Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Quality of Existing Buildings
Quality of Existing Buildings
o
r
e
s
M
a
d
e
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r
a
Dwelling Building
Figure 4 Dwellings and buildings (Census of 2001).
According to the Census 2001 there are almost 5.1 millions of residential units in Portugal for a
total of 3.7 millions of families which represents a ratio of 1.34 residential units per family.
From this, 18% correspond to seasonal residences while 11% are unoccupied. This means that
Portugal has about 3.9 millions of permanent residential units.
Table 3 Existing dwellings and buildings (Census of 2001).
Territorial Units Dwelling Building
Portugal -Total 5 054 922 3 160 043
North 1 613 781 1 100 329
Centre 1 254 701 992 321
Lisboa e Vale do Tejo 1 295 832 394 520
Alentejo 423 641 349 946
Algarve 278 418 160 543
Aores 95 241 87 585
Madeira 93 308 74 799
The building sector in Portugal is very active with a strong bet on new buildings. 20% of the ex-
isting buildings have less than 10 years and, between 1991 and 2000, the average rhythm of
construction reached 84 000 new buildings per year. In 1999 and in 2000 this number raised till
100 000 new buildings per year. This means that, in the same period, were built 8.4 buildings
per one thousand of inhabitants while in Europe this ratio is just of 5.5.
In Portugal, 80% of the new residential buildings are single-family buildings. However, the re-
maining 20% of apartment buildings represent 70% of the total housing units as it can be seen in
Figure 5.
State of the Art: Portugal 140
% apartments as residential units
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
before 1980 1980-1990 after 1990 built in 2000
%
Figure 5 Percentage of apartments as residential units.
1.2 Description of main technologies
In Portugal the first high oven for Portland cement industrial production was installed in Al-
handra (a village near Lisbon) in 1894. Since then, the building technology slowly started to
change, taking advantage of the potentialities and versatility of the new building material, the
concrete.
However, it was only after 1930 that the great development of concrete building construction
took place. The change started in the pavements through the replacement of the wooden floors
by reinforced concrete slabs. Afterwards, reinforced concrete porticos replaced the load bearing
walls. These changes led to the building technology actually used in housing buildings in Portu-
gal (Guerra 1995).
Since 1950 the building technology in Portugal is based on a steel reinforced concrete beams
and pillars system. Although there are few exceptions to this general rule, it can be assumed that
99% of the housing buildings have the following pattern:
- Foundations: superficial pillar shoes made of reinforced concrete (depending on the soil
load capacity) (see Photo 1);
- Bearing structure: reinforced concrete porticos forming the building skeleton (see Photos 2
and 3). Steel reinforced concrete pillars (see Photos 4 and 5) and steel reinforced concrete
beams (see Photos 6 and 7) compose the resistant structure of this solution;
- Floors: reinforced concrete slabs in the southern part of Portugal and/or pre-strengthen
beams and ceramic (or concrete) molding blocks slabs in the north (see Photo 8 and 9);
- Roofs: tilted roofs and/or flat roofs (especially in the south). Usually the pendant of the
tilted roof is made of pre-strengthen beams and ceramic molding blocks slab, constituting a
non-ventilated attic (see Photos 10 and 11);
- Exterior walls: single or double leaf hollow brick walls (see Photos 10 and 11);
- Interior partition walls: single leaf hollow brick walls;
- Fenestration: after 1990 (because of the introduction of a building thermal regulation),
most of the windows have double glaze (6+12+6 mm). The glass is clear on both sides in
all the facades. Most of the windows frames are made of aluminum since the 70s (since
the middle of the 90s appeared in the market PVC windows frames). Before the 70s the
windows frames were in wood (see Photo 14);
- Shading devices: due to the intense solar radiation almost all windows are protected with
exterior roller shutters mostly made of plastic since the 70s (see Photos 15 and 16).
State of the Art: Portugal 141
Photo 1 Superficial foundations of housing
building.
Photo 2 General view of the typical housing
bearing structure.
Photo 3 Partial view of the typical housing bear-
ing structure.
Photo 4 Definition of the pillar location.
Photo 5 Mounting of the pillar moulding panels. Photo 6 Preparing the mould of a beam
State of the Art: Portugal 142
Photo 7 Steel reinforcement of a beam. Photo 8 Preparing a beam and pot slab to receive
the concrete.
Photo 9 Concreting a beam and pot slab. Photo 10 Typical tilted roofs.
Photo 11 Covering the roof slab with ceramic
tiles.
Photo 12 Double leaf hollow brick wall with in-
sulation
State of the Art: Portugal 143
1.3 Housing policy
1.3.1 Construction codes
The principal Portuguese legislation that is applicable to the housing buildings is the following:
- General Regulation for Urban Construction (RGEU) - Executive Law n 38382/51, of Au-
gust 7, and subsequent alterations (now in the process of revision);
- Technical Recommendations for Social Housing - Ministerial Order n 41/MES/85, of Feb-
ruary 14;
- Regulation on the Thermal Behaviour Characteristics of Buildings (RCCTE) - Decree-law
n 40/90, of February 6 (now in the process of revision);
- Safety Regulation against Fire in Residential Buildings (RSIEH) - Decree-law n 64/90, of
February 21; changed by Decree-law n 66/95, of April 8;
- General Regulation on Public and Building Residual Water Distribution Systems - Regu-
lated Order n 23/95, of August 23;
- Regulation on Building Acclimatisation Power Systems (RSECE) - Decree-law n 118/98,
of May 7 (now in the process of revision);
- General Regulation on Noise (RGR) - Decree-law n 292/00, of November 14;
- Regulation on Buildings Acoustic Requirements - Decree-law n 129/02, of May 11.
Photo 13 Single leaf hollow brick wall without
insulation.
Photo 14 Double glazing in an aluminium win-
dow frame.
Photo 15 Roller shutters used as shading de-
vices.
Photo 16 Balconies and roller shutters used as
shading devices.
State of the Art: Portugal 144
1.3.2 Economic aspects
In Portugal the prices of the housing rent were frozen for more than 2 decades. After the democ-
ratic revolution of April 1974, the housing rent froze was extended to the entire country, leading
to the almost total extinction of the rental market and to a significant decay of a large portion of
the housing stock. This situation ended during the 80s and led to some distortion in the housing
market. Before 1980 the total number of non-owned dwellings represented 42% of the housing
although after 1980 this percentage decayed to 21%. Figure 6 shows the property status of the
occupied dwellings, according to the INE Housing Project, Housing Inquiry 1998.
The Portuguese housing policy that kept the rental prices frozen last for over than 2 decades and
led to the lack of dwellings to rent. In that period, the people that needed a new dwelling had to
buy it. According to the IV General Housing Census (INE 2001) in 2001 the percentage of
dwelling occupied by proprietary and renters remain almost the same as it was after 1980
(Fig. 7).
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
80,0
Purchase
and
Construction
Purchase
and
Recovery
Own Home -
Other
Rented Free Grant
and Other
%
Bef ore 1980 1981 - 1990 Af ter 1990
Figure 6 Property status of the occupied dwellings (1998).
Figure 7 Percentage of dwelling occupied by proprietary and renter (2001).
According to the INE Housing Project, "Housing Inquiry 1998", the main way to achieve the
dwelling property is by the purchase, immediately followed by the construction of new homes.
Figure 8 shows the distribution of the different ways of accessing to the dwelling property.
Although the expenses with the property of the own dwelling are more than two times the ex-
penses with the rented dwelling, the Portuguese prefer to purchase their own house instead of
rent it. Figure 9 shows the average expenses with dwellings for all the Portuguese territorial
units (2001).
State of the Art: Portugal 145
Nowadays, the prices of the building construction are approaching the average European level
and the Portuguese government is trying to develop the rental housing market, in order to be
possible to renew the existing buildings and to promote peoples mobility.
The prices of dwelling construction depend on the location of the building and quality of the
construction itself. According to data supplied by the Portuguese Northern Builders Association
the construction costs per m
2
were between 430 and 460, for current housing, and between
300 and 330, for social housing.
0,7
3,6
5,4
5,4
32,9
43,6
0 10 20 30 40 50
Other
Donation
Heritage
Purchase and Recovery
Original Construction
Purchase
(%)
Figure 8 Ways of access to the property in Por-
tugal (1998).
Figure 9 Average expenses with dwellings
(2001).
1.4 Rehabilitation and maintenance cluster
In Portugal, the conservation/rehabilitation activity represents a market share of about 7% of the
total civil construction and public works sector, while in the rest of the European countries this
activity is near 35% (Bragana, 2003). Figure 10 shows the weight of building conservation and
rehabilitation activities in the construction market.
The lack of investment in building conservation and rehabilitation justifies the high degradation
level not only of the facades but also of the other building elements (Piedade, 1995). Figure 11
shows the Portuguese investment in the construction sector by types of activity.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Portugal West Europe Central Europe
Figure 10 Weight of building conservation and rehabilitation activities in the construction market
(2001).
State of the Art: Portugal 146
Figure 11 Portuguese investment in the construction sector.
It must be noticed that the data shown in Figure 10 also includes the investment in the conserva-
tion and rehabilitation activity promoted by public institutions in order to preserve the historical
patrimony. This very low investment in the conservation and rehabilitation actions is not caused
by the lack of need in this kind of works. According to data from 1996, the Portuguese housing
stock needed at that time an investment of approximately 25,000,000 in the building rehabili-
tation and maintenance areas, although in that year it has been invested only a little bit more
than 1,450,000 (Afonso, 1998 and INE 1998). Table 4 and Figure 12 also shows that the
number of housing rehabilitation interventions is reducing since 1975 and that the new construc-
tion is continuously increasing.
Table 4 Types of housing intervention (INE 1998).
Year
New
Constructions
Rehabilitation Total
N of Dwelling (%) N of Dwelling (%) N of Dwelling (%)
1975 31967 90,7 3271 9,3 35238 100
1976 30028 90,7 3073 9,3 33101 100
1977 34893 92,6 2771 7,4 37664 100
1978 34379 93,8 2262 6,2 36641 100
1979 36430 93,7 2437 6,3 38867 100
1980 38231 93,6 2631 6,4 40862 100
1981 38597 94,2 2365 5,8 40962 100
1982 39791 94,7 2211 5,3 42002 100
1983 38127 94,4 2278 5,6 40405 100
1984 41250 93,6 2834 6,4 44084 100
1985 35475 92,5 2870 7,5 38345 100
1986 37274 93,2 2708 6,8 39982 100
1987 38833 92,8 3024 7,2 41857 100
1988 45974 93,7 3098 6,3 49072 100
1989 58152 94,4 3465 5,6 61617 100
1990 62081 94,4 3655 5,6 65736 100
1991 - - - - - -
1992 52185 94,2 3200 5,8 55385 100
1993 63199 95,5 2970 4,5 66169 100
1994 59353 95,9 2536 4,1 61889 100
1995 65304 96 2695 4 67999 100
1996 65607 96,9 2133 3,1 67740 100
1997 68599 97,3 1916 2,7 70515 100
30%
23%
7%
40%
Residential Non Residential
Conservation and Rehabilitation Public Works
State of the Art: Portugal 147
In Portugal, the low activity in the conservation and rehabilitation areas can be explained by
several facts of recent history, where the old building rental policy plays the major role. This,
together with the high inflation rates occurred during the 70s and 80s, made economically un-
viable the execution of maintenance works by the owners.
According to data published in the 2001 Census, almost 33% of the Portuguese buildings, built
after 1946, require some kind of reparation. Figure 13 shows the level of the required interven-
tion. The others 67%, at that time, do not need any reparation because those buildings have been
object of more or less recent intervention by the owners in order to keep the housing units in
good conditions of habitableness.
The need of intervention in faades, including walls and windows, is slightly higher than the
need of intervention in the buildings themselves and is approximately 40% of the total buildings
built after 1946 (see Fig. 14).
The faades deterioration is closely related with the coating materials used. The results of the
2001 Census show that the most common used coating materials can be classified in 4 types:
stone, concrete, plaster and ceramic tiles. The most common is the stone (38,2%), immediately
followed by the concrete (31,6%) and the plaster (24,1%) and finally the ceramic tiles (5,8%).
Only 0,3% of the building stock havent any of these type of finishing (see Fig. 15).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997
(%)
New Constructions Rehabilitation
Figure 12 Types of housing intervention (INE
1998).
67%
21%
8%
3% 1%
No need of repairing Small reparation
Medium reparations Great reparation
Highly degraded
Figure 13 Level of required building interven-
tion in Portugal.
60%
22%
12%
4% 2%
No need of repairing Small reparation
Medium reparations Great reparation
Highly degraded
Figure 14 Needs of intervention in faades.
31,6%
5,8%
38,2%
24,1%
0,3%
Concrete Ceramic tiles Stone
Plaster Others
Figure 15 The most common used finishing
materials.
2 QUALITY OF THE HOUSING STOCK
2.1 Architectural and urban aspects
2.1.1 Aesthetic and social aspects
The architectural aspects can be divided in three main periods, marked by two important dates:
1) 1949-1974. Portugal did not participate in 2
nd
World War, so, the war period didnt have a so
huge impact on the territory as in other countries. The post-war period was characterized by a
dictatorial regime that has already been implemented in 1933. New Constitution delayed the
State of the Art: Portugal 148
come out of consumerism, differentiating Portugal, from the very beginning, from the industri-
alization and technological development that took place in other Western-European countries.
This somehow pushed Portuguese architects towards intense adaptation work. The industrializa-
tion on construction processes was rather difficult to implement. The 50s period would be
marked by an irreversible transformation of the territory and, above all, by altering the scale of
intervention. Stripped of its original content, that of a democratic architecture oriented towards
the wellbeing of its users, a skin-deep functionalism was propagated as a formal model at one
with the International Style, imposing itself in huge real-estate interventions, mainly in Lisbon.
Bairro das Estacas in Lisbon is an example of these interventions, as it is shown in Photo 17.
Portuguese Architecture from this period has a defined and centralized Style, called the Por-
tugus Suave, especially in Social and Public buildings, but with some contributions from
Modern Style, as the architects were present in the major interventions and regulations. The hil-
liness and dead of the Regime Prime Minister, Salazar, during the 60s and the Ultramarine
Wars, led Portugal to some controversy and difficult period that culminated in a Revolution in
1974. However, the 60s period was already a transitory period, where some social housing was
built, and punctual interventions were inspired on the Athens Letter.
2) 1974-1986. The revolution of 25
th
of April 1974 marked the beginning of a Democracy in
Portugal. Some housing dwelling initiatives were undertaken, especially in the two major cities,
Lisbon and Porto, where the major transformations took place, both for the best and for the
worst. In order to meet the social dwelling requirements, several medium scale urban interven-
tions were done, mainly in central areas of major cities, and some Cooperatives were created.
An example of this is the SAAL interventions in Porto, as the Bairro das guas Frreas de-
signed by the architect Siza Vieira (Photo 18) or the intervention of another architect, Pedro
Ramalho, in Guimares, as it is shown on Photo 19.
Photo 17 Bairro das Estacas in Lisbon (International
Style).
Photo 18 Bairro das guas Frreas in Porto
(Cooperative of Housing).
Photo 19 Cooperative of housing in Guimares.
In spite of the existence of some problems related with the quality of construction, with actual
consequences, the quality of the Architecture was one of the main concerns in these interven-
tions. But, in this period, private promoters also found a fertile soil for speculation and disor-
dered construction and non-regulated urban areas grown up, mainly in the suburbs of the major
State of the Art: Portugal 149
cities but also in the city centres. In most cases, Architects were not involved in this process,
and this contributed to the mischaracterization of Urban and Rural Landscapes. The constructive
aspects didnt change from the previous period, as some inertia on the introduction of new sys-
tems did not allow a significant change, and the relatively low cost of the hand labour was still a
reality that permitted the maintenance of traditional constructive systems.
3) 1986-till now. 1986 was the date when Portugal joined European Economic Community.
EEC cohesion funds gave a huge contribution to the economical and socio-cultural development
of Portugal, but, at that time, there were many problems that could have not been solved, and
some of them have even been aggravated. The consciousness that the kind of transformation
that took place after 1974, should have been carried out at an urban level, with intervention of
local authorities in order to assure a better connexion between these quarters and other parts of
the urban landscape, only took place in the middle 80s, when it was already too late. Errors that
took place in the previous period, due to the lack of urban regulation, led to some incrusted
problems that are now very difficult to undertake, namely the lack of green and leisure areas, the
creation of urban ghettos in the middle of big cities and the difficulty of absorbing all the im-
migrant population that are now continuously arriving.
In what concerns the infra-structural transport subject, European funds were mainly conducted
to improving road transports. The majority of the funds were used to build new highways. But
this strategy led to an excessive car dependency that aggravated environmental problems and
mainly cities accessibilities.
This period, after 1986, performed a significant improvement in the building sector, regarding
architectural quality. However, the interventions are always operating in a small scale, as urban
re-qualification interventions at large scale become much more difficult due to the previously
identified urban errors and also to the saturation of the housing market. In this context, some
buildings are now conceived by architects, because of an increasing demand of aesthetic and
functional quality, but only in very discrete cases. In spite of this, some problems are still occur-
ring, namely constructive problems, regarding the introduction of new materials, not yet very
well tested.
Renovation and re-qualification of existing buildings are now giving the first steps in Portugal
as construction reached the saturation point and the Population is diminishing. Improving and
creating some leisure and green areas are also a growing concern, with some City Parks re-
qualified or being created in many Cities.
2.1.2 Functional aspects
Portugal has four main differentiated soil occupancy geographical areas: littoral and interior,
North and South. North interior territory is mainly composed of dispersed housing, mainly sin-
gle-family type, with small partitions of land associated to them. On the contrary, in the interior
South, the individual family houses are surrounded by large extensions of land and the urban ar-
eas are scarce, small and concentrate. In the littoral areas, both in Southern and Northern terri-
tory, the soil costs are very high so, the housing stock is mainly composed of Multi-Dwelling
buildings concentrated in urban areas. Social problems are aggravated by the contrast between
Littoral and Interior Areas. Interior areas are becoming deserted, while Littoral Areas are over-
populated, with increasing criminality and economical and cultural contrasts. This is more evi-
dent in the North than in the South.
The lack of public transport infrastructures is only now being mended and citizens are still ex-
cessively dependant on individual transports. It has been very difficult to convince people to use
public transports since they are no more used to do it and there isnt yet a satisfactory transport
net in the territory.
Portuguese regulation on Functional aspects is enough to maintain minimum conditions of in-
habiting, in living areas, circulations and basic commodities. Projects are done regarding some
acoustic comfort conditions and some minimal thermal comfort conditions that are only possible
because of the mild climate in the majority of the Portuguese territory. Due to this low thermal
State of the Art: Portugal 150
quality of the envelopes, occurrence of condensation is one of the major concerns in Portuguese
buildings.
Another general main problem is that buildings are built not taking into account maintenance
costs. These costs become a major concern of their inhabitants after 15 or even 10 years of use,
as promoters dont take this issue seriously. Even if the promoter is the state, namely in Social
Housing, this aspect is neglected.
There is a main aspect that determines now the functional aspects of urban houses: the owner-
ship. Housing owners that inhabit their houses are free to adapt and make the changes they con-
sider necessary and, in many cases, they were even participating in their conception. In these
cases they are more concerned and involved in their maintenance and they care for their good
conditions. In central and historical urban areas and in Social Housing, where tenants pay very
small rents, owners very hardly preserve their dwellings, as they sometimes pay more of mu-
nicipal taxes than they earn on rents. Sometimes, are the tenants that make some urgent refur-
bishments, but, as they are not investing on their own property, they dont do major reconstruc-
tion works. Changing the policy of rents is now one of the major concerns of the government,
namely after some accidents that took place recently, where some buildings ruined, in some
cases even with casualties.
2.2 Structural aspects
2.2.1 Safety
Reports related to construction pathology in national buildings do not mention critical situations
about the structural behaviour. The main reason for the scarcity of accidents at this level is the
application of strong safety factors in the structural design.
The reinforced concrete bearing system is the structural solution in the majority of the buildings
built in the second half of de 20
th
century. The first regulation about the structural safety of this
structural system was published in 1967. In the structural design, beyond the static loads and the
additional effects, some dynamic loads are considered (wind and seismic).
The poor quality of the foundation works is the main source of the majority of structural prob-
lems, but fortunately there are very few registered cases. The main reason of this reality is the
tradition of not performing tests to the subsoil before the foundations design. The most applied
technique used afterwards to correct the subsoil resistance is the injection technique.
In faades and balconies, some problems could also be observed. The steel bars corrosion is a
frequent problem in the faades structural elements, what can, in a short period, compromise
the buildings structural stability. The insufficient protection of the steel bars and the fragility of
the external surfaces or coatings are the main reasons of this problem.
2.2.2 Earthquake
Portugal, mainly at the South and at the Azores islands, has seismic related problems. Since
1755, with the Great Earthquake of Lisbon, some questions related to its seismic behaviour are
considered in the design phase of buildings.
Nowadays, according the safety and loads statutory, the seismic loads are considered in the de-
sign phase, according to the seismic risk of each local.
The buildings in the mainland and Madeira Islands do not suffer considerable seismic loads
along its life span. So, there is a very small number of buildings with problems. On the contrary,
at the Azores islands the earthquakes are very frequent and, sometimes, strong. The last strong
earthquake occurred in 1998 and had great social and economical impacts in the islands of the
central group, destroying a big quantity of buildings. The majority of the buildings destroyed
had load bearing stonewalls. The rehabilitation processes of those buildings respected the origi-
nal architecture and improved its seismic behaviour.
State of the Art: Portugal 151
2.3 Physical aspects
2.3.1 Thermal insulation
The first legal document concerning the building thermal performance was published in 1990.
Its name, RCCTE (Decree-Law 40/90 from the 6th February) is the acronym for the Portuguese
name Regulamento das Caractersticas de Comportamento Trmico dos Edifcios that means
Regulation of Thermal Building Behaviour Characteristics.
This document had the general aim of promoting the general quality of the buildings and assur-
ing better hygienic and comfort conditions, especially in residential buildings. This regulation
had also the purpose of controlling the energy consumption for thermal (heating and cooling)
and visual (lighting) comfort.
This document intended to impose the improvement of the thermal quality of the buildings en-
velopes as a strategy to improve the indoor comfort without increasing the energy consumption.
To improve the buildings behaviour during winter, the reduction of the overall thermal coeffi-
cient (U) of walls and roofs was imposed through the definition of a maximum U-value. Since
that time, the use of insulation materials and double glazing in widows started to become com-
mon in building construction. The most common insulation materials used in the envelope are
the expanded polystyrene, the extruded expanded polystyrene and more recently the rock wool
and the polyurethane foam.
Besides the thermal insulation improvement, it was also promoted the use of efficient solar en-
ergy collection strategies through south oriented glazing, protected during night time by shutters
or equivalent devices that can contribute to reduce heat losses during that period.
During summer, the strategy to avoid the energy consumption was the encouragement of the use
of shading devices in all windows, mainly in the south oriented glazed areas to prevent over-
heating, and the use of cross natural ventilation strategies as a way of removing the heat gains
from the interior.
In Portugal there is also another regulation concerning the building thermal comfort. Its name is
RSECE (Decree-Law 118/98 from the 7th May), which is the acronym for the Portuguese name
Regulamento dos Sistemas Energticos de Climatizao nos Edifcios, meaning Regulation of
the Energetic Systems for Building Acclimatization. This regulation, published in 1998, is tar-
geted to buildings with significant energy consumption for heating and/or cooling. It is applica-
ble mainly in office, commercial and residential buildings where the acclimatization energetic
systems have more than 25 kW installed.
This regulation envisages mainly to avoid the exaggerated over sizing of the acclimatization
systems and therefore reducing the corresponding energy consumption. As the previous regula-
tion (RCCTE), RSECE also imposes a set of measures for rationalizing energy consumption,
like the heat recovery, the passive cooling, the energy management systems, the power fraction
of the cooling and heating equipments and its respective minimum efficiency, the good mainte-
nance practice and the liability of the designers and installers, among others.
As nearly 80% of the building stock was built before the publication of the RCCTE, therefore
without any thermal demands, its thermal performance is inadequate in almost all cases. In spite
of this reality, thermal rehabilitation is not yet a common practice. Therefore there is still a great
effort to be done in this context in Portugal in the near future.
In 2001, following Rio agreements and the necessity of reducing greenhouse gases emissions
(Kyoto protocol), but also due to the European Directive 2002/91/CE of the European Parlia-
ment and of the Council of December 16, 2002 on the energy performance of buildings, the Por-
tuguese government is revising the RCCTE regulation to improve the quality level of the build-
ings.
State of the Art: Portugal 152
The new regulation envisages the reduction of the building energy consumption in nearly 50%
and the main changes are the following:
- improve the reference thermal characteristics of the building envelope;
- double the envelope insulation thickness, in general;
- mandatory use of double glazing in the coldest zones and for the orientations without sig-
nificant solar gains;
- take into account the contribution of passive solar systems;
- take into account the energy spent for lighting purposes and the energy spent in heating the
sanitary hot water.
2.3.2 Protection against moisture
The protection of buildings against moisture is always done at three different levels: the roof,
exterior walls and elements in contact with the soil.
At the roof level, the most common protection is carried out by tilted roofs using ceramic tiles
as covering. However, in recent buildings the use of flat roofs is becoming more and more
popular. In these cases, the protection against moisture is achieved through the use of bitumi-
nous sheets.
The protection against moisture of exterior walls is usually obtained by the use of a mortar layer
with low porosity (rich cement mortar). The most common exterior wall technology is the dou-
ble wall without any contact between panes, which is an important contribute to avoid the mois-
ture penetration through the vertical envelope.
It is common the use of bituminous paints to waterproof the elements in contact with the soil
(foundations and retaining walls). To avoid rising damp through the foundation elements it is
current the use of waterproof additives in the concrete mixing.
Humidity inside buildings is one of the most frequent defaults mentioned in the Portuguese
building stock. Three main reasons can be pointed out to explain this situation. The first one is
technical and it is connected to an inappropriate design or to a faulty construction of a building
component. At the roofs, the major defaults are found in the flat roofs, mainly due to the bad
quality of waterproofing sheets and/or (mostly) due to its bad application. The most common
problems are found in the interception of these sheets with the vertical elements (chimneys and
roofs cross bands). Humidity in the envelope walls (exterior and interior surfaces) is becoming a
common problem in recent construction buildings, mainly due to the bad quality of the finish-
ings (high porosity) and to the recent architectural fashion of designing roofs without eaves. The
eaves used in the traditional Portuguese buildings are a way of protecting the exterior walls
from the rain water.
The second one is a result of the thermal improvement of the buildings envelope with the inte-
gration of insulating layers in the exterior components. This situation leads frequently, depend-
ing on the construction system, to the occurrence of thermal bridges with consequent air con-
densation on those areas. This is very common in the surfaces in contact with the structural
elements and at the windows borders. This is a frequent default in recent buildings, mostly built
after the publication of the Thermal Regulation Code (1990).
The third reason is generally due to ineffective ventilation in the rooms where moisture is pro-
duced (mainly in bathrooms and kitchens). In Portugal it is seldom the adoption of mechanical
ventilation systems. This reality worsens the air condensation at the thermal bridges and con-
tributes to the low quality of the indoor air. This anomaly is frequent in buildings built after
1990 due mainly to the adoption of low leakage windows.
2.3.3 Noise insulation
Acoustical comfort is now a very persistent problem for Portuguese people and it is the subject
of frequent complains. Buildings built before 1987 were not submitted to any sound insulation
regulation code. Between 1987 and 2000, there was an acoustic regulation code but, in general,
State of the Art: Portugal 153
it was not applied. Since 2001, a new code is in force which imposes serious requirements re-
garding the protection against sound and noise pollution.
According to the Portuguese Building Acoustics Legislation, partition elements must meet some
acoustic requirements as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16 Sound insulation levels required.
The high mass of the conventional construction systems contributes to the satisfactory sound in-
sulation of the vertical partition elements. The majority of complains is related to the horizontal
partition elements, normally between commercial areas and dwellings, due to an insufficient
airborne sound insulation level. The low impact sound insulation index observed between
dwellings is another cause for complains. Floating slabs and suspended ceilings are the most
common solutions used in the horizontal elements to solve these problems.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The existing building stock erected between 1946 and 1991 represents 61% of the entire build-
ing stock in Portugal. Therefore, there are a big number of envelopes to be improved.
The rehabilitation and maintenance will replace the new construction. Therefore more and more
interventions in the buildings and mainly at the level of the most exposed construction elements
(roofs and faades) will take place in the near future.
D
2m n w
- Airborne Sound Insulation
Index of the facade
D
n w
- Airborne Sound Insula-
tion Index of partitions
L
n w
- Impact Sound Insulation
Index
Dwelling
D
n,w
= 50 dB
Commercial area
Dwelling Dwelling
Dwelling
D
n, w
= 50 dB
L
n,w
= 60 dB
D
n, w
= 58 dB
L
n,w
= 60 dB
D
n, w
= 50 dB
Commercial area
D
n, w
= 50 dB
L
n,w
= 50 dB
D
n, w
= 58 dB
Garage
D
2m, n, w
= 30 dB
D
2m, n, w
= 30 dB
D
2m, n, w
= 33 dB
State of the Art: Portugal 154
4 REFERENCES
- Afonso, F. et al (1998). O Sector da Construo Diagnstico e Eixos de Interveno, IAPMEI,
Lisboa, Portugal.
- Bragana, Lus, et al. (2003). Anomalias Mais Comuns nas Fachadas de Edifcios do Concelho de
Guimares. Paper presented in the PATORREB 1 Encontro Nacional de Patologia e Reabilitao,
Porto, Portugal, April.
- Guerra, Franklin (1995). Histria da Engenharia em Portugal. Author Edition, Porto Portugal.
- INE 2001. INE (Instituto Nacional de Estatstica), Recenseamento Geral da Habitao Censos de
2001.
- INE 1998. INE (Instituto Nacional de Estatstica), Inqurito Habitao 1998.
- INE 1997. INE (Instituto Nacional de Estatstica), Estatsticas da Construo 1997.
- Piedade, A. (1995). Competividade Industrial e Tcnica na Construo de Edifcios, Jornada sobre
Competividade da Indstria da Construo, Lisboa, Portugal.
- Portas, Nuno & Mendes, Manuel (1992). Portugal Architecture 1965-1990. Editions du Moniteur,
Paris.
- Tostes, Ana (2001). The legacy of the verdant 1950s .pp 131-143 in 2G, International Architec-
ture Review, n 20.
Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
After the second World War many reasons caused an intense building activity: the huge destruc-
tion of most cities, the migration of people from country to town, a significant population
growth. These factors caused a great demand for dwellings, especially in the biggest cities with
industrial centers. A fundamental role for the reconstruction was developed by Public Housing
Institutes (IACP, INA-CASA, GESCAL) by the promotion of several public and half public
building interventions. By the promulgation of the law n. 43/1949, that instituted the National
Plan INA-CASA, the government promoted a building activity articulated in two periods of
seven years, financed by obligatory contributions from workers and building firms in addition to
public contributions. The main objective of the plan was to resolve housing and work problems,
involving public administrations, professionals and artisans who operated in every town. This
action, which realized more than 350.000 dwellings, constituted the most important public in-
tervention in the subsidized housing during the second post-war period.
1.1 Data related to building periods
The most part of the whole building stock in Italy has been built after World War II (Fig.1-
Tab.1). Due to the war, near 1.900.000 dwellings were destroyed and about 5.000.000 were se-
verely damaged of more than 30.000.000 which were present in Italy before the conflict. The
first act of public interventions in the house-building was the promulgation of the law n. 43
28/02/1949 that instituted the National Plan INA-CASA: by this law the government promoted
the setting up of a building society aimed to build up houses intended for the tenancy or the
lease option of the state employers. The plan was articulated in two periods of seven years,
second of which was activated with law n.1148 26/11/1955, and financed by an obligatory con-
tribution from workers and building firms, in addition to public contributions. This operation,
which realized more than 350.000 dwellings, constituted the most important public intervention
in the subsidized housing. The INA-Casa Plan was directly enacted from Law 43/49 and from
1949 to 1963 it guided a large output of plans and realizations, from isolated types to an urban
State of the Art: Italy
Roberto Di Giulio, Silvia Brunoro
University of Ferrara, Department of Architecture
Eugenio Arbizzani
University of Rome La Sapienza, Department of Architecture ITACA
ABSTRACT: This paper illustrates some aspects of the housing developments built during
50/80 which represents the main part of the Italian building heritage. The main housing build-
ing typologies and technologies diffused in Italy are described, furthermore problems related to
the multi-stored building blocks, which is the most common building type used for the housing
settlements, are analyzed.
State of the Art: Italy 156
scale with entire neighborhoods or urban centers that were independent. Public residential hous-
ing has been managed since the beginning of the twentieth century by institutions with limited
territorial importance such as the I.A.C.P. (Istituto Autonomo Case Popolari/Independent Public
Housing Agency). Between 1946-1950 a number of 216.000 dwellings was produced for a total
of 1.084.916 rooms. Between 1951 and 1976 an improvement of the building activity can be
recorded, reaching a total of 1.334.871 rooms in 1976. From 1972 to 1980 approximately
50,000 homes were produced annually, and from 1980 to 1986 the building of new residential
homes appears cut by half in comparison with the previous decade, approximately 26,000
homes having been legally produced per year.
