Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Indonesia
Indonesia
ARGENTINA ISRAEL
AUSTRALIA ITALY
AUSTRIA JAMAICA
BAHRAIN JAPAN
BERMUDA KAZAKHSTAN
BOLIVIA KENYA
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA KUWAIT
BRAZIL MEXICO
CANADA THE NETHERLANDS
CHILE NEW ZEALAND
CHINA NIGERIA
COSTA RICA NORTH KOREA
CROATIA NORWAY
CUBA PAKISTAN
EGYPT PERU
ENGLAND THE PHILIPPINES
ETHIOPIA RUSSIA
FRANCE SAUDI ARABIA
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA SCOTLAND
GERMANY SENEGAL
GHANA SOUTH AFRICA
GUATEMALA SOUTH KOREA
ICELAND TAIWAN
INDIA TURKEY
INDONESIA UKRAINE
IRAN UZBEKISTAN
IRAQ
Indonesia
Douglas A. Phillips
Philadelphia
Dedication: This book is dedicated to my parents, Carolyn and Alan M. Phillips. Their
love and belief in me has always provided me with the element of hope. Their guidance
and mentoring fostered my quest for travel, exploration, and learning. From outhouses
to the Outback and from homemade travel trailers to the world, my parents opened my
eyes to the worlds of education and travel. My love, admiration, and gratitude can never
be expressed by words.
http://www.chelseahouse.com
First Printing
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Phillips, Douglas A.
Indonesia / Douglas A. Phillips.
p. cm.—(Modern world nations)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8022-6
1. Indonesia—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.
DS615.P55 2004
959.8—dc22
2004012759
All links and web addresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time of publication.
Because of the dynamic nature of the web, some addresses and links may have changed
since publication and may no longer be valid.
Table of Contents
1 Introducing Indonesia 8
2 Natural Environment 14
3 Indonesia Through Time 24
4 Independence and Nationhood 36
5 People and Culture 46
6 Government of Indonesia 62
7 Indonesia’s Economy 74
8 The Islands 84
9 Indonesia’s Future 92
Facts at a Glance 98
History at a Glance 100
Further Reading 103
Index 105
Indonesia
1
Introducing
Indonesia
I
t is hard to imagine Indonesia as a country. Thousands of islands
scattered across the expanse between the Indian and Pacific
Oceans is hardly a likely candidate for a unified country. Yet this
is the land (and water!) of Indonesia. It is a country pieced together
from more than 17,000 islands, more than 6,000 of which are inhabited.
The arrangement of Indonesia is much like an island splatter pattern
running from east to west and located off the coast of Southeast
Asia. The tyranny of distance created by the water separating these
islands adds many complexities for the people and government of
Indonesia. These challenges will be examined in this book.
Indonesia often brings to mind visions of a tropical island paradise,
with palm trees swaying in the warm breeze and sandy beaches that
seem to stretch endlessly toward the sea and a picturesque sunset.
When the island of Bali is mentioned, it is often in the context of a
dream destination for travelers. In recent years it has been a frequent
8
Indonesia is a country composed of thousands of islands scattered off the
coast of Southeast Asia. Although it has the fourth-highest population in the
world, it is actually only about one-fifth the size of the United States.
destination for travelers from Australia and the West. Sadly, this dream
was partially shattered on October 12, 2002, when a terrorist’s bomb
created a nightmare for travelers and the Indonesian government. This
9
10 Indonesia
happened when the Sari Club was bombed on the island of Bali;
the perpetrators were linked to al Qaeda. More than 200 lives were
lost in the blast, a murderous act that now threatens to damage
the vitality of Indonesia’s tourism industry. Has the idealistic
vision of Indonesia and Bali been ruined forever by terrorists?
How did al Qaeda’s tentacles reach into Indonesia? What
exactly are Islamic extremists doing in paradise? Indonesia is a
country vastly more complex and troubled than the image
presented by the simple vision of an island paradise on Bali. Few
Westerners recognize that Indonesia, with more than 230 million
people, ranks fourth among the world’s countries in popula-
tion. In addition, a staggering 88 percent of its people, more
than 200 million, are Muslim. This is about the same number of
Muslims as the nations of Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Syria,
Lebanon, and Jordan combined. In other words, Indonesia has
nearly the same number of Muslims as the entire Middle East.
Although Islam is Indonesia’s dominant faith, the country
works to protect religious freedom for its citizens. Residents are also
Roman Catholic, Hindu, and Buddhist; they also practice a number
of Protestant denominations, plus a smattering of other religions.
Indonesia’s peoples are diverse; regional interests and cultural
elements vary widely. According to the U.S. Library of Congress,
more than 650 different languages and dialects are spoken in
the country. The partition of Indonesia by water has often made
interisland communication and transportation difficult. Because
they lived in relative isolation from others, residents of different
islands developed richly unique cultures. Thus, local languages
such as Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, and Sundanese are still used
in some areas, although Bahasa Indonesia serves as the national
and unifying language. Bahasa Indonesia is a variation of the
Malay language. English and Dutch are also frequently spoken,
because Indonesia was once a colony of the Netherlands, and
English has become the international language of business.
