Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cyber Crime
Cyber Crime
By
This is to certify that the Seminar Report entitled CYBER CRIME is submitted by G.KEERTHI KRISHNA bearing Roll No 09C41A1222 in IV/IV B.Tech.(IT) II semester .
Supervisor
ABSTRACT
Cyber crime is emerging as a serious threat. World wide governments, police departments and intelligence units have started to react. Initiatives to curb cross border cyber threats are taking shape. Indian police has initiated special cyber cells across the country and have started educating the personnel. This article is an attempt to provide a glimpse on cyber crime in India. This article is based on various reports from news media and news portal. Key words The world of Internet today
has become a parallel form of life and living. Public are now capable of doing t hi n g s which were notimaginable few years ago. The Internet is fast becoming a way of life for millions of people and also a way of living because of growing dependence and reliance of the mankind on these machines. Internet has enabled the use of website communication, email and a lot of any time anywhere IT solutions for the betterment of human kind. Internet, though offers great benefit to society, also present opportunities for crime using new and highly sophisticated technology tools. Today e-mail and websites have become the preferred means of communication. Organizations provide Internet access to their staff. By their very nature, they facilitate almost i n s t a n t exchange and dissemination of data, images and variety of material. This includes not only educational and informative material but also information that might be undesirable or anti-social.
Regular stories featured in the media on computer crime include topics covering hacking to viruses, web-j ackers, to internet paedophiles, sometimes accurately portraying events, sometimes misconceiving the role of technology in such activities. Increase in cyber crime rate has been documented in the news media. Both the increase in the incidence of criminal activity and the possible emergence of new varieties of criminal activity pose challenges for legal systems, as well as for law enforcement.
Cyber space is a collective noun for the diverse range of environments that have arisen using the Internet and the various services.
CONTENTS
1.Introduction..05 1.1 What different about cyber crime...05 1.2 The cyber crime laws of nation...06 1.3 Cyber crime variants07 2. A advantages and risks...13 3. International dimension of cyber crime..14 4.The phenomena of cyber crime16 5. Development of cyber crime..18 6. Recommendations..20 7. Conclusion..22 8.Bibliography.22
INTRODUCTION
The growing danger from crimes committed against computers, or against information on computers, is beginning to claim attention in national capitals. In most countries around the world, however, existing laws are likely to be unenforceable against such crimes. This lack of legal protection means that businesses and governments must rely solely on technical measures to protect themselves from those who would steal, deny access to, or destroy valuable information. Self-protection, while essential, is not sufficient to make cyberspace a safe place to conduct business. The rule of law must also be enforced. Countries where legal protections are inadequate will become increasingly less able to compete in the new economy. As cyber crime increasingly breaches national borders, nations perceived as havens run the risk of having their electronic messages blocked by the network. National governments should examine their current statutes to determine whether they are sufficient to combat the kinds of crimes discussed in this report. Where gaps exist, governments should draw on best practices from other countries and work closely with industry to enact enforceable legal protections against these new crimes. This report analyzes the state of the law in 52 countries. It finds that only ten of these nations have amended their laws to cover more than half of the kinds of crimes that need to be addressed. While many of the others have initiatives underway, it is clear that a great deal of additional work is needed before organizations and individuals can be confident that cyber criminals will think twice before attacking valued systems and information.
Six weeks after the Love Bug attack, the Philippines outlawed most computer crimes as part of a comprehensive e-commerce statute. In order to prevent a repeat of the catastrophe that prompted this action, however, the future of the networked world demands a more proactive approach, whereby governments, industry, and the public work together to devise enforceable laws that will effectively deter all but the most determined cyber criminals.
Thirty-three of the countries surveyed have not yet updated their laws to address any type of cyber crime. Of the remaining countries, nine have enacted legislation to address five or fewer types of cyber crime, and ten have updated their laws to prosecute against six or more of the ten types of cyber crime.
Cyber stalking
Cyber stalking is use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk someone. This term is used interchangeably with online harassment and online abuse. Stalking generally involves harassing or threatening behaviour that an individual engages in repeatedly, such as following a person, appearing at a person's home or place of business, making harassing phone calls, leaving written messages or objects, or vandalizing a person's property.
Hacking
"Hacking" is a crime, which entails cracking systems and gaining unauthorized access to the data stored in them. Hacking had witnessed a 37 per cent increase this year
Phishing
Phishing is just one of the many frauds on the Internet, trying to fool people into parting with their money. Phishing refers to the receipt of unsolicited emails by customers of financial institutions, requesting them to enter their username, password or other personal information to access their account for some reason. Customers are directed to a fraudulent replica of the original institution's website when they click on the links on the email to enter their information, and so they remain unaware that the fraud has occurred. The fraudster then has access to the customer's online bank account and to the funds contained in that account. F-Secure Corporation's summary of 'data security' threats during the first half of 2007 has revealed that the study found the banking industry as soft target for phishing scams in India [The Business line Monday July 23 2007J
Vishing
Vishing is the criminal practice of using social engineering and Voice over IP (VoIP) to gain access to private .personal and financial information from the public for the purpose of financial reward. The term is a combination of "voice" and phishing. Vishing exploits publics trust in landline telephone services, which have traditionally terminated in physical locations which are known to the telephone company, and associated with a bill-payer. The victim is often unaware that VoIP allows for caller ID spoofing, inexpensive, complex automated systems and anonymity for the bill-payer. Vishing is typically used to steal credit card numbers or other information used in identity theft schemes from individuals.
Cyber Squatting
Cyber squatting is the act of registering a famous domain name and then selling it for a fortune. This is an issue that has not been tackled in IT act 2000.
Bot Networks
cyber crime called 'Bot Networks', wherein spamsters and other perpetrators of cyber crimes remotely take control of computers without the users realizing it, is increasing at an alarming rate. Computers get linked to Bot Networks when users unknowingly download malicious codes such as Trojan horse sent as e- mail attachments. Such affected computers, known as zombies, can work together whenever the malicious code within them get activated, and those who are behind the Bot Neworks attacks get the computing powers of thousands of system at their disposal. Attackers often coordinate large groups of Bot-controlled systems, or Bot networks, to scan for vulnerable systems and use them to increase the speed and breadth of their attacks. Trojan horse provides a backdoor to the computers acquired. A 'backdoor" is a method of bypassing normal authentication, or of securing remote access to a computer, while attempting to remain hidden from casual inspection. The backdoor may take the form of an installed program, or could be a modification to a legitimate program. Bot networks create unique problems for organisations because they can be remotely upgraded with new exploits very quickly," and this could help attackers pre-empt security efforts.
Vulnerability
The Open-Source Vulnerability Database (OSVDB) project maintains a master list of computer security vulnerabilities, freely available for use by security professionals and projects around the world. Vulnerability information is critical for the protection of information systems everywhere: in enterprises and other organizations, on private networks and intranets, and on the public Internet.
The major cyber crimes reported, in India, are denial of services, defacement of websites SPAM, computer virus and worms, pornography, cyber squatting, cyber stalking and phishing.[l] Given the fact that nearly $ 120 million worth of mobiles are being lost or stolen in the country every year, the users have to protect information, contact details and telephone numbers as these could be misused. Nearly 69 per cent of information theft is carried out by current and ex-employees and 31 per cent by hackers. India has to go a long way in protecting the vital information. [3 The Hindu, Saturday, Oct 27,2007]. Symantec shares the numbers from its first systematic survey carried out on the Indian Net Security scene: The country has the highest ratio in the world (76 per cent) of outgoing spam or junk mail, to legitimate e-mail traffic. India's home PC owners are the most targeted sector of its 37.7 million Internet users: Over 86 per cent of all attacks, mostly via 'bots' were aimed at lay surfers with Mumbai and Delhi emerging as the top two cities for such vulnerability.
Phishing
Phishing attacks were more popular among Indian users due to rising Internet penetration and growing online transactions. India has now joined the dubious list of the world's top 15 countries hosting "phishing" sites which aims at stealing confidential information such as passwords and credit card details. [The Hindu Sunday Nov 26 2006] A non-resident Malayali, had an account in a nationalized bank in Adoor, lost $ 10,000 when the bank authorities heeded a fake e-mail request to transfer the amount to an account in Ghana. In Mangalapuram, a person transferred a large sum of money as "processing charge" to a foreign bank account after he received an e-mail, which said he had won a lottery LKerala: The Hindu Monday Oct 30 2006] Reports of phishing targeted at customers of banks appear to be on the rise. Websense Security Labs, in a statement released recently, said it had received reports of such attacks from customers of AXIS Bank. The Economic Offences Wing (EOW), Crime Branch, Delhi Police, unearthed a major phishing scam involving fake emails and websites of UT1 Bank, An analysis of the accounts of the four arrested Nigerian nationals indicated financial transactions of over Rs 1 crore in an eight-month period t i l l December 2006. Investigations revealed that the scam is multi-layered with pan-India and international characteristics The Lab went on to say that it found a mal ware in the Web site of Syndicate Bank. The users through a spoofed email were asked to renew certain services and claiming that failure to do so would result in suspension or deletion of the account. The e-mail provided a l i n k to a malicious site that attempted to capture the personal and account information. [The Hindu, Monday August 20 2007]. Phishing emails have increased by approximately twenty five percent over the last year but are harder to detect as they increasingly trick unsuspecting people with ordinary scenarios instead of 9
improbable ones such as sudden cash windfalls. It has been six months since the phishing attack on ICICI bank customers became public, and during that period, two more such attacks were reported on customers of financial institutions in India, one of UTI Bank and the other. State Bank oflndia. [5-Jan 17-theHindu] RSA's 24/7 Anti-Fraud Command Centre f AFCC) has just uncovered a 'Universal man-in-the-middle Phishing Kit' in online forums which helps phishers quickly create the fraudulent websites, often borrowing code from the original site. [The Hindu Wednesday, Jan 17 2007].
The Case of The State of Tamil Nadu Vs Suhas Katti is notable for the fact that the conviction was achieved successfully. The case related to posting of obscene, defamatory and annoying message about a divorcee woman in the yahoo message group. E-Mails were also forwarded to the victim for information by the accused through a false e-mail account opened by him in the name of the victim. The posting of the message resulted in annoying phone calls to the lady. A travel agent was arrested for allegedly sending a threatening mail to blow up the National and Bombay stock exchanges in Kolkata [Express India.com Sun 28 Oct 2007].
Stalking
A tenth standard boy from Bangalore got into trouble when a girl much older than him started stalking him. She pasted T Love You' slips on his gate and called his "On reviewing his Orkut profile, it was realized that he had accepted chat invites from more than 20 people; only two of who were his real-life friends. [The Hindu Tuesday, May 01, 2007] 6.4 Hacking A case of suspected hacking of certain web portals and obtaining the residential addresses from the e-mail accounts of city residents had recently come to light. After getting the addresses, letters were sent through post mail and the recipients were lured into participating in an international lottery that had Australian $ 23 lakhs at stake. 10
Computer hackers have also got into the Bhaba Atomic Research Centre (BARC) computer and pulled out important data. Some computer professionals who prepared the software for MBBS examination Crime Survey 2006 of Price water house Coopers (PwC) was that a typical perpetrator of economic crime in India was male (almost 100 per cent), a graduate or undergraduate and 31-50 years of age. Further, over one-third of the frauds in the country were perpetrated by insiders and over 37 per cent of them were in senior managerial positions.
New analysis from Frost & Sullivan, World Anti-Malware Products Markets, finds that the world market for antivirus solutions reached $4,685 million in 2006, up 17.1 per cent from $4,000.7 million in the previous year and expects this market to grow at a 10.9 per cent compound annual growth rate (CAGR) from 2006 to 2013, reaching $9,689.7 million by 2013.
electronic eye on the users of the various cyber cafes spread over the city. The kerala state IT mission has launched a Web portal and a call centre to tackle cyber crime. [The Hindu Business line, Tuesday, Jul 31, 2007]. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and the Mumbai police have recommended issuance of licenses to cyber cafe owners. Many countries, including India, have established Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) with an objective to coordinate and respond during major security incidents/events. These organisations identify and address existing and potential threats and vulnerabilities in the system and coordinate with stakeholders to address these threats. Policy initiatives on cyber crime are as yet lethargic because of a general sense that it is nothing more than juvenile hackers out to have fun or impress someone. . Prateek Bhargava, cyber law expert says, "There is huge potential for damage to national security through cyber attacks. The internet is a means for money laundering and funding terrorist attacks in an organized manner. In the words of Pavan Duggal, Supreme Court Lawyer, "Cyber crime is omnipresent and although cyber crime cells have been set up in major cities, most cases remain unreported due to lack of awareness.
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opportunities. Unhindered access to information can support democracy, as the flow of information is taken out of the control of state authorities (as has happened, for example, in Eastern Europe and North Africa). Technical developments have improved daily life for example, online banking and shopping, the use of mobile data services and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephony are just some examples of how far the integration of ICTs into our daily lives has advanced.