Year Dwellings
1946 33.618
1947 27.453
1948 36.515
1949 45.675
1950 73.422
Total 216.000
Figure 1: Age of dwellings in Italy; Table 1: number of dwellings built between 1946-1950 [2]
1.2 Description of main typologies
Italian post-war building stock is characterized by the use of multi storey building blocks, that
were considered the most suitable for a multitude of needs and adaptable to every situation. The
building activity can be divided in three main periods: INA-CASA Plan, divided in two seven
year periods from 1949 to 1963, and GESCAL Plan from 1965.
First seven-year period (1949-1956)
The building stock of this period is still characterized by the use of traditional technologies.
Buildings are less extended and includes little apartments with simple schemes. The line
guides of the first INA-CASA post war production can be listed in [11]:
The definition of the minimum areas of 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 m
2
, for respectively flats with
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 available rooms;
The separation from living and sleeping area;
The use of loggias and balconies.
Building blocks are generally composed with two or three apartments for floor and contain be-
tween twenty and seventy apartments, with a medium high (from four to seven floors high).
Staircases are generally in the middle, and there is no elevator installed. The majority of these
apartments have a little kitchen open in the living - room and two bedrooms with a whole area
of 50-60 m
2
(Fig.2). Many quarters were realized with mixed typologies, with the use of ter-
raced buildings as the most suitable typology for a limited range of users (numerous families,
ancients).
State of the Art: Italy 157
Figure 2: Building block of the first seven year period. C Granda, Milan, 1955 [5]
Second seven-year period (1957-1963)
In the second seven year period began the first prefabrication era. The tentative to improve
technical and functional quality of apartments oriented the production in [2]:
The realization of fairly spacious apartments: minimum areas were fixed in 50,70,90,110
m2 for respectively flats with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 available rooms;
The separation between kitchens and living rooms;
The use of separated entrances and the enlargements of service areas (e.g. storerooms);
The realization of public activities in the ground floor instead of apartments, or the reali-
zation of apartments in the ground floor only if elevated of 60 cm.
Building blocks are more extended and have spacious apartments, generally ranging from 80 to
90 m
2
. The number of flats is higher, about 10 to 19 floors and there are elevators on every
staircase (Fig.3). This period is characterized by the large use of tower typology: high and nar-
row buildings including 1 to 5 apartments for floor, assembled in various ways as regard as the
staircase and generally 6 to 14 floors high. Tower buildings are completely free on all the sides
and it enables a near boundless view: for this reason they are generally provided with large log-
gias and balconies. In this period the typologies with few floor and low numbers of apartments
for floor, 1or 2, prevailed (Fig.4).
Figure 3: Building block of the second seven year period. Via Arno, Bologna, 1964 [5]; Figure 4: Tower
building of the second seven year period: Via Porro, Rome, 1959 [4]
1965 1980 period
From 1965 the State intervention was committed to GESCAL by means of zone - plans carried
out in several Italian cities [10]. The residential districts, built up with the partnership of the pre-
fabrication manufactures, were planned by using a different grade of intervention, in order to
achieve a building rationalization: the mean size of the buildings becomes larger, an average the
loading measurements decrease and the house typology become standard. Sizes of 64, 80, 96,
112 m
2
were stabilized, respectively for apartments formed by 2, 3, 4, 5 rooms. The use of large
State of the Art: Italy 158
panels and industrialized tridimensional modules produced the levelling and unanimity of
choice also in front of very different typologies. Quarters built in this period are generally
formed by different typologies combined, mostly building blocks with high tower buildings
used as signal (e.g. by the four sides or at the centre).
Building blocks of this period are generally very complex and extended: they are on average up
to six floors high, and contains from two to four apartments for floor. Usually there is an eleva-
tor on every staircase. Tower buildings grew in height, following the principles of the low ri
se-high density. Height ranges between eight to nineteen floors, with more than two apartments
for floor.
1.3 Description of main technologies
Up until the reconstruction planning was worked out, the appeal for industrialized technologies
and prefabricated components was rejected: the ideological justification was poor adaptability
with the Italian construction methods and the repetitiveness of the finished building products.
Therefore, in the first post-war period the use of traditional technologies prevailed. Starting
from the second half of the 60s, when new urbanization caused a frenetic growth in the request
for housing, the resorting to innovative building technologies (at that time) appeared as a forced
choice. The need to create quickly new dwellings incremented the use of industrialized methods
and technologies, based both on the use of concrete casting on site and prefabricated elements.
Industrialized building technologies needed to be imported from beyond the Alps, where im-
proving the most useful realization aspects in order to speed up construction site stages began
fairly early.
1.3.1 Structure/foundation
The main technologies, in relation to building period and typology, can be listed as follows.
Table 2: Typical technology for building period in Italy
Period Type of dwelling Technology
First seven year 1949-1956 Building blocks 4-6 floors high
Terraced buildings 1-2 floors
Load bearing masonry
Concrete frames on site
Second seven year 1957-1963 Building blocks 10-15 floors
Terraced buildings 1-2 floors
Tower buildings 6-9 floors
Complex formworks (Tunnel)
Prefabricated concrete frames
1965-1980 Building blocks 8-15 floors high
Terraced buildings 2-4 floors
Tower buildings 8-19 floors
Complex formworks (Tunnel)
Prefabricated concrete frames
Prefabricated concrete panels
Tridimensional elements
In all cases foundations are continuous column foundations or raft foundations.
Tunnel and half-tunnel
Tunnel is a re employing formwork technology, formed by a complex static system that al-
lows the realization of tridimensional structural elements by spout technology installed. The
standard elements are 125x250 cm, but larger dimensions are possible (between 280-420/400-
620 cm) because beams are telescopic. Modules, pre - assembled in building site, form a whole
reed to unite installed. For economic reasons the technology of complete tunnel, that imposes
strong constrains on the design and a careful building yard organization, was generally used for
building of more than 100 dwellings (Fig.5-6). In many cases were used halftunnel formworks:
modular elements L overturned that, joined in longitudinal and transversal sense, formed a
tunnel element deep as the whole building. This technology was applied to resolve structural
and dimensional problems with more flexibility.
State of the Art: Italy 159
Fig.5: Tunnel realization; Fig.6: Half tunnel elements [16]
Prefabricated concrete framework
This technology, generally utilized for tower buildings, is based on structural concrete frames
realized by prefabricated elements, transported and assembled on site:
Prefabricated pillars, one floor high, joined by tubular profiles, with dimension ranging
from 25x25 to 40x40 cm;
Prefabricated beams formed by a trestle frame;
Prefabricated floors Predalles formed by 4 cm of concrete with trestle frame and les-
sening layer in polystyrene;
External concrete panels and other prefabricated integrated elements (e.g. staircases).
After the connection between pillars, beams and floors, a concrete casting is realized to connect
structural elements (Fig.7). A variation is represented by the use of vertical continuous elements
and horizontal plates. Pillars are generally tree floors high and the plates, deep as the whole sur-
face included by four pillars, are connected to vertical elements by steel cables. Plates dimen-
sion ranges between 240x300 cm to 540x700 cm with a minimum thickness of 22 cm for a plate
of 420x420 cm (Fig.8).
Figure 7: Pillar/beam concrete frame: the K system; Fig.8: Pillar/plates realization [16]
Prefabricated concrete panels and tridimensional elements
These technologies had an experimental and limited diffusion in Italy during 60/70 years, im-
ported from the East Europe production, principally due to the limited possibility of design and
to the poor information and practise of the Italian building industry. The systems, suitable for
the rapidity of the assembly operations (structural panels were produced with integrated win-
dows and plants and dry - assembled), were mainly used for the realization of block and ter-
raced buildings. The standard dimensions strictly limit design of dwellings, modulated on panel
State of the Art: Italy 160
dimensions, and this is also legible in the facades (Tab.3). Tridimensional elements can be open
systems (L, T) based on the aggregation of two structural elements or closed systems based on
the aggregation of four or more plans (Tab.4).
Table 3: Principal prefabricated large panels: basic data
System Type of building Basic parameters
Single layer panels Block buildings
8-12 m high
Walls thickness = 14
cm; Module mesh
250x500 cm
Plates thickness= 21
cm; L= 250-400 cm
Storey height 270 cm
Multi layer panels Block buildings
Over 12 m high
Walls thickness = 23
cm (internal layer 12-16
cm; insulating layer 3-5
cm external layer 6-8
cm); Module mesh
200x400 cm; Plates
thickness = 15 cm; L=
360-400 cm; Storey
height 300 cm
Hollow section panels Block buildings
Over 12 m high
Walls thickness = 20-28
cm; Module mesh 20
cm (40 to 600 cm);
Plates thickness = 21
cm; Module mesh 60
cm (60 to 240 cm); Sto-
rey height 270-300 cm
Table 4: Tridimensional elements: basic data
System Type of building Basic parameters
O
P
E
N
Block, terraced, tower
buildings
Maximum 100 dwel-
lings
5-12 floor high
Modular mesh 60 cm
Width max 240 cm
thickness = 25 cm
Height 280-360 cm
Length 240 600 cm
C
L
O
S
E
D
Block and terraced
buildings
5-14 floors high
Modular mesh 30 cm
thickness = 25 cm
standard dimensions
270x270x450 cm
State of the Art: Italy 161
1.3.2 Roofs
Multi-store housing stock in Italy is realized both with flat and pitched roofs. Generally flat
roofs are used in the south of Italy, due to the rare incidence of the rain while pitched roofs are
realized in the North of the Italy. The structure is generally the same used for the floors: trestle
floor beams and hollow floor blocks or prefabricated concrete panels. Flat roofs are usually fi-
nished with two layers of asphalt paper and 4 cm of gravel. Slope roofs are finished with roof
tiles.
1.3.3 Faades
Facades are generally realized in perforated brickwork or prefabricated concrete panels. Brick
walls are single or, rarely, double layer with 4 cm air cavity. Dimensions ranges between 27
(single) to 32 (double) cm. Sometimes there is thermal insulation incorporated in the air cavity.
External and internal layer is, for the most part, plaster. Panels are single or multi layer (Tab. 3)
and finished by gray smooth concrete or white or yellow marble chips. The most common mate-
rials used for window frames are aluminum and plastic. The most part of housing stock was
built before the first petrol crisis in 1973 and the consequent law n. 373/1976, so have single
glazed window panes.
1.4 Housing policy
The Public residential housing policy has been managed both by national public agencies (INA-
CASA, GESCAL) and by regional agencies such as the I.A.C.P. (Istituto Autonomo Case Popo-
lari/Independent Public Housing Agency now Azienda Territoriale Edilizia Residen-
ziale/Territorial Residential Housing Company) with provincial jurisdiction. By analyzing the
regulation about public residential housing since the beginning of second post war period
from 1980 its possible to distinguish two main periods, characterized by different housing poli-
cy actions [2].
The immediate post - war period was characterized by Law n. 43/1949 which determined the
conditions for beginning a substantial public residential housing plan destined for the less well-
to-do classes but self-financed by the workers themselves whose motive was to revive pro-
grams which would encourage reintroduction of the jobless workforce. During this period the
main actions were:
Direct contributions by State for the construction of social housing for employers realized
by existing or created for the scope public agencies (INA CASA, GESCAL) with long
terms plans of interventions (Law n. 43/1949 and Law n. 60/1963);
Tax facilities, granting of loan or state contributions based on payment of interests to pub-
lic agencies for building activity (IACP; INCIS) or to housing associations to improve
construction and purchase of social dwellings. In this case the contribution of the State
was indirect (D.Lgs 399/7947; Law n.408/1949; Law n. 715/1950; Law n. 622/1959; Law
n. 195/1962; Law n. 218/1965; D.L. n. 1022/1965; law n.422/1968);
The building of social housing totally State - provided, for temporary events such as natu-
ral calamities: war destructions (D. Lgs n.261/1947), people who lives in insalubrious
places (Law n.640/1954), flooded people (Law n. 687/1957).
In the second period, the promulgation of Law n. 865/1971 that delegated housing management
to Regions. Social housing policy was regulated by a more organic regulations package both in
terms of planning and use of money facilities. This law provided for a unique utilization of
every funds promoted by public housing interventions: the building of dwellings for workers,
for people who lives in insalubrious and decaying dwellings; the building of dwellings for re-
gions stuck by natural calamities, of host dwellings for students, workers, immigrate, indigent
and old people. Next to the public social housing plans (regulated by the IV article of the Law)
the programs about building with agreement were promoted, to help the building activity that
couldnt be based only on direct public funding. The measures promulgated after the Law were
helpful to clarify and divide competences between different agencies (IACP, Regions, Munici-
State of the Art: Italy 162
palities, etc) and to transfer and de-centralize competences about public building interven-
tions to Regions.
Furthermore, building activity was increased by the promulgation of Law n.167/1962 (Facilities
for the purchase of building areas for public and economic housing) that allowed the purchase
of low prices areas in the surroundings of the city centre.
In the recent years, many actions concerning the refurbishment and upgrading of non tradi-
tional buildings were promoted:
The new Italian laws on Urban Refurbishment (L. 179/92, and L. 493/93: PRU Urban
Refurbishment Programs) commit to the category of Rehabilitation the bulk of the
building activity.
The Act on Contratti di quartiere (Neighborhood Contracts), D.M. 22.10.1997, which
is dedicated mainly to the regeneration of town districts heavily affected with social, eco-
nomic and physical decay, points out the paramount role of rehabilitation of the existing
housing estates, rather than that of overall renewal. The objectives of D.M. 22.10.97 fo-
cus on four general issues: Morphological Quality, Eco-systemic Quality, Use Quality,
Quality System.
2 TOPICS, QUALITY OF THE POST WAR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING STOCK
2.1 Architectural and urban aspects
Urban districts built during the second post war are the representation of the rationalist thought
of that period, based on industrial production and use of machines. Therefore, in the most cases,
technologies were imported and normally materials didnt come from the local context: the re-
sult was that residential typologies became general and undifferentiated. The principal reasons
for the negative image of the post war quarters are the size and the colours.
Normally the multi - storey family houses were built in dark colour, which gives the sensations
of pessimism. The extended dimension of the buildings, often being as big as a traditional dis-
trict, gives the image of a greatly inhomogeneous and poorly arranged stock. Uniformity and
monotony, because of the limited opportunities offered by industrialized systems, caused imper-
sonal and not individualised units. The lack of architectonic solutions couldnt give an architec-
tural identity to the various parts of the site and increase the alienating character given by the
repetitiveness and anonymity of the buildings. Another factor that influences negative impact in
terms of aesthetic quality is the decay of elements and part of the buildings, due to realization
errors or lack of maintenance.
2.1.1 Functional aspects
The use of industrialized technologies, as tunnel, forces to the use of modular dimensions and
limited the internal flexibility. Most of the units built in this period have internal spaces inade-
quate to support any modern and changed comfort requirements because of the creation of rigid
structural cells which made very difficult or even impossible to change them in case of family
evolution, change of personal needs or new technical requirements. In general, spaces are cha-
racterized by a low flexibility that makes difficult the adaptability to new user or temporary con-
figurations. Apartment area, in the most cases, ranges from 50 to 70 m
2
, so the lack of space is a
relevant problem. Especially the size of bathrooms and kitchens is insufficient and not corres-
pondent to nowadays standard.
State of the Art: Italy 163
Table 5: Exit of a questionnaire promoted by IACP about user requirements [1]
Motivation of the disease Requirement Percent %
Overcrowding lack of rooms in rela-
tion to number of inhabitants
Extension of livable space, separation be-
tween day and night zone
73,54
Lack of storerooms, service spaces Creation of wardrobes and storerooms 37,97
Single bedrooms too little Rebalancing of bedrooms (e.g. reduction of
double room)
45,11
Kitchen not livable Extension of kitchen with glass balconies 48,37
Less lighted access and corridors Creation of open spaces (e.g. union between
access and living room)
54,88
2.1.2 Accessibility
In the majority of the post-war multifamily buildings, accessibility for disabled is not guaran-
teed, because of the lack of elevators or ramps. According to Italian standards (L.13/89; D.M.
236/89) about architectonic barriers, the elevator box must be minimum 1.30x0.95 m, the space
in front of the elevator must be 1.50x1.50 m and the entrance door 0.80 m, positioned on the
short side of the box. Only in few cases the staircase is large enough to insert an elevator, consi-
dering also that its necessary to have an extra-run room and an engine room in the underground
floor or in the garret.
2.1.3 Environmental aspects
Environmental impact during the management phases of the building is in particular related to
heating systems. During the second post-war period the principle of managerial autonomy
wasnt adverted because of the disposition of low cost energy, so most of the buildings were
realized with central heating, and a lot of people are served by a unique power station. This is
cause of:
Low security of the most part of the systems that wasnt constructed according to law;
Low thermal efficiency that means maximum consumption and maximum pollution emis-
sions in atmosphere;
Thermal discomfort for the residents.
2.2 Social and cultural aspects
2.2.1 Urban/neighbourhood/planning/facilities
In the most important cities the policy of the self sufficient districts was carried out [13].
By analyzing the new INA CASA interventions, its possible to identify two lines of town
planning scheme: the first one linked to the experiences of the European functionalism and the
second one prompted by the Scandinavian and Anglo Saxon realizations. The quarters built
under the influence of the rationalistic movement are characterized by some typical elements:
orthogonal lay outs, plan volumes and flat facades (Fig.9). The planning rules according to the
Scandinavian and Anglo Saxon models generally take into consideration various forms, redis-
covering architectural elements and styles peculiar to the Italian historical small towns. For ex-
ample S.Giuliano quarter in Mestre was planned with low house centres which form small
squares, following the minor Venetian style (Fig.10).
Fig. 9: Tuscolan residential district in Rome; Fig.10: S.Giuliano residential district in Mestre, Venice [2]
State of the Art: Italy 164
The difficulty of finding, during the expansion phases, cheap areas in the proximity of the urban center
forced INA CASA to realize the intervention in suburban areas lacking of urban services. Consequently a
policy of settlement that justified the realization of a new urbanization was elaborated. That means the
realization of self sufficient areas gifted of services and collective facilities that permitted the develop-
ment of social, cultural and commercial activities, that limited the density of dwellers at 500 for ha, with
various and articulated composition, able to create comfortable rooms [12]. In the reality, life of the dis-
tricts was quite different from planning intention: most of them grew with negative characteristics that
compromised the correct development. In first place, they were too far from the center of the city and
from first suburb services. This caused discomfort and marginalization for the residents and considerable
costs for planning operation that caused building speculation, favored by the raising of prices of next
areas. Furthermore most of collective facilities, that represented the indispensable condition to the self
sufficiency, werent realized.
2.2.2 Social anonymity/lack of identity/ownership
City planning performed in that period was mostly characterized by empiric and random choices
linked to the necessary solutions of incidental problems. In many cases these solution conse-
quently caused an exponential growth of the decay factors: urban districts built during this pe-
riod are normally unable to offer forms of sociality and communal life, due to the degradation of
the communal spaces. The new city suburbs are not evidence of human and social values shared
by people, but only the effect of profiteering: therefore they are elements of deep disagreement
in the social community. One of the most problem was the minimum attention to social and cul-
tural background of people and to their tradition. An example of cultural distance from local
tradition was the realization in many buildings in the South - Centre of Italy - where streets and
open squares are the traditional places for socialization and community life - of a middle plan
destined to collective activities. These areas become unused, degraded and empty. Lack of ser-
vices and of urban standards encourages micro criminality and alienation character given by the
repetitiveness and anonymity of the buildings. The social disadvantages of the multi - storey
family houses are also connected with the feeling of communion where high buildings have li-
mitations: people are many and it is difficult to know them, spaces of aggregation are lacking,
and it is difficult for the parents to control the children playing outside. This favored juvenile
delinquency and micro criminality.
Table 6: List of Principal problems related to urban districts built between 70/80 in Italy - comparison
between year 2000-1997 [7]
2000 List position
(1 to 15)
1997 List position
(1 to 15)
Juvenile delinquency 37,1 1 24,8 4
Unemployment 36,4 2 46,6 1
Urban traffic 27,3 3 25,1 3
Drug 24,8 4 26,7 2
Immigration 21,9 5 15,9 8
Lack of social sanitary services 21,4 6 21,2 5
Lack of structures for sports and leisure 19,5 7 19,1 6
Public administration inefficiency 16,9 8 16,3 7
Pollution 13,9 9 14,8 9
Lack of formative structures 10,4 10 14,2 10
Suburbs degradation 9,4 11 7,5 13
Lack of infrastructures 8,3 12 6,6 11
Micro criminality 7,4 13 8,7 12
2.2.3 Social structure of neighbourhood/building
By the end of the 60 the massive building activity caused the formation of big popular ghetto
quarters for the most part occupied by immigrants and old people. Socio demographic charac-
teristics of the residents configure a significant area of social discomfort. The most common
State of the Art: Italy 165
family unit is formed by singles, young couples and hybrid families with new partners com-
posed by 4 or 5 members. Singles are mostly old people (medium age 69,94 years) who lives in
solitude condition [1-14].
Table 7: Structure of inhabitants in IACP buildings [1]
Number of components %
Family
composition
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 mor
e
tot
Single 52,19 52,19
Couple 12,91 12,91
Complete
family
5,02 3,2 2,24 10,46
Incomplete
family
5,80 3,35 0,97 0,45 0,17 0,06 10,80
Extended
family
1,65 4,62 4,59 1,65 0,85 0,23 0,06 13,65
total 100,0
Significant indicators about discomfort of families are work and income. The prevalent figure is
on pension, then a low percent of occupied people, in the category of worker, ranging from 33-
34% to 37%. Another diffused condition is worker on ones own, that in the most cases means
work off the books. About income 61% of family composed by head of the family over 65 years
is included in the sector ranged from 65.000 to 75.000 Euro, that shows the relationship be-
tween low income and old families. The image of this headquarters is of a massive concentra-
tion and segregation of poor social groups or high risked of poverty, that goes to old people to
adolescent and numerous family: for example 33% of people who turns to people in difficulty
office lives in IACP houses.
2.3 Structural aspects
2.3.1 Safety/Earthquakes
There are no serious structural problems noticed in Italian post war apartment stock.
About earthquakes, Italy presents a large seismic area defined in three zones. All the multi-
storey building stock built before 1974 dont care about seismic regulations (L. 64 2/02/1974,
D.M. 16/01/1996, Circ. 10/04/1997). Therefore, framework concrete structures and complex
formworks dont represent a problem: the height of the buildings is not restricted, the technolo-
gy is monolithic and represents a solid framework that can work in seismic zones. Problems are
relevant for large panels buildings (maximum height is fixed in m. 32, 25 and 16 depending on
thickness) and in the distance between buildings in relation to streets dimension that, in most
cases, are too narrow.
2.4 Physical aspects
Building sector account for the most energy loss waste on earth, owing to the low thermal insu-
lation level of the envelopes, high thermal dispersions and minimum exploitation of the climatic
resources [8].
2.4.1 Thermal insulation
In the last years the regulation about thermal insulation and comfort in working and living units
has become more restrictive, due to the intervention of the Energy saving law (originally
L.373 30/04/1976 then L.10 9/01/1991, and DM 27/07/2005). The D.P.R. 26/08/1993 defines
six Italian climatic zones, based on categories of degree-days and the recent decree 192
18/08/05 Energy efficiency of buildings defines the energetic requirements for a building
State of the Art: Italy 166
(W/m
2
year) in relation to the different climatic areas, expressed in function of the S/V value (V
= volume of the heated building defined by his external surfaces - m
3
; S = external surface that
defines volume V - m
2
) (Tab 8).
Table 8: Energetic requirements of a building in winter season according to the Decree 192/05
A B C D E F
Degree-day <600 >600<900 >900<1400 >1400<2100 >2100<3000 >3000
S/V Energetic requirements (kW/m
2
year)
_ 0.2 10 10 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 40 40 - 55 55
_ 0.9 45 45 60 60- 85 85 - 110 110 - 145 145
According to this decree, standard transmission values (U value) for opaque faades and win-
dows are fixed (Tab.9). These values will be more restrictive since 2009.
Table 9: Standard U values for faades and windows according to the Decree 192/05
Climatic Zone Opaque Faades Windows
U (W/m
2
K)
Since 1/01/2006
U (W/m
2
K)
Since 1/01/2009
U (W/m
2
K)
Since 1/01/2006
U (W/m
2
K)
Since 1/01/2009
A 0,85 0,72 5,5 5,0
B 0,64 0,54 4 3,6
C 0,57 0,46 3,3 3,0
D 0,50 0,40 3,1 2,8
E 0,46 0,37 2,8 2,5
F 0,44 0,35 2,4 2,2
The housing stock built in the second post war period generally doesnt respect insulating
standard values. For perforated brick or concrete panels facades, global thermal transmittance
(U value) ranges between 0.6 and 1.5 W/m2 K. Windows are in the most cases single layer,
and sometimes the parts under the windows are thinner. Building deterioration increase negative
consequences both in terms of the health of the residents and greater wasting of energy.
Table 10: Thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value) of most typical post war building facades
Facades Thickness (cm) U value
(W/m2 K)
Single layer perforated brick wall with plaster 27 1,5
Double layer perforated brick wall with air cavity (14/4/8).
External and internal layer: plaster
28 1,1
Double layer wall: brickwork, air cavity, perforated bricks.
External and internal layer: plaster
32 1
Single layer concrete panel 20 0.8
Multi layer, concrete panels as sandwich 25 0.6
2.4.2 Protection against moisture
Protection against moisture is a big issue in Italy. Humidity inside buildings is one of the most
relevant phenomenon in multi housing stock. Humidity in the exterior and interior surfaces of
the walls is a common problem in recent construction buildings, mainly due to the bad quality
of the finishing and to the ineffective ventilation in the rooms where moisture is produced
(mainly in bathrooms and kitchens).
State of the Art: Italy 167
The most causes of decay are related to:
The horizontal penetrability of single layer faades caused by rain, fog, snow;
The breaking of waterproofing layers;
The difficulty of removal of rainwater (due to the absence of drips or covers)
The condensation due to thermal bridges.
These factors, are the principal responsible of different states of decay:
The crumbling of plaster because of infiltration of humidity that causes swellings;
The attack of biologic moulds that creates micro organism patinas;
The phenomenon of efflorescence due to the presence of salt in bricks;
In the case of concrete panels, the breaking of final layer and corrosion of reinforcing
steel bars;
The removal of the cladding elements;
The corrosion and malfunction of wood and steel window frames.
Crumbling of plaster Attack of biologic moulds Efflorescence
Steel bars corrosion Removal of cladding Corrosion of window frames
Figure 11: Most common states of decay
2.4.3 Noise insulation
The Italian set of rules about noise insulation is regulated by L.447/1995 and DPCM 5/12/1997
n.297 that defines noise standards for building and their elements in decibel degrees (Db).
Table 11: Noise insulation standards for residential buildings according to DPCM 297/97
Description Value (Db)
RW Soundproof power index for walls between two rooms, to calculate ac-
cording to UNI regulation 8270 (1987 part 7, chapter 5.1). R is defined by
EN ISO 140-5 (1996)
50
D2m,nT,W Standardized noise insulation index for facades to calculate as Rw 40
Ln,W Tread noise index, to calculate according to UNI regulation 8270 (1987
part 7, chapter 5.2). Ln is defined by EN ISO 1406 (1996)
63
LASmax Maximum level of sound pressure considered A with slow time - constant 35
LAeq Continuum equivalent value of sound pressure, considered A 35
State of the Art: Italy 168
In the most part of post war building stock noise insulation is definitely not up to standard.
The lack of acoustic quality is mainly related to:
Structure and materials of the building;
Assembly defects of the components;
Installations and plants, considering that the sound emits from plants has to be contained
between 3 Db for bedrooms and 5 Db for other rooms during the day (6-22) and 3 Db
during the night.
The most problem is represented by noise throughout floors and internal walls because of the
minimum thickness of the elements. In the most cases, the interventions for the improvement of
the soundproof power like double ceilings or floor insulation are difficult to achieve, due to the
minimal high of the rooms, generally 2,4 meters. The external walls also show insufficient
acoustic insulation: they are in the most cases thin (e.g. the standard of 40 Db would be obtained
with massive walls with a thickness of more than 25 cm) and especially careful in windows and
parapets. In particular, the rigidness of prefabricated concrete systems (panels, modules) in-
creases acoustic conductivity between the elements of the structure.
2.4.4 Daylight/sun and Air Quality
The building policy during the second post war involved the occupation of any available land
and the consequent overcrowding. For this reason in many cases there arent the conditions for a
correct day - lighting. Buildings are generally too much close, so people living in the lower level
get very little sun and fresh air comparing to those living in higher floors. Rooms are too deep,
especially in tower buildings with more than 2 or 3 apartments for floor, so the light permeabili-
ty in internal areas is very difficult. Another problem is represented by the absence of solar
shading systems that, mostly in South of Italy buildings, causes summer overheating.
The most part of the dwellings have a bad inner climate, and the people living in them are re-
ported to be not healthy. Principal reasons are the distance between buildings and the depth of
the rooms. Many studies have demonstrated that the best results for internal ventilation are
reached when the distance between buildings is more than 2.4 times the height of the building
and this is less respected. Moreover, the change of air is fixed in 0.25V/h for each type of build-
ing by DM 27/05/05. In many cases the relation between windows and room area is not res-
pected (windows area _ 1/8 floor area) and sometimes rooms are too deep in relation to modern
standards (room length _ 2,5 window height). Lack of sun and fresh air and overheating of the
houses causes what is called sick building syndrome. The pollution of the inside climate of
the house, causes diseases like asthma, allergy and headache.
REFERENCES
[1] AA.VV., 1992, Trasformazioni sociali e demografiche e nuove esigenze abitative, IACP Emilia
Romagna, Franco Angeli, Milano
[2] Acocella A., 1980, Ledilizia residenziale pubblica in Italia dal 1945 ad oggi, CEDAM, Padova
[3] Cambi E., 1980, Di Cristina B., Steiner G., Tipologie residenziali a schiera, BeMa, Milano
[4] Cambi E., Gobbi G., Steiner G., 1981, Tipologie residenziali a torre, BeMa, Milano
[5] Cambi E., Di Sivo M., Steiner G., 1984, Tipologie residenziali in linea, BeMa, Milano
[6] Cerasi M.,Ferraresi G., 1974, La residenza operaia a Milano, Roma, Officina
[7] Censis, Fondazione Bnc, 2000
[8] ENEA, Energy Environment Report, 2001
[9] Giovanna Franco, 2003, Riqualificare ledilizia contemporanea, Franco Angeli, Milano
[10] GESCAL, 1964, Norme tecniche di esecuzione delle costruzioni con speciale riferimento alla
progettazione, Roma,
[11] INA CASA, 1949, Suggerimenti, norme e schemi per lelaborazione e presentazione dei progetti,
Roma,
[12] INA CASA, 1952, Suggerimenti, esempi e norme per la progettazione urbanistica, Roma
[13] Libera A., 1952, La scala del quartiere residenziale, in: Esperienze urbanistiche in Italia, Roma,
INU, , pp.130-147
[14] Mingione, Zajczyc, 1992, Le nuove povert urbane in Italia: modelli a rischio nellarea
metropolitana milanese, Milano
[15] Pierini R., 2001, La citt distante: piani e progetti di edilizia residenziale pubblica, ETS, Pisa
[16] Zaffagnini M., 1981, Progettare nel processo edilizio, Ed. Parma, Bologna
Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
Due to the historical and political environment, the building activity in Greece is gradually
increasing from the beginning of the 20
th
century until the 1970s. After 1922 Greece had to
accommodate many repatriates, who left Turkey after World War I. Later on, political unrest
and civil strife that followed World War II hampered the development of reconstruction in the
fifties.
Unlike the western European countries, governmental housing programmes in Greece were
limited during that time both in number and in scale. These programmes were only directed
toward particular areas, such as reconstruction in upcountry regions, which suffered heavily in
the civil war, reconstruction of islands shattered by the disastrous earthquakes of that decade
and construction of a few housing projects for refugees and workers. As a result, the housing
problem passed into the hands of private businessmen, first in Athens and then in other cities.
These entrepreneurs, working with little capital and with the system of floor ownership and
contracession deals - land acquired from the owner in exchange for one or more apartments in
the finished building - began reconstruction in the central districts of Athens and later in the
outlying districts and provinces.
The wave of migration to the cities, the growth of industry, the tendency to imitate foreign
patterns, the discovery of a source of profitable occupation for a large number of engineers and
contractors, combined with a rapid rise in urban land values, a preference by the public for
apartments as an investment and the social status conferred by ownership created an
unprecedented boom in the building industry, which continued until the mid sixties [8].
As a result, many buildings were demolished in the centre of the cities and were replaced by
multi-storey buildings, the construction of which was often governed by the achievement of the
highest possible exploitation of the building provisions and the maximisation of the profit for
the construction parties.
State of the Art: Greece
Lambis Baniotopoulos, Dimitris Bikas, Katerina Tsikaloudaki, Kostas Chatzinikos
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Ted Stathopoulos
Dept. of Civil Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki & CBS, Concordia University, Montreal
ABSTRACT: This document provides information regarding the state of the art of the building
construction in Greece. At first, the overview of the building stock is presented, including
detailed analysis about the evolution of building construction, as well as statistical data and the
government housing policies. Special attention is given to buildings erected during the period
1950-1980 with reference to their typology, technology and pathology.
State of the Art: Greece 170
1.1 Data related to building period
The present illustration of the countrys evolution in the sectors of building construction during
the last century is shown in Figure 1 [3]. As Figure 1 demonstrates, more than 50% of the
building stock was erected during the period 1946-1980 and under the particular provisions of
law, meaning that their age ranges between 25-60 years. A decreasing trend of the building
activity is evident after 1980, which is attributed to the crisis in Greek and international
economy, as well as to the decline of intense urbanization.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
b
e
f
o
r
e
1
9
1
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1
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-
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a
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e
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3
Chronology
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
Building stock
Urban areas
Rural areas
Figure 1. The building stock of urban and rural areas of Greece according to the period of erection.
only ground f loor
57%
2 storey-buildings
30%
>7 floors
1%
4-6 storey
buildings
5%
3 storey buildings
7%
Figure 2. Number of floors for the building stock in Greece.
77,0%
1,7%
4,6%
2,2%
0 1.000 2.000 3.000
Residence
Public
Tertiary
sector
Other uses
x10
3
Number of buildings
Main use
of buildings
with single
use
76,5%
1,0%
13,2%
9,4%
0 100 200 300 400
Residence
Public
Tertiary
sector
Other use
x10
3
Number of buildings
Main use
of buildings
with mixed
use
Figure 3. Main use of buildings designed for single and mixed use.
State of the Art: Greece 171
The effect of urbanization on building construction activity is also presented in Figure 1. In
urban areas the construction activity reached its maximum during the period 1961-1980, while
for rural areas the erection of new buildings started to decline after 1960; previously, the rural
areas were developed and reconstructed after the wars.
The vast majority of the constructions (90%) are designed for specific uses, while multi-use
buildings account for only 10%. Figure 2 indicates the distribution of the number of floors
appearing in the building stock of Greece. Although more than half of the buildings appear to
consist of only ground floor, it must be mentioned that one- or two-storey buildings are more
common in rural areas or have special uses (i.e. factories, schools, etc). In urban areas the
majority of the contemporary constructions have 3-5 floors above the ground floor.
The distribution of the categories of main use in single- and multi-use buildings is presented in
Figure 3. Most of the single and multi use buildings (77.0% and 76.5% respectively) refer to
constructions built for residential purposes. The tertiary sector (offices, hotels, factories)
occupies the 4.6% of single use buildings and the 13.2% of multi-use constructions. The
proportion of buildings with public use (hospitals, churches, educational buildings) is lower for
both single- and multi-use buildings (1.7% and 1.0% respectively).
1.2 Description of main typologies
In Greece most of the factors determining the main characteristics and, consequently, the typical
forms of the buildings, usually show no signs of change with time. Specifically in the urban
environment this persistence is particularly pronounced and clearly visible. As a result, urban
buildings and specifically urban residential buildings display a characteristic uniformity relative
to the decade of their erection throughout the country. However, certain changes in legislation
and technology are the main factors of differentiation between the typical buildings of each of
these decades.
In Greece, almost all urban residential buildings erected between 1950-1980 take the form of
multi-storey apartment buildings (Figs 4-6). The great majority of these buildings consist of a
ground floor and usually three to five floors above it. The floor-to-floor height is approximately
equal to 3.0m, which results to a net height of each floor between 2.7m and 2.8m. For the
communication of the floors a central stairwell, consisting of an elevator and a staircase, is used.
A typical apartment building has a basement, which houses the boiler-room for the central
heating system and separate storage areas for the apartments. On the ground floor lie the main
-
Figure 4. Typical plans of apartment buildings constructed in 60s and 70s.
State of the Art: Greece 172
entrance and either an open-sided parking area for the residents (pilotis) or shops. More rarely,
there are apartments on the ground floor, usually positioned higher from the ground level.
An analysis of building statistics for the period 19912002 shows that the average volume of
private buildings in Greek towns is in the order of 1500m
3
[3]. This volume accounts for about
120200m
2
per floor. On each floor there are usually one to four apartments with net floor areas
ranging between 40m
2
and 100m
2
. These apartments, depending on their size, contain 1 to 3
bedrooms of approximately 10m
2
each, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom/WC.
An essential feature of all residential buildings in Greece is the balcony. Every apartment above
ground level has at least one balcony in the form of a projection. Specifically, apartments with a
larger number of balconies, or even buildings where continuous balconies occupy most of the
external surface areas, are much easier to find. Balconies vary in width from a minimum of
0.5m to almost 2.5 m.
Figure 5. Apartment building in Athens, erected in 1954-1960 [8].
Figure 6. Residential complex of luxurious apartments built in Athens in 1973-1975 [7].
1.3 Description of main technologies
In general, the building construction techniques depend upon a group of factors, which are
either geographical (climate, earthquake behaviour of the site, availability of raw materials or
traditional practices) or are imposed by building regulations and developments in the
technological sector.
State of the Art: Greece 173
Stone masonry was used widely at the beginning of the century, but its use declined after 1919,
when the use of bricks for the construction of bearing walls started to expand, due to the
development of the clay industry. The emergence of concrete (at the end of 1920) changed the
scene: the use of reinforcement concrete became very wide, mostly for urban areas. The main
materials used for the bearing structure of the building stock during different construction
periods are presented in Figure 7. Nowadays, 67% of the building stock in the urban areas is
built with reinforced concrete (Fig. 8).
1.3.1 Structure/opaque elements
The bearing structure of the majority of the building stock consists of slabs, beams, pillars and
foundations, all made of concrete. The construction is carried out on site with ready-mixed
concrete produced by special units and transported to the building sites in special concrete
mixers.
Greece is one of the most seismically active countries in Europe, accounting for more than half
of the continents seismic energy release. It has been hit by many destructive earthquakes
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
b
e
f
o
r
e
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Chronology
N
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b
e
r
o
f
b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
reinforced concrete
wood
brick masonry
stone masonry
Figure 7. The building stock of Greece according to the main material of its bearing
structure and the period of erection.
URBAN AREAS
wood
1%
brick
masonry
21%
stone
masonry
11%
reinf orced
concrete
67%
RURAL AREAS
wood
0%
brick
masonry
35%
reinf orced
concrete
31%
stone
masonry
34%
Figure 8. The building stock of Greece in urban and rural areas according to the main material of its
bearing structure.
State of the Art: Greece 174
throughout the centuries and, consequently, the structure and the form of the buildings are
significantly influenced. During the last two decades, the Greek Seismic Code has been revised
extensively twice, after strong seismic events, namely the Thessaloniki earthquake in 1978 and
the Athens earthquake in 1999. Researchers and engineers have currently in their disposal more
data, tools and techniques for the study of the structural response of buildings under seismic
events and those parameters such as soil conditions, types of foundation, etc. that usually affect
the buildings performance significantly. This knowledge has been taken into account for the
revision of the Seismic Code and led to the imposition of new stricter requirements and more
reliable design practice regarding the structural assessment of reinforced concrete and steel
structures in earthquake-prone zones, as are almost all Greek territories. Moreover,
improvements of the construction materials set higher requirements concerning the quality and
durability of any structure.
The aforementioned recent evolutions and the updated design criteria necessitate the
enhancement of the structural performance under seismic excitation of those buildings that were
erected during the period 1950-1980 or even earlier. These buildings or perhaps their majority,
do not comply with the recent requirements of seismic performance. From an economics point
of view, it would not be a good practice to initiate strengthening all these buildings in order to
comply with the provisions of the recent editions of Structural Codes. However, it has been
decided recently that it would be really essential to reinforce constructions of high societal
interest, such as schools, hospitals and other public buildings.
This latter rehabilitation activity has already started in all major Greek cities for such public-
interest constructions through pilot projects on selected schools. The structural capacity of these
buildings is analysed by means of appropriately chosen software. After evaluation of the
analysis results with respect to compliance with the Codes, a variety of rehabilitation techniques
and interventions, such as adding steel X-bracing, concrete reinforcing mesh and others, may be
applied. Consequently, buildings designed according to a rather low level code environment are
now rehabilitated with reference to the most updated code provisions, so that they can exhibit a
better structural response, mainly with respect to integrity and serviceability, during an event of
exceptional loading (windstorm, earthquake etc.).
Both interior and exterior walls are almost always constructed with bricks. Reinforced concrete
and bricks are produced from local resources. Manufacturing units supplying ready-made
concrete and bricks lie scattered throughout the country and cover local needs. Most of the other
building materials and elements which are required in different parts of the structures, are also
produced by domestic manufacturers from native raw materials, while special and luxury
materials are usually imported. The walls between the concrete frames are constructed with
brick masonry, plastered on both sides. Exterior walls and the walls between adjacent
apartments are generally constructed as double brickworks (Table 1). The interior walls within
apartments are constructed in a single row of bricks 9 cm thick.
Apart from the changes in the Seismic Code, a regulation for thermal insulation was introduced
in 1979, in order to serve as a basic tool for establishing energy and environmental
considerations into building construction in Greece. According to this Code, the country is
divided into three climatic zones and for each zone a maximum average heat transmission rate is
provided, ranging from 0.616 to 1.553 W/m
2
K, in relation to the ratio between the volume and
the envelope surface area of each building. The implementation of the new regulation has
changed the way of construction for external building elements (pillars, beams, roof, floors),
since thermal insulation is required (Table 1). The thermal insulation is usually positioned on
the exterior side of bearing elements made of concrete, while core insulation is typically used
for double brick-walls. In order to fulfil the criteria of the regulations, double-glazing is required
for windows and balcony doors. Floors above ground, non-heated basements or open-sided
open areas should also be insulated. The most common materials used for thermal insulation are
extruded polystyrene and glass wool.
1.3.2 Roofs
The roofs of apartment buildings are usually flat; they are also communal and accessible from
the central staircase. This is where the room housing the elevator machinery is located, as well
as TV aerial installations, solar water heaters, water tanks, chimneys, etc. Flat roofs are usually
State of the Art: Greece 175
finished with cement tiles, while most of the constructions built before the regulation for
thermal insulation lack thermal and moisture protection.
Rarely, in areas with more adverse climatic conditions, apartment buildings may be found with
inclined roofs, usually resting on sloping concrete slabs. Pitched roofs are usually finished with
ceramic tiles.
1.3.3 Internal finishes
Prior to 1980, the most widely used material for internal floors used to be terrazzo. In more
luxurious constructions, wood was used for bedrooms, and either wood (in the form of
parquet flooring) or marble for the living room. Terrazzo was also used for balcony floors.
Since the 1970s, however, this material has ceased to be used and it has been replaced mainly
by ceramic tiles. Even so, wooden floor boarding continues to compete with tiles in bedrooms,
while marble continues to dominate in living rooms.
Interior doors are usually made of wood.
1.3.4 Facades
The external surfaces of the buildings are usually simply plastered and painted with emulsion
paints. Light colours are more common, usually ochre, blue, beige, orange or green. More
rarely, some sections of faades are covered with ceramic tiles (usually in the shape of bricks),
natural stone or, in luxurious buildings, marble.
Exterior doors (balcony doors) and windows are usually two-leaved and single glazed. Initially,
the frames were made of wood, but aluminium started replacing it after the 1970s. However, at
that time aluminium frames were made by small firms, which could guarantee neither quality of
construction nor acceptable standards of performance. Wooden frames contained shutters of the
French type, while aluminium frames contained either external synthetic sliding panels or blinds
with synthetic slats that could be rolled up.
Table 1. Construction details for various structural elements appearing in buildings erected before and
after 1980. It must be mentioned that after 1980 buildings are erected in accordance to the Thermal
Insulation and the New Seismic Code.
Before 1980 After 1980
State of the Art: Greece 176
1.4 Housing policy
The responsibility for housing construction in Greece is almost totally relegated to the private
sector. Public housing accounts for barely 2% of the total volume of housing units produced
after the war. During this period several government agencies were created with the purpose to
correct the fact that the production of the private sector was unable to cover the needs of the
lower income bracket of the population.
The Workers Housing Organization (OEK) has been the only one of these agencies with a fair
record in creating housing projects in large urban centres, as well as in most of medium and
small towns across the country. Several of the projects built in the 50s and 60s seem to be
poorly located within the urban context; land scarcity has been the main reason. Many of these
areas are frequently surrounded by incompatible land uses and in many cases far from social
infrastructural services. Their small size, on the other hand, seldom allowed the creation of local
services. In an effort to reorient itself towards a new model of development at the end of the
80s, OEK adopted land use standards providing social infrastructure facilities within every
large project and developed housing standards which are at least competitive if not higher than
those offered by the private sector for middle income housing (Figs 9-11).
Two representative types of public housing projects are mentioned below:
The Menidi I, in Attiki (Fig. 11): housing development, design 1983, construction
1985-88, plot area 505,000m
2
, coverage 11%, building coefficient 0.25. The settlement
comprises of a total of 974 units in two-storey single- or two-family houses and three-
storey block of flats. A network of pedestrian streets and open spaces links the
settlements neighbourhoods with each other, as well as to the central facilities, schools
and playgrounds.
Figure 9. The housing development project in Menidi, built in 1985-1988 [1].
State of the Art: Greece 177
The Solar Village 3, in Pefki, Attiki (architects: A. Tompazis and Associates): Built for
435 families, the settlement is organized in neighbourhoods with a network of
pedestrian streets leading to the village centre (Fig. 10): The larger residential units of
100m
2
have been assembled in two-storey row houses, while the 80m
2
and 60m
2
units
have been arranged in blocks of flats, from two- to six- storeys high. In total 34
residences, grouped in one three-storey and three two-storey buildings, were designed
to be heated solely with passive solar systems.
Similar activities of housing projects have been undertaken by banking organizations, as for
example the Komotini project (Fig. 11).
Figure 10. Axonometric drawing, plan and sections of the Solar Village in Pefki, Attiki [1].
Figure 11. Plan and view of a housing project in Komotini, built in 1978-1983 [6].
2 TOPICS, QUALITY OF THE POST-WAR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING STOCK
2.1 Architectural aspects
The building activity in Greece developed spontaneously during the first half of the 1950s. At
that time, urbanization was excessive, unchecked and was accompanied neither by a parallel
planned expansion of the infrastructure nor by the industrialisation and rationalisation of
building components. Considering the above situation, it is not surprising that the freshness of
approach and humanistic attitudes of the post-war reconstruction projects of other European
countries can not be found in Greece. Instead, a decline in the overall quality of the built
environment in spite of a considerable improvement in the quality of the individual buildings
was present. The most conscious designs of this period are carried out by conservative architects
educated before the war. They provide technically successful solutions, but seen as cultural
State of the Art: Greece 178
statements, the buildings appear to have no content. They aimed at satisfying a small group of
entrepreneurs or industrialists and a handful of professionals who succeeded not only in
surviving the crisis, but also in coming out of it with some profit. Details of the past were
dismembered, dislocated and deformed [2].
New architectural ideas were not easy to be introduced in Greece at this time. The generation of
the 1920s with few exceptions is too conservative in its background to understand the problems
and attempt such a leap. The generation of the 1930s attempts, in the framework of the social,
political and cultural radicalism of their time, to create important avant-garde work. The
generation of the 1940s, students during this period of confusion in institutions deeply damaged
by the repression of the times, involve themselves in political activities. A decade after the end
of the civil war, the institutional innovations in the field of architecture are limited. The
government planning still mostly channels building opportunities into the private residential
domain. This leaves hardly any chances for the public sector to develop either interesting
schemes for tourist facilities or for social housing, educational projects or government offices.
Despite all difficulties, the new needs and aspirations slowly find their expression in
architecture through two movements: the functional-rationalism and the critical-regionalism [2].
Functionalism-rationalism tries to create icons, which express the aspirations of Greece to
overcome the misery of prejudice and privilege through objective science and progressive
technology. It employs the elements of post and beam structure organised in either a rectilinear
prismatic or grid pattern. Critical-regionalism on the other hand tries to express the ideal of
community and independence censoring the libertarian materialist attitude of the past-war era
and the mentality of dependence. Main characteristics are the geometrical and topological
devices found in the organisation of passages and places of Greek vernacular architecture,
colour and material also cited from the Greek vernacular, as well as the rectilinear prismatic grid
pattern [2].
The generation of the 1950s turned their attention to the rehabilitation of the apartment house of
its recent past. A new conception of the facades emerges in these apartments. The concrete
prism and grid pattern are dominant. At the same time, a generous continuous balcony space is
projected between the front wall and the street [2].
As in most other cultural activities, the period of 1967-1974 dictatorship produced very little in
the way of architecture. The younger generation had opportunities to build, but the architectural
statements were few and mostly indifferent [2].
Nevertheless, the mass of buildings, the changes in building construction, the introduction of a
large number of functionally sophisticated buildings, the emergence of coherent stylistic trends
and the international awareness of architecture are indeed achievements of the post-war period
[2].
It must be mentioned, however, that many problems still remain unsolved. The integration of
post-war buildings with their environment is their weakest point, with some exceptions. The
urban infrastructure is underdeveloped, while the largest number of the inhabitants live and
work in areas, where unfavourable environmental conditions prevail.
2.2 Social aspects
Greece has a high proportion of property ownership: 75% of the dwellings in Greece are
privately owned and only 20% are rented (Fig. 12). This may cause problems concerning
potential refurbishment, since the various owners of apartments in building blocks do not often
share the same opinion for renovating actions.
The present condition of the dwellings regarding the provided amenities is at a relatively good
level (Figure 13). Almost all have indoor kitchen and bathroom and are connected with
electricity and water supply networks. The majority of buildings have central or other heating
system installations, while more than 60% of the dwellings are connected to the public sanitary
system. However, problems related to water or heat installations are very common and are
attributed mainly to the age of the buildings.
State of the Art: Greece 179
Figure 12. The status of ownership of the building stock in Greece.
33,4%
66,2%
94,1%
95,3%
98,9%
94,1%
99,4%
99,5%
100%
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
5
0
0
3
0
0
0
3
5
0
0
4
0
0
0
Total
Dwellings with kitchen
Dwellings with electricity
Dwellings with indoor bathroom
Dwellings with indoor hydraulic installations
Dwellings with central or other heating
Dwellings with indoor bathroom & hydr. instal.
Dwellings connected to drainage system
Dwellings with other type of drainage system
x10
3
Number of dwellings
Figure 13. General description of the amenities offered by the building stock of Greece.
2.3 Structural aspects
It is well known that the Aegean and the surrounding area, which includes mainland Greece, the
Aegean Sea, Albania, S. Yugoslavia, S. Bulgaria, W. Turkey and part of the Northern Eastern
Mediterranean, is seismically the most active region in the entire Mediterranean and in the West
Eurasia. This region is a part of the collision zone between the Eurasian and the African
lithospheric plates (Fig. 14), but its present tectonic activity is much higher than in other regions
of the same zone.
The most prominent morphological features of tectonic origin in the Aegean and surrounding
area from south to north are the Mediterranean ridge (or chain), the Hellenic trench, the Hellenic
arc and the northern Aegean trough.
On the basis of the Greek Seismic Code (1999), the country is divided into four zones of
seismic risk. Seismic ground acceleration rates for the design of earthquake-proof building
range from 0.12g to 0.36g.
On average, the construction of an urban residential building of typical (average) size in Greece
lasts between 12 and 18 months. The most suitable time for starting construction is before
autumn, in order to avoid rainfalls and the low temperatures of winter that make outdoor work
difficult and may also cause problems to the concrete quality [5].
State of the Art: Greece 180
Figure 14. The main morphological features of tectonic origin in the area of Greece [4].
2.4 Physical aspects
Due to the age of the buildings of the 1950-1980 construction period, many problems related to
their functional aspects are observed. A large number of the pathological symptoms is attributed
to the total absence of damp proofing and thermal insulation. Therefore, damp regularly appears
in several elements of the buildings, causing surface stains, appearance of humidified and
watered surface, colour weathering and peeling, detachments, material decay, ruptures and
cracks, oxidation of unveiled steel bars and mold formation (Fig. 15). The absence of thermal
insulation, apart from being responsible for high energy consumption, often results in the
appearance of vapour condensation on walls.
Poor or lack of water-proofing of the roof and the basement envelope is not the only factor of
damp appearance. Problems with hydraulic installations are also very common. Aging of
materials also causes problems in heating and electricity installations. In this respect, the
problems appear to be related both with the materials and the used construction methods, which
are generally carried out without the use of suitable insulation and without adequate observance
of the building regulations.
The building elements, which over the course of time first display deterioration symptoms, are
mainly doors, windows and floors, or rather coverings in general. Causes appear to be
connected with age, poor workmanship and inadequate observance of the building regulations
[5]. An indication of the pathological problems that buildings display is the fact that apartment
blocks built in the 1950s and the early 1960s have begun to reach the end of their life duration
and some have already been demolished, while those that are still in use have undergone or
require serious and extensive repairs or renovations.
Figure 15. Problems caused by dampness in building elements.
State of the Art: Greece 181
A problem connected with the pathology of buildings is their maintenance. The low-cost
maintenance of the communal areas and installations in urban apartment buildings in Greece, as
well as other administrative matters, are entrusted by the residents to an elected administrator on
the basis of a residents charter for the building concerned. In cases where maintenance costs are
higher, the agreement of all the residents is required in practice. This system, which often
encounters difficulties even in simple administrative matters, often proves to be unwieldy and
ineffective in the case of serious repairs or maintenance work on the building [5].
REFERENCES
[1] Caranicas, J. 1986. Public housing in Greece. The case of Workers Housing Organization.
Architecture in Greece (20): 181-199.
[2] Doumanis, O, 1984. Post-War architecture in Greece. Architecture in Greece Press, Athens.
[3] General Secretariat of National Statistical Service of Greece 2001. Census 2001. Ministry of
Economics, Hellenic Republic, http://www.statistics.gr.
[4] McKenzie, D.P. 1972. Active tectonics of the Mediterranean region. Geoph. J. Astron. Soc. (30):
109-185.
[5] Papamanolis, N. 2005. The main constructional characteristics of contemporary urban residential
buildings in Greece. Building and Environment (40): 391-398.
[6] Phillipides D. 1985. Two housing schemes in Trace. Physical planning and design aspects.
Architecture in Greece (19): 174-186.
[7] Tombazis, A. 1980. Residential complex at Psychico, Athens. Architecture in Greece (11): 138-140.
[8] Tzakou, A. 1978. The apartment house: Its post-war development in Athens. Architecture in Greece
(12): 131-143.
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Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
Cyprus is a very small country, covering only 9.251 km
2
. It is the third largest island in the
Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. The island gained its independence in 1960 and was
proclaimed a Republic. At the period 1960-73 Cyprus went through a fast and almost
uninterrupted growth. Despite the breakdown, in the years 1974-75, due to the Turkish invasion
and the occupation of 38% of its territory by military forces, the economy recovered soon after
and a substantial growth has been achieved. Between 1975-93 Cyprus once again witnessed
additional economic growth, accompanied by an expansion of social services. Today the people
of Cyprus, who live in the Government controlled part of the country, enjoy a high level of
education, low unemployment and a good standard of health care. Crime is maintained at low
levels. The 69% of people is living in urban areas, which cover 9.6% of the island. By 1st of
May 2004, Cyprus became a full member-state of European Union.
Approximately since 7000 BC, until the mid 20
th
century AD, construction methods have varied
only slightly. The same building material such as wooden beams, straw, clay mixtures and
stones were used in approximate methods. In most of the architecture there is much wisdom in
the method of construction and for the most part, the solutions found and utilised are both
ingenious and economic. Although many Cypriots participated in the 2
nd
World War, the war
period did not have a huge impact in Cyprus since the island was not a main battlefield. Before
the Cypriot independence in 1960, specialised building tradesmen constructed dwellings. In
particular, the existence of travelling building teams is very important because as they moved
from place to place, they learned a lot from local architecture and influenced the method of
construction and building types in other regions. Furthermore, local people began to travel
abroad and influence construction by bringing prototypes from many countries.
The huge housing problem created after 1974 was immediately dealt with by governments
initiative and action, beginning with the reconstruction of destroyed areas to alleviate the
housing shortage in the cities. As a result, the housing problem passed into the hands of private
State of the Art: Cyprus
Petros Lapithis
Intercollege, Design department, Lefkosia
Christos Efstathiades
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Engineering, Institute of Steel Structures
George Hadjimichael
Ministry of Interior, Town Planning and Housing Department, Lefkosia
ABSTRACT: The worst housing problem ever faced by Cyprus appeared after the invasion
of 1974 when 38% of its territory was occupied by Turkish military forces. 36,2% of the
housing stock was lost and 200.000 refugees had to be housed in their own country. Until
1986 the Government of Cyprus managed to house nearly 50.000 of these people in various
refugee estates carried out by the Town Planning and Housing Department. Out of this
number, approximately 30% have been housed in small three-storey family houses. Some
thousands of refugees have been housed in multi-storey family houses built by the private
sector. Today, due to the specific technical, environmental and seismic conditions in Cyprus,
as well as the change of the quality of the available building materials, many of these multi-
storey buildings face a variety of problems. The solutions decided vary from complete
State of the Art: Cyprus 184
businessmen. In fact, because of the absence of other investments, the building industry began
to play a determining role in shaping the Cypriot economy. The new government took measures
towards regulating of the urban space with the purpose of stabilising the regime. Many image-
driven public building projects began and several laws were passed making construction
policies less strict. Consequently although the first substantial reductions of some plot ratios
(above 200%) were enforced in the main towns, many new development zones were created in
order to set the ground for new structures. As a result, private building construction especially
focused on tourism and housing industry boomed during this period. A series of reforms was
introduced to the new constitution that specifies that the protection of the physical and cultural
environment is an obligation of the state. All the reforms reflect the necessity for an adequate
planning mechanism in the field of housing and environmental and land use planning. However,
the Cyprus government has not yet established many implementation procedures and reserves
for itself (4 out of 33 Municipalities) the right to act on any problem by highly centralising the
decision-making process on all these fields.
Contemporary life and the building industry in Cyprus are greatly affected by the proliferation
of apartment blocks in the large urban centres. The apartment house became the symbol of the
final stage of urbanisation. And since urbanisation is for certain reason a preferable way of
living for the contemporary Cypriot, the apartment model is extensively adopted even in
medium size settlements in the countryside.
Cyprus employs a lot of housing systems. Within the context of the housing policy for the
refugees, the government of Cyprus has introduced various schemes and programs like the
Low Cost Government Housing Scheme that provides houses, free of charge, to low-income
families. Until 2001, more than 12.500 families (or 5,6% of the total number of households)
were benefited from this scheme in 71 housing estates. In addition to that the government
provides the Self-help Housing Program on Government Land (where 9.000 families, or
4,1% of the total number of households, have already been housed in 321 estates of this type),
the Self-help Housing Program on Private Land and the Purchase of a House /Apartment
Scheme. In the private sector, development and construction companies offer in the free
market various types of housing units and mainly apartment or terrace houses. This type of
development satisfies nearly 30% of the total demand (Fig. 1). A substantial number of families
however, choose to build their own detached or semi-detached house, on an individual plot of
land, which has an average surface of 520 m
2
. It is worth mentioning that in 2001, 68,2% of the
total number of households in Cyprus had their own private housing units. Three categories of
construction financing have been developed.
In the first, a contractor undertakes the construction of the building. In the second, the owner of
the property decides to play the role of the contractor-entrepreneur and undertakes the
responsibility of constructing and financing the project. He usually sells or rents most of the
apartments keeping one or two for him. In the third (the gradual method of construction), the
owner of the property builds one housing unit for the present needs of his family, allowing for
the possibility of constructing additional apartments in the future to cover the needs of the
growing family or merely for investment reasons.
State of the Art: Cyprus 185
Fig. 1: Multi-storey family buildings on regular plots built by the private sector
The results of this practice in the form of the city are the following:
- Housing areas close to industrial or other areas, dangerous for public health
- Very limited green and open spaces within the housing areas
- Bad relation between street width and building height.
- Different housing types even in the same street-large apartment blocks adjacent to low houses.
- Unplanned and often unhealthy interaction between the built and natural environment.
In an analysis of the built environment of the city area, it was concluded that the negative points
of the housing environment are not due to the lack of adequate housing units, but to the high
cost of the housing units, the lack of big organised complexes, the domination of individual
developments in small building plots and the uneven drops of adjacent plot ratios (building area
to site area). This results in the lack of open spaces and to the quality of the immediate
environment around the houses with restricted ventilation, solar access etc.
1.1 Data related to building period.
The Statistical Service of Cyprus provides basic demographic data approximately every 10
years. The last two census of population were carried out in 1992 and 2001. Housing data are
given for the last decade at varying intervals of one to two years.
The total number of persons enumerated in 2001, in the area controlled by the Cyprus
Government, was 689.565. The population pyramids for the same year are shown in Fig.6
(Graph 1 and 2). The increase of the dwelling stock is shown in Fig.6 (Graph 3). The total
number of units was 286.000 in 2000. Almost 85.000 of these units were built in the period
from 1960-1980. Out of the total number of units, nearly 60.000 are apartment blocks and
125, 000 are detached or semidetached houses. The number of new dwellings completed over
the last 15 years is shown in Fig.6 (Graph 4), 5.000 dwellings in 2000, the average dwelling
area in Fig.6 (Graph 5), 189 m
2
for 2000 and the average construction cost in Cyprus Pounds, in
Fig. 6 (Graph 6), 334 Cyprus Pounds or 568 Euros per m
2
for 2000. From the above data it can
be derived that the average number of persons per dwelling, was 3,23 for 1992 and 3,06 for
2001. In addition to that the number of square meters per person, was 49,5 for 1992 and 61 for
2001. Basic economic data according to Statistical Service, stipulate that in 2000 the Cyprus
economy registered a growth rate of 5%, unemployment rate less than 3,3%, inflation of 4,1 %
and fiscal deficit of 3,5%. The per capita income was more than 7.500 C.P. (12.825 Euro) for
2000.
State of the Art: Cyprus 186
Fig. 2: Demographic and housing data
1.2 Description of main typologies
In general the typical housing construction system in Cyprus, is based on the conventional
construction system, quite common in this part of the Mediterranean Sea. Typical plans and
elevations of multi storey housing buildings from the public (Fig. 7) and private sector (Fig. 8).
The system comprises the use of reinforced concrete for the load bearing part of the building,
which is completed by masonry walls. Prefabrication systems have rarely been used in the past,
mainly by the Government in the construction of some low cost refugee estates in the late 70s.
So reinforced concrete, from foundations to the roof applies for the vast majority of the housing
constructions. It has to be mentioned however that preliminary regulations concerning the
calculation of seismic loads, were issued in the late 80s and that detailed construction
regulations were adopted in the beginning of the 90s. Thus all the buildings built before, may
sometime in the future, face possible seismic failure. The typical filling of multi-story family
houses comprises of brick walls (20 or 25 cm for the outer walls and 10 cm for the inner walls)
that are plastered with 2-2,5 cm on either side. The finishing surface is usually covered by sprits
or paint.
GRAPH 1. FEMALES
0 10 20 30
0-4
10-14
20-24
30-34
40-44
50-54
60-64
70-74
80+
GRAPH 3. DWELLING
STOCK
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1
9
8
0
1
9
8
5
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
5
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
5
D
W
E
L
L
I
N
G
S
I
N
T
H
O
U
S
A
N
D
S
GRAPH 4. NEW DWELLIGS
COMPLETED
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
8
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
8
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
D
W
E
L
L
I
N
G
S
I
N
T
H
O
U
S
A
N
GRAPH 6. AVERAGE COST IN
CP / S.M. 1 CP = 1.7 EURO
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1
9
8
0
1
9
8
5
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
5
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
5
S
Q
U
A
R
E
M
E
T
E
R
S
GRAPH 5. AVERAGE
DWELLING AREA
0
50
100
150
200
250
1
9
8
8
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
8
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
S
Q
U
A
R
E
M
E
T
E
R
S
GRAPH 2. MALES
0 10 20 30 40
0-4
10-14
20-24
30-34
40-44
50-54
60-64
70-74
80+
% FOR 2001
State of the Art: Cyprus 187
Fig. 3: Typical 2 and 3 bedroom flats in a Government
refugee estate. Respective elevations and section
Fig. 4: Typical plan from the private sector. Respective typical elevation (shops on the ground floor and
flats on the floors)
1.3 Description of the main technologies.
In most of the cases the whole of the load bearing structure, including the foundations, consists
of a reinforced concrete frame. This method of design is a must for the buildings in Cyprus, due
to the seismic excitations that the structures undergo during their life. The surface of the
concrete is either fair face or typical depending on functional, aesthetic etc. criteria (Fig.
5). There is a variety of foundations types according to the type and size of the structure. The
most popular are the separate foundations with connecting beams and the general (whole)
foundation (Fig.6). The outer skin of a structure, is usually created by the reinforced concrete
parts (for the load bearing structure) and a single layer of bricks, (200mm), both coated with
three layers of plaster (20-25 mm) and a finishing layer of paint or sprits. The roofs are usually
flat concrete slabs, which are covered with light concrete or screed of 50-100 mm for thermal
insulation and on top with an asphalt layer of 2-5 mm, for humidity insulation.
Fig. 5: A typical structure. Fair face reinforced concrete for the ground floor parking and typical for
the rest of the building
Fig. 6: Foundations
State of the Art: Cyprus 188
The final touch is given by the use of reflective paints. The last 5-10 years some multi-story
family houses appeared to form a different top finish with a complete or partial pitched roof. It
is believed that this is used not so much for insulation reasons, but rather for sales promotion
reasons since it gives a touch of more domestic or more humane housing buildings. As far as
windows are concerned, the vast majority of them are single glazed (4-5 mm) with aluminium
frames whereas a considerable proportion of multi-story family houses, especially after 1980,
used double glassed windows.
1.4 Housing Policy
Administrative structure
Cyprus is a presidential parliamentary democracy and administratively is separated into
Districts (6 altogether) that are managed by the District Officers appointed by the Government.
In addition there are two types of local authorities, the Municipalities (33) and the Communities
(352), which are governed by separate laws. Municipalities form the core of the local
government structure in urban areas and in tourist centres, whereas Communities constitute the
local government structure, in rural areas. Communities with a population of over 5.000
inhabitants or smaller Communities with sufficient economic resources to function properly and
independently have the opportunity to become Municipalities. The Mayors and the Municipal
Council of the Municipalities, as well as the Presidents and the Community Councils of the
Communities, are elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Municipalities and
the Communities have their own budget. They are responsible for the construction, maintenance
of streets, provision of local services and the appearance of public areas, the protection of public
health etc. The main sources of their revenues are state subsidies, taxes and fees.
Development Plans
The planning system is highly centralised. The Minister of the Interior is the Planning Authority
and is responsible for the preparation and publication of Development Plans. As such are the
Local Plans and the detailed Area Schemes for the urban areas and the Policy Statement
for the Countryside for the rural areas. The General Development Plans contain a set of land
uses including public facilities and zoning maps as well as policies, provisions and regulations
to guide the development. The major advisor to the Minister is the Town Planning Board. The
Department of Town Planning and Housing provides technical assistance and expertise.
Authorities responsible for issuing Planning and Building Permits
The Town and Country Planning Law has been enacted, as a whole, on the 1
st
of December
1990. The responsibility of issuing Planning Permits rests with ten distinct Planning Authorities,
which are the Director of Town Planning and Housing Department, all five Divisional Town
Planning Officers in the districts, as well as the four main Municipal Councils of the island. In
cases of urban complexes made up of several Municipalities and Community Councils, a new
proposal of establishing a joint Planning Authority for the whole conurbation area (covered by
each Local Plan) is currently under consideration, by the Ministry of Interior. Building Permits
can be issued by the 24 Municipalities (since 9 out of the 33 are under occupation) for the
Municipal Areas and the five District Officers, for the rural areas.
Application drawings and inspections
The Law, considering the kind of development, specifies the appropriate drawings and any other
documents, certificates etc., which they have to be submitted with the application form to the
Planning Authority. Three main issues can be mentioned here:
State of the Art: Cyprus 189
- There is not any legal obligation to submit designs or calculations for thermal, acoustic, light
and fire performance of a conventional building within the application form.
- Although civil engineering calculations have to be submitted at the building permit application
process, these drawings are roughly checked and the responsibility for any structural failure
remains on the civil engineers side.
- According to a recent regulation of 2000 all new constructions, renovations and generally any
structure, have to be inspected by authorized engineers. Therefore inspections are compulsory
for freelance practitioners, though are not compulsory for Responsible Authorities. For this very
reason the enforcement of the Planning and Building laws, is not so effective.
Legal framework concerning modifications and improvements
All building modifications require a building permit and moreover, the modifications that are
regarded as substantial require an additional planning permit in advance. The specific
provision is unclear and therefore depends on the discretion of the respective Town Planning
Authorities, to judge whether a modification is substantial or not. The painting of a building for
example does not require any permit, simply because is not regarded as a substantial
modification. Therefore designers are not obliged to ask for approval of any drawing concerning
painting. There are no specific data concerning maintenance, renovations, modifications, etc. of
building envelopes. Indicative data however suggest that the average Cyprus family does not
pay a lot of attention on these matters, that people extent as long as possible the various works
needed and that they proceed to the necessary works, only when the performance of their
building is intolerable, or dangerous looking always for the absolute minimum expense. In the
vast majority of the cases improvements are related only to the painting of the buildings.
2 QUALITY OF THE POST-WAR MULTIFUNCTIONAL HOUSING STOCK
2.1 Architectural and urban aspects
2.1.1 Legislation handicap.
No specific legislation was ever passed before 80s concerning incentives for organized housing
complexes. The only regulatory tools were the commonly used town planning restriction which
concern plot ratio, plot coverage, maximum height, maximum number of stories, a general
aesthetic framework and some indirect density standards, concerning the minimum surface in
relation to the size of housing units. This is actually the very reason that multi-story family
buildings were very few till 80s. Some sort of incentives for organized housing complexes up
to three stories, were introduced in the revised statutory local plans in 2003.
There are no specific regulations concerning architectural and functional aspects. The authority
that is responsible for issuing the Planning Permit, decides whether a certain development rests
within the environment of the surrounding area. There are however indirect density standards,
concerning the minimum size of housing units.
Practice however is much different especially as far as the aesthetic control is concerned.
Problems also arise when dealing with the incorporation of small but vital structures, like solar
panels, antennas etc.
2.1.2 Accessibility
There are specific rules and regulations for new buildings and public uses according to which
accessibility to people with special needs, including access ramps and larger toilets in the
ground floors, must be provided.
State of the Art: Cyprus 190
2.1.3 Architectural aspects.
No tremendous changes can be seen in the aesthetic appearance of the government owned
estates. The only differences are related to colours and to the variety of plasters and sprits areas
combinations. On the contrary bigger changes on architectural aspects can be seen on the multi-
stories buildings built by the private sector. The bigger change concerns the use of new
materials (stones, concrete fair face and pinched roofs) and new designs.
2.1.4 Management problems.
Although multi-storey buildings are covered by a specific law and regulations (Chapter 224 of
Lands and Surveys Department) Cyprus is still facing specific management problems. These are
related to the ambitious extensions, illegal advertisements, the distribution of maintenance and
renovation costs, the insurance of the housing units, the resolving of differences and the
management of pets.
2.2 Social and cultural aspects
Different social problems appeared in multi-story family houses in Government refugee estates
and individual building plots. It is obvious that the major problems arise from the absence of
adequate public open spaces, of community uses, as well as from the close proximity between
buildings. People in these areas seem to lack privacy, but on the same time they are not given
enough opportunities for social interaction. In the first case the bigger problem is some sort of
isolation and identity problem that is due to the non-penetrated road network of the estates
and the patterned morphology of the buildings. Some of the first estates built in the 70s, present
some sort of anti-social youth behaviour
Government owned settlements built during 70s created somewhat the image of isolated
estates, partly because of their locations at the periphery of the towns. Nowadays, all the
settlements were overtaken by the new town planning zones, new neighbourhoods and detached
houses, which are allowed even outside the development boundaries.
2.3 Structural aspects
Cyprus falls in a very active seismic zone due to its position between the Asian and the African
plates (Fig.7). Thats why seismic excitations are very common events, especially in the
southern part of the island (Fig.8). For this reason, for civil engineering calculations for
structures, five seismic zones (with different acceleration values, from 0.75 m/sec
2
to 1.5
m/sec
2
) have already been established.
Fig 7: Tectonic plates around Cyprus
Fig 8: Epicentres of 674 earthquakes registered during the period 1905-1996
State of the Art: Cyprus 191
The vast majority of multi-story family houses in Cyprus were built according to classical
conventional methods (reinforced concrete for the bearing system, brick walls and plaster
finishing). A prefabricated system based on preheating molds was used in a very small
proportion of some Government own estates. The system proved very efficient and many of the
housing units built with this system are still in a better condition than those built with
conventional methods. Although a considerable number of seismic excitations appear during the
life of all the structures in Cyprus only a very small number of buildings showed serious
damages. All the multi-storey family houses of the chosen, by Action 16, period were built
before the adoption of any seismic regulations. Therefore their seismic behaviour is rather
unknown and only special studies can reveal aspects of their performance
2.4 Physical aspects
2.4.1 Thermal performance
Cyprus shares an intense Mediterranean climate with extended hot, dry summers and rainy
rather changeable winters, which are separated by short autumn and spring seasons. Basic
meteorological data for the capital Lefkosia (o) and Prodromos village (A), 1900 m above sea
level are shown in Fig. 9.
TEMPERATURES FOR
NICOSIA (0) AND
PRODROMOS() STATIONS
1991/2000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
J
A
N
F
E
B
M
A
R
A
P
R
M
A
Y
J
U
N
J
U
L
A
U
G
S
E
P
O
C
T
N
O
V
D
E
C
D
E
G
R
E
E
S
C
E
L
C
I
O
U
S
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY
AT 1300
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
J
A
N
M
A
R
M
A
Y
J
U
L
S
E
P
N
O
V
%
MEAN DAILY SUNSHINE
DURATION
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
J
A
N
F
E
B
M
A
R
A
P
R
M
A
Y
J
U
N
J
U
L
A
U
G
S
E
P
O
C
T
N
O
V
D
E
C
h
o
u
r
s
/
d
a
y
MEAN DAILY WINDRUN AT 2 m
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
J
A
N
M
A
R
M
A
Y
J
U
L
S
E
P
N
O
V
K
m
/
h
Fig 9: Basic meteorological data
Rainfalls vary a lot. The average annual total precipitation is about 500 mm. The last 15 years
however Cyprus faced some very difficult dry seasons and this is the very reason that more than
100 water dams and reservoirs, of a total capacity of 300.000.000 cubic meters, as well as two
desalination plants, have been constructed so far.
The thermal performance of contemporary buildings is discussed below in relation to the
climate and in terms of the main aspects necessary for an understanding of such performance
(Table1) (Kolokotroni 1985). These aspects are:
Architectural design: Innovations and advancement in building design and technology have
made any form of building possible to create with materials such as glass, metal and building
panels of every kind characterizing the new architecture. These features of contemporary
buildings have also created many problems in the Mediterranean countries by being unsuited to
the climatic conditions.
Constructional materials and methods: The above-mentioned materials are normally
incorporated in semi-heavy-weight constructions inappropriately designed. The roof and
external walls are seldom provided with sufficient thermal insulation. They are also not thick
enough to compensate for such loss of insulation by having high thermal capacity.
Occupancy patterns: Residential buildings are usually occupied continuously or intermittently.
It is however normal to find more than 90% of the occupants at home by 3.00 p.m. in summer.
State of the Art: Cyprus 192
As the structure of contemporary buildings is with a short time-lag of the order of 2 to 3 hours.
The maximum temperature of the internal surface appears about 3.00 or 4.00 p.m. Heat
emission into buildings therefore takes place during the resting time of the occupants, when the
outdoor shade air temperature is still high and such heat cannot be removed by ventilation.
Moveable fans are widely used. But with little effect on improving the indoor conditions
because the draught of external air is already of a high temperature and the distribution of air
movement is non-homogenous. The overall result is physiological and psychological
dissatisfaction. As many contemporary residential buildings are comprised of apartments
normally designed with a specific function for each space, the occupants are obliged to carry out
their activities in the specified zones regardless of the daily and seasonal change in weather
conditions. Alternative spaces, which can be used to avoid the overheating effects at certain
times of the day, seldom exist.
Table 1: The thermal performance of contemporary buildings in relation to the climate and in terms of the
main aspects necessary for an understanding of such performance
Building aspect Characteristics related to contemporary building
Architectural Design -Outward looking
-Free plan form
-Multi-storey blocks
-Small balconies
-Vast glazed windows
-Flat or pitched roofs
Constructional
materials and methods
-Materials are mostly imported or locally made with poor qualities
-Frame structures
-Simple constructions
-No insulation
-Non-load bearing walls
Occupancy patterns -Unchanged in residential buildings because of the design restrictions of
contemporary buildings
Planning -Incompact planning. No courtyard
-Zoning problems
Thermal performance -Unsatisfactory during the times of overheating and under heating.
Non-thermal comfort
problems
-Weathering problems
-No adequate building regulations
-High influence of the building contractors
-Acoustic problems
Demand -Increasing because of social and economic changes and contemporary life
2.4.2 Current housing habits (thermal comfort)
In an attempt to evaluate some of the current housing habits in Cyprus, a questionnaire was
compiled (Lapithis 2003). The results of the questionnaire were taken from contemporary
residential buildings, with mostly four or five residents, in urban areas of Lefkosia. Upon
examining the outcome of the detailed questionnaire, certain interesting observations are
deduced.
- A high percentage (69%) of the survey participants experience bothersome noises from the
outside, probably as a result of single glazing and poorly insulated wall surfaces which not
only allow heat enter and exit freely, but also allow noise to penetrate with little difficulty.
- A high percentage of the participants frequently felt cold in the winter (80%) and an even
greater number feel warm in the summer (87%).
- There were also complaints about bothersome cold surfaces (70%).
- Another problem area, which can be minimized by proper passive design, is the need for
artificial lighting (64%).
State of the Art: Cyprus 193
- It also transpired that many participants experience drafts from windows and doors (86%),
an element of ventilation that can be exploited in a passive system, if it is designed properly.
- There is a need for a more widespread use of double-glazing windows in order to minimize
moisture condensation on windows (65%) and for a better thermal and noise control.
- An interesting fact deduced from the survey is that the overwhelming majority of Cypriots
feel safe in and around their house (91%), which makes it easier for a passive solar designer
to arrange for ventilation systems requiring frequent openings especially for nighttime
ventilation.
From the outcome of the questionnaire, it transpired that most dwellings in Cyprus are
constructed with little or no insulation and this is the most likely cause for the high percentage
of summer and winter discomfort as well as noise complaints. Most other complaints stated
(e.g. poor natural lighting) are the result of unsuccessful bioclimatically orientated design. All
this suggests the need for better, more bioclimatically appropriate constructions, with adequate
insulation and proper orientation with respect to the sun.
2.4.3 Technical recommendations
Technical recommendations are compulsory for the prefabricated buildings according to Order
2/2001 issued by the Minister of Interior, who is in charge for Town and Country Planning Law.
The order specifies the characteristics shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Technical recommendations issued by the Minister of Interior
Thermal Insulation (U value in W/ m
2
K)
Walls 1,7
Roof 2,0
Slab between floors 2,0
Noise insulation (for 500Hz in dB)
Walls 45
Roof 45
Slab between floors 50
In addition to the above the Order specifies that the bearing structure and any stair of a
prefabricated building should provide at least 1/2 an hour fire resistance. The Cyprus
Organization for the Promotion of Quality chaired by the Ministry of Commerce Industry and
Tourism plans to establish more quality standards and enforce them as compulsory. It can be
mentioned that this Organization has already specified some recommended thermal insulation
values for conventional buildings, which however are not compulsory. Cyprus has already
adopted five compulsory standards concerning the quality of cement, sand, gravel, concrete and
brick. The enforcement of these standards lies on three Government bodies, which are, the
Mines and Quarries Department, the Public Works Department and the Competition and
Consumers Protection Service. Inspections are carried out based on selective processes.
Furthermore it must be noted that in cases the consumer finds any discrepancies from the
standards, he has to claim his rights through the detail provisions of his contract. It is worth
mentioning that by the 1
st
of May 2004, Cyprus became a full member-state in European Union,
and therefore all the relative European standards (Euro-codes, etc.) have to be established in the
respective case-law.
State of the Art: Cyprus 194
2.4.4 Insulation problems.
The existing legal framework does not incorporate any objective criteria and indices concerning
the technical characteristics (like the thermal conductivity (K), the thermal transmittance
coefficient (U), the sound reduction index (SRI) etc), the performance of the building materials
and the whole structure of conventional buildings. Therefore in most of the cases the free
market, especially the local one, does not provide the necessary technical specifications of the
relevant advertised products. So only practice can show the real fire resistance and the thermal,
acoustic and light performance of any housing unit.
2.4.5 Networks and equipments.
In the majority of the cases these networks are treated as the annoying part of multi-storey
family houses for the very reason that no specific water, electricity, heating and cooling studies
are carried out by the respective engineers. In most of the cases the architect involved or some
practical technicians, carry out the job.
CONCLUSIONS
From all the above the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn. The legal framework
concerning the issuing of permits as well as the management of multi-story family houses need
to be amended so that all sorts of building interventions will be easily perceived and managed
by all the stake holders. The responsible Authorities should proceed with the establishment of
technical and performance criteria for all the raw materials and structures used in the building
industry. Evaluations have to be undertaken by established teams of professionals, supported by
groups of interests and individuals, depending on the case.
REFERENCES
Government of Cyprus 1996. Streets and Building Law (Cap. 96). Lefkosia: Government of Cyprus
Government of Cyprus Immovable Property Law (Tenure, Registration and Evaluation Chapter 224).
Lefkosia: Government of Cyprus
Government of Cyprus 1972 . Town and Country Planning Law (Law 90/72) Lefkosia: Government of
Cyprus
Government of Cyprus 1985. Municipalities Law (Law 111/85). Lefkosia: Government of Cyprus.
Kolokotroni, M. 1985 The Thermal Performance of Housing in Greece: a Study of the Environmental
response to Climate. London: Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL
Lapithis, P. 2003. Solar Architecture in Cyprus. ISES 2003 Conference Proceedings. Gothenburg: ISES
Meteorological Service 2000. Climatological Data of Cyprus 1991-2000. Lefkosia: Government of
Cyprus
Ministry of Commerce 1998. CYS 98, Cyprus Organization for Standards and Control of Quality.
Lefkosia: Government of Cyprus
Statistical Service 2001. Population Census. Lefkosia: Government of Cyprus
Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
Republic of Macedonia occupies the land area of 25.713 km
2
with population of around 2
million inhabitants. It declared its independence in 1991 after the breakdown of the former
S.F.R. of Yugoslavia. According to the Constitution Republic of Macedonia is a parliamentary
democracy and multiethnic society where 65 % of the population are Macedonians, 22%
Albanians and 12-13 % other minority groups (Serbs, Romeos, Turks)
Due to relatively good planning of urban centers, traffic infrastructure and economy capacities
in last 50 years it made remarkable progress in term of urbanization (59%)
Building industry and existing housing assets present a good base for further development of
the real estate market. According to the 2002 census in the country there are:
- 2,030.257 inhabitants;
- 564.296 households;
- 697.529 dwellings with total of 49,671.709 m
2
of which 94% (662.249) built after 1945
Due to the process of privatization and denationalization 99% of the total dwelling stock in mid
90s, (690.961) is private and 1% of it (5420) are still in the government possession. According
to the census statistics, 83 % (579.184) of the total dwelling stock is occupied, 17% (65.096) is
available or put on real estate market. Within the dwelling stock there are 24.745 summer or
weekend houses of different type. Figures also indicate four basic planning parameters for
future housing and living consideration:
a) Republic of Macedonia is a comfortable country (79 residents per km
2
);
b) Relatively new dwelling stock (70% built after 1970 and still in a good condition);
c) Positive rate of dwellings versus households number (697.529 / 564.296);
d) Good basic social capacity, infrastructure and natural goods.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia
Tihomir Stojkov
University of Ss Cyril and Methodius, Skopje
ABSTRACT: Republic of Macedonia is a small country in the core of the Balkans. From 1945
until 1991 it went trough intensive urban development within the Yugoslav socialist system
where 85-90% of present dwelling stock and residential buildings were built. Significant part of
it built in 70s and 80s is still in good condition. The rest of it built in 50s and 60s (until 1963)
needs to be subject of serious professional and institutional consideration in order to establish
applicable methodology and management of reconstruction to offer different options of choice
and possibilities both for their present tenants and future customers.
After the break down of former S.F.R. of Yugoslavia,. Republic of Macedonia is going again
through dynamic process of transition coping with complexity of problems and necessary
reforms on the way to join EU.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 196
1.1 Data related to building periods
According to the statistics, in 1948 there were around 1,152.986 residents and 218.819
dwellings (mainly of average or pour quality), in 1953 there were 1,303.906 residents and
248.730 dwellings (of which around 140.000 government flats) and in 1961 there were
1,410.000 inhabitants and around 300.000 dwellings.(Figures 1-2)
Figure1: architecture from 50s and 60s Figure 2: architecture from 70s and 80s
Table 1 Number of dwellings built in Republic of Macedonia after the II WW
Period Number of dwellings
1947 - 1960 73.688
1960 - 1970 136.418
1970 - 1980 181.969
1980 - 1990 151.434
1991 - 2002 118.740
Total 662.249
It can be also said that 70% of the present dwelling stock (built after 70s) is still in a good shape
with market value of 400-1200 m
2
1.2 Description of main typologies
The 2002 census also indicates that of the total dwelling stock (697.529) 60-62 % are mainly
one or two storey single family houses or double ones, and relatively small percentage of row
houses or other types. The rest of 38-40% are multifamily houses of different type built as three
to four storey buildings (65%), seven to ten storey (30%) and ten to sixteen storey (5%).
It can be also mentioned that 95 % are one level flats and the rest are two level or so called
duplex flats.
Table 2 Basic typology of existing dwellings
Studios 54.529 (8 %)
One bedroom 196.536 (28 %)
Two bedroom 216.895 (31 %)
Three bedroom 146.784 (21 %)
Five bedroom 85.791 (12 %)
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 197
2
5
38 25
BRICKWORK 38cm
(25+1+12)
INTERNAL PLASTER 1.5cm
BRICKWORK 25cm
BRICKWORK 25cm
BRICKWORK 25cm
INTERNAL
PLASTER 1.5cm
EXTERNAL PLASTER RENDERING 2.5cm
DETAIL "B" DETAIL "A"
BRICKWORK 38cm
(25+1+12)
INTERNAL PLASTER 1.5cm
CEILLING
FLOOR
2
0
-
2
5
5
-
6
6-7
RIB
R.C. STRIP
(SERCLAGE)
38
INTERNAL PLASTER 1.5cm
FLOOR
TIMBER BEAM
BRICKWORK 38cm
(25+1+12)
CEILLING
R.C. STRIP
(SERCLAGE)
38
1.3 Description of main technologies
Building technologies in 50s
In 50s there were used extensive classic masonry building systems based on massive solid brick
structural walls thick 25-38 cm. and slab construction based on three construction systems:
a) Cast reinforced concrete thin-ribs slab system (Figure 3);
b) Semi-prefabricated thin-ribs slab system Avramenko, stiffened with perimeter and internal
reinforced concrete strips cast over the structural walls. Within structural walls there werent
vertical R.C. supporting pillars or strips. (Figure 4);
c) Timber slab construction over the solid bricks structural walls. (Figure 5);
Figure 3: Cast R.C. thin-ribs slab system. Layout Figure 4: Semi - prefabricated system
Avramenko. Section
Figure 5: Timber slab construction. Section
Later, at the begging of the 60s (until 1963) the first larger and better planned complexes of
multi-storey family houses were built, unfortunately without significant structural
improvements. In that time, beside above mentioned slabs the new, semi-prefabricated ceramic
Monta slab-system was introduced mainly for the 4-5 storey residential blocks.
Due to pour seismic performances, lot of buildings suffered vide range of damages or collapsed
implicating serious casualties during the 1963 earthquake. The rest, beside some damages, were
subject of structural rehabilitation and strengthening by means of inserting new extra horizontal
and vertical R.C. strips and throw-in supporting pillars within massive structural walls.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 198
However, this was a painful but very important new experience for Macedonian architects and
engineers to later improve the quality of building structure.
Building technologies in 60s
Immediately after the 1963 earthquake new rigorous seismic regulations and building standards
were introduced by means of use the high quality R.C. skeleton building systems with high
security coefficient (Cs=3). In addition to this, a new, fully prefabricated, pre-cast R.C. heavy-
panel system Karpos (donation of USSR government), was introduced. In the period of 15-2o
years the new R.C. heavy-panels factory built in Skopje produced around 15.000 flats of total
of 760.000 m
2
. This building stock, together with some newly introduced light-weight systems
of individual residential houses of different type (donations from other countries), were
important contribution to Skopje in such a urgent situation: In six months period around 70.000
inhabitants of Skopje got new flats. It was very important achievement in the critical efforts to
sustain the local economy and life of the Capitol city in such a misfortunate circumstances
(70% of all buildings in the town of 200.000 were damaged and almost 25% ruined implicating
the most gloomy statistic index of Skopje earthquake of around 1200 casualties). In that
respect, the building stock of multi-storey family houses built after 1963 performed very good
during the last seismic activities in the region.(Figures 6-7). As far as Kapos-system
concerns, there were four different flats size. (Table 3)
Figure 6, 7: The building stock of multi-storey family houses built after 1963
Table 3: Basic typology of dwellings based on Kapos-system
Studios 31-42 m
2
One bedroom flats 48-52 m
2
Two bedrooms flats 70-71 m
2
Three bedrooms flats (Fig. 8-9) 84.00 m
2
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 199
3
2
0
3
2
0
19
2
6
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
2
6
0
3
2
0
3
2
0
19
576 576 15 15 90 90
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
A B C
NS.4 NS.3-6 NS.3-6 NS.4-2
N
S
.1
N
S
.2
N
S
.3
N
S
.1
N
S
.2
N
S
.2
N
S
.2
N
S
.1
N
S
.3
N
S
.2
N
S
.1
N
S
.1
N
S
.2
N
S
.3
-
2
N
S
.2
N
S
.1
N
S
.2
N
S
.1
N
S
.2
N
S
.3
-
2
N
S
.2
N
S
.1
VS.1 VS.1-2A
V
S
.4
A
V
S
.3
A
E
K
.1
V
S
.9
V
P
.3
V
P
.2
VP.1
V
P
.6
V
P
.2
V
P
.4
V
P
.7
VS.1-2
VS.1-2A
VS.6
VS.6
V
P
.2
V
P
.3
VP.1
V
P
.6
V
S
.3
A
VS.1-2A VS.1
V
S
.4
A
VP.5
VP.5
VS.1 VS.1
V
S
.4
A
VP.5
VS.1 VS.1-2
V
S
.2
VS.1-2 VS.1-2A
V
S
.3
A
VS.1-2A
V
P
.3
V
P
.2
VP.1
V
P
.6 VS.6
V
P
.2
V
P
.4
V
P
.7
E
K
.1
V
S
.9
VS.1-3 VS.6
VS.1-2
V
S
.7
A
VP.5
V
P
.2
V
P
.3
VP.1
V
P
.6
VS.1-2A
V
S
.2
NS.4-2 NS.3-6 NS.3-6 NS.4
180
-
A
3
4
0
0
3
4
3
8
1152
1182
P=17.16m2
-
C
-
B1
-B
P=8.00m2
P=3.48m2
P=6.00m2
P=16.18m2
--
1
--
1
FLOOR PLAN
0
1
2
3
4
5
m
A B C
BP1-3
576 576
-
F
-
D
-
E
0 1 2 3 4 5m
10.72
SECTION
BP-1
BP-1
BP-1
BP-1 BP1-3
BP1-3
BP1-3
BP1-3
NS-5
NS3-2
PR-1
PR-2
PR-2
PR-2
BC15
NS-3 NS3-3
NS3-3
NS3-3
NS-3
NS-3
NS-3
NS-7
LM-1
LM-1
LM-1
LM-2
BP-2
5.32
2.62
-0.08
-2.17
8.02
+5.40
+2.70
0.00
+8.10
-2.17
+6.75
+4.05
+1.35
-1.01
-1.23
LM-1
LM-1
LM-1
DETAIL "B,B1"
1
5
1
0
5
6
1
4
2
5
INSITU CONCRETE
SEALANT
INSULATION 1.5cm
INSULATION 6cm
6 19
INSULATION 6cm
INSITU CONCRETE
DETAIL "A"
DETAIL "C"
12-14
INSITU CONCRETE
SEALANT SEALANT
E
X
T
E
R
N
A
L
R
.C
.
P
A
N
E
L
E
X
T
E
R
N
A
L
R
.C
.
P
A
N
E
L
EXTERNAL R.C. PANEL EXTERNAL R.C. PANEL
INTERNAL R.C. PANEL
E
X
T
E
R
N
A
L
R
.C
.
P
A
N
E
L
EXISTING FLOOR
(PARQUET)
BALCON ROOM
EXISTING FLOOR
(TERATZO)
R.C. FLOOR PANEL 10cm
EXISTING BITUMEN COVER ZINC COVERING SHEET
R.C. FLOOR PANEL 10cm
SEALANT
SEALANT
INSOLATION 6cm
INSITU CONCRETE
R.C. BALCONE PANEL 10cm
DETAIL "D" DETAIL "E"
DETAIL "F"
E
X
T
E
R
N
A
L
R
.C
.
P
A
N
E
L
6 19 6 19
EXTERNAL R.C. PANEL
90 60
25
Figure 8, 9: Three bedrooms flats based on Kapos-system. Layout and section.
Structurally, the perimeter wall panels, thick 25 cm, consists of three basic stratums; External
pre-cast R.C. panel thick 5 cm, internal (structural) pre-cast R.C. panel thick 14 cm and
Styrofoam or fiberglass thermal insulation thick 6 cm inserted in-between the panels. External
and internal panels are structurally connected with concrete ribs.
Horizontal and vertical perimeter wall panel joints are usually visible and sealed with special
sponge hose from inside and elastic sealant from outside. Internal structural panels depending
on their position are thick 12 and 14 cm. The clean structural height of all wall panels is 270
cm. For slab construction two basic modules of panels were used: 260x576 cm and 320x576
cm. both thick 10 cm. The slab panels were connected to external or internal structural wall
panels with special joints of steel framework and metal accessories, sealed later with cast
concrete. (Fig.10-11)
Figure 10, 11: Perimeter wall panels. Layout and section.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 200
Indeed, at the beginning Kapos-system was pretty chip and acceptable for most of the
residents interested in buying a new and safe flat.
Unfortunately, due to both structural inflexibility and limited internal space performances, this
system produced problems to the tenants intending later to do some internal modifications The
second handicap of Karpos-system was its modest standard in term of use of building
materials and equipment. Also, the external pre-cast RC walls, besides the built-in Styrofoam
insulation of 6 cm, manifested pour thermal comfort as well as some later identified
philological syndromes to the tenants living in concrete flats. Later, some modifications of
external panel-joints were done by making them invisible (by covering and rendering with
terranova mortar) but, after certain period of time some cracks appeared again.
1.4 Housing policy
Until 70s the planning and building concept in the Country was mainly based on the idea for
radical convert of the pre-Second World War tradition of living in single family houses into
collective multi-story family houses of socialist type. Although this idea originally was based
on good-natured purpose and spread around by well organized propaganda, the consequences
we are facing now after 40-50 years, are frustrating because significant part of the dwelling
stock built especially in 50s and early 60s (25-30%) is in a pour condition. A serous and
comprehensive reconstruction is immanent in order to reuse it properly. According to the
statistics, more than 22.000 flats of average size of 50-60 m
2
in multifamily houses were built.
Majority of the stock was built in Skopje and the other in a few other bigger towns. This
situation imposes to answer two primer questions:
a) What to do with it and how to do it?
b) How to sustain, reuse and make them dissent place for living with good market value?
Before to answer these questions, we have to learn something from that experience. Namely, by
braking with traditional memory and neglecting the values of traditional living concept, this
radical change normally produced complexity of social and cultural implications. In addition to
this, in the last 14 years Republic of Macedonia, going through transitional period, faced
specific social, economical and political problems too. In such a situation, the most serious
problem is how to convert still on going process of unskilled and elemental building own
way undertaking done by the tenants them selves out of any control. The pressure to get some
extra space in existing buildings together with insatiable demand to get (buy) living space in
the big towns, stimulate private entrepreneurs to abuse the situation. They focus their interest in
building new flats creating an surplus of more than 65.000 flats. By condensed the living
environment in the towns sometime by means of demolishing some of the worthy architectural
heritage. In such situation very few people are interested in buying (even very cheep) flat in
older buildings, primarily because of their neglected condition and appearance beside their
external commodity and still comfortable surrounding. (Figure 12,13)
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 201
Figure 12, 13
Other serous problem could emerge due to the fact that almost entire fund of so called
government flats in multi-storey family houses (more than 56.000 flats!) have been sold to
the tenants in early 90s for incomprehensible low prices (3-5% of their real value!). With this
wrong (and pure political) step the government and the institutions in charge incapacitated the
possibility to rise a solid financial resources for a possible reconstruction and maintenance to
this significant building stock. They simply didnt focus their interest toward this important
asset and public property even as a possible basic generator for new building reproduction.
In the meant time, some of the former tenants and overnight owners of those flats, thanks to
their better position in the former socialist society, have already bought second one or built
their own house. Now they are selling the gratis government flat (or flats!) for 50-80 % of real
market value making fast profit. Later, they invest the money in new building joint venture
phenomenon; flats just for rent. This is a kind of magic wand to get rich overnight in the period
of transition. This phenomenon produced a kind of new building business out of any control.
Thus, the new private investors are not interested any more in reconstructing the existing old
buildings, built even in very attractive sites. They focus their interest in usurping the rest of
inbuilt land or free space in central urban areas to build new flats creating serous urban problem
such as unnecessary condensed space and overpopulation to the exiting urban matrix, and
serious disturbances to the living environment.
On the other hand, the former tenants, usually ordinary working people now on social welfare
or jobless, couldnt do this machination because the government flats theyve got were the only
satisfaction for their hard labor in the former socialist society. Actually, they are the ones who
need bigger or extra flat for their already adult children but cant afford it. To meet this urgent
demand, they are trying to reconstruct or to extend some how their tiny flats their own way,
out of any control and usually unskilled, to extend the flats they often abuse the regulations at
the beginning by adding to their flat an extra balcony. Certainly, later they convert it in an extra
room or so. This situation produces later serious problems into the living environment, not only
from architectural or aesthetic point of view but from social and cultural too. (Fig.14-15)
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 202
Figure 14, 15
Some of the tenants living on the top-floor often make unskilled build up to existing flat roof or
hip roofs in order to get more extra space or even an extra flat. But, most serious problem is
when they sometime make changes even to the basic structural system unaware of the danger
and risk in a seismic region such as Macedonia. Hopefully, the local authorities make some
efforts to control this situation but so far the results are minor. (Fig.16-17)
Figure 16, 17
Other serious problem will also emerge due to the pour quality of thermal insulation, unskilled
use of materials, problematic commodity conditions and quality of the living space and
maintenance. (Figure 18-19)
Unfortunately, the consequences of such a situation are evident both within the significant
segment of existing building stock of multi-storey family houses and newly built ones.
Beside this severe reality the situation still offers some opportunities for professional
engagement, for research and applicable projects, employment and productive contribution to
entire economy of the country. To achieve this goal and to give this buildings a new esprit and
reference of decent place for living a specific approach and applicable building and
management methodology are to be introduced. Having in mind the fact that some of the
buildings today are in important locations, close to the city core area, they can regain on their
value and some of them even to convert to good quality buildings. But, in this matter few
professional aspects are to be first taken for serious consideration. First of all, it must be
establish a new management system, different that the one used before and, more important, to
introduce an appropriate financing system in the condition of market economy.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 203
GROUND LEVEL
2.5cm EXISTING
EXTERNAL
MORATR
10-12cm
R.C. SLAB
EXISTING MORTAR
10-12cm
R.C. SLAB
10mm PLASTERBOARD
5mm SYNTHETIC
MORTAR
5cm INSOLATION
3-5cm THERMAL INSULATION
1.5cm EXISTING MORTAR
DOUBLE GLAZED WINDOW
2cm PARQUET
5cm CEMENT SLOGH
PVC FOIL
2cm STYROFOAM
DEMIT
FACADE
10mm PLASTERBOARD
3-5cm THERMAL INSULATION
1.5cm EXISTING MORTAR
2cm PARQUET
5cm CEMENT SLOGH
PVC FOIL
2cm STYROFOAM
2.5cm EXISTING
EXTERNAL
MORATR
5mm SYNTHETIC
MORTAR
5cm INSOLATION
DEMIT
FACADE
5cm THERMAL INSULATION
DOUBLE GLAZED WINDOW
.5cm EXTERNAL
MORATR
GROUND FLOOR
LEVEL
GROUND LEVEL
.5cm EXTERNAL
MORATR
12cm BRICKWORK
1.5cm INTERNAL MORTAR
ORDINARY FLOOR
ORDINARY
FLOOR
NEGATIVE THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY (N.T.C.)
(N.T.C.)
(N.T.C.)
(N.T.C.)
(N.T.C.)
10-12cm R.C. SLAB
1.5cm CEILLING MORTAR
SINGLE GLAZED WINDOW
10-12cm R.C. SLAB
10-12cm R.C. PARAPET
1.5cm INTERNAL MORTAR
SINGLE GLAZED WINDOW
Figure 18: Unskilled intervention. Figure 19: Proper intervention.
Also, the entire undertaking must be strictly controlled and creatively completed in order to
offer different possibilities and options of choice both for tenants and for future customers.
2 TOPICS, QUALITY OF THE POST-WAR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING STOCK
On the C-16 Meetings in Delft and Ferrara were presented papers focusing the attention on
some general information regarding State of the art and some preliminary possible solution to
improve the quality of physical and living comfort in the existing multi-family houses built in
Macedonia in 50s and 60s. In that respect the interest was aimed to two typical settlements in
built in Skopje in that period; the first one called Prolet built in 50s and the second one called
Karpos III built after the earthquake in 1963.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 204
Within this consideration few important questions that could impose certain framework for
professional approach and applied methodology were raised in other to analyze specific
problems related to architectural and urban aspects, social and cultural as well as physical and
structural ones. Some of the above mentioned aspects were subject of consideration at Berlin C-
16 Meeting
2.1 Architectural and Urban aspects
Residential settlement Prolet
This settlement was planned on the outskirts of Skopje as a typical segment of the new
residential working class settlement zone planned for workers and their families. The
positioning of the settlement was supposed on the idea to be close to the Skopje Tobacco
factory to the south-west and to the commercial canning and food processing industry to the east
The settlement was planned for around 1000-1200 tenants. Now 50 years after, it is almost part
of Skopje central area, close to the new complex of the Skopje Transportation Center (Railway
station, Inter-city bus station and Central Post Office. (Fig. 20-21-22)
Figure 20: Residential settlement Prolet, Site Plan; Figure 21: Composition;
Figure 22: Plan layout
Prolet settlement consists of three main special units;
a) Collective multi-residential area 312 + 72 flats (Total 384 flats);
b) Area of individual residential houses (mainly double houses);
c) Public area (schools, playgrounds, services and retail);
The urban planning was supposed on a simple scheme of 13 + 2 four-storey residential gable
roof blocks arranged south-east north-west alternating between four small parallel service
streets connected to a secondary street on the north-west. Within the original urban planning
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 205
there wasnt almost any car-park space for the residents. Prolet was planned just for living
equipped with basic urban infrastructure: narrow service streets and foot paths, open areas with
basic facilities (usually play grounds for children) and modest landscaping. Hopefully, from
present point of view Prolet still looks considerably comfortable residential settlement with a
possibility to be successfully restored and improved.
Later, in 60s and 70s some modifications have been done and yet they couldnt meet the real
and permanently growing demand for car-parking. Some of the residents abused the situation
and started building their own garages on the vacant land in-between the residential blocks
implicating serious damages to the landscape and wider environment. Done poorly and
improperly, these provisory now looks ugly and devastating and contributes significantly to the
general pour appearance of the settlement. Aside from illegally built garages the rest of the open
areas looks deserted and lawns are with few neglected trees and bushes.The north-west corner
of the settlement wasnt realized completely probably because of some problems that appeared
with the actual land lords. Only two blocks were built at that time. (Fig 23-24)
Figure 23, 24
Residential settlement Karpos III
Karpos III was built 1964-66 on a block of land of around 223.000 m
2
and consists of five
basic spatial units:)
1. Two residential block units with arranged north-east and north-west in between the four main
and secondary streets and eight small, internal, orthogonal service street (127.500m
2
)
2. Primary school alternating between the residential units 26.196 m
2
)
3. Residential block unit built in R.C. Skeleton system 34.800 m
2
)
4. Kindergarten 12.000 m
2
)
5. High school (21.800 m
2
)
Residential units were designed and built in a fully prefabricated Karpos-system with total of
1344 flats (34.672 m
2
). Residential blocks consists of one to three bedroom flats of an average
size of around 60 m
2
(31,50 m
2
- 84,oo m
2
). (Fig. 25-26)
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 206
Figure 25: Residential settlement Karpos III, Site Plan; Figure 26: Layout
There were two different types of residential blocks:
Type A: Four storey residential block (34.38 m x 11,82 m in layout) consisting of 24 flats of
different size or 20 (R. b.) x 24 = 480 flats
Type B: Four storey residential block (59.0 m x 11.82 m in layout) consisting of 48 flats or 18
(R. b.) x 48 = 864 flats
Beside the fact that Karpos III was also designed just for living with modestly urban
infrastructure too the original urban planning offered certain percentage (18 %) of two type car-
parks:
Type A: Separate garage-car-park units (8- 13 cars per R. b. or total of 45);
Type B: Open car-parks (around 45 cars) for whole settlement. (Figures 27-28)
Figure 27, 28
Certainly, this was far of being satisfying for a settlement of 1344 flats (4500 residents). This
problem later produced abuse of open areas and landscaping for car parks.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 207
2.1.3 Aesthetic aspects
Residential buildings built in 50s and 60 were of modest design value which is quite
understandable. Their general aesthetic expression corresponds to the time they were built.
Practically, there is no significant architectural decoration or specially designed details,
ornaments or so. They express pure, simple but frank architecture, with no claims or aspirations
to be too likable. Usually designed as single four level residential blocks arranged orthogonally
with gable roofs, small balconies and staircases, these building nevertheless fit well into the
environment. Facades are treated with external mortar, usually white or grey and sometime
yellow painted. Roofs are covered with red color ceramic tiles or grey salinity.
2.1.4 Functional aspects
These settlements even nowadays look pretty comfortable and functional. Usually built away
from big and busy communications, surrounded with small secondary and service streets and lot
of footpaths, they still could offer god living quality. However, narrow streets and evident
shortage of car parks is serious disadvantage now.
Functionally, the flats are based on simple design mostly as one to three bedroom units with
strictly integrated kitchen with dining room, usually with one bathroom and small store room.
On each floor there are usually two to three flats; two typical or similar ones (50-70 m
2
) and a
smaller one (studio or one bedroom flat). Due to the internal structural walls flexibility is
reduced to the certain extend.
2.1.5 Accessibility
This settlements are not dense populated and consist of buildings not higher than 12 m with
pretty well sized open areas between the residential blocks. Thus, they look quite accessible and
simple to communicate
2.1.6 Environmental aspects
Due to low density (120-150 residents/ha) and well planned open areas between the residential
blocks (25-27m
2
per resident) most of the settlements sustained the quality of their original
environmental capacity. Unfortunately, some later interventions (illegally built garages and
other extensions) and general negligence for the landscape and urban facilities gave this
settlement unpleasant appearance. However, this is relatively easy solvable problem in a future
rehabilitation and reconstruction
Certainly, the most serious problem is the enormous number of illegal and unskilled extensions
done to the buildings both from outside and inside. This will for sure create insolvable problems
in a future rehabilitation or environmental improvement.
2.2 Social and cultural aspects
2.2.1 Urban planning facilities
It must be said that the settlements built in 50s and 60s dont satisfy contemporary planning
standards. Lack of even an average quality of urban facilities and especially joint facilities such
as small shops, art and common facilities, playgrounds, urban signature and so on is one of the
most serious problems which needs to be seriously considered before to start with any
conceivable and comprehensive rehabilitation and reconstruction.
2.2.2 Social aspects
Left on the margins in the society of transition where interest of many individuals, private
business, inert, weak and hesitant institutions are focused on some instant projects, the
settlements build in 50s and 60s slowly but surely are losing the battle for surviving and
transforming into descent places for living.
On one side, some strange changes out of control are going on in these settlements implicating
serious social, cultural, personal and collective identity decay of their residents within the
dynamically transforming society on the other side. This could be the second most serious
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 208
problem in a future eventual rehabilitation. Both, cultural and identity rehabilitation could be the
most critical one beside the technical one.
2.3 Physical aspects
It can be said that thermal insulation in the multifamily houses until 70s (the first global energy
crises) in Republic of Macedonia was not a subject of any serious consideration. Practically,
within this period all residential buildings (multifamily or single ones) lack thermal insulation
which generally implicates some other, more or less, serious physical handicaps such as high
coefficient of thermal conductivity (Ct=1-15), significant heating losses, many thermal bridges,
moisture, and energy unfits. In regard to this, serious thermal reconstruction projects for proper
energy efficiency are to be made and this is going to be the most critical and expensive part in
the eventual future improvement of the quality of urban building envelope to the settlements
built in 50s, 60s and 70s. First of all, within this projects, contemporary heating systems, local
or central, must be introduced beside the new thermal insulation and protection to the buildings
(both from outside or inside as well as to the roofs and basements). Also, an inevitable
replacement to all windows must be done. Lucky enough, it is not necessary to intervene much
in regard to noise insulation because of heavy masonry both of the external walls and dividing
ones between the flats.
The problem of daylight and sun incomes into the dwellings as very important factors of
commodity and health could be improved by windows replacement as mentioned above.
2.4 Structural aspects
The building practice of 50-60s used two types of structural systems.
A) Bearing walls constructed of solid brick without RC belt courses
B) Bearing walls constructed of solid bricks with horizontal RC belt courses
Bearing walls constructed of solid brick in lime or cement lime mortar were arranged in
longitudinal, transverse or both orthogonal directions. The walls are partially inter-connected by
timber beams or strengthened and inter-connected by horizontal RC belt courses at the floor
level. The structure was founded on strip foundation constructed of stone or in concrete. The
slabs were constructed of wood or cast/pre cast RC ribbed type . The roof structures are made
of timber covered with ceramic tiles.
The unskilled interventions that later occurred (enlargement, extensions, build up roofs..) can
create serious structural problems having on mind that are built in different periods and
materials, unskilled structural systems and knowledge. However, the masonry structures are the
ones that can suffer large failure and heavy structural damage in case of a possible future
earthquake.
2.4.1 Damages
Due to the ravages of time, improper maintenance and design/performance defects in the course
of time, both types of structures have suffered different extent of damage and require proper
maintenance, i.e., increase of seismic resistance to the level compliant with the legislative
regulations. This is particularly true for structures constructed prior to the effectuation of the
Rulebook on Construction of High-rises in Seismically Prone Areas.
2.4.2 Repair and Strengthening
The usual mode of repair of damaged walls is injection, strengthening by use of RC jackets,
replacement of timber floor structures by flat RC slabs as well as their interconnection in both
orthogonal directions. This gives rise to a quite extensive modification of the characteristics of
the structure for the purpose of sustaining external and static and dynamic loads.
State of the Art: F.Y.R. of Macedonia 209
Later constructed structures by use of reinforced concrete are characterized by a different degree
of safety against expected seismic effects, depending on the level of knowledge of the design
engineer. The earthquakes that have occurred and have inflicted heavy structural damage and
loss of human lives point out that a step forward should be taken in analysis. This step is
consideration of the dynamic response of the structure to actual seismic effects expected at the
considered site.
CONCLUSIONS
Since 75% of the dwelling stock in R. of Macedonia has been built after 60s (1963), it is fairly
young and in a relatively good shape. The majority of the stock (60-62%) is realized in a
different type of family houses. The rest (38-40%) is realized in multi-family residential
buildings. Also, it can be mentioned that 98-99% of the stock is private and owned by the
tenants. This situation can later create certain problems in terms of improving or revitalizing the
existing urban envelope especially in the settlements built in 50s and early 60s where a serious
and comprehensive rehabilitation is immanent
Other serious problem can emerge due to specific social, economical and political problems in
society going through critical transitional period (since 1991) where dramatic changes occurred.
First of all, there is the fact that almost entire stock of so called government flats in multistory
family houses have been sold to the tenants for incomprehensible low prices. In a situation of
pressure to get some extra living space the tenants, usually jobless or in a social welfare
working class people, started to do unskilled extensions and changes to the flats creating
serious problems into living environment, energy performance, urban planning. All this
situations however will limit future possible interventions or improvements.
However, this severe reality still offers some opportunities for professional engagement in terms
of applicable projects to convert these settlement into decent places for living
REFERENCES
(1) State Statistic Bureau of Republic of Macedonia, Statistic Catalogue-2002 Census Statistic
Information, web-site: www.stat.gov.mk
(2) Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, International Conference Book, 1999, Habitat-The Needs, Possibilities and
Perspectives
(3) Stojkov,T. 1999, Some aspects of transitional housing policy in R .of Macedonia
(4) Filipovski, L, .Stojkov, T. 1982; Analysis of thermal insulation in multi residential settlement
Aerodrom, Skopje
(5) Pljakoski, D. Stojkov, T. 1979, Materials in Inherited Architecture
(6) Cipan, B. 2005, Tradition and modernity in architecture
(7) Stojkov, T. 2004, The housing construction in Macedonia
(8) Stojkov, T. 2003, Review of some practical solutions in improving the quality of multi-storey family
houses built in R. of Macedonia in 50s and 60s
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Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
211
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
The Maltese Archipelago comprises two inhabited islands and a number of smaller uninhabited
ones, the size of a sesame seed on the world map, located in the centre of the Mediterranean.
Malta and Gozo having a population verging to 400,000 with an annual increase of around 0.8%
per annum [1], classifies the Island State as one of the most densely populated countries in the
world. With a total land area of 246 sq. km or a population density of 1.85 persons per sq.km,
no wonder land is at a premium in Malta [2]. Land availability, the price of land, a bloated real
estate market, distaste for renting, building and development permits, planning policies, social
housing policies and public attitudes and lifestyles, all have contributed to the state of the art in
housing accommodation as we know it today.
Residential accommodation, both private and public, is influenced by parameters beyond the
most basic need of a physical shelter. Be it low-cost, low-rent social housing or the elite up-
market low-density private property, both extremes are admittedly associated with the familys
income bracket. However the whole residential sector owes its present status to various
characteristics. These are principally rooted in social, economic and cultural influences, but
moreover Maltas history, its built form and fabric and its built environment.
The basic rational laws of supply and demand apply to almost all sectors of the economy.
Housing in the building industry is but one of them. An adequate supply of residential units
establishes the price of dwelling units on the market. Such a supply normally comprises units
for private outright sale, private renting or social subsidized housing. The stability of self-
regulated price control depends on a balanced availability of all such types of accommodation.
If the supply in one of these sectors is diminished for one reason or other, then the price in the
other allied sectors increases to accommodate demand, stemming an imbalance in the open
market [3]. In Maltas small but highly volatile property market this is constantly happening
today due to five prime factors.
State of the Art: Malta
Vincent M. Buhagiar
University of Malta, Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering, Department of Architecture & Urban
Design
ABSTRACT: This paper gives an overview of the present status of residential urban built form
since the rebuilding of post-war Malta. It inter-relates various architectural aspects namely the
main typologies, evolution of local building technology, housing policy, rent laws as well as
the social dimension. An outline of ruling foreign influence on the aesthetic quality of todays
historic edifices is given, also highlighting the transposition from farmhouse to townhouse to
todays terraced houses and residential blocks. An emphasis is also placed on the general built
environment, proposing a general way forward for improving the thermal performance of the
building envelope itself. Although seemingly limited to the physical aspect, however this paper
does not stop at the envelope itself. Moreover it gives an overview of past attitudes versus
modern trends towards acquiring property in Malta in the context of todays lifestyle and
demographic changes, on the threshold of the 21
st
century.
State of the Art: Malta 212
The major prime influential factor relates to the rental market. Private renting is based on
outdated rent laws where right of tenancy, stemming from a post-war social approach, is still a
priority, thus inhibiting landlords from developing and renting property. In most village cores in
Malta and Gozo there is a substantial amount of older character houses left derelict and vacant
for lack of maintenance and fear of being permanently occupied by tenants.
A second factor is the influence of available social accommodation, which has gradually
changed polarity over the last two decades or so: Government housing policy is shifting from
providing low rent social housing to subsidized freehold sale of apartments. This liberates the
Authorities from the daunting task of follow-up maintenance and legal disputes with tenants,
which taxes the limited human and financial resources. The cost of land and its development is
increasing for the Government too as it has to compensate for requisitioned land at open market
prices. Admittedly, according to recent published statistics [4], there is an ever-diminishing
number of families living below the poverty line, signaling an improvement in the standard of
living.
A third emerging dimension is the increase in demand for property in Malta by foreigners,
especially since now the sovereign Islands have become a full member of the European Union.
Apart from the ever high percentage of British expatriates living in Malta, stemming from
strong ties between the two countries, a wider blend of nationalities are interested in property in
Malta, today even beyond the new boundaries of an enlarged Europe, from Russia to South
Africa and Australia, including returned immigrants.
Land availability for development is the fourth factor. Considering Maltas small size and the
limited land resource, combined with tight land development policies and a militating national
planning authority, it is no wonder that land offered for development is also diminishing in
supply. Hence today we see a shift from the former single plot-owner developer-user scene into
a new scenario, where due to increase in land costs (when available), contractor-developer
partnerships are forming to build smaller units to maximize land use (& profits), now being sold
as maisonettes and apartments in the free-end open property market. With this scarcity of land a
new scenario is emerging: old and even relatively new terraced houses, built circa 15-20 years
ago are being sold to such entrepreneurs for demolition and redevelopment into smaller units for
todays reality of smaller families, singles lifestyles and co-habitation.
Loans are another major influence affecting the cost (and affordability) of residential building
stock in Malta. Perhaps sparked off by the preceding two factors as well as the
internationalisation of banking practices within Maltese shores, local banks have today shifted
their loans business from a purely commercial nature in the 1960s and 1970s to a more domestic
sector oriented approach. Home loans schemes offering low mortgage interest rates and
incentives are being continuously launched with vigorous competitive marketing campaigns
between the four local banks. All offer attractive financial packages for young couples, paying
the loan over their entire working lifetime, thus pushing affordable easy payment terms into
an upper price bracket for preferred smaller property but possibly highly finished as modern
standards or the Johnsons dictate. In some instances the loan facility requires such a high
hypothec value (property security) that the couple would have to call up their parents residence
or other secured capital as bank security for the loan. This fifth factor is - in many ways -
verging towards promoting unafforded luxuries [5].
Therefore the influence of this penta-faceted predicament [rent laws, diminishing availability of
social housing, foreigners buying Malta, land supply/demand and loan schemes] have all had a
significant combined effect on supply and demand for property in the Maltese islands. As a
result market prices have increased steadily but more significantly over the last decade. This has
in turn diminished supply and pushed down affordability for the average wage-earner in the
Maltese community.
State of the Art: Malta 213
1.1 Data related to building periods
British Colonialism in Malta lasting for over 100 years (1802-1964), left its deep-rooted
influence on the way we build today, on the threshold of the 21
st
century. British rule in both the
West Indies and India lasted over a century, which in turn influenced the way they perceived
buildings of utility and comfort in warm climates, particularly housing forms. No wonder the
British brought with them a baggage of preconceived ideas on built form. In Malta these were
further refined with the influences of the abundant indigenous building material, globigerina
limestone and vernacular architecture, in the context of a Mediterranean climate. In fact in
Malta colonial architecture compares quite closely with Indian architecture. An evaluation of
styles and buildings by Nilson [6] has revealed that European architecture in India between
1750 and 1850 most architects understood the elements of vernacular architecture for climatic
control and sieved through them to adopt the most practical ones for an imported European style
in the colony.
With the termination of the British base in Malta in 1979 these were handed over to the
Government of Malta and were converted almost overnight into social housing for low-income
Maltese communities. These were not exactly an expected extension of established layouts, with
some nave misconceptions on climatic control and the lack of segregation between pedestrian
and vehicular traffic. Figs 2, 3 refer.
Figures 2,3: Mtarfa extension of former British Residential quarters: vehicular penetration
1.2 Description of main typologies
Early planning typology was principally dictated by rural lifestyle and basic functionality, also
based on cart and mule typology for circulation. Animal livestock, tool shed, crop store and all
farming accessories were located at ground floor, all accessible through a central courtyard. The
later was used both for leisure as well as work for the odd farming preparation work in after
hours (periods of excess sunshine or cold spells). The familys habitable spaces were located at
first floor, overlying the same utility rooms. Therefore the farmer felt secure with all his
belongings under one roof, contained in an enclosed more or less square-shaped plot, secure and
well sheltered from the elements. There was eventually an organic growth of the farm building,
depending on diversity of use, family size, livestock and availability of adjacent land. The
traditional Maltese farmhouse was therefore a direct response to the farmers way of life. A
typical farmhouse layout, isometric view and actual building are shown in Figure 4.
The official set-up of Parishes as villages was the first step to mould the change from rural to
urban communities. In architectural terms there was a similar gradual transition. In general
planning terms the townhouse was an evolution from the farmhouse, although now dictated by
strict parallel 3
rd
party wall boundary lines, and a more formal faade aligning a street. This was
totally contrasting to the freestyle planning, unregulated by property boundaries, since the
farmer typically built his own abode on the fringes of his own tilled land, attempting to
reinforce his presence on the land.
State of the Art: Malta 214
Figure 4: Typical farmhouse layout, isometric view and actual building, Gharb, Gozo.
Figure 5: Mdina Cathedral dominating the town square and residential buildings.
In the townhouse an attempt was made at emulating an architectural style that was not too
dissimilar from the Church, typically Baroque with touches of Neo-Classical architectural
styles. This resulted in aesthetic proportions and ornamental dcor that were wide and vertical
as opposed to the former simple cubic forms. The wealthier members of the rural communities
who may have laid down their tools earlier, often moved to prime sites closer to the influential
village square. This was typically dominated by the large scale motherly bosom of the church
dome, also symbolically beaming down a Catholic maternal protection over its people. Fig. 5
depicts this in an aerial view of Mdina.
In the early 20
th
century traditional influences further changed radically. Although todays
housing stock is primarily composed of terraced houses, this was only a later development of
the townhouse, then governed by different forms of legislation detailed later in section 1.4 in
this paper. The terraced house is certainly not representative of traditional Maltese architecture,
as it is the direct influence of British Rule in Malta between 1802 1964. The evolution form
the farmhouse into the townhouse is graphically shown in Figures 6,7 & 8.
1.3 Description of main technologies
Vernacular architecture in Malta, as in most countries departed from the basic needs of rural
communities, having to struggle for surviving off the land, encountering the elements year in
year out, as well as any possibility of piracy or sabotaging their daily simple life, based on needs
more than on wants of modern society. Their buildings were truly architecture without
architects as they made the best use of available knowledge of the climate, terrain topography
and available building materials.
State of the Art: Malta 215
Figures 6, 7: Typical alleyway and evolving streetscape aligned farmhouse cum townhouse.
Figure 8: Evolution of farmhouse to townhouse in three phases
In Malta, where there is no forestation to serve as a timber source, or rivers as a transportation
mode, early Maltese farmers built their dwellings through wit and perseverance, investing much
hardship for excavating, transporting and erecting the local indigenous material, globigerina
limestone, commonly called, franka stone.
Globigerina limestone was always an abundant indigenous material in the Maltese Islands,
although not so much today. It has always been considered to be Maltas only natural
underground (quarried) resource since no other relevant minerals have ever been excavated. It is
soft and malleable yet robust and long-weathering, giving it a strong aesthetic appeal through its
yellow-ochre to rosy colour and texture. Ever since the Knights of the Order of St. John set eyes
on it as an ideal building material it has never faded in importance in the local building industry.
Early Monolithic Construction Techniques
Malta has very limited natural resources. This is due to its size and geology. The Islands are
barren of minerals and natural fossil fuels, as oil drilling has confirmed. Naturally occurring
building materials are non-existent, except for its globigerina limestone, locally termed 'franka'
stone. This is almost unique in the Mediterranean, except for the Dalmatian coast. It has always
been the sole natural contributor to the building industry and its rich ornate architecture. It is
quarried in horizontal bedding planes, using circular saws to cut blocks of 270 x 230 x 610mm.
Fig. 9 refers.
State of the Art: Malta 216
Figure 9: Quarried stone still in the quarry and the finished product, Grandmasters Palace in Valletta
The Islands lack of other natural resources has contributed towards the development of certain
natural basic tangent trades, such as structural masonry, flagstone finishes and stone sculpture.
Other indigenous trades using the local stone range from fishing to farming, used as anchors and
weights respectively.
1.4 Housing Policy
The Maltese Islands were subjected to different sets of legislation, formulated under various
subjugators and eventually the Maltese Government itself. In consideration of building periods,
trends and policies, important contributions in this sector were made by King, M. [7] and
Camilleri, A. [8]. These sum up the legislation giving the main thrust to housing policies in
post-war Malta. The more important milestones are outlined here:
The Maltese Rent Laws, 1947
The rent laws were enacted following the aftermath of World War II (1939-1945) as part of a
major reconstruction programme. They were meant to be a temporary measure, enabling
government to expropriate any vacant house and allocate it to third parties, primarily for
humanitarian purposes. The rent was based on the standard of living prevalent in those job-
depressed post-war days. In an attempt to address the dire national need of promoting new
families and a stable labour force, housing accommodation was deemed to be a social necessity
more than a commodity. Hence the tenant was practically immune to the landlords request for
rent increase or even re-possession of his own property. Adding insult to injury, any repairs and
maintenance were to be borne by the same landlord, with potential claims for a rent increase
regulated strictly by the purposely set-up Rent Regulation Board.
The Atkinson Report, 1958
Among other items this highlighted deficiencies in the building trade and recommended
alternative building methods, including the use of proper stone blocks instead of rubble-wall
style of building. This kicked off a new approach to quarrying with novel stone-cutting
techniques. It also suggested an increase in the rate of house-building from 1000 to 1500 houses
per annum, in the process also recommending that the building industry should be more
commercialized, making it more profitable for private enterprise to embark on building
programmes too. Perhaps this is in close proximity to what is today being promoted as private-
public partnership.
State of the Art: Malta 217
Reconditioning of Standard Housing Scheme, 1957
Due a considerable amount of houses considered sub-standard this scheme provided financial
support to landlords to improve or introduce sanitary facilities and enhance ventilation modes
by enlarging windows. Capital expenditure was also invested to ameliorate infrastructural
services of water, electricity and public sewage to replace the cesspit.
Special Development Areas Bill, 1956
The move from the improvement of individual dwelling units to special land development was
upgraded to a national priority through this bill enacted in 1956. The government of the day felt
the need to provide employment for the Maltese labour force by earmarking selected areas for
industrial and tourism development among others.
Housing Policy & the Housing Census, 1957
In order to sensitize future policies to slum areas, a population census was carried out. A report
published in 1957 revealed that Valletta had exceeded all other areas with 755 units, almost
double that of the second listed, Birkirkara with 436 dwellings. The report, among other facts,
revealed that the rate of growth of the population was slowing down between 1948-1957,
typically due to a lower birth rate and a lower mortality rate too. Due to the depression in post
war days, emigration was tantamount to loss of the male labour force on the Islands. The
population in 1957 stood at just under 320,000.
Housing (Decontrol) Emergency Ordinance, 1959
Following claims that the building industry was being clamped down by the unpopular rent
restriction, the British Legislators of the day (caretaker government between May 1958-
December 1961) drafted a housing decontrol ordinance as an emergency measure. It stipulated
that houses built after March 1959 or owner-occupied to that date were decontrolled. This meant
that decontrolled dwellings were not subject to requisitioning by Government for any public
use, including social housing. The new law classified rented building in three categories: those
built prior to March 1939, those built between March 1939 and April 1959 and those built
thereafter. Today this is considered as a missed opportunity to revise the Rent Laws to balance
landlords and tenants rights and to achieve better relationships between the two parties,
curtailing legal disputes which form the majority of dragging civil court cases. This legislation
did however give the required boost to the building industry. It further proved that the private
developer had a contribution to make in this respect. This further developed into the building
boom of the early 1960s, which eventually shaped the urban built envelope still to come.
Between 1980-1986 more than 7,000 plots were given out by Government to prospective
engaged couples, under various Home Ownership Schemes and Building Development
Areas. The Church authorities followed suite did the same with its own inherited property.
On the Threshold of the 21st Century
Housing Authority Policy to date is to refurbish dilapidated property possibly to reinstate the
same tenants under a new lease agreement with marginal rent increase respecting the annual
C.O.L.A. (Cost of Living Allowance), typically standing at 15% per annum. Alternatively if the
block is dilapidated it is typically demolished to be rebuilt to modern design standards. These
are then sold in the free-end open market by public tender bidding at a subsidized rate.
Providing social housing by governments is today generally affected by land scarcity and
exorbitant prices, since Government can no longer requisition, but has to compensate at open
market prices.
Banks have risen well to this situation. Home loans are the prime mover of property deals today,
especially for first time buyers, typically young couples. There is constant advertising about an
ever-lower interest rate charged by leading banks in an aggressive and volatile competitive loan
market for purchased property, since rented accommodation is not so popular as a permanent
abode. These discourage savings by newly formed families, binding a good portion of their
salary for a good 30-40 years until retirement simply to own the house or maisonette they live
State of the Art: Malta 218
in. Loan period is now spreading over offsprings lifetime. Loan hypothec is now also roping in
parents property (tied down for a number of years) due to higher property prices and a more up
market unit being sought after by the couple.
This in turn has a knock down effect on mobility by anchoring a family to one, possibly large
abode, discouraging the typical three-phase family rotation: from a single bedroom flat to a
two/three bedroom maisonette and back to a one bedroom residence, for young working
couples, a growing family and a retired couple respectively.
2 TOPICS, QUALITY OF THE POST-WAR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING STOCK
The post-war multi-family (mixed and single unit) housing stock consisted of four main periods,
as classified by Camilleri in his review of post-war housing trends. These namely included: The
immediate post-war period (1943-1955), the transition period (1955-1962), Post-Independence
Malta (1962-1971) and Malta as a Republic (1971-1981). Although seemingly only politico-
legislative periods, these cannot be divorced from architectural and urban design aspects, today
forming part of our built urban fabric.
2.1 Architectural and Urban Design Aspects
Setting the record straight from the onset, Malta has no high-rise residential blocks when
compared to European standards. Such housing stock is never in excess of four floors and these
were even designed to be part of a mixed development scheme layout, comprising units of two
storey houses and flats. The early sixties saw the beginning of such layouts in Santa Lucia, San
Gwann and Qormi among others. Fig. 13 depicts such a typical streetscape mix in Qormi.
Figure 13: Mix of four and two storey housing in Qormi, Malta.
The architecture consisted mainly of good-sized open terraces, either with a setback from the
main faade or simply a projection onto the street, as per fig.13, exploiting the summer breeze.
Treatment of openings was mainly modest with a general mix of concrete and stone. All walls
were load-bearing with no frame structures necessary.
On an urban design layout, open spaces were deemed to be the lungs of such communities
where they not only breathe fresh air but also interact and mingle, socializing across
generations. Planning legislation produced master plans towards this end. In his M. Arch
dissertation Homes and People, Galea, J.M. [9] highlights the importance of such open spaces
where communities are enticed to seek alternatives for, not only ameliorating their abode, but
moreover to enhance the quality of outdoor spaces. Galea also emphasizes the importance of a
good quality environment beyond the doorstep, focusing specifically on transitional spaces
State of the Art: Malta 219
between the streets and the communal habitat, commonly termed the neighborhood. This
promoted self-help, self maintained notion of upkeeping open spaces, steering away from
vandalism and theft, today known as the neighbourhood watch.