Indonesia’s population ranks behind only that of China,
India, and the United States, but a major difference between
Introducing Indonesia 11
Indonesia and these other four populous nations is that its land
area is significantly smaller. With a land area of 705,192 square
miles (1,826,440 square kilometers), Indonesia is about three times
the size of Texas, or a little more than one-fifth the size of the
United States or China. This means that the population density
of this tropical country is severe in many locations suitable for
settlement. Jakarta, the capital city, is home to some 11 million
people who dwell in its metropolitan area. As a country, the
population density exceeds 300 people per square mile (190 per
square kilometer) compared to the just under 80 per square mile
(50 per square kilometer) density in the United States. Indonesia’s
population density figure is very deceptive, however, because
much of the country’s land remains isolated or uninhabitable.
Most of the population lives near the coast, where soils are more
fertile and land is less rugged. On many of the larger islands, a
spine of mountains runs down the length of the land mass. This
ruggedness makes much of the land difficult to live on or to use
for agriculture. Other islands suffer from their remote location
and isolation, a condition that makes living on them a challenge.
Indonesia is located between the Indian Ocean (to the west)
and Pacific Ocean (to the east). It comprises the world’s largest
island chain, an archipelago laced in and around the equator, and
stretches for nearly 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers), from Sumatra
in the west to Irian Jaya in the east. Indonesia is located entirely
within the tropics. Yet some of the country’s higher peaks are
blanketed with snow and ice throughout the year. Its closest
neighbors are the new country of East Timor (formerly a part of
Indonesia) and the countries of Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.
Indonesia’s location on the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of Fire”
makes it susceptible to frequent earthquakes and violent
volcanic activity. It has experienced the most violent eruptions
in recent history. This and other aspects of the country’s
physical setting will be discussed in chapter 2.
The unrest in Indonesia is not just geological—much political,
social, and economic turmoil exists within the country, as well.
12 Indonesia
14
LAND FEATURES
Indonesia, it can be said, has been both blessed and cursed by
the Earth’s geologic forces. It is blessed by the beauty of countless
tropical islands scattered like gems across a mirrorlike sea. Its
terrain is varied, with many towering mountains breaking the
monotony of broad and fertile lowland plains. The shimmering
snow-capped peak of Puncak Jaya towers 16,503 feet (5,030 meters)
above the steaming tropical coastal plain of New Guinea. Most
Indonesians live on fertile plains, where farming, building, and access
by road are favored by relatively flat terrain. Tourists flock to the
country, to enjoy a land where spectacular volcanic peaks rise above
idyllic beaches and warm ocean waters. Indonesia may be best
known, however, for its treacherous terrain.
Treacherous Terrain
Geologically, most of the country lies astride one of the world’s
most active and hazardous zones—the Pacific Ring of Fire—and
several branching tectonic plates (huge moving masses of the Earth’s
crust). In fact, more than 100 of Indonesia’s 400 volcanoes remain
active; 70 eruptions have occurred since 1600. Of the 23 volcanic
disasters since A.D. 1000, in which more than 1,000 lives were lost,
9 have been in Indonesia. Java and Bali are two of the world’s most
volcanically active spots. There, and in many other regions of the
country, people are quite familiar with the belching ash, acrid smoke,
fiery clouds of hot volcanic gases, and glowing lava attributable
to the angry natural forces. In addition, each year the country
experiences an average 500 earthquakes, some of which are severe.
Both volcanic explosions and seismic activity can cause tsunamis,
great sea waves, that can devastate coastal regions. (For additional
information on the Ring of Fire, enter “Pacific ring of fire” into any
search engine and browse the sites listed.)
15
16 Indonesia
Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago, and its chain of islands stretches
3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) from east to west. Though it has a tropical location,
in addition to pristine beaches it is also home to snow-capped mountain ranges
and potentially destructive volcanoes.
Natural Environment 17
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Indonesia, like many less developed countries (LDCs), suffers
from a number of environmental problems. Air pollution,
water pollution, sewage, garbage, and industrial wastes make
22 Indonesia
24
communities into a tizzy of controversy. The outcry eventually
became so great that Dubois buried the skull and bones under his
home, where they stayed for nearly 30 years.
Dubois’s finding has come to be called Pithecanthropus erectus, or
Java man. Java man lived in the Paleolithic age and provides an
ancient link to human roots in Indonesia. The controversy over
whether Java man is human, ape, or a “link” between them, still
rages on the Internet as evolutionists and creationists debate the
meaning of this discovery. Disagreement also exists concerning Java
man’s antiquity. Estimates range from 500,000 years to as far
back as 1.7 million years. Geographically, our only concern is
that humanlike creatures of some type have been in what is now
Indonesia for a very long time.
Since Java man, Indonesia’s history has been like a stew. First
there are the ingredients in the stew that are indigenous (native)
to the islands. These homegrown ingredients are represented by
the islands’ great variety of different native cultures. These cultures
developed in relative isolation from each other because of the
difficulty of transportation and communication in ancient times.
Add to this basic stew the ingredients of various colonial masters
such as the Portuguese, British, and Dutch. Each of these colonial
influences added more flavorings that have created the complex
mixture that is evident in Indonesia’s culture and history. Then add
additional ingredients of religion and a period of Japanese occupa-
tion. By the time the stew is completed, either you have a wonderful
broth, or too many cooks have been in the kitchen and created a
mess. Both scenarios are legacies of Indonesia. This chapter examines
the historical and cultural roots of Indonesia and the cultural
elements that have been added over time.
25
26 Indonesia
ISLAMIC KINGDOMS
Asian immigrants and Hinduism were but the first of
many cultural waves to splash upon Indonesia’s shores. The
next breaker to reach the archipelago was Islam. Arabs had been
28 Indonesia
The indigenous population did not just sit back and watch,
however, while the Dutch continued to rule the archipelago.
Many of the native peoples and local kingdoms resisted fiercely,
but the Dutch prevailed. When local resistance failed, some
Indonesians saw the need for a broader and better-organized
effort against the Dutch. Influenced by early twentieth-century
nationalistic movements in other countries around the world,
local people in the archipelago saw that colonial powers could
be pushed out with a unified effort.
Efforts to organize a Dutch resistance started with the
founding of Budi Utomo. This organization was originally
established by intellectuals for educational endeavors and was
primarily connected to training native doctors. Budi Utomo
was founded by Soetomo in 1908; the name of the group
means “noble conduct.” Displeased with Indonesia’s undesir-
able colonial status, the organization soon became engaged in
politics. This group is considered to be Indonesia’s first modern
political organization. Over the next few years (1910 –1920),
additional groups such as the Indies Party, Sarekat Islam
(Islamic Union), Communist Association of the Indies, and
Muhammadiyah (Followers of Muhammad) were formed to
resist Dutch colonial rule. The first group believed to have used
the term Indonesia (contraction of India, “cultural influence”
and island) was a political student group who met in the 1920s
and called themselves the Indonesian Alliance of Students.
Budi Utomo chose to use Malay as its official language
instead of Javanese. This was a significant decision. Later,
the language became adopted as the official national tongue
that is now called Bahasa Indonesia. The decision to use
the Malay language in the anti-Dutch colonial movement
served as a linguistic unifying factor in developing the nation
of Indonesia.
In the late 1920s, Sukarno started his rise to power. From
humble beginnings, he rose to have a national political
reputation because of his work and association with the
Indonesia Through Time 35
Indies Party and Sarekat Islam. He, along with others, estab-
lished the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI) in 1927. This
party promoted noncooperation with the Dutch and the
strategic objective of achieving independence. Sukarno was a
broad thinker and tied together three important considera-
tions in his program for nationhood: first was the importance
of traditional Indonesian cultures, second was Islam, and
the third was ideas drawn from Karl Marx. His outspoken
philosophy caused him to be imprisoned by the Dutch, who
had long abandoned their Liberal Policy. They were deeply
concerned about the rising fury and cry for independence,
which made the Dutch more skeptical and intolerant of
leaders like Sukarno. Dutch persecution of parties seeking
independence caused many of the groups to dissolve in the
1930s. The idea of an independent Indonesia promoted by
Sukarno and other political leaders would not die.
For centuries, the waves of foreign colonial powers washed
upon the shores of Indonesia. The Dutch had been a tsunami
that overran the country. For periods of time, they offered
unenlightened rule that subjugated the native people of the
archipelago to slavery, poverty, forced migration, difficult
living conditions, and unequal treatment. Now the seeds of the
country of Indonesia were taking root in the nationalistic
movements that started during the first decades of the
twentieth century. Would further waves of foreign domination
wash upon the shores of Indonesia before independence?
How would the Dutch be pushed out? These questions are
answered in the following chapter.
4
Independence
and Nationhood
I
ndonesia’s journey to independence did not happen easily or
predictably. As the storm clouds of World War II gathered in the
Pacific, Dutch colonial rule persisted. Japan began its quest to
become a colonial power with the 1931 invasion of Manchuria, an
event that served as a prelude to World War II. Island hopping across
the Pacific, Japanese forces gained control of the Dutch East Indies
in May 1942, and they occupied much of Southeast Asia by 1943.
36
Japanese forces had gained controlled of the Dutch East Indies and much of
Southeast Asia by the latter stages of World War II. Here, Japanese warships
enter Camranh Bay in 1941.
37
38 Indonesia
Achmad Sukarno rose to power in the 1920s due to his work to achieve
Indonesian independence from the Dutch. Japanese occupation of
Indonesia ended with the end of World War II in 1945, and Sukarno
assumed presidency. Here, in 1950, Sukarno speaks to a crowd protesting
his leadership.
46
Limited technology and harsh terrain have led to the development of many
different cultures and isolated communities within Indonesia. In some areas
of the country, communities are only connected through treacherous routes,
like this suspension bridge over the Baliem River in Irian Jaya.
47
48 Indonesia
POPULATION FACTORS
Before examining major cultural aspects of Indonesia, a
brief look at the country’s demographics will help provide a
statistical context for its people. With an estimated 234 million
people, Indonesia is the world’s fourth most populated country.
Only China, India, and the United States have larger popu-
lations. This translates into more than 300 people per square
People and Culture 49
RELIGION
Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia, and the
country has the world’s largest Muslim population. Eighty-
eight percent of the citizens are Muslim, but the government
allows other religions to exist. Included within these other
government-sanctioned religions are Protestants (5 percent),
Roman Catholics (3 percent), Hindus (2 percent), and
Buddhists (1 percent). Only one percent of the population
falls into the “Other” category of nonreligious or people
holding other beliefs.
It is perhaps surprising that European religions didn’t
leave a larger impact on the population of the Spice Islands (the
Moluccas, a part of Indonesia), or the rest of the archipelago.
50 Indonesia
Islam in Indonesia
The vast majority of Indonesians, nearly 88 percent,
identify themselves as Muslims. In Indonesia, however, Islam
is not a monolithic religion. People in different areas of the
country believe in and practice their faith in a variety of ways.
In some places, Islam even has mixed with local customs and
traditions to form hybrid religious practices. For example, a
rural Javanese Muslim might go to the mosque to pray but
later pray at the grave of a local Catholic saint. Local customs
have had a similar impact on Christianity. Islam, together with
some of the other major religious groups, manifests itself into
the country’s political parties.
The prophet Muhammad founded Islam with a belief in
one God, Allah. He set forth basic tenets of the religion in
Islam’s most holy book, the Koran (Qu’ran), which is written in
the Arabic language. Muhammad lived in Saudi Arabia in the
seventh century, and the Koran is the compilation of writings
that reflects God’s revelations to Muhammad. Today, converts
to Islam have now spread across much of the world. In sheer
numbers, Islam is the world’s fastest-growing faith.
Arab traders carried Islam to Indonesia from the twelfth
to the fifteenth centuries. First contacts were in Sumatra,
Kalemanta, and northern Java. Marco Polo recorded visiting
a Muslim community called Perlak, when he landed in
Sumatra on his way home from China. The first form of
Islam in Indonesia was Sufi, an Arabic word that means
wool (believers often wore woolen robes). Island converts
dedicated themselves to the mystical life known as Sufi, in
which believers seek a union with God. Many of these
believers combined the new religious ideas with their local
People and Culture 51
Directions:
Simmer chicken breasts in water until cooked thoroughly.
Season to taste with salt while cooking. Let chicken breasts
cool, then shred. Save 1/2 cup of broth for use in mixture.
Add 1 – 2 tablespoon of oil to a wok. Stir-fry the shallots and
garlic for about four minutes and add the red peppers. Fry
the peppers for two minutes and add the chicken. Mix in the
coconut milk, soy sauce, sugar, salt, potatoes, tamarind, and
1/2 cup of chicken broth. Simmer for 5 – 6 minutes and
serve with rice.
People and Culture 61
62
THE INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
Indonesia is a republic. This means that the country has a system
of government in which voters hold and exercise their power
through elected representatives. It is these elected representatives
who are responsible for the common good of society.
The birth of the nation of Indonesia was rather traumatic.
It came about when Japan announced in September, 1944, that
Indonesia would be given independence. The Dutch were furious
about this; they wanted to reestablish control over their former
colony. Japan had occupied Indonesia for much of World War II,
however, and finally surrendered on August 15, 1945. Two days
later, on August 17, Indonesia proclaimed independence. With
this came the Constitution of 1945, which had been quickly
drafted after the Japanese announcement that Indonesia would
become independent.
Sukarno was a powerful figure at the end of the war. He advocated
a strong presidency and five guiding principles for the new constitu-
tion called Pancasila. The five elements included in Pancasila, again,
were belief in God, humanitarianism, national unity, democracy,
and social justice. These ideas found their way into the Preamble
of the 1945 Constitution, which states in the second paragraph,
63
64 Indonesia
BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
Indonesia’s Constitution establishes three branches of
government. These include the Executive Branch, the Judicial
Branch, and the Legislative Branch. Each of these branches
has its own institutions and powers that are established
and enumerated by the Constitution. The Constitution also
institutes a system of checks and balances, to keep any one
branch from becoming too powerful. The Constitution does,
however, establish a strong Presidency. This differs from most
other democracies, in which the executive branch often has
more limited powers.
the bill until the following year. This provision gives the
president a very strong role in legislation. Bills can become
laws without the president’s signature if the bill goes unattended
and is not signed for 30 days after passage.
