Critical discourse analysis

Norman Fairclough
Critical discourse analysis (henceforth CDA) subsumes a variety of approaches
towards the social analysis of discourse (Fairclough & oda! "##$% &'cheu( ) "#*+% oda!
& )eyer +,,") which differ in theory% methodology% and the type of research issues to
which they tend to give prominence- )y own wor! in this area has also changed to some
e(tent in these respects between the publication of .anguage and &ower (.ongman "#*#)
and the publication of Analysing Discourse/ 0e(tual Analysis for 1ocial 2esearch (+,,3)- )y
current research is on processes of social change in their discourse aspect (Fairclough "##+
is an early formulation of a version of CDA speciali4ed for this theme)- )ore specifically% 5
am concerned with recent and contemporary processes of social transformation which are
variously identified by such terms as neo6liberalism% globalisation% transition% information
society% !nowledge6based economy and learning society- 5 shall focus here on the
version of CDA 5 have been using in more recent (partly collaborative) wor! (Chiapello &
Fairclough +,,+% Chouliara!i & Fairclough "###% Fairclough +,,,a% +,,,b% +,,3% +,,7%
Fairclough% 8essop & 1ayer +,,7)-
)ethodologically% this approach entails wor!ing in a transdisciplinary way through dialogue
with other disciplines and theories which are addressing contemporary processes of social
change- 0ransdisciplinary (as opposed to merely interdisciplinary% or indeed
postdisciplinary% 1um & 8essop +,,") implies that the theoretical and methodological
development (the latter including development of methods of analysis) of CDA and the
disciplines9theories it is in dialogue with is informed through that dialogue% a matter of
wor!ing with (though not at all simply appropriating) the logic and categories of the other
in developing ones own theory and methodology (Fairclough forthcoming a)- 0he overriding
ob:ective is to give accounts ; and more precise accounts than one tends to find in social
research on change 6 of the ways in which and e(tent to which social changes are changes
in discourse% and the relations between changes in discourse and changes in other% non6
discoursal% elements or moments of social life (including therefore the <uestion of the
senses and ways in which discourse (re)constructs social life in processes of social change)-
0he aim is also to identify through analysis the particular linguistic% semiotic and
interdiscursive (see below) features of te(ts (in a broad sense ; see below) which are a
part of processes of social change% but in ways which facilitate the productive integration of
te(tual analysis into multi6disciplinary research on change-
0heoretically% this approach is characteri4ed by a realist social ontology (which regards
both abstract social structures and concrete social events as parts of social reality)% a
dialectical view of the relationship between structure and agency% and of the relationship
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between discourse and other elements or moments of social practices and social events
(discourse is different from ; not reducible to ; but not discrete from ; internali4es and is
internali4ed by (=arvey "##>) ; other social elements)-
5 shall proceed as follows- 5n section " 5 shall give summarise main theoretical features
of this version of CDA- 5n 1ection + 5 shall discuss the view of methodology% including
methods of data collection and analysis% referring specifically to an aspect of transition
(and globalisation) in central and eastern ?urope and more particularly in 2omania/ the
pro:ect of developing information societies and !nowledge6based economies- 5 shall
develop this e(ample in 1ection 3% discussing the reconte(tuali4ation of discourses of the
information society and !nowledge6based economy in a 2omanian policy document-
1. Theoretical issues
0he term discourse is used in various ways within the broad field of discourse
analysis- 0wo are of particular relevance here- First% discourse in an abstract sense as a
category which designates the broadly semiotic elements (as opposed to and in relation to
other% non6semiotic% elements) of social life (language% but also visual semiosis% body
language etc)- 5 prefer to use the term semiosis (Fairclough% 8essop & 1ayer +,,7) to
avoid the common confusion of this sense of discourse with the second% which 5 retain/
discourse as a count noun% as a category for designating particular ways of representing
particular aspects of social life (eg it is common to distinguish different political discourses%
which represent for e(ample problems of ine<uality% disadvantage% poverty% social
e(clusion% in different ways)- 0he category of discourse in this second sense is defined
through its relation to and difference from two other categories% genre and style (see
below)-
0he realist social ontology adopted here treats social structures as well as social events
as parts of social reality- .i!e a number social theorists% such as @ourdieu and @has!ar
(@ourdieu & ac<uant "##+% @has!ar "#*>)% 5 assume that coherent accounts of the
relationship between social structures and social events depend upon mediating categories%
for which 5 shall use the term social practices% meaning more or less stable and durable
forms of social activity% which are articulated together to constitute social fields% institutions%
and organi4ations- 0here is a semiotic dimension at each of these levels- .anguages (as well
as other semiotic systems) are a particular type of social structure- 5 use the term order of
discourse (the term is Foucaults% but it is reconte(tuali4ed within this version of CDA in a
distinctive way% see Foucault "#*7% Fairclough "##+% +,,3) for the semiotic dimension of
articulated networ!s of social practices (for instance% the political field is partly constituted
as a particular order of discourse% so too are specific governmental% educational or business
organi4ations)- 5 use the term te(t in an e(tended way for the semiotic dimension of social
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events ; the written documents and websites of government are te(ts in this sense% as
also are interviews and meetings in government or business organisations (Fairclough
+,,3)- 0he term te(t is not really felicitous used in this way% because one cannot sha!e off
its primary association with written te(ts% but it is difficult to find a preferable general term-
1ocial practices and% at a concrete level% social events% are articulations of diverse social
elements% including semiosis- Ane might for instance see social practices as including the
following elements (though there is clearly room for argument about what the elements
are)/
Activities
1ocial relations
Ab:ects and instruments
0ime and place
1ocial sub:ects% with beliefs% !nowledge% values etc
1emiosis
0hese elements are dialectically related (=arvey "##>)- 0hat is to say% they are
different elements% but not discrete% fully separate% elements- 0here is a sense in which each
internali4es the others without being reducible to them- 1o for instance social relations in
organi4ations clearly have a partly semiotic character% but that does not mean that we
simply theori4e and research social relations in the same way that we theori4e and research
language- 0hey have distinct properties% and researching them gives rise to distinct
disciplines- Conversely% te(ts are so massively overdetermined (Althusser & @alibar "#$,%
Fairclough% 8essop & 1ayer +,,7) by other social elements that linguistic analysis of te(ts
<uic!ly finds itself addressing <uestions about social relations% social identities% institutions%
and so forth% but this does not mean that linguistic analysis of te(ts is reducible to forms of
social analysis- Bevertheless% the dialectical character of relations between elements
underscores the value and importance of wor!ing across disciplines in a transdisciplinary
way-
1emiosis figures in broadly three ways in social practices (and the articulations of
practices which constitute social fields% institutions% organi4ations) and social events- First% it
figures as a part of the social activity% part of the action (and interaction)- For instance% part
of doing a :ob (for instance% being a shop assistant) is using language in a particular wayC
so too is part of governing a country- 1econd% semiosis figures in representations- 1ocial
actors acting within any field or organi4ation produce representations of other practices% as
well as (refle(ive) representations of their own practices% in the course of their activity% and
different social actors will represent them differently according to how they are positioned
within fields or organi4ations- 0hird% semiosis figures in ways of being% in the constitution of
identities ; for instance the identity of a political leader such as 0ony @lair in the DE is partly
a semiotically constituted way of being (Fairclough +,,,b)-
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1emiosis as part of social activity constitutes genres- Fenres are diverse ways of
(inter)acting in their specifically semiotic aspect- ?(amples are/ meetings in various types of
organisation% political and other forms of interview% news articles in the press% and boo!