Although some may not have been so successful, in the sense that they intrqoduced concepts of
wide spaces for both open visibility and vigilance as well as vehicular access, the latter
considered equitable with comfort and material luxury. Today we realize with dismay how
negative such open spaces were in promoting car intrusion to almost every area of the
neighbourhood, in the process destroying every intimate pedestrian haven of each village core.
This was ideal for providing that dash of shelter from solar and wind exposure on regular
pedestrian errands downtown. Such examples illustrate this unprecedented destruction of village
cores, claiming the step up form village to town (e.g.s: Siggiewi & Zurrieq). In fact today the
more sensible communities are reverting to older village cores seeking houses of character with
a more introvert lifestyle, away from the former syndicate eyes behind louvered windows.
Typical open spaces are shown in figures 14, 15,16 showing broadways, today replacing the
cart and mule typology of remissa arched doorways to garage typology for the family vehicle.
Today two units per family are considered as just adequate in car ownership standards, if not a
minimum. This is still a dominant parameter, prevalent to this very day, which has molded our
urban built environment.
Figures. 14, 15: old and new open urban spaces, making way for the car
Figures 16,17: isolated recreational areas on the outskirts of social housing
State of the Art: Malta 220
2.2 Social and cultural aspects
Urban/neighbourhood planning/facilities
No urban core can last long without the existence of stable residential areas in proximity to the
town centre or civic spaces. This is true of most towns and villages in Malta where the recipe of
unity in the earlier villages was the town square and the facilities it supported, beyond business
prosperity into social and cultural unity: it is the civic sense of civilised society which binds it.
In turn the binding, if strong enough, also strengthens the individual families themselves. This
may be said of smaller earlier Maltese communities, often grounded to one village in both
childhood and marital life. Today this has changed considerably especially with the introduction
of post-war housing estates, increase in mobility, and not so close family ties. This is perhaps
what is causing the loss of what was termed as the friendly neighbourhood.
2.2.1 Social anonymity/lack of identity/ownership
The lack of identity was lost with the intrusion of the car in almost all public spaces, often
ripping villages apart, for the sake of commodity. Property ownership has become almost
synonymous with vehicle ownership, where the car one drives becomes another status symbol
to be seen by all the community. Ball games and informal childhood events in the quasi-
pedestrian streets have become history, with the provision of playing fields as isolated islands
for grandparents and offspring, so typical of multi-family residential building stock in Malta.
2.2.2 Social structure of neighbourhood/building/refurbishment
Demographic growth and economic activity are the principal motors behind this rate of increase
in built up area [10]. There is also the trend that to demonstrate an improvement in his standard
of living (better job, salary increase or other material gain) the bread-winner has to demonstrate
this within the social stratum by changing home or possibly building a new one in a more
upmarket locality. This contributed to the (severe) surrender of agricultural land in the two
building booms of the 1960s and 1980s. Admittedly however, the trend is now shifting to
refurbishing old dwellings rather than going for new build, possibly due to the exorbitant cost of
land and the hassle of the construction process itself (given the means are available) [11].
Taking account of land-use Malta is over 20% built up. Although as an absolute value this is
seemingly low, it is relatively high by European standards, standing between 8% and 12%
respectively for northern and southern Europe [12]. Built up area is increasing at an annual rate
of 0.5% p.a., (almost equivalent to building up the area of one Valletta per annum) [13].
Admittedly the last three or four years have seen a slow down of this rate, curbed by the cost of
land and more stringent planning norms, regulated by the only planning control mechanism in
the country, the Malta Environment & Planning Authority. Some (speculators) view the
Authority as a development deterrent but not by many.
2.3 Structural Aspects
Structural and safety aspects are considered of paramount importance particularly for medium to
high-rise apartment blocks. Malta learnt its lesson from post-war reconstruction days when
buildings were built more robust and simpler by employing the use of double leaf masonry and
reinforced concrete monolithic slab cast in situ. Malta is one of the few countries where the
architectural and civil engineering professions are married as one, coined as the Perit, of
Spanish origin. Education and training is such that these two disciplines are not divorced; hence
it comes almost natural that the architects designs a safe and sound building to accomplish his
own architectural achievement. Hence practically all edifices are designed by the architect and
civil engineer en suite, who is governed by a warrant as a license issued by a Warranting Board,
now falling under the Periti Act.
State of the Art: Malta 221
2.3.1 Safety
In Malta health and safety aspects have only gained ground in the last decade. However most
apartment blocks have always had all public safety measures applied to staircases, general
circulation areas and open spaces. Today these are governed by mandatory legislation, in
conformity with EU and international safety standards.
2.3.2 Earthquake/mining/underground traffic
Although Malta was never subjected to any serious earthquakes, yet the Islands are still on the
edge of two dynamic tectonic planes, running just north of north Africa, across the continental
shelf of the central Mediterranean. Today, although not yet mandatory to design for seismic
loading, the structural Eurocodes are used by most structural engineers for standard loading
criteria. No mining or underground traffic exists in Malta.
2.3.3 Accessibility
In Malta it is only recently that an access for all approach was made mandatory through
legislation. Otherwise no public or private housing had any serious consideration for installing
ramps and lifts as standard. These were however installed almost overnight once a disabled
member of the community was identified.
2.4 Physical Aspects
2.4.1 Thermal performance
For an understanding of the fabric response of stone buildings a closer look needs to be taken at
the thermal properties of limestone. The Maltese local stone, unlike brick or block, is a natural
resource, a quarried material. It occurs in bedding planes, in different strata, namely falling
under two general categories, the soft and the hard type of stone. The former type is also
classified as the lower and the upper coraline soft globigerina limestone, which is opaque,
yellow ochre in colour and highly porous.
There is also the hard coraline layer normally verging to white in colour. This material has the
advantage that it is practically impervious to water. It was in fact used for foundations and up to
dado level in the early 20th century for its high density, load-bearing capacity. Its use was
phased out with the onset of the damproof course. It was always more difficult to quarry, found
in limited quantities and needed careful quality selection for structural reasons. In-situ concrete
ousted its structural use, now only popular for hardwearing surfaces and as crushed aggregate
for concrete.
Like any other building material, the soft upper coraline globigerina limestone, locally known as
franka stone, has its strengths and weaknesses. The two basic characteristics influencing its
thermal performance are the material density and its moisture content. Density is influenced by
its nature of occurrence, varying greatly, dependent on its bedding plane. Its moisture content,
also varies, depending on rainfall and wind speed, among other factors: (rendering, mortar
thickness & crust when built). Since both parameters are subject to considerable variations, it is
difficult to calculate an exact value of the thermal conductivity. However, the IHVE guide [14]
identifies variations of 30% occurring in specimens of equal density. Limestone, with a density
of approximately 2,000 kg/m3, for a conductivity k = 1.5 W /m2/ C , then its thermal
resistivity would be 0.67m2C/W.
There is admittedly a lack of knowledge about basic heat transfer mechanisms among
stonemasons and owners alike. Under the new upcoming Building Regulations for Malta
rigorous measures will be introduced to ensure energy conservation in the building industry.
This will be accompanied by an equally important educational campaign, where a guideline
approach is known to be more effective than enforcement through and authoritative
methodology. No thermal insulation in cavities or on flat roofs has been the norm in Malta. This
stems primarily from the fact that although summers are hot, winters are mild with only nominal
need for heating in winter. There was never any need to legislate for insulation so far, but now
State of the Art: Malta 222
with the rapid introduction of air conditioning this will be a must, as dictated by the imminent
introduction of new building regulations. As a member state Malta will also have to comply
with the Energy Directive 2002/91EC, coming into force in January 2006.
2.4.2 Protection against moisture
Located in the centre of the Mediterranean, Malta has a typically humid climate with onshore
currents also bringing in saline spray into the deeper parts of the Islands, considering their small
size. This creates problems in the form of spalling concrete in buildings located within close
proximity to the coast. Marine structures require admixtures and more than adequate cover to
steel reinforcement towards this end.
Rising damp from the limestone and soil terrain is another problem. Buildings, typically built of
local globigerina limestone, due to its high porosity, as outlined above, needs adequate
protection, especially from rising damp. This is achieved by inserting the now traditional
damproof course close to external finished ground floor surfaces. Storm water drains also ensure
discharging of water away from the building or into a purposely-built reservoir, as imposed by
standing legislation since the 16
th
century under the Knights of the Order of St.John.
2.4.3 Noise insulation
Malta has no code of practice or legislation that specifically dictates the use of insulation in
buildings. This is probably because the heavy monolithic masonry walls provide sufficient mass
towards reducing noise between third party walls. Today stringent sound reduction requirements
are being introduced for isolating leisure or semi-industrial facilities from residential units. This
is primarily done by zoning but still specific dB levels apply for certain trades, including hours
of work operations and business hours for entertainment localities.
2.4.4 Daylight/sunshine
As a Mediterranean Island, Malta boasts of its long hours of sunshine, averaging 6 hours daily
all year round. Hence there is undoubtedly an excess rather than a deprivation of it. This
however creates problems of glare and overheating in summer, which is mitigated by carefully
designed shading devices or setbacks in the faade in most of the residential building stock (and
other building types).
2.4.5 Air quality
Although a small Island, once considered pollution free due to quick air dispersion off-shore,
today this is no longer the case with increase in CO
2
emissions. The stems from increase in car
ownership and two major power stations in the south of the Island. In residential quarters the
vehicle is perhaps the only major concern. However families still rely heavily on natural
ventilation in most housing estates, even though air conditioning units have mushroomed
overnight, over the last decade, with almost every other house owning at least one unit.
CONCLUSIONS
Today, over fifty years later, the rent laws are still in force. As a result the owners still cannot
take possession of their own property, even for their own personal use. The tenants, protected by
these laws, continue to pay Lm20, Lm30, possibly up to Lm50 a year (50-125 Euros annually),
for houses in prime areas, including Valletta. Today, in many cases the tenants are better off
financially than the owners themselves. It is only through a slight modification in 1995 that any
property let out to third parties will be governed by a private notarial deed where the landlord
could evict tenants should these be in breach of contract for almost any reason.
Through a householder survey [15] government has declared that there were over 30,000
uninhabited houses out of the present 800,000 dwellings in Malta, although a mere 0.04%, still
significant for a population of over 380,000. Most of these 30,000 are old mansions, passively
left to deteriorate by their owners, who know well enough that if they make even the minimal
State of the Art: Malta 223
repairs, to let out, they would fall victim to the noxious rent laws. Very often such houses of
character, lying within village cores, possess rich architectural features, which crumble with
them as they wither into the ruins of oblivion.
With the eventual removal of these archaic rent laws whenever this crystallizes such
prestigious old mansions could be rendered habitable through refurbishment and re-use, even by
possibly sub-dividing into smaller units, to the tune of sustainable development. Therefore for
the sake of the entire residential building stock, one way of remodeling the urban built
environment is to relinquish the present rent laws and legislate anew in line with todays
modern lifestyle and standard of living.
REFERENCES
[1] Population Census 2002, Central Office of Statistics, Government of Malta, Valletta.
[2] Malta Year Book 2003, De La Salle Brothers Publications, Grima Printing & Publishing Industries,
Marsa, Malta, 2003.
[3] Camilleri, D.H., Housing Affordability in Malta, Housing Afordability Conference, Chamber of
Architects & Civil Engineers and Building Industry Consultative Council, 4
th
November 1999,
Coastline Hotel, Salina, Malta.
[4] Standard of Living Survey 2004, Central Office of Statistics, Government of Malta, Valletta.
[5] Domus Magazine, Domus School of Design, Milan, spring 1995.
[6] Nilson, S., European Architecture in India, 1750-1850, Faber, London, 1968.
[7] King, M. J., Housing in the Maltese Islands, M.Arch Dissertation, University of Malta, 1971.
[8] Camilleri, A., Building Trends and Policies 1943 1981, B.E.& A.(Hons.) Dissertation, University
of Malta, 1981.
[9] Galea, J.M., Homes and People, M.Arch Dissertation, University of Malta, 1975.
[10] Household Survey, Central Office of Statistics, Government of Malta, 1998.
[11] Buhagiar V., Mallia E., The Energy Policy Workgroup, An Energy Policy for Malta - Part One: The
Present Situation., MCST January 1999.
[12] Eurostat, a resume of statistical data of Europe, 1998.
[13] Housing Survey Report, part E, Planning Authority, 1992.
[14] I.H.V.E. Guide, Book A 1992.
[15] Population Census 1996, Central Office of Statistics, Government of Malta, Valletta.
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Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes State of the Art.
M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.)
IOS Press, 2007. 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.
1 OVERVIEW ON THE HOUSING STOCK
Two overwhelming reasons can be accounted for the extensive residential construction that was
carried out in Slovenia during the post-war period.
Firstly, large parts of Slovenian cities were damaged in World War 2. Secondly, after the
war, the accelerated rate of industrialization of the country resulted in increased demand of
workers close to the industrial objects, and consequently the migration of inhabitants from rural
to industrial - urban areas were taking place during that time. During late sixties and early sev-
enties, a new wave of economic migration from the less developed parts of former Yugoslavia
was taking place. It was caused by economic growth resulting in additional working positions
appearing in primary industry as well as in tourism and service industry.
After the Yugoslav policy on travelling and emigration was liberalized in the late sixties, a
small number of Slovenians immigrated to Western European countries, particularly Germany.
This phenomenon, to a minor extent, created additional job opportunities and encouraged the
migration within Yugoslavia as well.
Large residential neighbourhoods were built in that period. The quality of the residential
buildings built in the seventies is fairly good, as the living standard was steadily increasing
while state planned economy present at that time was not exclusively profit-driven.
A substantial part of present days urban building stock was created under these circum-
stances. The basic statistical data related to the existing housing stock in Slovenia, i.e. number
and size of dwellings, and average number of occupants per dwelling is presented in Table 1.
State of the Art: Slovenia
Marjana ijanec Zavrl
ZRMK, Building and Civil Engineering Institute, Ljubljana
Roko. arnic, Jana elih
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
ABSTRACT: The period from 1946 to 1980 was the most intensive in residential building con-
struction in Slovenia. Thus, 61% of all existing residential buildings are from that time and 63%
of dwellings built in that time are located in urban, multi-storey buildings. Roughly half of total
number of dwellings in urban areas has floor space in the range of 45 to 74 m
2
. Typical residen-
tial buildings in Slovenia have either masonry or reinforcement concrete structure. Envelopes of
recently erected buildings are insulated what is not usual case for buildings erected between
1946 and 1980. Residents of dwellings with large open air balconies and terraces tend to enlarge
dwellings by closing them what usually harms architectural appearance of envelope. Interven-
tions in envelopes in many cases may bring the additional strength and earthquake resistance to
entire building. In general, the importance of envelope for aesthetic, structural and functional
aspects of residential building should not be neglected.
State of the Art: Slovenia 226
1.1 Data related to building periods
As already mentioned, during 1945 and 1980, a large percentage of people were migrating to
the urban areas, which together with continuously increasing living standard created an in-
creased demand for new dwellings. New neighbourhoods with repetitive structures were built in
all bigger Slovenian towns.
Typically, the residents of a particular neighbourhood were of the same age and social back-
ground. A survey carried out by the Faculty of architecture of University of Ljubljana published
on web page by Gabrijelcic et al. 2001) shows that even today, in many cases, the original in-
habitants reside in the dwellings of large residential neighbourhoods built in the post-war pe-
riod. The post WW2 migrations from rural to urban areas caused the balance of rural and urban
population what is clearly seen from Figure 1 below.
Table 1. Building stock in Slovenia.
Population of Slovenia 1.964.036
Area of Slovenia (km
2
) 20.273
Number of residential buildings 463.029
Number of dwellings 777.772
Average number of dwellings per building 1.7
Total floor space of dwellings (m
2
) 58.031.187
Average floor space of dwelling (m
2
) 71.3
Average size of private household (persons) 2.8
Share of dwellings in urban settlements 51.6%
Share of population in urban settlements 50.5%
Occupation of dwellings in urban settlements 89.5%
Occupation of dwellings in rural settlements 81.2%
Source: Statistical Office of Rep. of Slovenia, Census, 2002
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85 +
A
g
e
g
r
o
u
p
s
Number of persons (in thousands) in Urban areas Rural areas
Figure 1. Age distribution of Slovenian population in urban and rural settlements (Source:
Statistical office of Slovenia, Census 2002).
The dwellings were originally property of the state. After Slovenia gained the independence
in 1991, and the market driven economy became predominant, a law giving the right to buy the
state-owned apartments to their residents well below the market price was introduced. As a con-
sequence, today, approximately 70% of the Slovenian families, including the residents of the
post-war neighbourhoods, own their homes. The number of dwellings located in urban settle-
ments distributed according to their floor space is presented in Figure 2.
State of the Art: Slovenia 227
For the majority of residents of buildings built in the fifties and sixties, even the relatively
low price meant a fair amount of money. In addition, the original inhabitants of these
neighbourhoods are today retired, often with small pensions, thus they are not financially able to
keep up with the maintenance or even renovation costs of their apartments/buildings. It can be
expected that in these neighbourhoods, within the next decade, there will be a change of resi-
dents' generation that may facilitate the organization, financial support and execution of the
building renovation. The distribution of dwellings in urban settlements by types of buildings by
the location and the period of construction is seen in Figure 3. According to statistical data ob-
tained from Census of 2002, roughly 18% of dwellings in urban settlements were built before
year 1945, 61% in years 1946 to 1980 and 21% in years 1981 to 2000. As can be seen from
Figure 3, roughly 63% of dwellings constructed in 1945 to 1980 period are located in multi-
dwelling buildings.
A survey of the housing stock built in the early post-war period (ijanec Zavrl 1995) revealed
that the residential buildings of that time do not have any thermal insulation. In addition, com-
pared to the housing stock originating before WW2 or earlier, the walls are thinner which leads
to the fact that even the minimum requirements related to thermal performance are not fulfilled
for buildings of this period. The situation improved after 1967 when new regulations defining
minimum requirements of thermal insulating performance of the building envelope came into
force. The performance requirements became harsher in 1970 which had a positive effect upon
the thermal insulation installed in the envelopes of the buildings erected after that year.
0
20.000
40.000
60.000
80.000
100.000
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
w
e
l
l
i
n
g
s
U
n
d
e
r
1
8
1
8
-
3
4
3
5
-
4
4
4
5
-
5
9
6
0
-
7
4
7
5
-
8
9
9
0
-
1
0
9
1
1
0
-
1
2
9
1
3
0
+
Floor space of dwelling (m2)
Figure 2. Distribution of dwellings in urban set-
tlements by their size (Source: Statistical Office
of Republic of Slovenia, Census, March 31,
2002).
B
e
f
o
r
e
1
9
0
0
1
9
0
1
-
1
9
1
8
1
9
1
9
-
1
9
3
0
1
9
3
1
-
1
9
4
5
1
9
4
6
-
1
9
6
0
1
9
6
1
-
1
9
7
0
1
9
7
1
-
1
9
7
5
1
9
7
6
-
1
9
8
0
1
9
8
1
-
1
9
8
5
1
9
8
6
-
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
-
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
-
2
0
0
0
0
5.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000
30.000
35.000
40.000
45.000
50.000
Semi-detached or row house
Detached house
Multi-dwelling building
Figure 3. Distribution of houses and buildings in ur-
ban settlements by their age (Source: Statistical Of-
fice of Rep. of Slovenia, Census, 2002).
1.2 Description of main typologies
Architecture
In the first post-war decade the focus was put on rehabilitation of demolished buildings, settle-
ments and industrial premises. All the housing policy was based on administrative decrees for
occupation of existing flats. Only a few apartment buildings were built, with very low budget
and poor technical capabilities.
The first organized construction of apartment buildings began in 1954-55, when the obliga-
tory financial contribution for apartment building was introduced as a part of personal income
deduction. Thus the permanent budget for building of social houses was guarantied. In the same
time (1957) the guidelines for residential buildings construction were prepared, where the eco-
nomical criteria were combined with the architectural, urban planning and structural rules. The
preferable building types were buildings with ground floor + 3 storeys (GF + 3S), ground floor
+ 5 storeys (GF + 5S) and also higher buildings (skyscrapers), though not many were actually
built. The recommended types of dwellings are shown in 5.
State of the Art: Slovenia 228
The first post-war apartment buildings were erected as clay-brick buildings, built with mas-
sive bricks and later with hollow bricks; the buildings had cellars, comfortable but unheated
staircases and corridors, in many cases flat roofs, terraces and common spaces (laundry and dry-
ing room). Many of these buildings contained not more than ten to twenty flats per entrance.
Table 2. Recommended types of dwellings per number of persons in preferable building types,
by the guidelines for social housing from 1957.
Type of dwelling Adequate number of occupants
Single family house on a string 5 7 persons
Multi family house on a string (GF + 3S) 3 - 5 persons per apartment
Multi family house (GF + 7S) and higher 3 persons per apartment and
smaller units for 1-2 persons
Table 3. Apartment area per number of persons, guidelines for social housing from 1957.
Nr. of persons No balcony With balcony Balcony
2 2 x 20,5 = 41,0 m2 2 x 22,5 = 41,0 m2 4,0 m2
3 3 x 19,0 = 57,0 m2 3 x 21,0 = 63,0 m2 6,0 m2
4 4 x 17,0 = 68,0 m2 4 x 18,0 = 72,0 m2 4,0 m2
5 5 x 15,5 = 77,5 m2 5 x 17,0 = 85,0 m2 7,5 m2
6 6 x 14,0 = 84,0 m2 6 x 15,0 = 90,0 m2 6,0 m2
Figure 4. Floor plan of dwellings in a clay brick
building GF + 3S, built in 1957 (arch. Umek,
Savsko naselje, Ljubljana).
Figure 5. Floor plan of dwellings in a cast-in-place
concrete building with infills, GF + 15S, built in
1958 (arch. Mihelic, Arnautovic, Savsko naselje,
Ljubljana), see also Figure 12.
Figure 6. Floor plan of dwellings in a clay brick building GF + 5S, built in 1961 (arch. orli, Povetova,
Ljubljana).
State of the Art: Slovenia 229
The prevailing type of dwelling was 2-bedroom apartment with a big kitchen including pan-
try; the kitchen was used by all family members during the daytime. The apartments were
heated with stoves in all rooms and kitchen. Originally there were no elevators, unless the verti-
cal distance between the entry and the flat exceeded 14,5 m..
In 1967 the national regulation for apartment design was adopted, where several items were
prescribed, like 12 m
2
of minimal floor area for the first room, 6m
2
for the second and 5 m
2
for
the third room. The minimum height of apartment of 2,4 m was obligatory. The lavatory was
admitted in the bathroom, but in case of more than 6 beds an additional separate lavatory was
prescribed. In buildings higher than GF + 4S the elevator became obligatory.
Table 4. Floor area of different types of flats, used in design of social building stock in Ljubljana (1973,
1979, 1983).
Type of flat Floor area (m2)
1973 decree for
Ljubljana
Floor area (m2)
1979 guidelines for
Ljubljana
Floor area (m2)
1983 social housing guidelines
for Ljubljana
Bachelor room 29 30 - 34 24 - 34
1 bedroom 40 40 35 - 40
1 bedroom + cabinet 50 52 44 - 52
2 bedrooms 56 59 52 - 59
2 bedrooms + cabinet 68 71 63 - 71
3 bedrooms 75 78 68 - 78
3 bedrooms + cabinet 83 87 77 - 78
4 bedrooms 90 94 82 - 94
4 bedrooms + cabinet 100 103 91 -103
In late 60-ties and in early 70-ties the living habits changed and beside the national regulation
also new architectural guidelines were created, mainly on municipal level. The classification of
apartments was no longer done by the number of beds but by the number of rooms. In Table 4
the floor areas for different types of flats are presented according to the Ljubljana municipal de-
cree (1973). The architectural concept was modified; the kitchen became smaller, used only for
preparation of food, white the family stayed in the living room. Slightly increased floor area of
living room caused reduction of bedroom(s) area. 60-ties and 70-ties were the most flourishing
for the apartment building construction, not only social houses were built but also flats for the
market were erected. Cast in place concrete buildings (outinor system) was used for multi-
storey buildings (between 1971 and 1985) besides the of masonry structures for smaller build-
ings. The prevailing type became 3-bedroom apartment, mainly as a result of economic growth
and criticism of favouring of 2-bedroom dwellings in 60-ties.
1.3 Description of main technologies
The housing systems in Slovenia are influenced by geographic location, availability of local ma-
terials and Central European cultural environment. Geographically, Slovenia is located in earth-
quake prone area where the moderate to strong earthquakes can be expected every hundred
years.
The most available building materials in Slovenia are coming from exploitation of sediment
rock deposits making the prevailing materials clay bricks and Portland cement based materials.
Traditionally, majority of Slovenian population lived in brick and natural stone masonry family
houses in rural and town areas with some multi family houses in town areas. Although forests
cover the vast part of Slovenia the timber structures were used mostly for non-residential build-
ings with some exceptions in Alpine regions of Slovenia. However, timber was until sixties of
last century also used for floor constructions in masonry buildings.
The main building types used in construction of multi-apartment buildings in time period
from 1946 to 1980 in Slovenia are summarized in Figure 7.
State of the Art: Slovenia 230
In Figure 8 the distribution of multi-storey apartment buildings (from 1946 1980 period) ac-
cording to architectural type and construction system (i.e. structural building materials) is sum-
marized. Most of buildings are constructed as multi-apartment houses on-a-string (type no.2,
see Figure 7) constructed from clay brick masonry without thermally insulated envelope. The
next most used systems are those of types no.1 (self standing multi apartment houses with 4 to 6
apartments) constructed from clay brick masonry without thermally insulated envelope. Signifi-
cant number of residential buildings was constructed in form of apartment blocks on-a-string
(type no.4) from either clay brick masonry (earlier period) or cast-in-place reinforced concrete
(later period). Reinforced cast-in-place concrete was also used for construction of building types
no.2, 3, 5 and 6.
Data presented in Figure 9 show distribution of floor spaces located in buildings of different
construction types what complete the insight in discussed topic. Most of apartments are located
in buildings of type no.4 that are constructed of reinforced cast-in-place concrete. Those build-
ings were mostly built in 60-ties and 70-ties of the last century. Significant number of apart-
ments is located also in buildings of type no.2 and no.4 built from clay brick masonry in earlier
period. Diagram also shows that large number of apartments is located in reinforced concrete
buildings of type no.5 and no.6. Those buildings were constructed in the last third of discussed
period.
1 brick construction without thermal insulation
2 construction with other (non-brick) materials
3 brick construction with thermal insulation
4 cast concrete construction in lost panelling
5 reinforced concrete frame with infill walls
6 cast concrete construction
7 light prefabricated construction
8 heavy prefabricated construction
9 combined system
TOTAL
1
.
1
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
3
.
2
.
0
.
3
.
1
.
3
.
2
.
3
.
3
.
4
.
1
.
4
.
2
.
5
.
0
.
6
.
1
.
6
.
2
.
6
.
3
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
T
O
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Figure 8. Distribution of buildings built 1946
1980 according to construction system and building
materials.
State of the Art: Slovenia 231
1.0 Multi-apartment houses, self standing
1.1 No. of apartments 4 or 6
1.2 Villas
1.3 Villa-blocks
2.0 Multi-apartment houses,
on a string
down street houses up to:
ground floor + 3 floors
3.0 Apartment blocks, self standing
3.1 simple prismatic form
3.2 horizontally and
vertically deviated
3.3 special forms (terraces,
etc.)
4.0 Apartment blocks on a string
4.1 Simple prismatic form
4.2 Horizontally and
vertically deviated
5.0 Multi-story buildings - low
up to ground floor + 5 floors
6.0 Multi-story buildings high,
more than ground floor + 5 floors
6.1 Simple compact form
6.2 Horizontally and
vertically deviated
6.3 Special forms
1
.
1
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
3
.
2
.
0
.
3
.
1
.
3
.
2
.
3
.
3
.
4
.
1
.
4
.
2
.
5
.
0
.
6
.
1
.
6
.
2
.
6
.
3
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
T
O
0
20.000
40.000
60.000
80.000
100.000
120.000
Figure 7. The main systems used in construction
of multi-apartment buildings in Slovenia during
1946 to 1980.
Figure 9. Distribution of dwelling floor space re-
lated to construction system and building materials
(built 1946 1980).
State of the Art: Slovenia 232
Typical residential buildings built in the observed period are shown in following pictures. In
general, buildings in Slovenia are fairly well maintained although the maintenance costs are
relatively high. Therefore, the usual interventions are mostly limited to renovation of renders
and concrete surfaces. In some cases more extensive renovation encompasses also replacement
of windows and thermal insulation of envelope (Fig. 10). However, there are also rare cases
where the earthquake resistance of building is increased by structural interventions in building
envelope. The figures (Figs 11-16) represent some characteristic buildings corresponding to the
groups defined in Figure 7.
Figure 10. Most common techniques used for energy refurbishment of post war building envelopes.
1.4 Housing policy
Dwelling provision policy reflects the main characteristics of the political system in the country.
In the period between 1945 and 1954 the existing dwellings were administratively allocated to
the applicants, many of these apartments were obtained in nationalisation of real estate, and on
the other hand many people were forced to live in bad dwellings, sharing the apartments with
other occupants.
In the period between 1956 and 1972 the federal state ruled the residential buildings area,
where the money for investment in new social dwelling was collected on the solidarity basis.
The majority of big apartment buildings with rented dwellings and many building plots have
been nationalised in 1958. The huge residential building construction project started.
Between 1972 and 1990 new residential legislation was adopted, valid only on the area of to-
days Slovenia. In this period the companies were the main investors of apartment buildings,
mainly built for their employees. Also the building of privately owned flats became important in
that period.
Residents contributed to investments with their money savings when buying the apartment
and also when renting it (i.e. financial contribution when the social flat was rented); as well as
they contributed with their own work (relevant in case of building of single family houses). The
banks offered loans with acceptable interest rate, so that between 1980 and 1987 more than
10.000 dwellings were built per year (14.674 dwellings in 1981).
State of the Art: Slovenia 233
Figure 11. Masonry apartment block on-a-
string; built in the fifties.
Figure 12. High reinforced concrete apartment
blocks; built in late fifties.
Figure 13. Masonry self standing block of flats;
built in early sixties.
Figure 15. Cast in place reinforced concrete self
standing blocks; wooden, largely fenestrated
eastern and western facades; from late seventies.
Figure 14. Reinforced concrete on-a-string
blocks having pre-cast large panel envelope ele-
ments, built in late seventies.
Figure 16. Reinforced concrete high multi story
buildings having pre-cast large panel envelope
elements from late seventies.
State of the Art: Slovenia 234
After 1991 and independence of Slovenia the number of new dwellings was intensively re-
duced (less than 6.000 new dwellings per year). The key problem is that these dwelling are
mostly in single family houses (i.e. private investments), there were very few investments made
by public bodies, municipalities and also by developers on real estate market. Mainly due to
worse economical situation (revalorisation of loans, bad economical situation of companies, low
incomes) and due to omission of all social solidarity funds for new residential buildings, the
new dwellings erection rate reached the lowest number of only 790 units in 1998.
In 1991 new Residential law was promulgated, which enabled privatisation of all social (state
owned) rented dwellings, except of those in the buildings nationalised in 50-ties. In 1991, before
the privatisation, the overall proportion of privately owned dwellings in Slovenia was 70,2%,
while more in particular the proportion of privately owned apartments in multi-apartment build-
ings was only 10,9%. After the completed process of privatisation (1994) where the dwellings
were sold at up to 10% of their market price, 87% of all building stock is privately owned. Due
to the fact that the post war buildings were privatised, today we have to deal with a lot of barri-
ers (lack of money for refurbishment, no consensus for investments) for rehabilitation.
The residential law from 1991 also committed the municipalities to provide social dwellings
and thus stimulated again the erection of municipal social houses. The breakthrough in stimulat-
ing the investments in residential building sector was made with establishment of National resi-
dential fund (1991), which stimulates the private savings and offers soft loans for buying and re-
furbishment of flats. On the other hand the fund affects the reduction of prices for new
apartments by being currently the bigger investor in housing sector. It should not be forgotten
that in last decade the real estate developers also contributed significantly to the construction of
new dwellings.
2 TOPICS, QUALITY OF THE POST-WAR MULTIFAMILY HOUSING STOCK
There are no systematic analyses of the quality of Slovenian housing stock available. Different
studies focus particular problem areas actual in the local environment. Two most important ar-
eas of quality are energy efficiency and earthquake resistance, because Slovenia is rather cold
country (3200 DD) and it lies on the earthquake prone area.
2.1 Physical aspects
2.1.1 Thermal insulation
Residential buildings in Slovenia built before 1980 are considerable energy consumers because
of the poor thermal insulation of the building envelope and therefore offer immense energy sav-
ing potential. A series of studies has been done to find out the most appropriate way of activat-
ing technical and economically viable energy saving potential and to strengthen apprising peo-
ples interest in implementation of energy efficiency measures.
Buildings form early post war period were built without of thermal insulation. The situation
was slightly improved after 1967 when new regulations defining minimum requirements of
thermal insulating performance of the building envelope came into force. The performance re-
quirements became harsher in 1970 (outer wall U value 1.2 W/m
2
K) which had a positive effect
upon the thermal insulation installed in the envelopes of the buildings erected after that year.
The first serious thermal insulation regulation (outer wall U value 0.8 W/m
2
K) was put into
force in 1980.
