Non-Destructive Methods: P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods: P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Motivation
Many industrialized nations currently dedicate a considerable portion of the construction budget for restoration, repair, and maintenance of old structures as opposed to new construction.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Motivation (2)
In 1991 the U.S. Department of Transportation reported that $90.9 billion dollars were required for the rehabilitation and repair of the highway infrastructure system. By 1997, the estimated cost had risen to $212 billion.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Essentially, the surface hardness method consists of impacting a concrete surface in a standard manner with a given energy of impact and then measuring the size of indentation or rebound.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The equipment used to determine the penetration resistance of concrete consists of a powder-activated device.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Windsor probe
The Windsor probe uses a powder-activated driver to fire a hardened-alloy probe into the concrete. The exposed length of the probe is a measure of the penetration resistance of concrete. The standard test procedure is described in ASTM C-803
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Windsor probe The type and amount of aggregate play an important role in the penetration resistance. The variation in the Windsor probe-test results is higher when compared with the variation in standard compressive strength tests on companion specimens. This method is excellent for measuring the relative rate of strength development of concrete at early ages, especially for determining stripping time for formwork.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Windsor probe
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
PULLOUT TESTS
A pullout test consists of casting a specially-shaped steel insert with an enlarged end into fresh concrete. This steel insert is then pulled-out from the concrete and the force required for pullout is measured using a dynamometer. A bearing ring is used to confine failure to a well-defined shape.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
PULLOUT TESTS
As the steel insert is pulled out, a cone of concrete is also removed, thereby damaging the concrete surface (which must be repaired after the test).
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
PULLOUT TESTS
Non-Destructive Methods
Maturity Tests
Since the degree of cement hydration depends on both time and temperature, the strength of concrete may be evaluated from the concept of maturity, which is expressed as a function of the time and the temperature of curing.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
MATURITY METHOD
It is assumed that batches of the same concrete mixtures of same maturity will attain the same strength regardless of the timetemperature combinations leading to that maturity.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
MATURITY METHOD A simple maturity function M(t) can be defined as the product between time and temperature:
M (t ) = (Ta To ) t
or in the limit
M (t ) = (Ta To ) dt
t 0
where ,Dt, Ta , and To are time interval, average concrete temperature during the time interval Dt, and the datum temperature, respectively. Traditionally, -10C or 14F is assumed to be the datum temperature below which there is no additional gain in strength.. ASTM C 1074 recommends a datum temperature of 0 C or 32 F.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Maturity
Influence of curing temperature at early ages on the strength-maturity relationship when equation (1) is used with T0 = - 10 C. This early-age difference can be reduced when better maturity functions are used.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The rate of water absorption by capillary suction is a good measure of the quality of a concrete and its potential durability when exposed to aggressive environments. Low values of absorption indicate that aggressive ions will have difficulty penetrating the concrete.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The rate of water absorption by capillary suction is a good measure of the quality of a concrete and its potential durability when exposed to aggressive environments. Low values of absorption indicate that aggressive ions will have difficulty penetrating the concrete.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Experimental research indicates that the water absorption values are reduced which decrease in the water-to-cement ratio; increase in the curing time; decrease in curing temperature; and increase in the degree of consolidation.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The term permeation is used to describe the mass transport of liquids or gases induced by pressure and concentration gradients or by capillary forces. Permeation is influenced by the volume and connectivity of the capillary pores in the cement paste matrix.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The air permeability of concrete increases when the moisture is eliminated, which in turn increases the connectivity of the pores. The water absorption also increases when the capillary pores are empty.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Displacement
Displacement
Time
D istance
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
sin 1 V1 = sin 2 V2
V1 ic = sin V 2
1
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Many receivers
Transient time
slope: 1/V
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Impact Methods
A simple method of assessing the condition of concrete is to tap the surface with a hammer and listen to the resulting tone. A high-frequency pitch indicates a sound concrete and a low-frequency pitch indicates the presence of flaws.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Impact Methods
A trained operator can delineate zones of high and low pitch using this method.