reviews- 1emiosis in the representation and self6representation of social practices
constitutes discourses- Discourses are diverse representations of social life- For instance%
the lives of poor and disadvantaged people are represented through different discourses in
the social practices of government% politics% medicine% and social science% as well as through
different discourses within each of these practices corresponding to different positions of
social actors- Finally% semiosis as part of ways of being constitutes styles ; for instance the
styles of business managers% or political leaders-
0he semiotic aspect of a social field or institution or organi4ation (ie of a specific
articulation of social practices) is an order of discourse% a specific articulation of diverse
genres and discourses and styles- At a higher level of analysis% part of the analysis of
relations between different social fields% institutions and (types of) organi4ation(s) is
analysis of relations between different orders of discourse (eg those of politics and the mass
media)- An order of discourse is a social structuring of semiotic difference ; a particular
social ordering of relationships amongst different ways of ma!ing meaning% ie different
discourses and genres and styles- Ane aspect of this ordering is dominance/ some ways of
ma!ing meaning are dominant or mainstream in a particular order of discourse% others are
marginal% or oppositional% or alternative- For instance% there may be a dominant way to
conduct a doctor6patient consultation in @ritain% but there are also various other ways%
which may be adopted or developed to a greater or lesser e(tent alongside or in opposition
to the dominant way- 0he dominant way probably still maintains social distance between
doctors and patients% and the authority of the doctor over the way interaction proceedsC but
there are other ways which are more democratic% in which doctors play down their
authority- 0he political concept of hegemony can usefully be used in analy4ing orders of
discourse (@utler et al +,,,% Fairclough "##+% .aclau & )ouffe "#*G)- A particular social
structuring of semiotic difference may become hegemonic% become part of the legitimi4ing
common sense which sustains relations of domination% though hegemony is always open to
contestation to a greater or lesser e(tent- An order of discourse is not a closed or rigid
system% but rather an open system% which can be changed by what happens in actual
interactions-
5n critical realist terms (Fairclough% 8essop & 1ayer +,,7)% social events are
constituted through the intersection of two causal powers ; those of social practices (and%
behind them% of social structures)% and those of social agents- e may say that social
agents produce events in occasioned and situated ways% but they depend on social
4
structures and social practices do so ; the causal powers of social agents are mediated by
those of social structures and practices% and vice6versa- 0e(ts in the e(tended sense 5
described earlier are the semiotic elements of social events% and it helps to highlight the
productive activity of social agents in ma!ing te(ts if we thin! of them in process terms as
te(turing/ social agents draw upon social structures (including languages) and practices
(including orders of discourse) in producing te(ts% but actively wor! these resources% create
(potentially novel) te(ts out of them% rather than simply instantiating them-
Analysis of te(ts includes interdiscursive analysis of how genres% discourses and styles
are articulated together- 0hese are categories which are distinguished and related at the
level of social practices (as elements of orders of discourse)- At the level of social events ;
te(ts ; they are drawn upon in ways which give rise to hybridity or mi(ing of categories% ie
a te(t may be hybrid with respect to genres% discourses and9or styles (for instance% the
mar!eti4ation of higher education is partly a matter of te(ts which mi( the genres and
styles% as well as more obviously the discourses% of education and of the mar!et% Fairclough
"##3)- Analysis of te(ts also includes linguistic analysis% and semiotic analysis of for
instance visual images (contemporary te(ts are characteristically% and increasing%
multimodal with respect semiotic systems% Eress & van .eeuwen +,,,)- 5nterdiscursive
analysis is a central and distinctive feature of this version of CDA- 5t allows one to
incorporate elements of conte(t into the analysis of te(ts% to show the relationship between
concrete occasional events and more durable social practices% to show innovation and
change in te(ts% and it has a mediating role in allowing one to connect detailed linguistic
and semiotic features of te(ts with processes of social change on a broader scale-
1ocial change includes change in social practices and in the networ!ing of social
practices% how social practices are articulated together in the constitution of social fields%
institutions and organi4ations% and in the relations between fields% institutions and
organisations- 0his includes change in orders of discourse and relations between orders of
discourse (and so changes in genres% discourses and styles and relations between genres%
discourses and styles)- )oreover% changes in semiosis (orders of discourse) are a
precondition for wider processes of social change ; for e(ample% an elaborated networ! of
genres is a precondition for globalisation if one understands the latter as including
enhancement of possibilities for action at a distance% and the spatial stretching of relations
of power (Fiddens "##,)- And in many cases% wider processes of social change can be seen
as starting from change in discourse% as 5 argue below-
5 said above that the relationship between semiosis and other elements of social
practices is a dialectical relationship ; semiosis internalises and is internalised by other
elements without the different elements being reducible to each other- 0hey are different%
5
but not discrete- 5f we thin! of the dialectics of discourse in historical terms% in terms of
processes of social change% the <uestion that arises is the ways in which and the conditions
under which processes of internalisation ta!e place- 0a!e the concept of a !nowledge6based
economy- 0his suggests a <ualitative change in economies such that economic processes
are primarily !nowledge6driven% and change comes about% at an increasingly rapid pace%
through the generation% circulation% and operationalisation (including materiali4ation)of
!nowledge in economic processes- Af course !nowledge (science% technology) has long
(indeed% one might say always) been significant in economic change% but what is being
suggested is a dramatic increase in its significance in comparison with other factors
(including financial capital and labour force) ; though the e(tent to which this is an actual
change in reality rather than a fashionable rhetorical construal of reality remains
contentious- 0he relevance of these ideas here is that !nowledge6driven amounts to
discourse6driven/ !nowledge is generated and circulates as discourses% and the process
through which !nowledge (as discourses) become operationalised in economies is precisely
the dialectics of semiosis-
Discourses include representations of how things are and have been% as well as
imaginaries ; representations of how things might or could or should be- 0he !nowledge of
the !nowledge6based economy includes imaginaries in this sense ; pro:ections of possible
states of affairs% possible worlds- 5n terms of the concept of social practice% they imagine
possible social practices and networ!s of social practices ; possible articulations of activities%
social sub:ects% social relations% instruments% ob:ects% space times% values- 0hese
imaginaries may be operationali4ed as actual (networ!s of) practices ; imagined activities%
sub:ects% social relations etc can become real activities% sub:ects% social relations etc-
Aperationali4ation includes materiali4ation of discourses ; economic discourses become
materiali4ed for instance in the instruments of economic production% including the
hardware (plant% machinery% etc) and the software (management systems% etc)-
Discourses as imaginaries also come to be enacted in new ways of acting and interacting%
and such enactments are in part intra6semiotic/ discourses become enacted as genres-
Consider for instance new management discourses which imagine management systems
based upon teamwor!% relatively non6hierarchical% networ!ed% ways of managing
organisations- 0hey may become enacted semiotically as new genres (within new networ!s
of genres)% for instance genres for team meetings- 1uch specifically semiotic enactments are
embedded within their more general enactment as new ways of acting and interacting in
production processes-
Discourses as imaginaries may also come to be inculcated as new ways of being% new
identities- 5t is a commonplace that new economic and social formations depend upon new
sub:ects ; for instance% 0aylorism as a production and management system depended
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upon changes in the ways of being% the identities% of wor!ers (Framsci "#$")- 0he process
of changing the sub:ect can be thought of in terms of the inculcation of new discourses ;
0aylorism would be an e(ample- 5nculcation is a matter of people coming to own
discourses% to position themselves inside them% to act and thin! and tal! and see
themselves in terms of new discourses- A stage towards inculcation is rhetorical
deployment/ people may learn new discourses and use them for certain purposes (eg
procuring funding for regional development pro:ects or academic research) while at the
same time self6consciously !eeping a distance from them- Ane of the comple(ities of the
dialectics of discourse is the process in which what begins as self6conscious rhetorical
deployment becomes ownership ; how people become un6self6consciously positioned
within a discourse- 5nculcation also has its material aspects/ discourses are dialectically
inculcated not only in styles% ways of using language% they are also materialised in bodies%
postures% gestures% ways of moving% and so forth (which are themselves semiotici4ed to
various degrees% but without being reducible to semiosis)-
0here is nothing inevitable about the dialectics of semiosis (the dialectics of
discourse% =arvey "##>) as 5 have described it- A new discourse may come into an
institution or organisation without being enacted or inculcated- 5t may be enacted% yet never
be fully inculcated- ?(amples abound- For instance% managerial discourses have been <uite
e(tensively enacted within @ritish (as well as other national) universities (eg as procedures
of staff appraisal% including a new genre of appraisal interview)% yet arguably the e(tent of
inculcation is limited ; many if not most academics do not own these management
discourses- e have to consider the conditions of possibility for% and the constraints upon%
the dialectics of discourse in particular cases- 0his has a bearing on theories of social
constructionism (1ayer +,,,)- 5t is a commonplace in contemporary social science that
social entities (institutions% organisations% social agents etc) are or have been constituted or
constructed through social processes% and a common understanding of these processes
highlights the effectivity of discourses% as 5 have done above/ social entities are in some
sense effects of discourses- here social constructionism becomes problematic is where it
disregards the relative solidity and permanence of social entities (their intransitive reality
in critical realist terms% 1ayer +,,,)% which may be more or less amenable or resistant to
change of particular sorts- 5n using a dialectical theory of discourse in social research% one
needs to ta!e account% case by case% of the circumstances and factors which condition the
allowances and resistances of social entities to particular discourse6led changes (eg those
led by the powerful discourses of new public management)-
)oreover% one might argue that dialectical processes of operationali4ing (enacting%
inculcating% materiali4ing) discourses are always conditional upon them being incorporated
into successful strategies- 5n circumstances of social crisis or instability% different groups of
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social agents develop different strategies for change which include discourses which pro:ect
imaginaries for new forms of social life% narratives which construe a more or less coherent
and plausible relationship between what has happened in the past and what might happen
in the future- hich strategies (and discourses) succeed% become hegemonic% and become
operationali4ed in new realities depends upon a variety of conditions (8essop +,,+%
Fairclough forthcoming b)-
2. Methodology
0he e(ample 5 shall refer to in discussing methodology is aspects of a particular
research pro:ect (on the !nowledge6based economy and information society) within a
larger research programme/ the investigation of semiosis as an element of processes of
transition in central and eastern ?urope (C??)
