IES Lighting Handbook
IES Lighting Handbook
IES Lighting Handbook
SECTION
I
The American Standards Association and the Illuminating Engineering Society define light asiradiant energy evaluated according to its capacity to 'produce visual sensationS Radiant energy of the proper wavelength makes visible anything from which it is emitted or reflected in sufficient quantity
to activate the receptors in the eye.
(
They
A.
1
~~
2.
3.
optic
B. The wave theory) based on these premises: 1. That light is the resultant of molecular vibration in the luminous
material.
2.
3.
That vibrations are transmitted through the ether as wavelike movements (comparable to ripples in water). That the vibrations thus transmitted act on the retina of the eye
stimulating the optic nerves to produce visual sensation.
C.
1.
--2.
The electromagnetic theory 2 based on these premises: That luminous bodies emit light as a form of radiant energy. That this radiant energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic
,
-_
3.
waves. That the electromagnetic waves act upon the retina of the eye thus stimulating the optic nerves to produce the sensation of light.
D. The quantum theory, a modern form of the corpuscular theory, based on these premises: "~ 1. That energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete quanta. 2. That the magnitude of each quantum is hv, where h 6.547 X 10~ 27 erg sec (Planck's constant)
and
in
E. The theory of wave mechanics first proposed by Schrodinger in 1925 an attempt to reach an harmonious compromise between the quantum and the wave theories. 1. It utilizes wave characteristics and quanta particles as the need arises in the solution of problems. 2. The mathematics involved is too complicated for present application to illuminating engineering problems.
Note: References are Listed
at the end of each section.
1-1
1-2
LIGHTING HANDBOOK
or concepts are available the
will
new data
quantum
unquestionably be used as the basis of continued research in light phenomena. The electromagnetic wave theory provides a convenient explanation of those characteristics of radiant energy most frequently of concern to the illuminating engineer. Radiant energy may be evaluated in a number of different ways; two
of these are:
1. Radiant flux the time rate of the flow of any part of the radiant energy spectrum measured in ergs per second. 2. Luminous flux the time rate of the flow of the luminous parts of the radiant energy spectrum measured in lumens.
The wave theory permits a convenient graphical representation of radiant energy in an orderly arrangement according to its wavelength. This arrangement is called a spectrum (Fig. 1-1). It is useful in indicating the relationship between various radiant energy wavelength regions. Such a graphical representation must not be construed to indicate that each region of the spectrum is divided from the others in any physical way whatsoever. Actually there is a gradual transition from one region to another.
FREQUENCY
COSM IC RAYS
IN
GAMMA RAYS
HARD
X-RAYS
SOFT
VAC UUM
U.V.
HERTZIAN WAVES
ULTRAVIOLET *
NEAR
INFRARED FAR
FM
TELEVISION
VIOLET BLUE GREEN
0.5
YELLOW RED
0.6 IN 0.7
_ SHORT WAVE
0.76
POWER
TRANSMISSION
BROADCAST
WAVELENGTH
I
MICRONS
I
X-UNn"
ANGSTROM
io-8
CM
]
METER
io2
KILOMETER
I0 4 I0 6
I0 8
10'0
,0-12
10 -I0
I0"6
10"4
10"2
IN
WAVELENGTH
CENTIMETERS
FIG.
1-1.
limits of the radiant energy spectrum extend over a range wavelengths varying from a few micromicrons (10~ 10 cm) to one hundred thousand miles (1.6 X 10 10 cm). Radiant energy in the visible spectrum has wavelengths betAveen 0.38 X 10~ 4 and 0.76 X 10~ 4 cm. The Angstrom unit (A), the micron (/x), and the millimicron (m/x) are commonly used units of length in the visible spectrum band. The relationship of several units for measuring wavelength is given in Table 1-1.
of
The known
1-3
rate of speed
same
However, each form differs in (186,300 miles per second). wavelength and thus in frequency. The wavelength and velocity may be
vacuum
altered materially
is
by the medium through which it passes, but frequency medium. Thus, through the equation:
where
V = V = n X = v
n\v
velocity of
sec)
(index of refraction)
it is possible to determine the velocity of radiant energy and also to indicate the relationship between frequency and wavelength. Table 1-2 gives the velocity of light in different media for a frequency corresponding to a wavelength of 0.589 micron in air.
Table
Multiply
of
1-1.