However, the growth of the information society is accompanied by new and serious threats. Essential services such as water and electricity supply now rely on ICTs. Cars, traffic control, elevators, air conditioning and telephones also depend on the smooth functioning of ICTs. Attacks against information infrastructure and Internet services now have the potential to harm society in new and critical ways.
Attacks against information infrastructure and Internet services have already taken place. Online fraud and hacking attacks are just some examples of computer-related crimes that are committed on a large scale every day. The financial damage caused by cybercrime is reported to be enormous. In 2003 alone, malicious software caused damages of up to USD 17 billion. By some estimates, revenues from cybercrime exceeded USD 100 billion in 2007, outstripping the illegal trade in drugs for the first time. Nearly 60 per cent of businesses in the United States believe that cybercrime is more costly to them than physical crime. These estimates clearly demonstrate the importance of protecting information infrastructures.
Most of the above-mentioned attacks against computer infrastructure are not necessarily targeting critical infrastructure. However, the malicious software Stuxnet that was discovered in 2010 underlines the threat of attacks focusing on critical infrastructure. The software, with more than 4 000 functions, focused on computer systems running software that is typically used to control critical infrastructure.
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The computer technology currently in use is basically the same around the world.Apart from language issues and power adapters, there is very little difference between the computer systems and cell phones sold in Asia and those sold in Europe. An analogous situation arises in relation to the Internet. Due to standardization, the network protocols used in countries on the African continent are the same as those used in the United States. Standardization enables users around the world to access the same services over the Internet.
The question is what effect the harmonization of global technical standards has on the development of the national criminal law. In terms of illegal content, Internet users can access information from around the world, enabling them to access information available legally abroad that could be illegal in their own country.
Theoretically, developments arising from technical standardization go far beyond the globalization of technology and services and could lead to the harmonization of national laws. However, as shown by the negotiations over the First Protocol to the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (the Convention on Cybercrime),the principles of national law change much more slowly than technical developments. 14
Although the Internet may not recognize border controls, there are means to restrict access to certain information. The access provider can generally block certain websites and the service provider that stores a website can prevent access to information for those users on the basis of IP-addresses linked to a certain country (IP-targeting). Both measures can be circumvented, but are nevertheless instruments that can be used to retain territorial differences in a global network.The OpenNet Initiative reports that this kind of censorship is practised by about two dozen countries.
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DEFINITION
Most reports, guides or publications on cybercrime begin by defining the terms computer crime and cybercrime. In this context, various approaches have been adopted in recent decades to develop a precise definition for both terms. Before providing an overview of the debate and evaluating the approaches, it is useful to determine the relationship between cybercrime and computer -related crimes. Without going into detail at this stage, the term cybercrime is narrower than computer related crimes as it has to involve a computer network. Computer-related crimes cover even those offences that bear no relation to a network, but only affect stand-alone computer systems. During the 10th United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, two definitions were developed within a related workshop: Cybercrime in a narrow sense (computer crime) covers any illegal behaviour directed by means of electronic operations that target the security of computer systems and the data processed by them. Cybercrime in a broader sense (computer-related crimes) covers any illegal behaviour committed by means of, or in relation to, a computer system or network, including such crimes as illegal possession and offering or distributing information by means of a computer system or network.
One common definition describes cybercrime as any activity in which computers or networks are a tool, a target or a place of criminal activity. There are several difficulties with this broad definition. It would, for example, cover traditional crimes such as murder, if perchance the offender used a keyboard to hit and kill the victim. Another broader definition is provided in Article 1.1 of the Stanford Draft International Convention to Enhance Protection from Cyber Crime and Terrorism (the Stanford Draft), which points out that cybercrime refers to acts in respect to cybersystems.
Some definitions try to take objectives or intentions into account and define cybercrime more precisely, such as computer-mediated activities which are either illegal or considered illicit by certain parties and which can be conducted through global electronic networks. These more refined descriptions exclude cases where physical hardware is used to commit regular crimes, but they risk excluding crimes that are considered as cybercrime in international agreements such as the Commonwealth Model Law on Computer and Computer-related Crime or the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime. For example, a person who produces USB devices containing malicious software that destroys data on computers when the device is connected commits a crime as defined by Article 4 of the Convention on Cybercrime. However, since the act of deleting data using a physical device to copy malicious code has not been committed through global electronic networks, it would not qualify as cybercrime under the narrow definition above. Such acts would only qualify as cybercrime under a definition based on a broader description, including acts such as illegal data 16
interference.
The variety of approaches, as well as the related problems, demonstrates that there are considerable difficulties in defining the terms computer crime and cybercrime. The term cybercrime is used to describe a range of offences including traditional computer crimes, as well as network crimes. As these crimes differ in many ways, there is no single criterion that could include all acts mentioned in the different regional and international legal approaches to address the issue, whilst excluding traditional crimes that are just facilitated by using hardware. The fact that there is no single definition of cybercrime need not be important, as long as the term is not used as a legal term. Instead of referring to a definition, the following chapters will be based on a typology-related approach.
1. offences against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems;
2. computer-related offences;
4. copyright-related offences.
This typology is not wholly consistent, as it is not based on a sole criterion to differentiate between categories. Three categories focus on the object of legal protection: offences against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems; content -related offences; and copyright-related offences. The fourth category of computer-related offences does not focus on the object of legal protection, but on the method used to commit the crime. This inconsistency leads to some overlap between categories. In addition, some terms that are used to describe criminal acts (such as cyber terrorism or phishing) cover acts that fall within several categories. Nonetheless, the four categories can serve as a useful basis for discussing the phenomena of cybercrime.
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THE 1960S
In the 1960s, the introduction of transistor-based computer systems, which were smaller and less expensive than vacuum-tube based machines, led to an increase in the use of computer technology. At this early stage, offences focused on physical damage to computer systems and stored data. Such incidents were reported, for example, in Canada, where in 1969 a student riot caused a fire that destroyed computer data hosted at the university. In the mid 1960s, the United States started a debate on the creation of a central data-storage authority for all ministries. Within this context, possible criminal abuse of databases and the related risks to privacy were discussed.
THE 1970S
In the 1970s, the use of computer systems and computer data increased further. At the end of the decade, an estimated number of 100 000 mainframe computers were operating in the United States. With falling prices, computer technology was more widely used within administration and business, and by the public. The 1970s were characterized by a shift from the traditional property crimes against computer systems that had dominated the 1960s, to new forms of crime. While physical damage continued to be a relevant form of criminal abuse against computer systems, new forms of computer crime were recognized. They included the illegal use of computer systems and the manipulation of electronic data.The shift from manual to computer-operated transactions led to another new form of crime computer-related fraud. Already at this time, multimillion dollar losses were caused by computer-related fraud. Computer-related fraud, in particular, was a real challenge, and law-
enforcement agencies were investigating more and more cases. As the application of existing legislation in computer-crime cases led to difficulties, a debate about legal solutions started in different parts of the world. The United States discussed a draft bill designed specifically to address cybercrime. Interpol discussed the phenomena and possibilities for legal response.
THE 1980S
In the 1980s, personal computers became more and more popular. With this development, the number of computer systems and hence the number of potential targets for criminals again increased. For the 18
first time, the targets included a broad range of critical infrastructure. One of the side effects of the spread of computer systems was an increasing interest in software, resulting in the emergence of the first forms of software piracy and crimes related to patents. The interconnection of computer systems brought about new types of offence. Networks enabled offenders to enter a computer system without being present at the crime scene. In addition, the possibility of distributing software through networks enabled offenders to spread malicious software, and more and more computer viruses were discovered. Countries started the process of updating their legislation so as to meet the requirements of a changing criminal environment. International organizations also got involved in the process. OECD and the Council of Europe set up study groups to analyse the phenomena and evaluate possibilities for legal response.
THE 1990S
The introduction of the graphical interface (WWW) in the 1990s that was followed by a rapid growth in the number of Internet users led to new challenges. Information legally made available in one country was available globally even in countries where the publication of such information was criminalized. Another concern associated with online services that turned out to be especially challenging in the investigation of transnational crime was the speed of information exchange. Finally, the distribution of child pornography moved from physical exchange of books and tapes to online distribution through websites and Internet services.While computer crimes were in general local crimes, the Internet turned electronic crimes into transnational crime. As a result, the international community tackled the issue more intensively. UN General Assembly Resolution 45/121 adopted in 1990 and the manual for the prevention and control of computer-related crimes issued in 1994 are just two examples.