Important checks that the DPR has on the executive branch
are also included in the Constitution. For example, the DPR is
responsible for the budget and has oversight responsibilities
that allow it to conduct investigations into matters that they
deem important.
Earlier it was noted that the president has broad emergency
powers. Under this Constitutional provision, the president may
put emergency regulations into place. However, the DPR must
approve these regulations at its next session, or the regulations
become void and unenforceable. This power helps to restrain
the powers of a president who tries to use the emergency
powers clause to secure political advantage.
Like the United States and other democracies, Indonesia has a constitution
and a three-part government, with executive, legislative, and judicial
branches. Here, Muslim cleric Abu Bakar Bashir, on trial for treason, sits
in a Jakarta court in 2003.
ROLES OF CITIZENS
The role of the citizen is vital in Indonesia as it is in other
democracies. A number of protections and duties are outlined
in chapters 10 and 11 of the Constitution, which details these
issues in the section on citizens and residents. Like most democ-
racies, Indonesia stresses the equality of all citizens under the
law. Citizens have the right to work as well as the right and duty
to participate in the defending of the country.
A number of vital rights and freedoms are protected and
listed in the Constitution to preserve human rights and liberty.
Among these are:
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
Power and authority in Indonesia are separated by the
three branches of government at the local as well as national
level. In addition to the national government, separate
governments function at the province, regency, and municipality
72 Indonesia
they make laws and public policies for the jurisdiction for
which they are responsible. Members of these bodies and the
local executives are elected in general elections every five years.
The complexity of governing Indonesia continues to evolve
as political thinking develops further and the Constitution
undergoes regular review and amending. As the country
struggles with separatist movements, terrorist attacks, and
other divisions, many see the need for leaders with a strong
hand. Without strong checks and balances, the country can
slip back into old patterns of strong leaders and military
intervention. These historical patterns are still close and
threatening. Only a vigilant citizenry and watchful media can
keep the country on its present path toward becoming a true
democracy, with the rights of all citizens protected in the spirit
of unity described in Pancasila.
7
Indonesia’s
Economy
I
ndonesia’s economy is as complex as other aspects of the
country’s physical, historical, and cultural geography. The fact
that the country is blessed with many important resources is
evident in the country’s history. For centuries, Indonesia served as
a rich treasure trove for colonial powers, including Portugal, the
Netherlands, and Japan. Despite its rich natural endowment, the
country’s economy has long failed to meet its potential. Indonesia’s
economic development has been undermined by a long series of
disruptive secessionist movements, sharp ethnic divisions, rampant
corruption, and mindless terrorism. Added to these woes, of course,
is the country’s physical geography—thousands of islands lying
scattered over thousands of miles. The country’s banking system and
its relationship with the International Monetary Fund impose other
problems. These instabilities and others have a cumulative effect of
discouraging foreign investors.
74
Indonesia has a huge labor force. Nearly 100 million people
are available for or engaged in work. What types of jobs do they
hold? A lot of the economy is still very traditional, with 45 percent
of the population engaged in agriculture. Service industries employ
39 percent of the work force, and only 16 percent of all working
Indonesians are employed by industry. More than 10 percent of the
working-age population is unemployed. Unlike some of Indonesia’s
neighbors, such as Singapore and Malaysia, manufacturing has not
advanced as rapidly. This is caused in part by Indonesia’s uncertain
political and economic conditions.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture provides both products and jobs in Indonesia.
With the rugged terrain, only about 10 percent of the land is now
farmed, though another 20 percent has agricultural potential. Most
commercial crops are grown on large estates, but people often farm
on small plots or have their own home gardens. Important plantation
crops include rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, coconuts, and tobacco.
Key food crops are rice, peanuts, cassava, soybeans, sweet potatoes,
corn, and vegetables. Timber is also grown as a “crop.” Spices such as
cloves and nutmeg continue to be important crops, as well. Animals
raised for production include poultry, pigs, and cattle. Fishing is a
very important coastal endeavor.
Rice, the staple of the Indonesian diet, is the most important
crop. It is grown in a paddy, a flooded field in which farmers wearing
cone-shaped hats wade knee-deep in water to tend their crop.
Green, terraced hillsides of flooded rice paddies present a visual
of rice during the growing season. Several decades ago, Indonesia
was a rice importer. Since the arrival during the 1980s of “green
revolution” agricultural technology and methods, the country has
been self-sufficient in rice production.