i
- 5 see methodology as the process through
which% beginning with a topic of research such as in this case transition% and more
particularly !nowledge6based economy and information society as ob:ectives within
transition% one constructs ob:ects of research (@ourdieu & ac<uant "##+)- 0he choice
of appropriate methods (data selection% collection and analysis) depends upon the ob:ect of
research- )ore precisely% certain aspects of method appertain to CDA as such% while others
are dependent upon the research pro:ect and the ob:ect of research- CDA entails some form
of detailed te(tual analysis- 5t specifically includes a combination of interdiscursive analysis
of te(ts (ie of how different genres% discourses and styles are articulated together) and
linguistic and other forms of semiotic analysis- hat data is selected% how it is collected%
depend upon the pro:ect and ob:ect of research- 1o too does the particular nature of
linguistic and other forms of semiotic analysis ; whether for instance one focuses on
argumentation% narrative% modality% transitivity% nominali4ation% voice% etc- 1ome wor! in
critical linguistics (Fowler et al "#$#) and CDA is particularly associated with 1ystemic
Functional .inguistics (=alliday "#$*% "##7)% but that merely reflects the biographies of
certain figures in the field- 5n principle any approach to linguistic analysis might be drawn
upon-
Ane should not assume that the research topic is transparent in yielding up coherent
ob:ects of research% or that the way people in the domain identify issues and problems
transparently yields ob:ects of research- 5n this case% it is widely perceived that neither
transition nor information society nor !nowledge6based economy are concepts%
representations of actual or pro:ected realities% that can be ta!en at face value (see for
instance &ic!les & 1mith "##*% 1tar! & @rus4t "##*% 8essop +,,7% Farnham +,,"% Fodin
+,,3)- 0hey are themselves elements of discourses which are associated with particular
strategies for change% and therefore with particular interested representations and
imaginaries of change% whose epistemological and practical value may be difficult to unravel
8
from their rhetorical value (and perhaps their ideological value)- For instance% transition
construes change in C?? and elsewhere as a passage from a well6defined point of departure
to a unitary and well6defined destination% which seems difficult to reconcile with the
comple(ity and diversity of the processes which are actually ta!ing place- 1tar! & @rus4t
("##*) for instance re:ect transition for such reasons in favour of transformation-
0he process of constructing ob:ects of research from research topics involves
selecting theoretical framewor!s% perspectives and categories to bring to bear on the
research topic- 5t is only on the basis of such theori4ation of the research topic and the
delineation of ob:ects of research that one can settle upon appropriate methods of data
selection% collection and analysis- Clearly% a critical discourse analyst will approach research
topics with a theoretical predilection to highlight semiosis% but since this is inevitably a
matter of initially establishing relations between semiosis and other elements% the
theorisation of the research topic should be conceived of as an interdisciplinary (more
specifically% transdisciplinary in the sense 5 have given to that term) process% involving a
combination of disciplines and theories including CDA- 5n certain cases% this would be the
wor! of a research team% in others (such as the present paper) it may be a matter of a
critical discourse analyst drawing upon literature from other disciplines and theories (though
in this case 5 have also collaborated with the main theorist in cultural political economy
(see below) 5 draw upon% ie 8essop)- Beedless to say% one has to be selective% ie to ma!e
:udgments about which mi( of available resources yields the most fruitful theorisation of
the research topic including the most fruitful perspective on relations between semiosis and
non6 semiotic elements-
5 shall approach the information society and !nowledge based economy as topics of
research by way of recent developments in political economy (&ic!les & 1mith "##*% 8essop
+,,+% +,,7% 1tar! & @rus4t "##*% 2ay & 1ayer "###% 1ayer "##G)- 5n particular% 5 shall
follow 8essop (+,,7) in viewing them as strategies for achieving and stabilising a new fi(
between a regime of capital accumulation and a regime of political regulation in the
aftermath of the demise of the fi( commonly referred to as Fordism- 0his formulation
derives from regulation theory% which has a political6economic rather than a narrowly and
purely economic perspective on economic change% arguing that an economic order (regime
of capital accumulation) is dependent upon a political order (a mode of regulation) which
can produce and sustain the preconditions for its durable operation- 0he more general claim
is that there are non6economic (including as we shall see social and cultural as well as
political) preconditions for the establishment and reproduction of economies- 0he dominant
international political6economic order since the demise of Fordism has been widely identified
as post6Fordist% which is indicative of the uncertainty of what follows% or should follow%
Fordism- 0he significance of the !nowledge6based economy (this is 8essops focus% though
9
the same could be said for the information society% and for the fre<uent con:unction of the
two which is characteristic of the material 5 shall loo! at) is that it seems to be emerging as
a strategy for change which can effectively be operationali4ed in real change-
0hey are strategies but% li!e any strategy% also discourses% particular ways of
representing% or rather imagining (because they are certainly as much predictive as
descriptive) a new political6economic order- And they are discourses of a particular !ind%
what we might call nodal discourses% in the sense that they are discourses which subsume
and articulate in a particular way a great many other discourses ; technical discourses (eg
discourses of 5C0)% the discourse of intellectual property% discourses of governance and
government (eg e6government)% discourses of social e(clusion and social inclusion% and
so forth- As discourses% they constitute selective representations% simplifications (8essop
+,,+)% condensations (=arvey "##>) of highly comple( economic% political% social and
cultural realities% which include certain aspects of these realities and e(clude others%
highlight certain aspects and bac!ground others- Bot any discourse would wor! as a
strategic nodal discourse for imagining and potentially operationali4ing% actuali4ing% a new
political6economic fi(- A discourse can only wor! in so far as it achieves a high level of
ade<uacy with respect to the realities it selectively represents% simplifies% condenses ; in so
far as it is capable (as these seem capable) of being used to represent9imagine realities at
different levels of abstraction% in different areas of social life (economy% government%
education% health% regional and social disparities etc)% on different scales (international%
macro6regional (eg ?D)% national% local)- 5t is only if it is a plausible imaginary that it will
attract investments of time and money to prepare for the imaginary future it pro:ects%
material factors which are crucial to ma!ing imaginaries into realities (Cameron & &alan
+,,7)- 5n this sense% the !nowledge6based economy and the information society have a
partially discursive and partially material character- 0hey are discourses% but not :ust
discourses% they are discourses which are materially grounded and materially promoted- 0he
theoretical framewor! we need to conceptuali4e this needs to be not :ust a political economy
(rather than a narrow economics)% but what 8essop calls a cultural political economy% a
political economy which% amongst other things% incorporates a theory of discourse and of
the dialectics of discourse% of how discursive construals of the world can come to construct
and reconstruct the world% without losing sight of the material reality of the world% or the
conditions which the material reality of the world sets (as 5 have briefly indicated) on the
discursive (re)construction of the world-
0his strategic perspective provides a basis for formulating ob:ects of research for this
aspect of transition as a topic of research% and the cultural orientation of the approach to
political economy means that ob:ects of research can be formulated to include or highlight
<uestions of semiosis- Ab:ects of research might include the emergence and constitution%
10
hegemony% dissemination and reconte(tuali4ation% and operationali4ation of the strategies of
the !nowledge6based economy% and the information society- 0hese ob:ects of research
might be formulated specifically as ob:ects for CDA research pro:ects in the following ways/
0he emergence of the discourses of the !nowledge6based economy and the