Number
&
To Obtain Number of
1
\\
p4
O %
1
en
w fc o PS u
104
w H w
C/3
OS
(A
H
2.540
(J
H W
kJ
g
2.540
S
3.04S
1.609
J S
10 7
w H W g H g
108
Pi
W H W S
w
lOU
ANGSTROMS
MICRONS
MILS
XIO 5
10-4
1
X108
2.540
X109
3.048
XIO"
1.609
103 104
2.540
109
xio
3.937 3.937
1
X104
103
xio*
1.2
X10'
6.336
3.937
3.937
3.937
X10-6
X10-2
3.937
10-3
1
X104
12
XIO 7
6.336
xio
3.937
X102
3.937
X10 7
3.937
INCHES
3.937
xio-
XlO-s
3.281 8.333
XW
1
X10-2
3.281
xio-'
3.281
X104
3.281
FEET
MILES
3.281
8.333
5.280
X10-' 8
6.214
X10" s
6.214
X10-5
1.578
X10-2
1.57S 1.894
X10
X10-4
3.04S
1.609
X10-3
6.214
X10-J
6.214
X103
6.214
XlO-n
X 10-19
10-3
XIO" 8
2.540
XlO-s
2.540
xio-'
1
xio-
10
xio-'
10 6
MILLIMETERS
lO-'
X10-2
X10
2.540
X102
3.048
XIO8
1.609
0.1
1
CENTIMETERS
KILOMETERS
10-8
10-4
2.540
10
XIO"'
10-"
10-9
xio
2.540 3.048
X10*
1.609
io-
2.540
10" s
XIO"'
xio-
X10-4
Table
1-2.
MEDIUM
VELOCITY
(cm per
see)
VACUUM
(2.99776
mm
X
0C)
CROWN GLASS
1.98212
WATER
2.24903X1010
0.00004)
10"
2.99708
lOio
10"
1-4
E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The apparent differences in character between radiant energy of various wavelengths are in reality differences in ability of various receiving and
detecting devices. 3
The reception characteristics of the human eye have been subject to exThe results may be summarized as follows: tensive investigations. 1. The spectral response characteristic of the human eye varies between individuals, with time, and with the age and the state of health of any indiany individual to act as a standard not scientifically feasible. 2. However, from the wealth of data available, a luminosity curve has been selected for engineering purposes which represents the average human observer. This curve may be applied mathematically to the solution of photometric problems so as to eliminate the disadvantages related to all measurements dependent on the accurate reporting of human sensations. (See also Section 2.) Recognizing these facts, the Illuminating Engineering Society in 1923 and the International Commission on Illumination (I.C.I.) in 1924 adopted the standard luminosity factors of Table 1-3 from which the luminosity curve of Fig. 1-2 was plotted.
vidual, to the extent that the selection of
observer
is
Table
1-3.
WAVELENGTH
(micron)
FACTOR
0.00004
.00012 .0004 .0012 .0040 .0116 .023 .038 .060
.091 .139 .208
WAVELENGTH
(micron)
FACTOR
0.503
.710 .862 .954 .995 .995 .952 .870 .757 .631 .503 .381 .265
WAVELENGTH
(micron)
FACTOR
0.175
.107 .061 .032 .017 .0082 .0041 .0021 .00105 .00052 .00025 .00012 .00006
0.380
.390 .400 .410 .420 .430 .440 .450 .460 .470 .480 .490 .500
1
0.510
.520 .530 .540 .550 .560 .570 .580 .590 .600 .610 .620 .630
micron
is
0.640
.650 .660 .670 .680 .690 .700 .710 .720 .730 .740 .750 .760
.323
1.0002 for 0.555
Luminosity factor =
maximum.
The standard luminosity curve represents an average characteristic from which the characteristic of any individual may be expected to vary. Goodeve's data (Fig. 1-3) indicate that most human observers are capable of experiencing a visual sensation upon exposure to radiation of infrared wavelengths (longer than 0.76 micron). It also is known that observers
exhibit a slight response to ultraviolet wavelengths (shorter than 0.38
micron).
1-5
0.9
10-2
0.8
I0"4
0.5
D J >
0.4
<0.3
_l LU <r
0.2
0.1
0.38
0.70
0.74
0.70
0.75
0.80
IN
0.85
0.90
WAVELENGTH
MICRONS
FIG.
1-3.
Goodeve's investi-
FIG. 1-2. The standard (I.C.I.) luminosity curve shows the relative capacity of radiant energy of various wavelengths to produce
visual sensation.
gations reveal that high flux concentrations of wavelengths just outside the "visible region" are capable of producing visual sensations. 7
Photoelectric Effect
may
If the liberation of electrons from the surface atoms. the surface is connected as a cathode in an electric field (Fig. 1-4) the liberated electrons will flow to the anode creating a photoelectric current.
illuminated,
is
An arrangement
of this sort
may
be calibrated in f ootcandles.
CATHODE
(METAL PLATE)""-,
--X
LIGHT
QUANTUM
(ENERGY = hV)
ELECTRON
(ENERGY = Vz
ANODE
mV 2 = hV-E
FIG. 1-4. By the photoelectric effect, electrons may be liberated from illuminated metal surfaces. In an electric field these will flow to an anode and create an electric current which may be detected by means of a galvanometer.