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6. RECOMMENDATIONS
The weak state of global legal protections against cyber crime suggests three kinds of action.
Firms, governments, and civil society should work cooperatively to strengthen legal frameworks for cyber security.
To be prosecuted across a border, an act must be a crime in each jurisdiction. Thus, while local legal traditions must be respected, nations must define cyber crimes in a similar manner. An important effort to craft a model approach is underway in the Council of Europe (see www.coe.int), comprising 41 countries. The Council is crafting an international Convention on Cyber Crime. The Convention addresses illegal access, illegal interception, data interference, system interference, computer-related forgery, computer-related fraud, and the aiding and abetting of these crimes. It also addresses investigational matters related to jurisdiction, extradition, the interception of communications, and the production and preservation of data. Finally, it promotes cooperation among law enforcement officials across national borders. 20
Late in its process, the Council began to consider the views of affected industry and civil society. This process is making the Councils product more realistic, practical, efficient, balanced, and respectful of due process that protects individual rights. At this point, most observers support provisions to improve law enforcement cooperation across borders. However, industry, through the World Information Technology and Services Alliance (see www.witsa.org/press/), argues that the requirements on service providers to monitor communications and to provide assistance to investigators, as outlined in the Draft Convention, would be unduly burdensome and expensive. Another provision considered objectionable could criminalize the creation and use of intrusive software, or hacking programs, which are designed for legitimate security testing purposes. This action could stifle the advances in technology vital to keep up with evolving cyber threats. Privacy and human rights advocates (see www.gilc.org) object to the Draft Conventions lack of procedural safeguards and due process to protect the rights of individuals, and to the possibility that the ensuing national laws would effectively place restrictions on privacy, anonymity, and encryption.
The Council plans to release a final draft of the Convention in December 2000. In 2001, a political process involving national governments will determine the scope and coverage of the final Convention. Because of cyber crimes international potential, all countries, and all companies, are affected. Interested parties, including national governments from outside Europe, and businesses and nongovernmental organizations from around the world, should participate vigorously in a consensus process to develop measures that support effective international law enforcement and foster continued growth and innovation.
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7.CONCLUSION
'Net surfing by youngsters lures them into dangerous domain. The need for a conscious effort to checkmate the undesirable fallout of youngsters accessing and using the Internet is of concern. The print media has a duty to educate unwary parents and youngsters about the dangers inherent in treading dangerous areas in the cyber-world. Cyber Space Security Management has already become an important component of National Security Management, Military-related Scientific Security Management and Intelligence Management all over the world. Future intrusions threatening our national security may not necessarily come from across the land frontier, or in air space or across maritime waters, but happen in eyberspace. Intelligence operations and covert actions will increasingly become cyber-based. It is important that our intelligence agencies gear themselves up to this new threat. It is, therefore, necessary to put in place a 'National Cyber Space Security Management Policy' to define the tasks, specify responsibilities of individual agencies with an integrated architecture. It is a well-known fact that terrorists have been using the Internet to communicate, extort, intimidate, raise funds and coordinate operations. Hostile states have highly developed capabilities to wage cyber wars. They have the capability to paralyse large parts of communication networks, cause financial meltdown and unrest. The degree of our preparedness in the face of all these potential threats, does leaves much to be desired. The Government should also take note of this slow but worrying development and put in place a proper mechanism to curb the misuse. Reference
8.BIBILOGRAPHY
Barney, Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology, 2001; Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP Principles, Protocols and Architecture, 2006; Dutta/De Meyer/Jain/Richter, The Information Society in an Enlarged Europe, 2006; Gercke, The Slow Wake of a Global Approach Against Cybercrime, Computer Law Review International 2006, page 141 et seq.; Hayden, Cybercrimes impact on Information security, Cybercrime and Security, IA-3; Kellermann, Technology risk checklist, Cybercrime and Security, IIB-2; Masuda, The Information Society as Post-Industrial Society, 1980; Sieber, The Threat of Cybercrime, Organised crime in Europe: the threat of Cybercrime, 2005; Tanebaum, Computer Networks, 2002; Wigert, Varying policy responses to Critical Information Infrastructure Protection (CIIP) in selected countries, Cybercrime and Security, IIB-1; Yang, Miao, ACM International Conference Proceeding Series; Vol. 113; Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Electronic Commerce, page 52-56; Zittrain, History of Online Gatekeeping, Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 2006, Vol. 19, No. 2. 22
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