Since the current situation in building practice in Slovenia may differ from the ideally ex-
pected one, i.e. because of the lack of money for finishing the construction (private investors) or
insufficient control of building regulation implementation, some relevant data on building enve-
lope insulation rate were collected with a pole in a relevant statistic sample (ijanec Zavrl. and
Gruden 1998). In general it can be observed that in 60% of the buildings outer wall U value ex-
ceeds 1.0 W/m
2
K. Following the construction period of the buildings from the random sample
in the pole one can conclude that poorly insulated buildings ratio is not considerably reduced
until 1980, when implementation of rigorous building insulation regulations should intensively
reduce proportion of buildings with U > 1.0 W/m
2
K and increase the number of buildings with
State of the Art: Slovenia 235
lower outer wall U value. The obtained results may be discouraging. Nearly one third of the
buildings from 80-ties still have U value higher than 1.0 W/m
2
K. Detected energy saving poten-
tial is now being realised by raising awareness, state subsidies and by making energy efficiency
investments interesting for private investors.
Approximately 25% of all energy in Slovenia is used in the buildings sector. The analysis
(ijanec Zavrl 1995) of 18 typical apartment buildings (according to the architectural type,
heavy or light weight building technology, year of construction) in Slovenia built before 1980
has shown that the introduction of energy-efficient technologies currently available on the mar-
ket can contribute up to 60% to the lowering of heating energy demand in apartment buildings
(Fig. 18). Energy-efficient windows themselves have a technical potential of about 20%. Trans-
lated to energy figures this percentages represent a reduction of energy demand for heating from
current 350 kWh per square meter of heated floor area to 113 kWh/m
2
for older, thermally not
insulated single-family houses, and from 115 kWh/m
2
to 50 kWh/m
2
for larger apartment blocks
in the wider Ljubljana area (central part of Slovenia, 3310 DD, thermostat set temperature
20
o
C, base 12
o
C).
Figure 17. Overview of outer walls thermal transmittance U (W/m
2
K) in Slovenian residential buildings.
An average payback period for investments in energy renovation of buildings in Slovenia ex-
ceeds 25 years if the complete investment in building work is assessed. Some simpler measures
have a much shorter payback period, e.g. 3 to 4 years for loft insulation with construction costs
included and less than one year with construction costs excluded.
The payback period for the additional cost (i.e., for the investment in energy efficiency),
when replacing existing thermally inadequate old windows at the end of their life-span (double
glazed cast windows, old thermopan glazing) with energy-efficient windows (low-e + inert gas),
the pay back period for incremental investment is only about three years, and for external insu-
lation about 8 to 10 years, respectively.
The feasibility studies and public opinion analysis were the basis for the incentive programme
- grant subsidy scheme in residential buildings and households, financed by the Slovenian gov-
ernment (Agency for Efficient Use of Energy) in the years 1996 2002. Three low cost building
measures were subsidized: loft insulation, window tightening and oil burners adjustment in the
total budget of 153.000 EUR ('96-'97) and a EE windows and glazing as a medium cost measure
were supported in a total amount of 640.000 EUR ('98-'02). Since the beginning of the pro-
gramme more than 8000 subsidized measures were implemented and additional positive effects
of the incentives programme were initiated. The subsidies are currently available for entire en-
ergy restoration of building where annual savings are at least 10.000 kWh.
State of the Art: Slovenia 236
57%
66%
76%
70%
68%
65%
74%
60%
62%
56%
70%
63%
71%
60%
55%
45%
64%
69%
0
100
200
300
400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
sample building
k
W
h
/
m
2
a
savings
energy demand after refurbishment
Figure 18. Annual heat demand per square meter of heated floor area before and after energy restoration,
technical energy saving potential in 18 representative sample buildings.
2.1.2 Moisture
Protection against moisture is not very important issue and it is considered to be easily solved
using well known techniques and materials. The repetitive difficulties can occur in some cases
of flat roofs and terraces. In more rainy areas this leakage has been solved by putting traditional
pitched roof on the top of the apartment block.
Another typical problem of existing envelopes is deterioration of faade due to inadequate de-
tailing of water drainage. Renovation plan beside rendering and solving of drainage usually
takes into consideration increasing of thermal insulation following the contemporary codes.
Moisture problems caused by interstitial and surface condensation, respectively, immerged in
70-ties due to the implementation of new materials (thermal insulation, covering materials with
high water vapour diffusivity), unfamiliar at that time to the traditional builders. The slabs and
details have now been repaired for a long time. Cold bridges are the problems of 70-ties and 80-
ties, when the cast in place concrete structures were popular. The mould growth on inner sur-
faces is prevented by insulation and sufficient heating.
More recently, a lot of old windows were exchanged with energy efficient which allow low
infiltration. This often cause to high relative humidity and surface condensation on widow
frames in the metal edge area. Sufficient air exchange rate through controlled ventilation in old
refurbished buildings is a key element of successful restoration and exhibiting of moisture prob-
lems in old buildings.
Post war buildings usually contain water barrier to prevent capillary raise of ground water,
what is not the case in pre-war buildings.
2.1.3 Sound insulation
Since the post war building were built with heavy weight materials the sound protection is quite
good. The sound protection is lower in buildings built in 70-ties and 80-ties, due to transfer of
sound through the concrete structures (the details for prevention of sound transport over the
structure were not available). Not many repairs are done in this field. For insulation from the
noise outside the building in 80-ties special types of glazing were introduced (SHF gas and glass
with different thicknesses).
State of the Art: Slovenia 237
2.2 Structural aspects
Speaking form structural point of view the period from 1946 to 1980 can be divided in earlier
one before 1963 Skopje earthquake and later one after earthquake. Building external walls (i.e.
envelope walls) were in earlier period constructed either of clay brick masonry or cast-in-place
concrete. In later prefabricated systems were introduced, applying the elements pre-cast by
normal or lightweight concrete. In earlier period internal walls were constructed in clay brick
masonry mostly as non-load bearing partition walls with some load bearing ones. Learning from
the building behaviour during 1963 Skopje earthquake, the number of internal load bearing
walls increased giving higher earthquake resistance to buildings. Floor structures of buildings
constructed in earlier period were made either from wood or cast-in-place concrete over clay
brick blocks. Later floor constructions were made mostly of cast-in-place reinforced concrete.
However, in all cases the building envelope plays a major role in providing load bearing and
stability of building as well as its earthquake resistance. Therefore, any intervention in envelope
including adding of roof construction to flat roofs, have a big influence on load bearing capacity
and earthquake resistance of entire structure. This fact can be efficiently used when existing
structures undergoes the renovation process.
Pre-cast reinforced concrete envelope elements are in many cases deteriorated due to low
quality of concrete and surface finishing or inadequate protection of concrete surface (Fig. 19).
Corrosion of concrete and steel reinforcement leads to spalling of concrete and propagation of
surface damages. More dangerous can be corrosion of metal anchors of pre-cast elements and
thus their splitting from the main structural elements of building. This can happen often in case
of relatively small pre-cast panels that are fixed to load bearing part of envelope due to freeze
thaw cycles or earthquake or strong wind action.
Figure 19. Visible effect of decay of pre-cast reinforced concrete envelope elements and balconies.
2.3 Functional aspects
Slovenia did not build many large residential areas also due to scattered population. The resi-
dential neighbourhoods offered good environment for inhabitants, new schools, shops, parking
areas, public transportation. Private and rented flats were mixed in the same building. The eco-
State of the Art: Slovenia 238
nomic power of inhabitants in apartment buildings was relatively unified. There were no low
cost dwellings built for poor people.
Due to the changed habits of people living in apartment buildings neighbourhoods and aging
of the population some typical functional difficulties emerged, like the lack of parking places,
accessibility problems in buildings without elevators, lack of living space and subsequently the
glazing of balconies. Small floor areas are of course a problem but on the other hand when buy-
ing a new flat, due to the high prices, many young families can not even afford a bigger flat.
Apartments in post war buildings are competitive on the real estate market, due to slightly lower
price.
Only rare buildings in urban areas are not centrally heated by now, using either district heat-
ing or natural gas. Technically it is possible to increase functionality of the building and apart-
ment, respectively, but there are economic barriers and lack of consensus from many new own-
ers. The most important investment in the life time of these buildings is the thermal insulation of
the envelope and exchange of windows, what contributes to the aesthetics and quality of life in
the building.
2.4 Architectural aspects
Post war buildings are usually refurbished without preservation of their architectural appear-
ance. Only some buildings, designed by established architects, are considered as architectural
heritage. Changes of floor plan as a part of retrofit are of course possible if the structural aspect
is not affected. Bellow (Fig. 20) there is a theoretical study of possible adaptation of two bed-
room post war apartment into a flat corresponding to the quotidian needs of young family (i-
janec Zavrl et al. 1995). Not many such projects have been realized.
Figure 20. Retrofit plan for the residential building in Ljubljana, clay brick structure (Vosnjakova, 1957),
existing 2-bedroom apartments (above) could be functionally renewed into small 3 bedroom apartments
with sunspaces, closer to the today living habits.
State of the Art: Slovenia 239
CONCLUSIONS
The existing building stock erected between 1945 and 1980 represents 61% of entire building
stock in Slovenia. Therefore, there are a big number of building envelopes to be improved in
Slovenia. Roughly half of total number of dwellings in urban areas has floor space in the range
of 45 to 74 m
2
. Typical residential buildings in Slovenia have either masonry or reinforcement
concrete structure. Envelopes of recently erected buildings are thermo insulated what is not
usual case for buildings erected between 1946 and 1980. Existing cases of stochastic approach
to envelope alternations shows cases of enlargement of dwellings by closing of open-air terraces
and balconies, repairing the deteriorated materials and surfaces, improving the building resis-
tance to earthquake action. The economic strength of Slovenian society is fast growing. There-
fore more and more interventions in existing envelopes will take place in near future. But the
strategy and know how to improve envelope in more efficient and aesthetic way is urgently
needed.
REFERENCES
Botjancic et al. 1993. Concept of national programme for energy restoration of residential buildings, (in
Slovene), Ljubljana: ZRMK, UL FA.
Gabrijelcic, P. et al. 2001,. http://www.arh.uni-lj.si/rakovnik/
Gradbeni center Slovenije 1980. Design guidelines for social housing in Slovenia.
Ministry of environment, physical planning and energy 2000. National programme of housing.
Municipality Ljubljana, 1983. Design guidelines for planning and construction of social housing in Mu-
nicipality of Ljubljana, (in Slovene). Ljubljana: MOL.
Statistical office of the Republic of Slovenia 2002. Census 2002, http://www.stat.si
ijanec Zavrl, M. et. al. 1995. Concept of energy restoration of residential buildings in Slovenia, Pro-
ceedings of International Workshop: Energy Rehabilitation of Residential Buildings in Slovenia, Por-
toro, Sept. 19, 1995: pp. 30-40. Ljubljana: ApE.
ijanec Zavrl, M. 1996. Approach to energy refurbishment of residential buildings, De Herde, A. (eds).
Building & urban renewal: Proceedings of the thirteenth international PLEA conference, Louvain-la-
Neuve, Belgium, July 16-17, 1996: 369-374. Louvain-la-Neuve: Architecture et Climat.
ijanec Zavrl, M., 1996. Expectations and reality in attaining energy saving potential in Slovene residen-
tial building stock. Goetzberger, A. and Luther, J. (eds.). EuroSun'96: proceedings EuroSun'96,
Freiburg, Germany, 1996: 1131-1135. Mnchen, DGS-Sonnenenergie.
ijanec Zavrl, M. & Gruden, T. 1998, Concept of energy restoration of residential buildings in Slovenia,
Saving buildings in Central and Eastern Europe : report = rapport = Bericht, (IABSE reports, Vol.
77): 214-215. Zrich: IEMB.
ijanec Zavrl, M et al. 1995. Concept of national programme for energy restoration of residential build-
ings, (in Slovene), Ljubljana: ZRMK.
ijanec Zavrl, M., Tomic, M. & Gruden, T. 2000. Energy-efficient windows and glazing-state subsidies
in Slovenia. EuroSun 2000: The Third ISES-Europe Solar Congress, Copenhagen, Denmark, 19-
22June, 2000: 5 pages. Copenhagen: International Solar Energy Society.
ijanec Zavrl, M. & Tomic, M. 2001. Supporting sustainable restoration of buildings in Slovenia. ar-
nic, R. (ed.), The future of the city: new quality for life: abstracts: 112-115. Ljubljana: UL FGG.
ijanec Zavrl, M. 2002. Approach to energy conscious retrofit of Slovenian building stock, Ed.: A.Zold,
M.Lain, S.Petruszko (eds.). Proceedings of Workshops Newly Associated States EnerBuild RTD: 95-
101. Budapest: TU.
Zveza stanovanjskih skupnosti 1989. Starting-point for holistic residential reformation in Slovenia, (in
Slovene).
arnic, R. 2001. Building regulations for rehabilitation works and their application in Slovenia. In Carlo
Blasi & Luca Giorgi (ed.). The application of existing building regulations in rehabilitation works:
Proceedings of the workshop, Florence, 2-3 December 1994: p. 63-76. Luxembourg: Office for Offi-
cial Publications of the EC
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In the last 50 years, society has changed continuously with respect to various factors including
age-structure, family composition and the availability of energy. These factors are reflected in
building activity, which is gradually shifting from new construction to the reuse and renovation
of existing buildings.
All over Europe the large housing shortages resulting from World War II have been resolved by
constructing large quantities of multifamily housing with a poor technical and functional
performance. In order to speed up the building production non-traditional labour saving building
methods have been introduced in virtually every European country. As a result, the European
housing stock is fairly young with 2/3 of the total housing stock been produced after WW II.
The percentage of the housing stock built after World War II varies from country to country.
The highest percentage are in The Netherlands (75%), Slovenia, (80%) and FYR of Macedonia
(70%).
Large similarities in typology can be noticed. The first few decades after the war the prevailing
type of building block is three to five stories high and without elevator access. Europe-wide,
urban plans for residential areas are laid-out according to the CIAM-principles with parallel or
perpendicular building blocks containing small and poorly equipped apartments with an average
space of 11-20 m
2
per occupant. By the mid-sixties, in large parts of Europe housing shortages
had been finally solved. The focus shifted from quantity to quality and building codes were
adapted accordingly. High-rise apartment blocks with elevator access become the prevailing
dwelling type for multifamily housing and a sizeable increase in space consumption can be
noticed.
Europe-wide, the two prevailing building techniques for labour-saving building are a skeleton
structure with steel reinforced beams and pillars, and large panel building. The first technique is
mainly used in Mediterranean countries, the second one in the northern and eastern parts of
Europe. In addition, we find some spine-wall structures, structures erected with in situ concrete
and tunnel moulds, and structures erected by stacking prefabricated concrete blocks.
Housing policies have greatly influenced the quality of post-war European housing stocks. In
the first decades after WW II, many European governments have created legislative frameworks
to promote the use of non-traditional, labour saving building techniques. In the seventies,
energy savings have been extensively stimulated by granting subventions and by incorporating
requirements for thermal insulation in national building codes. Over time, the demands for
thermal insulation have continuously been reset on higher levels, although there are large
differences noticeable between the various countries in this respect. These differences can not
always be explained by differences in climate.
Over time, the technical quality of some experimental building techniques proved to be
questionable, resulting in moist problems. These problems occur frequently in the post-war
apartment stock and can be of various origins. Since any excess of moist may result in health
risks for the occupants, they have to be taken seriously and dealt with accordingly. In the first
few decades after the war, noise insulation was a topic of little interest. In view of the increasing
Conclusions
Silvia Brunoro
University of Ferrara, Department of Architecture
Marie Therse Andeweg
Delft, University of Technology, Department of Real Estate and Housing
Conclusions 242
noise levels of heavy traffic, requirements for sound-insulation have been gradually
incorporated in the majority of the European building codes. Europe-wide, the demands are
nowadays remarkably similar in this respect.
Evidently, the post-war European apartment stock is structurally sound. Functionally, however,
all over Europe the shortcomings of these parts of the housing stock are experienced in a similar
way, although not in every country to the same extent. On an urban scale, social problems like
vandalism and high crime rates, caused by the anonymity that results from the size of these
areas, are considered to be the major issues. There is also a Europe-wide consensus on the need
to improve the poor accessibility of the apartment stock dating from the first few decades after
the war.
For the refurbishment actions, the experience has been functional to better way of improvement.
Time delay was helpful to learn a lesson: a lot of mistakes were made by countries who started
many years ago, and nations who started to refurbish later, can learn from the mistakes. In
relation to that, a lot of lessons have been learned from countries who could benefit from the
experience of countries who started before, such as Poland from Germany.
From a technical point of view, the quality of the European building stock has substantially
improved over the last few years and, in nations like The Netherlands, the quality can be
considered to be good. However, further improvements are needed on the energy performance.
From a functional point of view, the quality is very poor, particularly of the early post-war
apartments. The overall space is limited, the dimensions of living rooms, bathrooms and
balconies are not up to nowadays standards. The staircase- access without elevator makes this
part of the stock not suitable for the elderly people in our aging society. High-rise apartments
dating from the sixties have a much higher functional quality, are reasonably well equipped, and
can be considered to be accessible for senior people in every way.
Considering the numerous intervention programs that have been put into action, large efforts
have already been made in order to assure that the quality of the European post-war multifamily
housing stock keeps pace with the present and future changes in demand. However, post-war
apartment blocks form proportionally a large part of the total European housing stock, and there
are large discrepancies noticeable between the present demands and the original technical and
functional quality of these building blocks. Therefore, further substantial efforts are required in
order to assure adequate improvements to nowadays standards.
For the last decade, the priority in the intervention programs has been on solving social
problems. On a lower scale, the main issues are a further reduction of the energy spill, and the
need to obtain better accessibility with respect to changes in the age-profile of the European
population. Noticeable improvements have already been achieved on the first topic.
Nevertheless, since the demands on energy saving are been reset on ever higher levels,
continuous efforts in this respect are required. Although the necessity to improve the
accessibility of the early post-war multifamily housing stock seems to be widely acknowledged,
so far, the achievements in this respect have been limited. These poor results can largely be
attributed to the architectural features of the early post-war apartment blocks.
The largest part of the housing stock is multi-family houses, nevertheless there are exceptions,
such as in Belgium, where we find public or private rows of file houses developments that find
their origin between 1920 and 1940. Tower typology is less diffused, mostly in the centre of
Europe (Italy, Germany and France). A particular case is represented by Malta.
The definition of the minimum floor areas, suitable for a multitude of needs and adaptable to
every situation, is the main cause of the low standards for surface and equipment of flats. The
space consumption per person and the number of rooms for apartment varies from country to
country according to building regulations, and often in the same country standards has been
modified in subsequent periods. In Poland for instance in 1947 a maximum of 11 m
2
of usable
floor space per 1 inhabitant (equipped with bath-room, lavatory and kitchen) was indicated,
while from 1974 the obligatory dwelling standard for a family of 7 persons was set on a
maximum area of 75- 85 m
2
Conclusions 243
In Hungary the average built up area of the flats of the sixties for four persons was 48 m
2
,
composed by two bedrooms, small kitchen, no dining area and a sleeping place in the living
room. From 1970 flats were bigger, with an average area of 54-63 m
2
for four persons, with two
or three small-size bedrooms and no living room.
In The Netherlands, until 1960, 2 bedroom (4 persons) and 3 bedroom apartments (up to 6
persons) were the most diffused typology, with an average area of respectively 58 and 68 m
2
,
while starting from the sixties apartments comprised in general 3 bedrooms (6 persons and
more) with an average area of 85 m
2
.
In Slovenia, the guideline for social housing was set on a floor area of 68 m
2
for a family of four
in 1957, and in 1983 the guideline for social housing in Ljubljana for a three bedroom apartment
was set on 68-78 m
2
.
In Macedonia, the building stock of multi-storey family houses built from the sixties varied
from 1 to 3 bedrooms with sizes ranging from 48 to 84 m
2
.
A larger floor area per inhabitant can be founded in Denmark and France. In Denmark the basic
lay-out is formed by a kitchen and 2 rooms. Additions of more rooms to this core gave the
bigger ones, with an average size of around 95 m
2
(average number of persons 2).
In France, the average size of primary apartments ranges from 90 and 108 m
2
, with an average
number of persons per apartment of 2. This means that the average floor space in apartments is
around 45 m
2
per person and the mean number of rooms by dwelling is 4.
In Italy in the first second post war period, the majority of apartments had little kitchen open in
the living - room and two bedrooms with a whole area of 50-60 m
2
From the sixties the floor
area was bigger, from 50 to 110 m
2
, depending on the number of rooms (1 to 5). In Portugal,
building blocks have two or three bedrooms and a minimal usable floor area ranging from 35 to
134 m
2
.
In Greece apartments contain from 1 to 3 bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom
with a floor area ranging between 40 and 100 m
2
.
As a conclusion, we can say that European post-war apartment stock is characterized by the use
of traditional technologies, with small apartments and a few numbers of flats. Usually there is a
variable number of staircases for each building, and every staircase has from 3 to 6 flats each
level. From the 60, building technologies are characterized by the large use of prefabricated
systems, used in order to meet the social dwelling requirements together with the cost reduction.
After the sixties, the interventions become more complex and extended: the village-size
buildings are very lacking of public and social spaces, with narrow staircases and elevators, no
connection with the surrounding area and little communal possibilities.
The technologies used for non traditional post war European housing stock are mainly based on
prefabricated construction systems. Looking at the technology used, the European non-
traditional housing stock seems to be geographically defined. Main technologies can be
synthesized in three typologies which are peculiar of different European areas:
- Prefabricated large panels are typical of Northern and Eastern Europe (Sweden, Denmark,
Germany, Poland, Hungary);
- Load bearing walls technology is largely used in Northern and Central Europe (The
Netherlands, Belgium, France). In France and in the Netherlands there are also examples of
experimental building systems that made use of stacked prefabricated hollow concrete
blocks;
- Skeleton structure in situ or prefabricated, in which faades and partition are added are also
typical of Mediterranean area;
- In addition, we find some outsiders countries, such as Malta, Slovenia and Macedonia, in
which the prevalent technologies are brick-wall structures. Also structures erected with in
situ concrete and structures based on pre-cast concrete heavy-panel systems are used.
Conclusions 244
I group: Northern and Eastern area.
Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Hungary
In East-European countries, the development of prefabricated building systems began fairly
early in order to speed up the construction process. The previous preparation of the building
elements speeded up the time of assembly and increased the quantity of realizations. In this part
of Europe, as well as in Sweden and in Denmark, precast large panel technology is the
prevailing building technique. Room - sized panels of pre cast concrete were fixed together with
in situ concrete or welded steel plates. Light weight prefabricated concrete slabs were used for
floors, faades and partition walls.
In Sweden, a large part of multi-family houses were built in situ, but in the same decade pre-cast
construction became more common. Since 1950 the industrialization of construction started in
an effort of large-scale production and minimizing of building costs, started by political
resolutions and investments and by the big constructors. Multi family houses built in situ were
two to three to four-storey houses, and tower blocks were six to eight storeys high.
Prefabrication technique was then rapidly developed during the 1950s and 1960s, and the most
common used systems were: room sized slab units, and slab units more than room size. They
were used together or combined with in situ constructions.
In Poland, the first large-panel multi-house buildings were done in 1957, and from 1967 this
technology became as basic for dwelling housing. Two central large-panel systems were
elaborated: OWT-67 and WUF-T and provided to country-wide application. Next two
(Szczecin and W-70) were selected in competition mode. The standard obliged from 1959
didnt fit modular system necessary for industrialised technology based on pre cast elements. In
1972 new standard was introduced enlarging usable floor space per dwelling and improving
possibilities of design. In 1974 a new standard was state, taking into account structural and
modular restriction of technology, enlarging total usable floor space. Significant gain of this
standard is revision in plus floor space of rooms and kitchens.
In Denmark, the typical lay out of apartment blocks in multi-storey buildings is composed by
the basic unit of 2 apartments per storey. The smallest of the apartments being just a kitchen and
2 rooms, and additions of more rooms to this core gave the bigger ones. Two ways of
construction were dominant: the first was a system with load bearing transverse walls and non-
bearing light weight faade elements, the other was a system with load-bearing faades of
sandwich type and spine wall. Other systems based on the use of columns, beams, frames etc.
are very seldom. Also building blocks with a structure of bearing faades and a spine wall are to
be found in Denmark. In Hungary the large panel system was established after the 56
revolution. The original idea was captured from the Soviet Union, and later from Denmark.
Housing estates are mostly composed of 5 or 11 story buildings, built with reinforced concrete
panels or light-concrete blocks, or in-situ concrete.
Conclusions 245
Table 1: Main typologies in Group I. Northern and Eastern area
COUNTRY PERIOD TYPOLOGY
FLOOR AREA (m
2
)
Related to rooms
N OF FLOORS
Sweden
1950-1960
Building block ----- 2/4
Tower ------- 6/8
1950-1980 Building block 72 5/8 and higher
Denmark 1946-1980 Building block 95 (3-5 rooms) 4/10-16
Germany
1949-1980
Small multi
family
------- 2-4
Big multi family -------- 4-6
1958-1978
High-rising
buildings
--------- 15 and higher
Poland
1947 Building block 11 per inhabitant 4 to 8
1959 Building block 20-71 (1-5 rooms) 4 to 8
1972 Building block 23,5-74,5 (1-5 rooms) 4 to 16
1974 Building block 25-85 (1-5 rooms) 4-5 to 16
Hungary
1960-1969 Building block 48 5-11
1970-1980 Building block 54-63 5-11
Table 2: Main technologies in Group I. Northern and Eastern area
COUNTRY PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
Sweden Pre cast large panels; in situ reinforced concrete frame
Denmark Pre cast large panels, Building blocks
Germany Pre cast large panels, Reinforced concrete frame (on site)
Poland Pre cast large panels
Hungary Pre cast large panels
Whatever load-bearing system is used in these buildings, reinforced concrete slabs is the most
diffused technology for floors and roof structure. In Sweden and Denmark, the roof is in general
a wooden construction, either as flat or sloped. The most common cladding is in the first case
asphalt or gravel, and in the second case tiles or metal.
Conclusions 246
Table 3: Floors and roofs in Group I. Northern and Eastern area
COUNTRY FLOOR STRUCTURE ROOF STRUCTURE ROOF COVERING
Sweden Reinforced concrete slabs
Wooden structure
Reinforced concrete slabs
Sloped: Brick tiles or
asbestos cement tiles
Flat: Roofing felt
Denmark
Wooden beams spanning
from faade to faade,
supported on the spine wall
Reinforced concrete slabs
Wooden structure
Reinforced concrete slabs
Sloped: panes of tiles or
cement
Flat: asphalt felt on boards
Germany
Reinforced concrete slabs
Wooden structure
Reinforced concrete slabs
Sloped: brick, steel or
copper, bituminous
material.
Flat:, bituminous material
steel or copper
Poland Pre cast concrete slabs
Concrete panels supported
on brick walls
Flat: asphalt or gravel
Hungary
For large panels building technologies, faades are the answer of the modular internal
configuration of the building. Mostly of the faade surfaces are made by pre cast concrete
panels. In Poland, where external longitudinal strip walls are used, spaces between openings
(windows or balcony doors) are filled with sandwich panels. These panels with timber frame
were made of asbestos-cardboard with thermal insulating layer and chipboard inside.
Generally no others cladding or coloring is added, so the final aspect is dark-grey, but
sometimes with exposed aggregates or some decorative texture. Other common surface
materials are brick, plaster or metal sheets. In Germany, the faade is in most cases fitted with
balconies.
Table 4: Faades in Group I. Northern and Eastern area
COUNTRY FAADES
Walls Window frames Outside finishing
Sweden
Brickwork
Pre cast concrete panels
Wood
Concrete, Plaster, Metal
sheets
Denmark
Massive brick masonry
Pre cast concrete panels,
lightweight panels
Wood
Plastic,
Aluminum
Facing bricks
Fiber reinforced plaster
Germany
Massive/perforated
brickwork
Concrete panels
Wood, Metal,
Plastic
Brick, stone metal or wood
coverings
Concrete
Plaster, Pains
Poland Pre cast concrete panels Wood
Plaster, Pains
Concrete
Hungary Pre cast concrete panels Aluminum, PVC Concrete
Conclusions 247
II group: Northern and Central Europe area.
The Netherlands, Belgium, France
In the Northern and Central Europe countries, like The Netherlands, Belgium and France, the
main building systems used are mainly based on load bearing walls technologies, built in situ or
pre cast.
In The Netherlands, the early second post-war period is characterized by small multi family
buildings of three or four floors high. Starting from the mid-sixties multi-family housing was
mainly realized as high-rise building blocks, containing up to several hundred apartments and
up to 10 storey high. Approximately 70 % of the early post-war multi-family housing has been
completed with traditional building materials and methods, nerveless the 30% of the Dutch
early post-war apartment stock was realized with non traditional building systems, such as:
block unit building systems, panel building systems and building systems using in situ concrete.
In Belgium, multi storey family housing represents only a limited part of the total existing
housing stock. Large neighbourhoods with single housing predominate the multi storey housing
buildings: the architectural model was low-rise as well as middle-high and high with a central
staircase, lateral corridor, with or without split-levels. Mostly traditional brickwork was applied,
concrete pre cast or on-site and very little steel constructions.
In France, the average floor space in dwellings/apartments is thus around 42 m
2
per person. The
mean number of rooms by dwelling is 4. The more common used system in the mid sixties in
multiple dwelling is a load bearing structure composed with reinforced concrete shells arranged
according to a parallel layout grid and concrete slabs. This system enables reusable forms and,
used with a fixed grid width, the tunnel formwork enables the simultaneous concreting of walls
and slab. Although less frequently, this technique has also been used in Italy. Such as in the
Netherlands, there are also examples to be found of experimental building systems that made
use of stacked prefabricated concrete blocks to form the load bearing walls.
Table 5: Main typologies in Group II. Northern and Central area
COUNTRY PERIOD TYPOLOGY
FLOOR AREA (m2 )
Related to rooms
N OF FLOORS
The Netherlands
1946-1960 Building block 58-68 (4-5 rooms) 3-4
1960-1980 Building block 85 -100 (5 rooms) 10-18
Belgium 1949-1980
Row houses 51-95 (5 rooms) 2-3
Building Block ------ 4-8
France
1949-1974 Building Block 68-103 (2-4/3-6 rooms) 4-12
1975-1989 Building block 68 -111 (1-5/4-6 rooms) 2-5
Table 6: Main technologies in Group II. Northern and Central area
COUNTRY PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
The Netherlands
Brickwork, Concrete walls; block unit building systems, panel building
systems
Belgium Brickwork
France Reinforced concrete shells /tunnel formworks/concrete blocks walls
Conclusions 248
In general, the flat and sloped roofs are constructed with the same system as used for the
construction of the floors. In The Netherlands, the most frequently used floor system in the early
post-war housing stock consists of prefabricated non-reinforced concrete beams. Reinforcement
is placed between the beams and incorporated in the structure with in situ concrete. Flat and
slightly inclined roofs are often finished with two layers of asphalt felt and 4 cm gravel. Sloped
roofs are constructed with a deal rafter and finished with roof tiles.
In Belgium for floors and roofs structure, mostly wooden rafters and boards, concrete on site,
pre cast floor slabs or concrete beams are used. Flat roofs covering is bitumen and sloped roofs
covering is tiles or slates, with limited use of zinc or copper plate.
Table 7: Floors and roofs in Group II. Northern and Central area
COUNTRY FLOOR STRUCTURE ROOF STRUCTURE ROOF COVERING
The
Netherlands
Concrete beams and
reinforced in situ concrete
(Cusveller floors)
Pre cast concrete slabs
Pre cast concrete slabs
Flat: Two layers of asphalt
paper and gravel
Slope: Asphalt paper and
roof tiles
Belgium
Wood rafters and boards
Reinforced concrete
Prefabricated slabs and
concrete on site or brick
floors
Flat: Bitumen cover
Sloped: tiles or slates
France
Reinforced concrete slab
Beams and filler blocks
Reinforced concrete slab Sloped: tiles
In The Netherlands, faades are made of brickwork and constructed as single layer walls, with a
clamp-layer added on the inside to improve its water impermeability, or as cavity walls.
In Belgium, pre cast concrete faade with different types of fixation and sealing up, were
applied with different levels and qualities of industrialisation and standardisation.
In France, the tunnel formwork system enables the simultaneous concreting of walls, Also load
bearing faades of sandwich panes and spine wall was used.
Table 8: Faades in Northern and Central area
COUNTRY FAADES
Walls Window frames Outside finishing
Netherlands
Concrete block walls
Concrete panels
Wood
Brick
Plaster,
Concrete panes
Belgium Concrete panels
Wood,
Aluminum
Concrete, Plaster
France
Concrete walls
Concrete panels
Wood, Metal
Stone
Plaster,
Concrete panes
Conclusions 249
III group: Mediterranean area
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Cyprus
In Mediterranean countries, the main building technology is a bearing structure of steel
reinforced concrete beams and pillars of in situ concrete. To this skeleton, faades and partition
walls are added, using mostly hollow brick blocks. The floor is usually reinforced concrete slab,
but pre-strengthened beams with filling blocks are commonly used. In Italy, starting from the
sixties, industrialized building technologies were imported from beyond the Alps and briefly
diffused, such as tunnel formworks, pre cast large panels and three-dimensional elements.
In these Countries, while the stone or brick tradition was still strong, the appeal for
industrialized technologies and prefabricated components was initially rejected. In Italy and
Portugal, in the first second post war period, buildings are generally small and includes little
apartments with simple schemes. In Portugal, for example, the greatest part of the multifamily
housing stock of the 50-60 period is building blocks usually composed by two or three
dwellings per floor with three or four floors high.