information society as nodal discourses in association with the emergence of strategies%
their constitution through the articulation of relationships between other discourses%
including discourses available within e(isting or prior nodal discourses
ii
-
2elations of contestation between discourses within the framewor! of relations
of contestation between strategies% and the emerging hegemony of these nodal discourses
iii
-
0he dissemination of the discourses of the !nowledge6based economy and the
information society across structures (eg between economic mar!ets% governments% public
and social services such as education and health) and scales (between global or
international% macro6regional (eg ?D or BAF0A)% national% and local scales of social life)%
their reconte(tuali4ation in new social fields% institutions% organi4ations% countries% localities-
0he shift of these nodal discourses from construals to constructions (1ayer
+,,,)% from being :ust representations and imaginaries to having transformative effects on
social reality% being operationali4ed 6 enacted as new ways of (inter)acting% inculcated in
new ways of being (identities)% materiali4ed in new instruments and techni<ues of
production or ways of organi4ing space-
0hese different research ob:ects call for different methods in terms of data selection%
collection and analysis- 2esearching the emergence and constitution of these discourses
re<uires a genealogical approach which locates these discourses within the field of prior of
discourses and entails collection of historical series of te(ts and selection of !ey te(ts within
these series% analysis of the constitution of these discourses through articulation of elements
within the field of prior discourses% and specification of the relations of articulation between
the diverse discourses which are drawn together within these nodal discourses- 2esearching
the emergent hegemony of these discourses entails locating these discourses in their
relations of contestation with other potentially nodal discourses% which involves for instance
focusing on dialogical relations between and within te(ts in !ey institutions such as the
A?CD (Fodin +,,3)- 2esearching dissemination and reconte(tuali4ation entails comparing
te(ts in different social fields and at different social scales (eg in different societies or
localities)% and analy4ing for instance how% when these discourses are reconte(tuali4ed% they
are articulated with discourses which already e(ist within these new conte(ts- 2esearch
operationali4ation calls for ethnographical methods in the collection of data% in that it is only
by accessing insider perspectives in particular localities% companies etc that one can assess
how discourses are materiali4ed% enacted and inculcated- 5 shall be discussing only aspects
of the dissemination and reconte(tuali4ation of these nodal discourses-
11
0he predominant form of criti<ue associated with CDA and critical social research more
generally has been ideology criti<ue- @ut we can distinguish three forms of criti<ue which
are relevant to CDA/ ideological% rhetorical% and strategic criti<ue (Fairclough forthcoming
b)- hereas ideological criti<ue focuses on the effects of semiosis on social relations of
power% and rhetorical criti<ue on persuasion (including manipulation) in individual te(ts or
tal!% what we might call strategic criti<ue focuses on how semiosis figures within the
strategies pursued by groups of social agents to change societies in particular directions-
0he research ob:ects 5 have distinguished (emergence% hegemony% reconte(tuali4ation% and
operationali4ation) can be seen as ob:ects associated with strategic criti<ue- Ane might see
strategic criti<ue as assuming a certain primacy in periods of ma:or social change and
restructuring such as the one we are going through now- 0his is not to suggest at all that
ideological and rhetoric criti<ue cease to be relevant% it is more a matter of their relative
salience within the critical analysis-
3. Recontextualization of nodal discourses in Romania
0he dissemination and reconte(tuali4ation of the strategies and discourses of the
!nowledge6based economy and information society in C?? is closely connected to the
process of ?D enlargement- 0he .isbon Council of the ?D in +,,, adopted these strategies
as part of the e6?urope initiative- 0he ?Ds strategic goal is to become the most
competitive and dynamic !nowledge6based economy in the world% capable of sustainable
economic growth with more and better :obs and greater social cohesion- 0he e6?urope
+,,+ Action &lan was agreed at Feira in +,,,% and the candidate countries for ?D
membership in C?? were associated with the ?Ds strategic goal in adopting the e6?uropeH
Action &lan in +,,"% one reason for which was said to be avoiding a digital divide within
the ?D- According to the 2omanian governments Bational 1trategy for the promotion of
the Bew ?conomy and the implementation of the 5nformation 1ociety (+,,+)% it was made
clear at a conference of ministers of the candidate countries and representatives of the ?D
in arsaw ()ay +,,,) that the e6?urope initiative will become a basic element of the
process of integration-
0he e6?uropeH Action &lan agreed by the candidate countries was e(plicitly modelled
upon the ?Ds e6?urope +,,+ Action &lan% and much of the 2omanian governments
Bational 1trategy document is modelled upon them- 0he document is partly an action
plan but it is also partly a strategy document comparable to an e(tent with the .isbon
1ummit Declaration- 0he nodal discourse in the .isbon Declaration is the !nowledge6based
economy% whereas the nodal discourse in the 2omanian document is the information
society (the discourse of the new economy could be seen as a secondary nodal discourse)-
12
0here seems to be no clear and stable relation between the two nodal discourses within the
e?urope and e?uropeH pro:ects overall% they are articulated together in different ways in
different policy documents- 5n the 2omanian position paper on the !nowledge6based
economy for the orld @an!s Enowledge ?conomy Forum for ?D Accession Countries held
in &aris at precisely the same time as the publication of the 2omanian Bational 1trategy
document (February +,,+)% the nodal discourse is the !nowledge6based economy% even
though it refers to virtually the same set of strategies and policies- 5n the .isbon
Declaration% the information society is one element of one of three strategies for achieving
the strategic goal of becoming the most competitive and dynamic !nowledge6based
economy in the world (see section G of the .isbon Declaration% Appendi( ")- Although the
!nowledge6based economy is not an entity or imaginary or strategic goal in the 2omanian
Bational 1trategy% the new economy is defined partly in recogni4ably !nowledge6based
economy terms as the intensification of incorporation of !nowledge in new products and
services (intensificarea InglobJrii cunoaKterii In noile produse Ki servicii)-
As these comments imply% what is significant with respect to reconte(tuali4ation is
both the presence or absence of particular discourses in particular te(ts% and the relations in
which diverse discourses are articulated% te(tured% together- Ane can identify differences
between te(ts is this regard by analysing the relationship between discourses and features
of genre% in the sense that genres can be seen as framing devices for organising
relationships between discourses (Chouliara!i & Fairclough "###)- 2elevant features of
genre include the rhetorical structure and argumentative structure of the te(t (Fairclough
+,,3)- 5 shall focus my analytical comments upon these issues- Ane can see how this
selection of focuses for analysis depends upon the particular ob:ect of research
(reconte(tuali4ation)% though there are many other analytical issues (such as the
presentation of processes and of agency) which are germane to reconte(tuali4ation-
5n the opening section of the .isbon Declaration (A strategic goal for the ne(t decade%
paragraphs "6$% Appendi( ")% predominant features of the rhetorical structure are
arguments from problems to solutions and from ends to means- 0he two paragraphs of the
first sub6section (0he new challenge) are both arguments from problem to solution% from
what is happening to what must be done in response (from the challenge% the changes
that are happening% to the necessary responses% what the Dnion must do% needs to do%
what is urgent for it to do% what these changes re<uire)- 0he second section (0he Dnions
strengths and wea!nesses) is also a version of a problem6to6solution argument% arguing for
the proposed solution as a response to wea!nesses which is timely in the light of
strengths- &aragraphs G and > in the third section (0he way forward) are both arguments
from ends (strategic goals) to means (strategy)% and paragraph $ is an argument from
ends (strategy) to means of governance for achieving them-
13