Slash-and-burn techniques of shifting subsistence cultivation
are still used in much of the country. Trees and other vegetation are
slashed, allowed to dry, and then burned in order to open new land
to farming. This results in unwanted air pollution, and often the
75
76 Indonesia
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing involves only a small percentage of
Indonesia’s workers. The country has not moved as quickly
forward industrially as have some other Asian nations. This
is attributable in part to the country’s perceived political
Indonesia’s Economy 77
and other islands. They come for rest and relaxation, and also
for trekking adventures, scuba diving, surfing, and a wide
variety of other activities. Many of Indonesia’s service jobs
are found in the tourist industry.
INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCES
Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). This intergovernmental
organization was started in 1967 with four other nations,
including Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines.
ASEAN was formed to foster cooperation in economic, social,
cultural, technical, educational, and other fields of mutual
interest and concern. The organization also strives to promote
regional peace and stability through respect for justice and the
rule of law, and adherence to the principles of the United
Nations Charter. ASEAN’s economic and social development
efforts have been of great benefit to Indonesia. Today, there
are 10 members of ASEAN: Vietnam, Cambodia, Brunei-
Darussalam, Laos, and Myanmar have also joined. With
exception of the brief economic crisis experienced during
1998 –1999, Indonesia has steadily increased its GDP by a
healthy 3 1/2 percent, to nearly 8 percent per year. ASEAN
membership has helped Indonesia shift its economy from a
simple agrarian foundation to becoming an important player
on the world economic stage.
INDONESIA’S CURRENCY
Indonesia’s currency is the Rupiah. In 2004, a person in
Indonesia could be a millionaire with only about $125.00 in
82 Indonesia
JAVA
Java was formed by 38 volcanoes, 13 of which are still
considered active. Fortunately for the island’s residents, no major
eruptions have occurred since the mid-nineteenth century. This
humid tropical island is Indonesia’s historical, economic, politi-
cal, and cultural heart. It also occupies a central location in the
archipelago. Although 115 million people, or nearly one-half of
84
Indonesia’s total population, call this island home, the island
only contains about 1 percent of the country’s land area. This
means that the population density is very high, with about 1,400
people per square mile (870 per square kilometer). If Java were
an independent country, this would be the second-highest density
in the world, behind only Bangladesh. In human terms, this
translates into noisy, crowded urban areas with congested traffic,
extensive pollution, and the many other problems that compressed
cities face.
Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, is located on west Java. In its early
history, the city was called Jayakarta. Destroyed by the Dutch East
Indies Company under Jan Pieterszoon Coen in 1619, the city has
reemerged to become one of the world’s largest urban centers. At
the end of World War II, the city had fewer than one million people.
By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the population had
surged to over 10 million.
Jakarta is truly an amalgamation of Indonesia as a whole. The
city has a mixed population that includes the richest of the rich and
the poorest of the poor. Skyscraper office buildings decorate the
city’s skyline, whereas slums hide in their shadows. Jakarta presents
a stark contrast between wealth and poverty.
Jakarta enjoys some beautiful architecture: In addition to the
capitol building, the city boasts the Istiqlal Mosque, the largest
in Southeast Asia, as well as national museums and the national
headquarters of many businesses. Jakarta is where Indonesian
popular culture begins and is broadcast across the country by the
media headquartered in the city. The city is the country’s airline
hub and has the major seaport at Sunda Kelapa Harbor. The port
has been active since the sixteenth century, when Europeans
docked their ships in search of spices. Today, the harbor serves as
a major container port for materials from other islands and for
trade with the world.
The government has divided Java into four provinces. These
include West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, which became
a province in 2000. Jakarta is designated as the capital city district,
85
86 Indonesia
Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia and one of the world’s largest cities. It
is the center of Indonesia’s popular culture, government, and economy,
and features many architecturally impressive buildings, like the sky-
scrapers seen in this overview of the city.
BALI
Located to the east of Java is the tropical island tourist
destination of Bali, with its world-famous beaches. Long a
vacation haven for Australians, Americans, and Europeans,
Bali has a culture different from most of Indonesia. Here, the
roots of India are deeply set, and Hinduism is more prevalent
than on other islands. Ninety-five percent of the population is
Balinese Hindu. Bali has also taken and modified India’s caste
system into a less strict division of classes. As with other aspects
of Hinduism, Bali has localized the religion into its own version
of the faith.
Bali, with an area of 2,192 square miles (5,620 square
kilometers), is a little larger than the state of Rhode Island.
Nearly 3 million residents are crowded into this picturesque
setting. Denpasar, with a population of about 400,000, is
Bali’s capital and largest city. Denpasar is a rapidly growing
city, with increasing traffic noise, pollution, and other urban
problems. It also retains popular attractions such as tropical
gardens, museums, and art galleries. Nearly a million visitors
a year are attracted to the island, and most spend time in
Denpasar. About 10 miles north of Denpasar is the city of
Ubud. This relaxed city serves as Bali’s cultural center, with
additional museums, art galleries, and cultural performances.
Graceful dancers perform traditional Balinese dances for
visitors in Ubud’s cultural centers, and the local art is
Bali’s finest.
Bali’s history can be traced back to written records
from the ninth century, but it is certain that people occupied
the island long before that time. Hindu influences started
appearing around the eleventh century. Because the island
held little of value, European powers all but ignored it
88 Indonesia
SUMATRA
Sumatra is the second-largest island in Indonesia and
home to nearly 37 million people. The word sumatra is a
variation of the Latin phrase suma terra, which means black
earth. Sumatra has a land area of 183,000 square miles
(473,970 square kilometers), slightly larger than California.
It is the westernmost island in the archipelago. Many smaller
islands dot the waters surrounding Sumatra. The strategic
Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay
Peninsula, which is close by, to the northeast. Running down
the spine of the island is the Bukit Barisan range, which has
peaks reaching over 11,000 feet (3,350 meters). The range is
volcanic in origin, and 20 of its 50 identified volcanoes are
still active.
Sumatra is Indonesia’s resource treasure house. Nearly
70 percent of the country’s economy is generated on Sumatra,
primarily because of its oil fields, gold, silver, bauxite, tin, and
lignite coal production. With its fertile black soil, the island is
also Indonesia’s leading area of agricultural production. Most
of the country’s rubber is gathered here, but the island also
The Islands 89
92
than 6,000 of the islands have human inhabitants, the thousands
of individual stages and dramas, taken together, create a somewhat
chaotic setting for a country’s foundation.
Indonesia today is a country challenged by its own complexity.
Its complexity also presents tempting opportunities, if the country
can harness its own potential. Predicting the future is a precarious
endeavor—many possible images come into view when looking
ahead. Each scenario is dependent upon certain assumptions that
may or may not happen. Let’s review some of the foundations that
exist now in Indonesia.
Indonesia has a rich natural resource base—more than 17,000
islands—and possesses the world’s fourth-largest population. The
government has wavered between democratic regimes and those
exercising more strict presidential control in efforts to hold the
complex nation together. When rulers become too authoritarian,
protests increase and the government then turns over and usually
becomes more democratic, as it did after Sukarno and Suharto. If the
central government is not authoritarian enough, pieces of Indonesia
break away from the country. This happened recently with East
Timor and could result from the current separatist movement in
Aceh. This political paradox places continual pressure on the govern-
ment to find a balance.
Indonesia also is sharply divided by regional, ethnic, and
religious differences. The country could fracture, politically, into
many smaller countries, as happened to the former Soviet Union
and Yugoslavia after the end of the Cold War. The assumption that
the government can find the proper balance between central control
and democracy may help to facilitate a brighter and united future
for Indonesia.
The goals of God, humanitarianism, national unity, demo-
cracy, and social justice that Sukarno set forth in Pancasila have
been continued under Suharto and present leaders. These five
ideas provide a basic plan for the future. The cry for national unity
is an obvious response to the potential divisions existing in the
country. Social justice yields to citizens the harvest of equality
93
94 Indonesia
98
Languages Bahasa Indonesia (official), hundreds of local dialects,
English, Dutch
Type of Government Republic
Executive Branch President who serves as head and chief of state
Independence August 17, 1945
Administrative Divisions 27 provinces, 2 special regions, and a special capital
city region (Jakarta)
Currency Rupiah
Industries Petroleum and natural gas; textiles, apparel, and
footwear; mining, cement, chemical fertilizers,
plywood; rubber; food; tourism
Unemployment Rate 10.6% (2002)
Primary Exports Oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, textiles,
rubber
Export Partners Japan 19.2%, U.S. 14.5%, Singapore 11.6%, South
Korea 6.6%, China 5.6%, Taiwan 3.7% (2002)
Imports Machinery and equipment; chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs
Import Partners Japan 18.2%, South Korea 9.6%, Singapore 8.4%,
China 7.9%, U.S. 7.6%, Australia 5.0% (2002)
Transportation Railroad: 4,013 miles (6,458 kilometers)
Highways (total): 342,700
Highways (paved) 98,593 miles (158,670 kilometers)
Airports 631
Ports and Harbors Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Makassar,
Palembang, Semarang, Surabaya
99
History at a Glance
100
1825–1830 The Java War rebellion against Dutch is led by Prince Pangeran
Diponegor.
1845 Vanilla production begins on Java.
1859 The Dutch end slavery in the Netherlands Indies (Indonesia).
1864 First postage stamp issued by the Netherlands Indies.
1872–1895 Batak wars in northern Sumatra.
1873–1874 Dutch war with Aceh (guerrilla warfare continues for decades).