In Italy, building blocks of this first period are generally composed with two or three apartments
for floor and contain between twenty and seventy apartments, with a medium high (from four to
seven floors high). The majority of these apartments have a little kitchen open in the living -
room and two bedrooms with a whole area of 50-60 m
2
. After the sixties, when the first
prefabrication era began, high rise buildings are typical. The newly developed pre-cast concrete
technologies allowed the construction of higher buildings with greater number of floors and
dwellings. Building blocks are more extended and have spacious apartments, generally ranging
from 80 to 90 m
2
. The number of flats is higher, and generally there are elevators on every
staircase. In Italy this period is characterized by the large use of tower typology.
In Cyprus and Greece, it is very difficult to find high-rise buildings. In Greece the great
majority of these buildings consists of a ground floor and usually three to five floors above it.
On each floor there are usually one to four apartments with net floor areas ranging between
40m
2
and 100m
2
. In Cyprus the typical housing construction system is mainly based on the
conventional construction system: use of reinforced concrete for the load bearing part of the
building, which is completed by masonry walls. A prefabricated system based on preheating
moulds was used in a very small proportion of some Government own estates.
Table 9: Main typologies in Group III. Mediterranean area
COUNTRY PERIOD TYPOLOGY
FLOOR AREA (m
2
)
Related to rooms
N OF FLOORS
Portugal 1950-1960 Multi family 35-134 (4-7 rooms) 3-4
1960-1980 Multi family 60-159 (4-7 rooms) 4 and more
Italy 1949-1956 Building block 30-90 (1-5 rooms) 4-7
1957-1963
Building block,
Tower
50-110 (1-5 rooms) 6-14
1965-1980
Building block,
Tower
64-112 (2-5 rooms) 8-19 and higher
Greece 1949-1980 Building block 40-100 (3-6 rooms) Gfloor+3/5storeys
Cyprus 1949-1980 Building block ------- 3-6
Conclusions 250
Table 10: Main technologies in Group III. Mediterranean area
COUNTRY PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
Portugal Reinforced concrete frame (on site or pre cast)
Italy Reinforced concrete frame, Complex formworks
Greece Reinforced concrete frame (on site)
Cyprus Reinforced concrete frame (on site)
The structure of the floors is usually concrete slabs, although in Italy trestle floor beams and
hollow floor blocks are largely diffused. In Portugal we find reinforced concrete slabs in the
southern part and/or pre-strengthen beams and ceramic (or concrete) molding blocks slabs in the
north. Usually the structure is generally the same used for the floors. Flat roofs are usually
finished with bitumen or gravel. Slope roofs are finished with roof tiles.
Table 11: Floors and roofs in Group III. Mediterranean area
COUNTRY FLOOR STRUCTURE ROOF STRUCTURE ROOF COVERING
Portugal
Reinforced concrete slabs
Pre-strengthen beams and
ceramic/concrete molding
blocks slabs
Pre-strengthen beams
and ceramic molding
blocks slab
Slope. Ceramic tiles
Flat. Bitumen cover or gravel
Italy
Reinforced concrete slabs
in situ
Trestle floor beams and
hollow floor blocks
Pre cast concrete slabs
Reinforced concrete
slabs in situ
Trestle floor beams and
hollow floor blocks
Pre cast concrete slabs
Slope: Bitumen layer and roof
tiles
Flat: Bitumen layer or gravel
Greece Reinforced concrete Flat. Bitumen layer or gravel
Cyprus Reinforced concrete
Flat: Light concrete or screed
and asphalt.
Faades are generally realized in perforated brickwork or, mainly in Italy, prefabricated
concrete panels. In Mediterranean countries, when external surfaces are plastered and painted
with emulsion paints, light colors are used (white, yellow) mostly in Greece, Cyprus and
Portugal. Also ceramic tiles (usually in the shape of bricks), natural stone or, in luxurious
buildings, marble are characteristic claddings of these countries. An essential feature of
residential buildings in Greece is the balcony, in form of protection. Every apartment above
ground level has at least one balcony, generally continuous, which vary in width from a
minimum of 0.5m to almost 2.5 m. Also in Portugal and Italy balconies are common.
Conclusions 251
Table 12: Floors and roofs in Group III. Mediterranean area
COUNTRY FAADES
Walls Window frames Outside finishing
Portugal
Single/double leaf hollow
brick walls
Wood,
Aluminum
PVC
Stone
Concrete
Plaster, Pains
Ceramic tiles
Italy
Single/double layer
hollow brickwork
Pre cast concrete panels
Aluminum,
Plastic
Plaster; Paints
Cyprus Single layer brickwork Aluminum Plaster; reflective paints
Greece
Massive/perforated
brickwork
Wood,
Aluminum
Plaster; Light color paints or
ceramic/stone tiles
Outsiders: Malta, Slovenia, Macedonia
This part comprehends nations which cant be gathered in the previous groups, because of their
peculiarity.
Maltese housing stock represents a particular case in the European outline. Building technology
is based on stone tradition, the local indigenous material globigerina limestone, commonly
called franka stone. All walls are load-bearing with no frame structures, so buildings rarely
exceed four floors. The post war housing stock is primarily composed of terraced houses, which
are a later development of the typical farmhouse layout of the early planning typology.
Apartments are very rare.
In Slovenia we find the highest share of apartments, about the 63% of the total housing stock.
Typical residential buildings have either masonry or reinforcement concrete structure. The
housing systems in Slovenia are influenced by geographic location, availability of local
materials and Central European cultural environment. In the early post war period, most of
buildings are multi-apartment houses on-a-string self standing multi apartment houses with 4
to 6 apartments constructed from clay brick masonry. In late 60-ties and in early 70-ties the
living habits changed as did the national building regulations. The prevailing type became the 3-
bedroom apartment, the kitchen became smaller, used only for preparation of food, while the
family stayed in the living room. A significant number of residential buildings was constructed
with cast-in-place reinforced concrete and pre cast technologies.
Macedonian building technology of the first post war period is mainly based on classic masonry
building systems: massive solid brick structural walls thick 25-38 cm. From 1960 a new pre-cast
concrete heavy-panel system was imported from USSR named Karpos.
Table 13: Main typologies in Malta, Slovenia, Macedonia
COUNTRY PERIOD TYPOLOGY
FLOOR AREA (m2 )
Related to rooms
N OF FLOORS
Malta Multi family ----- 2-4
Slovenia 1953-1967
Multi family on
a string
63-85 (2-3 rooms) Gfloor+3 floors
1953-1967 Building block 41-63 (3-4 rooms) Gfloor+5/7 floors
1967-1980 Building block 34-103 (3-6 rooms)
FYR
Macedonia
1949-1960 Multi storey ------- (3-7 rooms) 4-16
1960-1980 Multi storey 31-84 (3-6 rooms) 4-16
Conclusions 252
Table 14: Main technologies in Malta, Slovenia, Macedonia
COUNTRY PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
Malta Stone block walls
Slovenia Brick walls; reinforced concrete frame, pre cast panel systems
FYR Macedonia Brick walls; pre-cast concrete heavy-panel system
Floors and roofs technologies are very different, depending on the building technologies.
In Macedonia floors are based on three concrete systems: cast reinforced concrete thin-ribs slab
system, semi-prefabricated thin-ribs slab system called Avramenko, and timber beams over
the brick walls.
Timber structures are the most diffused technologies for floors and roofs in Malta, and in
Slovenia in mostly the early second post war period for masonry buildings. In Slovenia building
blocks with concrete technologies have in many cases reinforced concrete slabs floors and
reinforced concrete slabs flat roofs.
Table 15: Floors and roofs in Malta, Slovenia, Macedonia
COUNTRY FLOOR STRUCTURE ROOF STRUCTURE
ROOF
COVERING
Malta Timber structures Timber structures Flat
Slovenia
Timber structures
Reinforced concrete slabs
Timber structures
Reinforced concrete
slabs
Sloped
Flat
FYR
Macedonia
Reinforced concrete
Prefabricated concrete thin-ribs
slab system
Timber slab construction
---------------
Flat. Grey salinity
Slope. Ceramic tiles
Maltese housing stock faades are characterized by the use of Globigerina franka stone in
yellow-ochre to rosy colour and texture.
In Slovenia masonry buildings of the fifties are generally finished with plaster and paints, while
reinforced concrete blocks have in general pre-cast large panel envelope elements. Sometimes
dwellings of the seventies are characterized by wooden largely fenestrated faades, open air
balconies and terraces.
In Macedonia massive solid brick buildings of the fifties have plaster finishing, while pre cast
large panels faades are typical after the sixties.
Conclusions 253
Table 16: Floors and roofs in Malta, Slovenia, Macedonia
COUNTRY FAADES
Walls Window frames Outside finishing
Malta Massive stone walls Wood
Globigerina franka stone
in yellow-ochre to rosy
colour and texture
Slovenia
Massive brick masonry
Precast concrete panels
Wood
Plaster, Pains
Concrete
FYR Macedonia
Massive brick masonry
Concrete panels
----------
Plaster, Pains
Concrete
Housing policies
The multistory family houses can be seen as a monument of centralized political resources and
power of the post-war period. Interventions were mainly state financed, with great public
interest and non profit making associations and builders involved. Building legislation
promoted, generally, pre determined urban plans with pre figurate volumes, orientation and
building dimensions.
In most parts of Europe, housing policy laws attributed considerable state financial contribution
to building societies for equipping new urban housing developments with public roads, sewage
systems, public lighting, etc. Only in a few cases, for example in Greece, interventions were
totally delegated to the private sector. By the end of the eighties, the process of privatization of
buildings begun: this means that nowadays most of the European social housing buildings are
owned by the tenants. Since the 1980s, many other political and financial initiatives were taken
to promote and incentive the housing renovation.
Physical aspects
A poor physical performance of a dwelling can cause many problems and may even cause
serious health risks for the tenants. The problems can be of various origin. Building physics
create many problems because of degradation or lack of maintenance, depending on specific
climatic conditions and geographical position of different countries. Moisture problems are
mainly connected with humidity: condensation on thermal bridges, surface infiltrations,
moisture and attack by moulds. They will be discussed according to the subdivision of the
format, i.e. thermal insulation, protection against moisture, and noise insulation.
Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation is Europe-wide a topic of growing importance. This is reflected by the ever
higher requirements for the thermal insulation values in the national building codes of the
participating countries. The highest demands on thermal insulation values are to be found in
Denmark where a maximum U-value of 0,2W/m
2
K is required for outer walls with a weight of
less than 100 kg/m
2
. Denmark has a long tradition of saving energy through the application of
thermal insulation, considering the fact that in 1961 the maximum U-value was already set on
0,6W/m
2
K for the same construction parts. This last value is lower than the present demands in
Mediterranean countries with a hot climate like Cyprus and Greece where U-values of over
1W/m
2
K are still acceptable for new dwellings. Although also being a Mediterranean country,
Italy forms a favourable exception, with the maximum U-value presently set on 0.3W/m
2
K. This
value equals nowadays demands in Poland, a country with a considerably harsher climate.
Protection against moisture
Moist problems can be divided according to their origin. Moist problems resulting from
insufficient impermeability of faades and roofs, or resulting from poor architectural design are
reported from Portugal, Italy, Poland, Greece and France. Moist problems resulting from a lack
of ventilation due to the increasing cost of heating can be found all over Europe. In most non-
Conclusions 254
traditional building systems as described previously, moist problems caused by thermal bridges
in belt courses are fairly common. Thermal bridges may also result from inadequately applied
thermal insulation. Finally moist problems may originate from damp rising into foundations and
porous walls. Any excess of moist in dwellings results in condensation, dampness and mould,
thus causing serious health threats to the occupants of the effected building blocks.
Noise insulation
Noise insulation is a relatively new topic. The first two decades after the war, demands for
adequate sound insulation were not incorporated in the building code of any European country.
The first requirements for sound insulation date from 1961 and are to be found in the Danish
building code. The insulation for airborne-sound and impact-sound between apartments was
here set on a value of 50 dB horizontally and 52 dB vertically. By the mid seventies France, The
Netherlands, Poland and Cyprus had similar demands added to their building codes. Portugal
followed in 1987. Today, Denmark has the highest demands on sound-insulation with the value
for the impact-sound set on a minimum of 58 dB between adjacent dwellings. Insufficient sound
insulation may cause a lack of sleep and stress with tenants. Therefore, adequate sound-
insulation is nowadays considered to be an important issue for the well being of occupants. In
view of the increasing noise levels from heavy traffic and airplanes in densely populated areas,
improvements on sound-insulation in the existing housing stock will continue to be a big issue.
In the European post-war apartment stock, adaptations to improve its sound deadening capacity
are often hampered by the limited height of the living quarters.
Structural aspects
In general, the European non-traditional post-war multifamily housing stock seems to be
structurally sound. In the Portuguese contribution some structural problems are mentioned
caused by failing foundations, due to insufficient testing of the bearing capacity of the subsoil.
Some structural problems caused by the corrosion of steel bars in the structural elements of the
faades have been reported from Poland, Slovenia, and Portugal. Adequate earthquake
resistance is only an issue in the south-eastern part of Europe, in Portugal and on the Azores
islands. In Greece, most building blocks erected between 1950 and 1980 do not comply with
their present requirements for seismic performance.
Functional aspects
On the scale of the individual dwelling, a lack of space is the main reason for the poor
functional quality of the European post-war apartment stock. Solutions are to be found in
rearranging floor plans in order to enlarge living areas and bathrooms, or in joining adjacent
apartments and create overall larger apartments. In view of the necessity to improve its
functional quality to nowadays needs, the building techniques used for erecting the post-war
apartment stock are restrictive for the options for its redevelopment. Skeleton structures prove
to be very adaptable. Mediterranean countries, where this technique has been used as the main
building principle, have little problems in this respect. Spine-wall structures as used in Denmark
and France offer also good options for redesign. In East-European countries, where the
prevailing building technique is large-panel building with relatively narrow spans, adaptations
are far more difficult to achieve. The adaptability of in-situ concrete structures with tunnel
moulds as used in France and in the Netherlands from the mid-sixties onwards is also restricted
by the width of the spans. These in-situ structures however, have wider spans than the early
post-war systems.
Safety
Europe-wide, for the last few decades living conditions in post-war neighbourhoods have been
deteriorating. Social problems like vandalism frequently occur, and crime rates are alarmingly
high in these areas. Therefore, on an urban scale a lack of safety seems to be one of the main
issues for the wide-scaled renewal of the post-war neighbourhoods. All over Europe
Conclusions 255
intervention schemes are focussed on scaling down the size of these vast areas in order to
improve social control, on opposing anonymity by adding identity to the individual building
blocks and on improving communal life in general with supplementary measures like job
schemes.
Accessibility
In view of the large shift in the age-profile of the European population, as foreseen for the next
few decades, adequate accessibility of the apartment stock is an issue of increasing importance.
In Malta for instance, recently access for all has become mandatory. Poor accessibility is
mainly an issue in the European apartment stock that has been produced before the mid-sixties.
Improvements on the accessibility are difficult to achieve. The obstacles are numerous and
divers. Dimensions of stairway halls are often insufficient to insert an elevator. In Germany,
Poland and in the Netherlands, the ground floor in post-war apartment blocks is often elevated
half a storey above street level, compelling its occupants to climb at least half a flight of stairs.
Due to the high rate of individual ownership, in Slovenia attempts to improve the accessibility
of post-war apartment blocks are greatly hampered by a lack of consensus on the investments
cost among its occupants. In Denmark adequate accessibility doesnt seem to be considered as a
major issue.
Architectural aspects
The recognition of the lack of the architectural quality of the post-war apartment stock is
unanimous all over Europe. Attempts for improvement are not yet widely spread. From
Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands some examples have been reported. The most common
measures for changing the appearance of a building block are by adding mural paintings or
coloured plastering on to the faades. The enlargement and glazing-in of small balconies adds
functional quality to the individual apartments, as well as making the apartment block as a
whole more interesting by embossing its flat faade. The identity of a building block may also
be enhanced by redesigning its entrance hall, using expensive materials in striking colours.
In many European countries new technologies have been developed, but they have either not yet
been translated into practice, or have been only locally used to achieve a higher quality in urban
buildings. This results in a limited impact on urban environments. Therefore it is essential to
bring all kind of local solutions together, to learn from it and to come to a more general
approach that can be used for building systems. To reach best results, it is essential to integrate
all the factors influencing urban building envelopes and look at it in a broader scope. This
requires the development of new and suitable strategies for local authorities, housing
corporations and owners on one hand, and for architects and civil engineers on the other hand,
involving a multitude of factors such as: quantitative technical demands, qualitative aspects,
social aspects, safety aspects, environmental aspects (including energy use), and modifications
in the use of the building.
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COST C16 Management Committee
Belgium
Prof. Andre de Naeyer
Hogeschool Antwerpen
Univ. College Henry vande Velde
Design Sciences
Mutsaardstraat 31
B-2000 Antwerp
+32.3.231 6200
+32.3.231 9604
[email protected]
Cyprus
Mr. Christos Efstathiades
Public Works Department
Republic of Cyprus
Ministry of Communication & Works
Lefkosia
+35799597362
+35725332094
[email protected]
Cyprus
Mr. George Hadjimichael
Town Planning & Housing Department
Demostheni Severi Avenue
1454 Nicosia
+357 22 30 65 92
+357 22 30 65 01
[email protected]
Denmark
Mr. Jesper Engelmark
DTU - Technical University of Denmark
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Planning and Management of Building
Processes
DTU Building 118, Brovej
2800 Lyngby
+45 45251932
+45 45883282
[email protected]
Denmark
Prof. Ebbe Melgaard
Royal Academy of Fine Arts
School of Architecture
Philip de Langes All 10
1435 Kbenhavn K
+45 49147850
+45 32686111
[email protected]
F.Y.R. of Macedonia
Prof. Kiril Gramatikov
St Cyril & Methodius University
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Dept. of Concrete and Timber Structures
UL. Partizanski odredi 24
POB 560
1000 Skopje
+ 389 2 3116066 ext. 148
+ 389 2 3117 367
[email protected]
COST C16 Management Committee 258
France
Prof. Francis Allard
Universit de La Rochelle
Ple Sciences et Technologie
LEPTAB
ave Michel Crpeau
F-17042 La Rochelle cedex 1
+33 546 45 82 04
+33 546 45 82 41
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Franz Georg Hofmann
Federal Ministry of Transport
Construction and Housing
Merler Allee 11
53125 Bonn
+49 228 252500
+49 228 9259 554
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Christian Wetzel
CalCon Holding GmbH
Management
Goethestr. 74
80336 Munich
+49-(0)89-552698-0
+49-(0)89-552698-75
[email protected]
Greece
Prof. Charalampos Baniotopoulos
ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF
THESSALONIKI
CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERISTY CAMPUS
GR-54124 Thessaloniki
+302310995753
+302310995642
[email protected]
Hungary
Dr. Tams Mezs
University of Budapest for Technology and
Economics
Muegyetem rkp 3
1111 Budapest
+36 1 463 2303
+36 1 463 1638
[email protected]
Hungary
Prof. Gyrgy Smsondi Kiss Technical
Committee Monitor
Szent Istvan University
Thkly Str 74
1146 Budapest
+36 1 252 1270
+36 1 252 1278
[email protected]
Hungary
Ms. Agnes Novak
Budapest University of Technology and
Economics
Budapest
+36 1 3060 394
+36 27 347 237
[email protected]
Italy
Prof. Roberto di Giulio
University of Ferrara
Department of Architecture
Via Quartieri 8
44100 Ferrara
+39 348 3856993
+39 055 244042
[email protected]
Italy
Mr. Eugenio Arbizzani
Universita degli Studi di Roma "la Sapienza"
Facolta di Architettura Valle Giulia
Via Gramsci 53
00197 Roma
+39 06 49919291
+39 06 49919290
[email protected]
Malta
Dr. Vincent Buhagiar
University of Malta
Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering
Environmental Design
Department of Architecture & Urban Design
Tal-Qroqq
MSD 06 Msida
+356 2340 2849
+356 21 333919
[email protected]
COST C16 Management Committee 259
Malta
Mr. Ruben Paul Borg
University of Malta
Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Mediterranea, 161, Triq Luigi Billion,
Pembroke,
Msida, Malta
(00356)79055680
(00356)21375185
[email protected]
Netherlands
Prof. Leo G.W. Verhoef (Chairman)
Delft University of Technology
Berlageweg 1
2628CR Delft
+31.152784179
+31.152781028
[email protected]
Netherlands
Mr. Frank Koopman (Technical Secretary)
Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Architecture (room 2.05)
Chair Restoration
Berlageweg 1
2628 CR Delft
+31152784133
+31152781028
[email protected]
Poland
Prof. Aleksander Kozlowski
Rzeszow University of Technology
Building Structure
Civil Engineering
W. Pola 2
Rzeszow
Poland
35-959 Rzeszow
+48 178541127
+48 178542974
[email protected]
Poland
Dr. Adam Rybka
Rzeszow University of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Department of Town Planning and
Architecture
W. Pola 2
35 959 Rzeszow
+48 17 8651624
+48 17 8543565
[email protected]
Portugal
Prof. Lus Bragana Lopes
University of Minho
School of Engineering
Building Physics and Construction Technology
Laboratory
Azurem
4800-058 Guimaraes
+351253510200
+351253510217
[email protected]
Slovenia
Prof. Roko Zarnic (Vice Chairman)
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
Jamova c. 2
1000 Ljubljana
+38641777517
+38614250681
[email protected]
Slovenia
Dr. Jana Selih
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
Jamova 2
1000 Ljubljana
+ 386 1 4768575
+ 386 1 2504861
[email protected]
COST C16 Management Committee 260
Sweden
Prof. Dr. Satish Chandra
Gothenburg University
Institute of Conservation
Box 130
St. Nygatan 23-25
40530 Gothenburg
+46 31 7734709
+46 31 7734703
[email protected]
United Kingdom
Mr. Stephen Ledbetter
University of Bath
Centre for Window & Cladding Technology
Bath
+44 1225 826506
+44 1225 826556
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members
Working Group 1
Cyprus
Mr. Petros Lapithis
Intercollege
Art and Design Department
46 Makedonitissas Avenue
Lefkosia CY, Cyprus
+357 22 841 571
+357 22 353 682
[email protected]
Denmark
Mr. Torben Dahl
Institute of Technology
School of Architecture
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Philip de Langes All 10
Dk-1435 Copenhagen K, Denmark
+45 32 68 62 04
[email protected]
F.Y.R. of Macedonia
Prof. Kiril Gramatikov
St Cyril & Methodius University
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Dep of Concrete and Timber Structures
UL. Partizanski odredi 24
POB 560
1000 Skopje
+ 389 2 3116066 ext. 148
+ 389 2 3117 367
[email protected]
France
Mr. Dominique Groleau
Ecole Nationale Suprieure d'Architecture de
nantes
Laboratoire CERMA
rue Massenet
44300 NANTES
+33 2 40 59 21 22
+33 2 40 59 11 77
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Christian Wetzel
CalCon Holding GmbH
Goethestr. 74
80336 Munich
+49-(0)89-552698-0
+49-(0)89-552698-75
[email protected]
Greece
Prof. Ted Stathopoulos
Concordia University / Aristotle University
Engineering / Computer Science
Centre for Building Studies
Building, Civil Engineering
541 24 Thessaloniki
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 262
Hungary
Dr. Tams Mezs
University of Budapest for Technology and
Economics
Muegyetem rkp 3
1111 Budapest
+36 1 463 2303
+36 1 463 1638
[email protected]
Italy
Prof. Roberto di Giulio (Chairman)
University of Ferrara
Department of Architecture
Via Quartieri 8
44100 Ferrara
+39 348 3856993
+39 055 244042
[email protected]
Italy
Ms. Silvia Brunoro
University of Ferrara
Faculy of Architecture
via Quartieri 8
44100 Ferrara
+39 347 1497462
+ 39 0532 293627
[email protected]
Netherlands
Ms. Marie Therese Andeweg
Delft Universiry of Technology
Faculty of Architecture
Berlageweg 1
2628 CR Delft
+31152787912
[email protected]
Poland
Dr. Zbigniew Plewako
Rzeszw University of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Department of Building Structures
ul. W. Pola 2
35-959 Rzeszw
+48 602759595
+48 178542974
[email protected]
Portugal
Prof. Lus Bragana Lopes
University of Minho
Building Physics and Construction Technology
Laboratory
School of Engineering
Azurem
4800-058 Guimaraes
+351253510200
+351253510217
[email protected]
Slovenia
Dr. Marjana Sijanec Zavrl
Building and Civil Engineering Institute
ZRMK
Dimiceva 12
1000 Ljubljana
+386 1 280 8342
+386 1 280 8451
[email protected]
Sweden
Prof. Dr. Satish Chandra
Gothenburg University
Institute of Conservation
Box 130
St. Nygatan 23-25
40530 Gothenburg
+46 31 7734709
+46 31 7734703
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 263
Working Group 2
Belgium
Prof. Andr de Naeyer
Hogeschool Antwerpen
Mutsaardstraat, 31
2000 Antwerpen
+323 231 6200
+323 231 9604
[email protected]
Cyprus
Mr. George Hadjimichael
Town Planning & Housing Department
Demostheni Severi Avenue
1454 Nicosia
+357 22 30 65 92
+357 22 30 65 01
[email protected]
Denmark
Prof. Ebbe Melgaard (Chairman)
Royal Academy of Fine Arts
School of Architecture
Philip de Langes All 10
1435 Kbenhavn K
+45 49147850
+45 32686111
[email protected]
F.Y.R of Macedonia
Mr. Tihomir Stojkov
St Cyril & Methodius University
School of Architecture
Partizanka b.b.
91000 Skopje
[email protected]
France
Dr. Gerard Guarracino
ENTPE CNRS
Department of Civil Engineering & Building
Rue Audin
69518 Vaulx en Velin
+33472047030
+33472047041
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Franz Georg Hofmann
Federal Ministry of Transport
Construction and Housing
Merler Allee 11
53125 Bonn
+49 228 252500
+49 228 9259 554
[email protected]
Greece
Prof. Dimitrios Bikas
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh)
Structural Engineering/Building Construction
Dept. of Civil Engineering
541 24 Thessaloniki
+(30)2310 995763
+(30)2310 420628
[email protected]
Hungary
Ms. Agnes Novak
Hungary University of Design and Crafts
Budapest University of Technology and
Economics
Budapest
+36 1 3060 394
+36 27 347 237
[email protected]
Italy
Mr. Paolo Civiero
Universiy of the Studies of Rome La
Sapienza
Dept. ITACA
Via Flaminia, 70
00196 Roma
+39 3286223091
+39 0644363083
[email protected]
Netherlands
Mr. Frank Koopman
Delft Universiry of Technology
Faculty of Architecture
Berlageweg 1
2628 CR Delft
+31152784133
+31152781028
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 264
Poland
Dr. Adam Rybka
Rzeszow University of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Department of Town Planning and
Architecture
W. Pola 2
35 959 Rzeszow Poland
+48 17 8651624
+48 17 8543565
[email protected]
Portugal
Prof. Manuela Almeida
23/05/2006
University of Minho
School of Engineering
Building Physics and Technology Group
Civil Engineering Department
Azurm
4800-058 Guimares
+351 253 510 200
+351 253 510 217
[email protected]
Slovenia
Prof. Roko Zarnic
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
Jamova c. 2
1000 Ljubljana
+38641777517
+38614250681
[email protected]
Sweden
Prof. Solveig Schulz
Chalmers University of Technology
Architectural Conservation
SE-41296 Gteborg
+46(31)7722441
+46(31)7722489
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 265
Working Group 3A
Belgium
Dr. Filip van Rickstal
Catholic University of Leuven
Civil Engineering Department
Div. Building Materials
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40
3001 Heverlee
+3216482797
+3216321976
[email protected]
Cyprus
Mr. Christos Efstathiades
Public Works Department
Republic of Cyprus
Ministry of Communication & Works
Lefkosia
+35799597362
+35725332094
[email protected]
Denmark
Mr. Jesper Engelmark
DTU - Technical University of Denmark
Planning and Management of Building
Processes
BYG.DTU - Dept. of Civil Engineering
BYG.DTU, DTU Building 118, Brovej
2800 Lyngby
+45 45251932
+45 45883282
[email protected]
F.Y.R. of Macedonia
Prof. Kiril Gramatikov
St Cyril & Methodius University
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Dep of Concrete and Timber Structures
UL. Partizanski odredi 24
POB 560
1000 Skopje
+ 389 2 3116066 ext. 148
+ 389 2 3117 367
[email protected]
F.Y.R. of Macedonia
Mr. Zivko Bozinovski (Vice Chairman)
St Cyril & Methodius University
Institute of Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Seismology
P.O.B. 101
Salvador Aljende 73
91000 Skopje
+389 2176155
+389 2112163
[email protected]
France
Prof. Francis Allard
Universit de La Rochelle
Ple Sciences et Technologie
LEPTAB
ave Michel Crpeau
F-17042 La Rochelle cedex 1
+33 546 45 82 04
+33 546 45 82 41
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Claus Asam
TU Berlin
Institut fr Erhaltung und Modernisierung von
Bauwerken
Berlin
+4930399216
+493039921850
[email protected]
Hungary
Dr. Tams Mezs
University of Budapest for Technology and
Economics
Muegyetem rkp 3
1111 Budapest
+36 1 463 2303
+36 1 463 1638
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 266
Italy
Prof. Roberto di Giulio (Chairman)
University of Ferrara
Department of Architecture
Via Quartieri 8
44100 Ferrara
+39 348 3856993
+39 055 244042
[email protected]
Malta
Mr. Ruben Paul Borg
University of Malta
Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Mediterranea, 161, Triq Luigi Billion,
Pembroke, Malta
Msida, Malta
+35679055680
+35621375185
[email protected]
Netherlands
Prof. Leo G.W. Verhoef
Delft University of Technology
Architecture/ Restoration
Berlageweg 1
2628CR Delft
+31.152784179
+31.152781028
[email protected]
Netherlands
Ms. Marie Therese Andeweg
Delft Universiry of Technology
Faculty of Architecture
Berlageweg 1
2628 CR Delft
+31152787912
[email protected]
Poland
Mr. Alexander Kozlowski
Rzeszow University of Technology
Building Structure
Civil Engineering
W. Pola 2
35-959 Rzeszow Poland
+48 178541127
+48 178542974
[email protected]
Slovenia
Dr. Jana Selih
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
Jamova 2
1000 Ljubljana
+ 386 1 4768575
+ 386 1 2504861
[email protected]
Sweden
Ms. Sonja Vidn
School of Architecture
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm
Sweden
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 267
Working Group 3B
Cyprus
Mr. Petros Lapithis
Art and Design Department
Intercollege
46 Makedonitissas Avenue
Lefkosia CY, Cyprus
+357 22 841 571
+357 22 353 682
[email protected]
Denmark
Mr. Torben Dahl
Institute of Technology
School of Architecture
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Philip de Langes All 10
1435 Copenhagen
+45 32 68 62 04
[email protected]
France
Mr. Dominique Groleau
Ecole Nationale Suprieure d'Architecture de
nantes
Laboratoire CERMA
rue Massenet
44300 NANTES
+33 2 40 59 21 22
+33 2 40 59 11 77
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Frank Ulrich Vogdt
TU Berlin
Institut fr Erhaltung und Modernisierung von
Bauwerken
Berlin
+4930399216
+493039921850
[email protected]
Germany
Mr. Christian Wetzel (Vice Chairman)
CalCon Holding GmbH
Goethestr. 74
80336 Munich
+49-(0)89-552698-0
+49-(0)89-552698-75
[email protected]
Greece
Prof. Ted Stathopoulos
Concordia University / Aristotle University
Engineering / Computer Science
Centre for Building Studies
Building, Civil Engineering
541 24 Thessaloniki
[email protected]
Hungary
Mr. Andrs Zld
[email protected]
Italy
Ms. Silvia Brunoro
University of Ferrara
Faculy of Architecture
via Quartieri 8
44100 Ferrara
+39 347 1497462
+ 39 0532 293627
[email protected]
Malta
Mr. Vincent Buhagiar
University of Malta
Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering
Environmental Design
Department of Architecture & Urban Design
Tal-Qroqq
MSD 06 Msida
+356 2340 2849
+356 21 333919
[email protected]
Netherlands
Mr. Christoph Maria Ravesloot
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geo
Sciences
Department of Design and Construction
Section Design and Construction Processes
PO Box 5048
2600 GA Delft
31 15 2781472
31 15 2787700
[email protected]
COST C16 Working Group Members 268
Poland
Dr. Zbigniew Plewako
Rzeszw University of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Department of Building Structures
ul. W. Pola 2
35-959 Rzeszw
+48 602759595
+48 178542974
[email protected]
Portugal
Mr. Ricardo Mateus
University of Minho
Civil Engineering Department
Azurm
4800-058 Guimares
+351 253 510 200
+351 253 510 217
[email protected]
Portugal
Prof. Lus Bragana Lopes (Chairman)
University of Minho
School of Engineering
Building Physics and Construction
Technology Laboratory
Azurem
4800-058 Guimaraes
+351253510200
+351253510217
[email protected]
Slovenia
Dr. Marjana Sijanec Zavrl
Building and Civil Engineering Institute
ZRMK
Dimiceva 12
1000 Ljubljana
+386 1 280 8342
+386 1 280 8451
[email protected]
Sweden
Prof. Dr. Satish Chandra
Gothenburg University
Institute of Conservation
Box 130
St. Nygatan 23-25
40530 Gothenburg
+46 31 7734709
+46 31 7734703
[email protected]
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