0his rhetorical structure constitutes a frame within which diverse discourses are
articulated together in a particular way% within which relations are te(tured (te(tually
constituted) between these discourses- 5n paragraph G% for instance% the formulation of the
strategic goal sets up a relation of e<uivalence
iv
(Fairclough +,,3) between sustainable
economic growth more and better :obs and greater social cohesion (more precisely/
there is a comitative structure which sets up a relation of e<uivalence between the first and
the other two phrases% and a coordinate structure which sets up a relation of e<uivalence
between these two)% all as attributes of the !nowledge6based economy- ?ach of these
e<uivalent phrases represents a substantive ?D policy area associated with an elaborated
discourse (the discourses of growth% (un)employment% social and regional cohesion)- 0he
formulation of the overall strategy which is the means to achieving the strategic goal sets
up relations of e<uivalence between the three listed elements of the strategy% and within
them between better policies for the information society and 2&D (and within this% between
information society and 2&D)% stepping up the process of structural reform for
competitiveness and innovation (and within this% between competitiveness and
innovation) and completing the internal mar!etC between modernising the ?uropean
social model% investing in people and combating social e(clusionC and so forth- Again%
diverse policy areas and associated discourses (eg the information society%
competitiveness% social e(clusion) are articulated together in particular relations within
the nodal discourse of the !nowledge6based economy- A significant overall feature of the
articulation of discourses in the document is that in the formulation of problems% the
strategic goal% and the strategies for achieving it% discourses which represent the economy
(sustainable economic growth in the strategic goal) are articulated with discourses which
represent social problems and policies (more and better :obs and social cohesion in the
strategic goal)-
Ane notable difference between the .isbon Declaration and the 2omanian Bational
1trategy document is that there is no section in the latter with a comparable rhetorical
structure% articulating arguments from problems to solutions with arguments from ends to
means- 5n more general terms% the 2omanian document is not based upon arguments from
the specific problems facing 2omania to strategic goals for dealing with them (and
strategies for achieving these)- 0his is on the face of it a surprising absence in a national
strategy document% though as 5 argue later not actually at all surprising given 2omanias
international position- 0his does not mean that problems are not identified in the document%
or that goals and strategies and policies are not specified- 0hey are% but what is significant
is the relations that are te(tured between them- For instance% the relationship between
strategic goals and problems is largely reversed/ rather than goals and strategies being
legitimi4ed in terms of their ade<uacy and timeliness in responding to a diagnosis of the
problems facing the country% the problems are construed as wea!nesses and difficulties with
14
respect to achieving the strategic goal of the information society- 0his is indicated by the
wider rhetorical structure of the document/ the strategic goal is formulated (as 5 shall show
below) in chapters " and + on the basis of claims about the general benefits (not specific
benefits to 2omania) of the information society and 2omanias international commitments
(especially to e?uropeH)% and specific 2omanian problems (of poverty% emigration of s!illed
labour etc) are identified only in chapter 3 within an assessment of the countrys current
position in respect of the information society-
Arguments for the information society as the strategic goal are largely implicit- 0he
.isbon Declaration is based upon arguments from problems to solutions in the material
sense that the document begins from these arguments- 0he 2omanian document by
contrast begins with a general chapter about the information society and the new
economy which does not directly refer to 2omania at all% and only indirectly alludes to
2omania in the final few paragraphs- 5n terms of rhetorical structure% the chapter is an
e(tended description of the information society% followed by prescriptions about what is
must be done to construct such a society- 0he first% descriptive% section construes the
information society as actually e(isting% rather than as a strategic goal% representing it in
an idealised (and to some degree utopian) way% which construes in universal terms what are
commonly claimed to be its potential effects and benefits as if they were actual effects and
benefits- =ere for instance is a translation of the second paragraph/
0he information society represents a new stage of human civili4ation% a new and
<ualitatively superior way of life% which implies the intensive use of information in all
spheres of human activity and e(istence% with ma:or economic and social conse<uences- 0he
information society allows widespread access to information for its members% a new way of
wor!ing and learning% greater possibilities for economic globali4ation% and increasing social
cohesion-
5t is only in the ninth of its thirteen paragraphs that a strategic perspective on
constructing the new model of society (Construirea noului model de societate---) appears-
0he following paragraphs specify the role of government% business% the academic
community% and civil society in this process- @y this stage one can assume that 2omania in
particular is being alluded to without being e(plicitly named ; this is implicit in the claim
that national development priorities for the medium6long term and ob:ectives of adhesion
to ?uro6atlantic structures (often formulated in this way in 2omanian policy conte(ts) need
to be ta!en into account- 0he information society as a strategic goal is covertly established
on the basis of idealised claims about the information society as a universal reality-
0he second chapter is a review of tendencies and policies internationally and within the
?D including a summary of the e6?urope and e?uropeH initiatives- 2omania is a
15
participant in e?uropeH- 0he information society as a development ob:ective is claimed
to be an essential condition for participation in the single ?uropean mar!et- 5t is implied%
without being e(plicitly stated% that this applies to 2omania% and that the information
society is therefore its development ob:ective (strategic goal)- 0he third chapter is a
10??& (social% technological% economic and political factors) analysis of the current situation
with respect to the information society internationally and in 2omania% which includes a
review of problems and possibilities and policies in 2omania ; it is here% as 5 said earlier%
that specifically 2omanian problems are introduced-
0hus the information society is implicitly established as 2omanias strategic goal on
essentially e(traneous grounds/ the universal benefits it brings as an e(isting reality% and
the commitment to this strategic goal as a part of commitment to the e6?uropeH initiative-
5t is only in chapter 7 (1trategic Directions and Aptions) that strategic choices for
2omania are e(plicitly addressed- 5 shall comment on the rhetorical and argumentative
structure of the first section (entitled Flobal ob:ectives% see Appendices + and 3)% and how
it frames the articulation of discourses- 0he rhetorical structure of the section is
characteri4ed by arguments from general factual claims about economic changes and their
societal conse<uences in the information society% to possibilities% policies and strategies
(for% by implication% particular countries)- Although these arguments are formulated in
general terms without specific reference to 2omania (2omania is referred to e(plicitly only
in the last sentence)% they can be ta!en as referring implicitly to 2omania ; the list of four
policies includes what appear to be specifically 2omanian policies (especially the fourth%
which is very similar to policies advocated e(plicitly for economic applications of 5C0 in
2omania in the ne(t section of the chapter)- 0he first sentence ma!es a general factual
claim about the conse<uences of large6scale use of 5C0s (profound implications for socio6
economic life% fundamental transformations in the way of producing goods and services and
in human behaviour)- 0he second sentence is a conditional formulation of the possibilities
opened up/ greater use of information technologies can ensure the socio6economic progress
characteristic of information societies% as long as ob:ectives and orientations of a strategic
nature are adopted through policies appropriate to the actual societies in which we live-
Four policies are then listed (consolidation of democracy and the rule of law% development
of a mar!et economy and progressive movement towards the new economy% improving the
<uality of life (and% through policies to achieve this% integration into ?uro6atlantic structures
and the Flobal 5nformation 1ociety)% consolidation and development of a national economic
framewor! which ensures the production of goods and services which are competitive on
internal and e(ternal mar!ets)- 0he first three elements of this list are structured as
arguments from end to means- 5n the following two paragraphs% there are two sentences
ma!ing general factual claims about the information society% which frame a more specific
claim (sentence 3) about the development of !nowledge as a critical% determining% factor in
16
economic growth and standards of living% which by implication ma!es it possible (sentence
7) for the digital divide to become% with appropriate strategies% the digital opportunity-
0he pattern of argument from factual economic claim to strategic possibilities is repeated in
the following two paragraphs- 0he final sentence is a recommendation% given the e(ample
of the countries referred to above and presented in the appendi( (5reland% 5srael% Finland)%
that 2omania should ma!e a fundamental choice to develop a branch of the economy which
produces the goods and services demanded by the information society% based on 5C0-
0he rhetorical structure of the first section of the .isbon Declaration set up a
relationship between diagnosed problems% a strategic goal for solving them% and strategies
for achieving it (with means for achieving these strategic ends)- =ere by contrast the
strategic goal is ta!en for granted rather than established on the basis of diagnosis of
problems (there is no such diagnosis)% and the focus is on possibilities arising from general
claims about economic and social change- and the strategies for reali4ing them- 0hus at the
one point in the document where strategic options specifically for 2omania are addressed%
there is no attempt to establish strategic goals adapted to 2omanias particular problems%
and the only strategic choice recommended% in the last sentence (the only one where
2omania is e(plicitly referred to)% relates specifically and narrowly to economic applications
of 5C0- 0he rest of the chapter is ta!en up with an elaboration of this-
5 noted above that in the .isbon Declaration% discourses which represent the economy
are articulated with discourses which represent social problems and policies- 5n the
2omanian document% there is something resembling this articulation in the list of four
policies% but it is significantly different- First% this articulation is only within strategies to
achieve the assumed strategic goal of the information society% whereas in the .isbon
Declaration the articulation of economic and social discourses is present in the formulation
of problems% strategically goal% and strategies for achieving it- 1econd% and connectedly% it is
only social policies that are represented% not social problems- 0hird% the social policies
represented relate to political issues and the <uality of life% but not for instance to
standards of living (or the !ey problem of poverty)% employment (or the problem of
unemployment)% or the ma:or divisions between urban and rural areas and populations
v
-
0hat is% ma:or social problems which one might see as demanding social policies (including
those focused upon in the .isbon Declaration% (un)employment% social and regional
cohesion) are not represented-
5 shall ma!e a few comments on the articulation of discourses within the listed
policies- 5n the first% a relation of e<uivalence is te(tured between democracy and (the
institutions of) the rule of law% which one can see as significant in terms of the
reconte(tuali4ation of the discourse of e6government (as a constituent discourse of both
the nodal discourses)/ the aim of establishing the rule of law was one of the !ey ways in
which 2omanian society after "#*# differentiated and distanced itself from the Ceausescu
17
era- 0he e<uivalence relations within the formulation of the means for achieving the policy
(between the participation of citi4ens in public life% the facilitation of non6discriminatory
access to public information% improvement of the <uality of public services% moderni4ation
of public administration) constitute an articulation of discourses which one might find in the
e6government policies of ?D members- 5n the third% the policy of improving the <uality of
life is represented as a means to integration into ?uro6atlantic structures and the Flobal
5nformation 1ociety- 0his is again significant with respect to reconte(tuali4ation-
5ntegration into ?uro6atlantic structures% subsuming integration into the ?D% is often
formulated as a 2omanian policy ob:ective which has been interpreted as merging together
in a confused way ?D membership and BA0A membership (2epere +,,7)- &olicies for
improving the <uality of life are a means to this end in the sense that they are amongst the
conditions 2omania must meet (in terms of the ac<uis communitaires and the e6?urope
initiative) for :oining the ?D-
5f we loo! at the arguments and e(planations given in the document as a whole for
2omanias adoption of the information society as a strategic goal it may clarify what
problems it is covertly construed as a solution to- 5C0 is considered an important engine for
boosting the national economy and promoting national interests- 2omania has adhered to
the ob:ectives of the e?urope programme% considering them a beneficial framewor! for the
urgent process of integration in the ?D- 5f 2omania is not rapidly integrated into ?uro6
Atlantic structures (the strategy of the information society is represented as a precondition
for this)% the economic gap between our country and developed countries will grow- hat
is noteworthy is that factors to do with the economy% national interests and ?D integration
are included% but 6 in contrast with the .isbon Declaration ; social factors (unemployment%
poverty% social e(clusion% social and regional cohesion) are not- 0hese are the cases where
2omania is specifically and e(plicitly referred to- 0here is a much larger number of others
where arguments for the information society are given in general terms% without reference
to particular countries% which can be seen as implicitly applying to 2omania- Apart from the
first chapter% these are mainly economic arguments (eg developing countries can obtain
certain economic advantages from rapidly capitali4ing on the opportunities offered by 5C0
and especially electronic commerce)- 5n the first chapter% there are a number of general
claims about the information society which might be ta!en as implicit arguments in favour
of adopting it as a strategic goal% and these do include solutions to social problems (see the
paragraph <uoted earlier)- @ut these arguments do not of course address 2omanias
particular and in some ways <uite specific social problems (eg appro(imately 7,L of the
wor!force is still employed in agriculture)-
5n Chouliara!i & Fairclough ("###)% we argued that reconte(tuali4ation is a
coloni4ation6appropriation dialectic- 0here is both a process of an e(ternal discourse
coloni4ing the reconte(tuali4ing practices (country% field% organi4ation etc)% and a process of
18
the e(ternal discourse being appropriated within the reconte(tuali4ing practices- 5n
principle one can claim that there is no colonisation without appropriation ;
reconte(tuali4ation is always an active process on the part of internal social agents of
inserting an e(ternal element into a new conte(t% wor!ing it into a new set of relations with
its e(isting elements% and in so doing transforming it- 0his is often manifested in the
interdiscursive hybridity of te(ts% the mi(ing of e(ternal with internal discursive elements-
)oreover% in strategic terms one could argue that strategic relations between e(ternal and
internal social agents will always be inflected by strategic relations between internal social
agents-
=owever% it is necessary to add two provisos to this theoretical account- First% the
degree to which reconte(tuali4ation becomes an active process of appropriation entailing
potentially substantive transformation of reconte(tuali4ed elements (which includes the
possibilities of them being strategically used by some internal agents in their struggles
with others% being contained or marginali4ed or contested% etc) depends upon the state of
the relations between e(ternal and internal agents and of relations between internal
agents- 2econte(tuali4ing conte(ts may manifest degrees of passivity- 1econd% however
active the process of appropriation% one cannot assume that it will be e<ually active in all
practices within the reconte(tuali4ing conte(t (eg a nation6state such as 2omania)-
5n general terms% the room for autonomous agency and initiative in contemporary
2omania with respect to the main lines of economic and social policy and activity is rather
limited- 2omania is strongly committed to integration into the ?uropean Dnion and ?uro6
atlantic structures and to maintaining good relations with and the support and assistance of
the ?D% the D1A% ?D states% international agencies (DBA% orld @an!% 5)F and so forth)%
and these come with conditions attached which leave 2omania with little room for
manoeuvre- 5 have shown in the analysis of the Bational 1trategy document that% rather
than being e(plicitly legitimi4ed as solutions to 2omanias particular problems% strategic
goals are implicitly legitimi4ed through ideali4ed claims about the information society
construed as a universal reality% and by reference to 2omanias international commitments-
Any state is faced with the problem of legitimi4ing its goals% strategies and policies% and
these can perhaps be seen as the legitimi4ing strategies adopted by the 2omanian
government (though such a conclusion would re<uire more e(tensive analysis of policy
documents and other government material)- Fiven its international position% one might
argue that 2omania does not have the option of formulating goals% strategies and policies
on the basis of an analysis of its specific problems and needs- 0hough @oia ("##$)% in
distinguishing defensive and offensive 2omanian responses to integration with the west
over the course of modern 2omanian history% suggests that it is a characteristic of the
19
offensive (integrationist) responses to proceed with scant regard for the conse<uences in
terms of the already profound social divisions and ine<ualities in the country-
0he data 5 have e(amined in connection with the reconte(tuali4ation of the
information society and the !nowledge6based economy in 2omania consists of policy te(ts
produced by the ?D% its member states% the ?D in collaboration with the candidate countries%
the governments of 2omania and other candidate countries% individual government
ministries% as well as interviews with government ministers- 5 have selected the .isbon
Declaration and the 2omanian Bational 1trategy document for illustrative purposes here in
order to compare strategy documents and the formulation of strategic goals (though the
2omanian document is in part also an action plan% and only comparable to a limited degree
to the .isbon Declaration)% because the grounding% :ustification and legitimation of strategic
goals is an important aspect of the reconte(tuali4ation of nodal discourses at the level of
the nation6state- 0his data represents only a part of the sort of data relevant to
reconte(tuali4ation as an ob:ect of researchC one would also need material from within
particular institutions (eg educational)% businesses% localities% political parties etc% including
spo!en as well as written data% to arrive at a fuller assessment of the reconte(tuali4ation of
these nodal discourses- 1uch an e(tension of the data might also provide evidence of a
more active appropriation of these discourses% hybrid relations between these and other
discourses% and strategic differences in their reconte(tuali4ation% than 5 have been able to
show in this paper-
Conclusion
5 have presented one specific version of CDA in this paper which is characteri4ed by a
realist and dialectical6relational theory of discourse% a methodology which is oriented to
constructing ob:ects of research through theori4ing research topics in dialogue with other
areas of social theory and research% and selecting methods which are in part inherent to this
version of CDA and in part dependent upon the particular ob:ect of research- 5 have
addressed the particular research topic of the information society and !nowledge6based
economy as elements of transition in 2omania only with respect to reconte(tuali4ation as
an ob:ect of research% and then only in a partial way-
.et me add a final note on the politics of transition in 2omania% which has its own
specific characteristics- 2omania was slower than other transitional countries in
implementing transitional programmes% though the pace has <uic!ened substantially in the
past few years- 0here is a general and widespread public cynicism about government and
politics% and about how much the 2omanian governments commitments on paper mean in
reality- A commonplace in commentaries is that they are% in the much6used e(pression of
the nineteenth century 2omanian literary critic )aiorescu form without content ; as
20
modernisation and westerni4ation in 2omania have always been% many would add- 0he
language of modernisation is readily imitated from the est% but without much change in
social realities- Fovernments since "#*# stand accused of echoing the language of neo6
liberalism% of the ashington Consensus% of ?D accession% of perfecting a rhetoric for
e(ternal consumption% while the 2omanian economy% government and society remain
relatively unchanged- 0he assessment of such accusations ma!es it particularly important
to go beyond public policy documents% and to research the operationali4ation of discourses
such as the information society and the !nowledge economy not only by e(amining
government initiatives such as the e6government website but also% crucially% through
ethnographic research which can give insights into the relationship between discourses%
rhetoric% and reality-
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Social !nteraction- .ondon/ 1age-
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A(ford/ @lac!well-
Fowler (2-)% Eress (F-)% =odge (@-) & 0rew (0-)- "#$# *anguage and Control. .ondon/
2outledge-
Farnham (B-)- +,," 0he information society/ myth or realityQ @ugs% Flobalism and &luralism
conference% )ontreal-
Fiddens (A-)- "##, Modernity and Self,!dentity. Cambridge/ &olity &ress-
Fodin (@-)- +,,7 0he !nowledge6based economy/ conceptual framewor! or bu44wordQ &ro:ect
on the =istory and 1ociology of 1 & 0 1tatistics% or!ing &aper +7-
Framsci (A-)- "#$"- Selections from the Prison Note'oo-s. .ondon/ .awrence & ishart-
=alliday ()-A-E-)- "#$*- *anguage as Social Semiotic- .ondon/ ?dward Arnold-
=alliday ()-A-E-)- "##7- n !ntroduction to Functional &rammar- +
nd
edition- .ondon/ ?dward
Arnold-
=arvey (D-)- "##>- .ustice$ Nature and the &eography of Difference- A(ford/ @lac!well-
8essop (@-)- +,,+- The Future of the Capitalist State- Cambridge/ &olity &ress-
8essop (@-)- +,,7 Cultural political economy% the !nowledge6based economy% and the state- )1-
Eress (F-) & van .eeuwen (0-)- +,,,- Multimodal Discourse- .ondon/ Arnold-
.aclau (?-) and )ouffe (C-)- "#*G Hegemony and Socialist Strategy-% .ondon/ Merso-
&'cheu( ()-)- "#*+- *anguage$ Semantics and !deology. .ondon/ )acmillan-
&ic!les (8-) & 1mith (A-)- "##*- The Political Economy of Transition. .ondon/ 2outledge-
2ay (.-) & 1ayer (A-)- "###- Culture and Economy after the Cultural Turn. .ondon/ 1age-
2epere +-"- +,,7- Rom4nia 5n lumea contemporan6 (contributions to a Collo<uium at the Bew
?urope College% @ucharest)-
1ayer (A-)- "##G- Radical Political Economy. A(ford/ @lac!well-
1ayer (A-)- +,,,- Realism and Social Science- .ondon/ 1age-
1tar! (D-) & @rus4t (.-) "##*- Postsocialist Path1ays+ Transforming Politics and Property in
East Central Europe. Cambridge/ CD&-
1um (B6.-) & 8essop (@-) +,,"- An pre6 and post6disciplinarity in (cultural) political economy
Ne1 Political Economy 7 *#6","
oda! (2-) & )eyer ()-) +,,"- Methods of Critical Discourse nalysis. .ondon/ 1age-
Appendix 1: extract from the Lisbon Declaration
A STRATE!C "A# $"R T%E &E'T (ECA(E
22
The new challenge
"- 0he ?uropean Dnion is confronted with a <uantum shift resulting from globalisation and the
challenges of a new !nowledge6driven economy- 0hese changes are affecting every aspect of peoples
lives and re<uire a radical transformation of the ?uropean economy- 0he Dnion must shape these
changes in a manner consistent with its values and concepts of society and also with a view to the
forthcoming enlargement-
+- 0he rapid and accelerating pace of change means it is urgent for the Dnion to act now to
harness the full benefits of the opportunities presented- =ence the need for the Dnion to set a clear
strategic goal and agree a challenging programme for building !nowledge infrastructures% enhancing
innovation and economic reform% and modernising social welfare and education systems-
The Union's strengths and weaknesses
3- 0he Dnion is e(periencing its best macro6economic outloo! for a generation- As a result of
stability6oriented monetary policy supported by sound fiscal policies in a conte(t of wage moderation%
inflation and interest rates are low% public sector deficits have been reduced remar!ably and the ?DRs
balance of payments is healthy- 0he euro has been successfully introduced and is delivering the
e(pected benefits for the ?uropean economy- 0he internal mar!et is largely complete and is yielding
tangible benefits for consumers and businesses ali!e- 0he forthcoming enlargement will create new
opportunities for growth and employment- 0he Dnion possesses a generally well6educated wor!force
as well as social protection systems able to provide% beyond their intrinsic value% the stable framewor!