1883 Eruption of Krakatoa.
1906 Bali falls to the Dutch.
1908 Budi Utomo founded by Soetomo.
1927 Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI) founded by Sukarno.
1933 Sukarno, Hatta, and other PNI leaders arrested and imprisoned by
the Dutch.
1940 The Netherlands fall to Germany.
1941–1945 Japan conquers the Netherlands Indies and occupies the colony.
1942 Sukarno escapes from Dutch imprisonment.
1943 Allies begin the retaking of Indonesia.
1945 Japan surrenders to Allies; Sukarno declares Indonesia’s indepen-
dence from the Dutch; four-year war with Dutch begins; new
constitution implemented; Sukarno declared president.
1949 Dutch relinquish control of Indonesia.
1950 Indonesia admitted to the United Nations; Garuda Indonesian
Airlines founded.
1956 Hatta resigns as vice president.
1957 Sukarno introduces the idea of “Guided Democracy.”
1962 Irian Jaya (West Papua) is joined to Indonesia because of UN
action; Indonesia joins OPEC.
1963 Sukarno declared president for life.
1965 Indonesia withdraws from the United Nations.
1966 Sukarno removed from power and Suharto assumes leadership.
1967 Association of Southeast Asian Nations founded by Indonesia and
four other countries; Indonesia rejoins the United Nations.
101
History at a Glance
102
Further Reading
103
Further Reading
104
Index
105
Index
Communist Association of the Indies, East Timor, 11, 30, 40, 43, 44, 93
34 ebony, 22–23
communists, 39, 40, 41, 42, 54 economy, 12, 23, 43, 44, 74–83, 88
Confucianism, 55 education, 94
Constitution of 1945, 38, 53, 55, 63, Eid al-Adha, 52
64, 66, 67, 68, 70–71, 73 Eid al-fitr/Lebanon, 52
Constitutional Court, 69–70 elections, 63, 65, 66, 67
coral snake, 21 elephants, 90
corruption, 12, 23, 32, 40, 43–44, 74, energy resources, 12, 37, 43, 88
83, 94–95 English language, 10
coup, 42 environmental problems, 21–23,
culture, 10, 23, 25, 28–29, 30, 35, 46, 75–76, 95–96
48, 48–57, 59–61, 86, 87, 90 equator, 14
Culture/Cultivation System, 32–33 ethical period, 33
currency, 43, 81–82 ethnic cleansing, 55
ethnic conflicts, 55, 56, 59, 74, 77, 83
dances, 59, 87 ethnic groups, 25, 26, 34, 56–57,
Darul Muslim separatist rebellion, 59–61, 90, 92
59 Europeans, 28–29
Darwin, Charles, 24 See also Great Britain; Netherlands;
Dayaks, 56 Portugal
deer, 20 evolution, 24–25
deflation, 82 Executive Branch, 12, 64–66
deforestation, 22–23, 95–96 exports, 77–78
Demak, 28
democracy, 40, 44, 73, 93, 97 fish, 20, 75
and Pancasila, 38, 48, 63, 93, 94 Fiske, Richard, 17
Denpasar, 87 five pillars of Islam, 51
Department of Religious Affairs, Flores, 21, 28
54 food, 59–60
Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD) foreign affairs, 12, 41, 42, 45, 79, 82
(Council of Represntatives of the foreign debt, 43
Regions), 67–68 foreign investment, 74, 77, 83, 94–95
Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) forests, 21–23, 95–96
(People’s Representative Council), France, 30
12, 65, 66–67, 68 future, 13, 92–97
Diponegoro, Pangeran, 33
Dubois, Eugene, 24–25 garbage, 21–22
Dutch East India Company Garuda Indonesia Airways, 80
[Vereenigde Oost-Indische God, and Pancasila, 38, 48, 63, 93
Compagnie (VOC)], 31–32, 85 government, 12, 23, 39–45, 49, 50, 53,
Dutch East Indies, 31, 33, 36, 39 54, 62–73, 93, 93–95, 97
Dutch language, 10, 38 Great Britain, 25, 30, 42, 50, 90, 92
green revolution, 75
earthquakes, 11, 15, 92 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 77
East Java, 39, 85, 86 Guided Democracy, 40, 42
106
Index
107
Index
108
Index
109
Index
110
Picture Credits
page:
9: © Lucidity Information Design, LLC 69: Reuters Photo Archive/NMI
13: New Millennium Images 72: EPA/WEDA/AP/Wide World Photos
16: © Lucidity Information Design, LLC 76: New Millennium Images
22: New Millennium Images 78: AP/Wide World Photos
27: New Millennium Images 81: EPA/WEDA/AP/Wide World Photos
37: © Bettmann/CORBIS 86: KRT/New Millennium Images
41: © Bettmann/CORBIS 89: New Millennium Images
47: New Millennium Images 95: New Millennium Images
52: AFP/New Millennium Images
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About the Contributors
112