The disadvantage of the method is that it is dependent on the skill level of the operator and does not provide quantitative information on the amount of damage in the interior of the concrete.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Impact Methods
To overcome these limitations, different methods were developed To control the duration of the impact force so as to assure the reproducibility of the test and (b) to characterize the surface displacement generated by the impact on concrete.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Impact-echo
Impact forces generated by steel spheres Use of sensitive broadband transducer at the surface. Analysis of the waveforms in frequency domain
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Impact-echo
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Surface waves are not confined to the surface but, rather, are capable of penetrating a finite depth inside the material, sensing its properties. Waves with short wavelength may not be able to sense a discontinuity deep in the interior of a structure, however waves with long wavelengths will be affected by its presence and their velocity will change. This change of velocity with wavelength can be used to establish layers of high and low velocities.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Acoustic Emission
Acoustic Emission (AE) is a noninvasive, nondestructive method that analyzes the noises created when materials deform or fracture. Each acoustic emission event is a signature of an actual mechanism, a discrete event that reflects a given material response.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Acoustic Emission
Acoustic emission waves propagate through the material and can be detected on the surface by a sensor, which turns the vibrations into electrical signals. The sound of fracture propagation was originally called acoustic emission since it is acoustic and audible, however the frequency of these emissions can range from the audible range to many megahertz.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Acoustic Emission
There is a critical difference between acoustic emission and ultrasonic methods. In the former, a known signal is imparted into a material and the materials response to on the signal is studied while in the latter the signal is generated by the material itself.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Typical Result
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Resistivity The relationship between current, i, and potential, V, is given by Ohms law:
V i= R
where R is the resistance of the system. Resistance is not a material property as it depends on the dimensions of the system. The resistance is normalized to establish resistivity, r, as a material property L R= A where L is the length and A is the cross-section.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
2 a V = i
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Corrosion Potential Can be measured as the voltage difference between the steel and a reference electrode in contact with the surface of the concrete. Half-cell measurements may be made using only a high impedance voltmeter and a standard reference electrode, such as a copper-copper sulfate electrode.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Corrosion Potential
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Polarization Resistance
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Polarization resistance, Rp (k.cm2) 0.25 < Rp < 2.5 2.5 < Rp < 25 25 < Rp < 250 250 < Rp
Corrosion penetration, p (m/year) 100 < p < 1000 10 < p < 100 1 < p < 10 p<1
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
The determination of the corrosion rate is an important parameter in the assessment of the life cycle of the structure. Commertial equipment is available to measure the polarization resistance in existing structures.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Advantages in using linear polarization technique It has been verified experimentally that the magnitude of the corrosion rate measured by polarization resistance is similar to that measured by gravimetry. The measurement times are small. The method applies small pertubations that do not interfere with the existing electrochemical processes.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Limitations
The whole reinforcing bar or the steel mat along which uniform corrosion is rare, must be polarized. Therefore, the measured Rp is essentially an average result for all of the steel in the structures whereas the actual corrosion is non-uniform.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Limitations This method assumes that the concrete resistivity is low, when in reality the concrete resistivity is usually high. Linear polarization is a DC method. Because of the electrical capacitance across the steel/concrete interface, it takes time of obtain a full response. As a result, the scanning rate plays an important role in obtaining accurate measurements.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Equipment
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, or AC impedance, is an informative method because not Rp only is measured, but also the physical processes in concrete and steel/ concrete interface are assessed. Impedance measurement employs small-amplitude alternating (AC) signals in a wide range of frequency as a perturbation.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
V (t) i (t)
V or i
time
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Limitations
The equipment used is quite bulky and complex. The entire reinforcing bar or network must be polarized. Similar to the linear polarization, this method also requires a physical connection to the steel embedded in concrete. AC impedance measurements can have lengthy data acquisition times, especially for low frequency measurements.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Covermeter
Covermeter is the generic term for equipment used to locate steel reinforcing bar in concrete and to estimate the thickness of the concrete cover over the reinforcement. Unlike concrete, steel bars interact strongly with low-frequency electromagnetic waves applied at the surface of the concrete, making it easy to identify their location.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Equipment I
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Equipment II
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) methods use electromagnetic energy, typically at frequencies of 50-1500 MHz, to probe the subsurface. This method has been used in concrete structures to detect voids and delaminations, locate the reinforcing bars, measure the pavement thickness, and monitor structural changes.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Recently, field research has been performed on the material characterization of concrete, such as water content, degree of cement hydration, and presence of chlorides.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Method
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Example
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
To Find Delamination
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Infrared Thermography
Imperfections and localized zones of high porosity have different thermal properties than the rest of the concrete, so under heat flux they will produce zones with different temperatures than the surrounding concrete.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Tomography comes from the Greek word tomos (slice) and it has the goal of imaging an object by taking measurements from slices of its cross-section.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
In computed tomography, the image of an object is reconstructed from projections of the object. Most commonly the projections are obtained by using penetrating x-rays, although other modalities for measuring projection data are also available.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
A radiation source (x-rays or -rays) is rotated a full 360o around the structure under inspection, and at each source position, the attenuation of the radiation penetrating through the material is measured with a linear array, or a 2D array of detectors at the opposite side.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Configuration
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Examples
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the unloaded fiberreinforced concrete cylinder
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Examples
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the loaded fiberreinforced concrete cylinder
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Examples
Non-Destructive Methods
Examples
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
To obtain higher resolution, it is necessary to employ electromagnetic radiation with shorter wave-length, leading to the use of microwave frequencies in the range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This frequency range corresponds to wavelengths in the air of 1 m to 1 mm, respectively.
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Non-Destructive Methods
Microwave camera
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials