, leavelittle doubtthattheBureauhas
disregarded rightsguaranteed by theconstitutionandlawsof
the United States.
It hastrampleduponthe secondamendment by
chilling exerciseof theright to keepandbeararmsby
law-abidingcitizens.
fOthersectionsomitted.]
PCL XL error
llarning: I I legalMediaSize
EXHIBIT C
PIIBLIC LAW 99-308-MAY 19, 1986 100STAT,449