re<uired for managing the structural changes involved in moving towards a !nowledge6based society-
Frowth and :ob creation have resumed-
7-
0hese strengths should not distract our attention from a number of wea!nesses- )ore than
"G million ?uropeans are still out of wor!- 0he employment rate is too low and is characterised by
insufficient participation in the labour mar!et by women and older wor!ers- .ong6term structural
unemployment and mar!ed regional unemployment imbalances remain endemic in parts of the Dnion-
0he services sector is underdeveloped% particularly in the areas of telecommunications and the
5nternet- 0here is a widening s!ills gap% especially in information technology where increasing
numbers of :obs remain unfilled- ith the current improved economic situation% the time is right to
underta!e both economic and social reforms as part of a positive strategy which combines
competitiveness and social cohesion-
The way forward
G- 0he Dnion has today set itself a new strategic goal for the ne(t decade/ to 'ecome the
most competiti"e and dynamic -no1ledge,'ased economy in the 1orld$ capa'le of sustaina'le
economic gro1th 1ith more and 'etter 8o's and greater social cohesion- Achieving this goal re<uires
an overall strategy aimed at/
23
preparing the transition to a !nowledge6based economy and society by better
policies for the information society and 2&D% as well as by stepping up the process of structural reform
for competitiveness and innovation and by completing the internal mar!etC
modernising the ?uropean social model% investing in people and combating social
e(clusionC
sustaining the healthy economic outloo! and favourable growth prospects by
applying an appropriate macro6economic policy mi(-
>- 0his strategy is designed to enable the Dnion to regain the conditions for full employment%
and to strengthen regional cohesion in the ?uropean Dnion- 0he ?uropean Council needs to set a goal
for full employment in ?urope in an emerging new society which is more adapted to the personal
choices of women and men- 5f the measures set out below are implemented against a sound macro6
economic bac!ground% an average economic growth rate of around 3L should be a realistic prospect
for the coming years-
). 5mplementing this strategy will be achieved by improving the e(isting processes% introducing
a new open method of coordination at all levels% coupled with a stronger guiding and coordinating
role for the ?uropean Council to ensure more coherent strategic direction and effective monitoring of
progress- A meeting of the ?uropean Council to be held every 1pring will define the relevant mandates
and ensure that they are followed up-
A**endix 2+
Chapter 7% section "% of the 2omanian 1trategia BaSionalJ
&entru &romovarea Boii ?conomii Ki 5mplementarea 1ocietJSii 5nformaSionale
,.1 "-iecti.e glo-ale
Dtili4area largJ a tehnologiilor informaSionale Ki de comunicaSii (05C) conduce la implicaSii
profunde In viaSa social6economicJ% la transformJri fundamentale In modul de a reali4a produsele Ki
serviciile Ki In comportamentul uman- Malorificarea superioarJ a acestor tehnologii poate asigura
progresul economic6social ce caracteri4ea4J societatea informaSionalJ% cu condiSia Indeplinirii unor
obiective Ki orientJri de naturJ strategicJ prin politici adecvate stJrii societJSii In care trJim/
"- Consolidarea democra/iei 0i a institu/iilor statului de dre*t prin participarea cetJSenilor
la viaSa politicJ Ki facilitarea accesului nediscriminatoriu la informaSia publicJ% ImbunJtJSirea calitJSii
serviciilor publice Ki moderni4area administraSiei publice (e6government% e6administration) C
+- (ez.oltarea economiei de *ia/1 0i trecerea *rogresi.1 la noua economie% creKterea
competitivitJSii agenSilor economici Ki crearea de noi locuri de muncJ In sectoare de InaltJ tehnologie
24
prin de4voltarea comerSului electronic% tele6lucrului% a unor noi metode de management al afacerilor%
de management financiar Ki al resurselor umane% integrarea capabilitJSilor 05C In noi produse Ki
servicii% de4voltarea sectorului 05C-
3- Cre0terea calit1/ii .ie/ii prin utili4area noilor tehnologii In domenii precum/ protecSia
socialJ% asistenSa medicalJ% educaSie% protecSia mediului Ki monitori4area de4astrelor% siguranSa
transporturilor etc- Ki% pe aceastJ cale% integrarea n structurile euro-atlantice Ki In 1ocietatea
5nformaSionalJ FlobalJ-
7. Consolidarea 0i dez.oltarea unei ramuri a economiei na/ionale care s1 asigure
realizarea de *roduse 0i ser.icii com*etiti.e *e *ia/a intern1 0i extern1% cerute de evoluSia
lumii contemporane- A ramurJ a economiei ba4atJ pe produse Ki servicii care valorificJ 05C pe piaSa
internJ Ki% mai ales% la e(port% ar permite ocuparea resursei umane In activitJSi caracteri4ate de
eficienSJ ma(imJ% comparativ cu alte ramuri% prin faptul cJ produsele Ki serviciile specifice 15 conSin o
cotJ ridicatJ a valorii adJugate% asociatJ cu consumuri minime de resurse materiale Ki de energie- A
asemenea opSiune corespunde previ4iunilor privind evoluSia societJSii umane In secolul +"% fiind
susSinutJ de e(perienSa ultimilor 4ece ani a unor SJri de dimensiuni mici% cum sunt 5rlanda% Finlanda
sau 5sraelul- (ve4i Ane(a nr- 3)-
Tn ultimii ani au intervenit schimbJri importante In evoluSia societJSii% cu un impact ma:or asupra
modului In care gUndim% muncim% interacSionJm% petrecem timpul liber Ki In mod special% asupra
modului In care reali4Jm produsele Ki serviciile- 1chimbJrile ma:ore care au produs acest impact Ki
care vor marca evoluSia societJSii In perspectiva noului mileniu sunt legate In principal de globali4area
competiSiei Ki a pieSei Ki de progresele obSinute In domeniul 05C-
Tn acest conte(t ce defineKte 1ocietatea 5nformaSionalJ% asistJm la impunerea
cunoaKterii ca un factor critic% determinant% al creKterii economice Ki al standardului de viaSJ- De la o
divi4iune a lumii In raport cu accesul la cunoaKtere Ki la utili4area noilor tehnologii din domeniu
(Vglobal digital divideW) se poate a:unge prin strategii adecvate% elaborate la nivel naSional Ki global% la
noi oportunitJSi oferite de4voltJrii societJSii la nivel planetar (Vglobal digital opportunityW%0he A!inawa
1ummit of the F$9F*W% iulie +,,,)-
Flobali4area Ki noile 05C impun reali4area produselor Ki serviciilor la nivelul standardelor
e(istente pe piaSa e(ternJ9globalJ% In special pe piaSa internJ a D?% In care aceste standarde sunt la
nivelul cel mai ridicat-
2eali4area produselor Ki serviciilor inovative la acest nivel nu se poate asigura decUt prin
menSinerea Ki de4voltarea unei capacitJSi de cercetare6de4voltare6inovare susSinutJ Ki de un transfer
tehnologic activ cJtre producJtorii de bunuri Ki servicii- ConKtienti4area acestei stJri impune elaborarea
unei strategii a de4voltJrii economiei naSionale Ki a unor sectoare viabile ale acesteia care sJ facJ faSJ
competiSiei pe piaSa internJ Ki e(ternJ% mai ales a D?-
25
AvUnd e(emplul SJrilor amintite mai sus Ki pre4entate In ane(e (5rlanda% 5srael% Finlanda)%
2omUnia trebuie sJ facJ o opSiune fundamentalJ pentru de4voltarea unei ramuri a economiei care sJ
reali4e4e produse Ki servicii cerute de societatea informaSionalJ% ba4atJ pe tehnologiile informaSiei Ki
comunicaSiilor-

A**endix 3
?nglish translation of Chapter 7% 1ection "% of the 2omanian Bational 1trategy for the &romotion
of the Bew ?conomy and the 5mplementation of the 5nformation 1ociety
,.1 ".erall o-2ecti.es
0he widespread use of 5C0 produces profound implications for socio6economic life% and
fundamental transformations in the way of producing goods and services and in human behaviour-
Capitali4ing more on these technologies can ensure the socio6economic progress characteristic of
information societies as long as ob:ectives and orientations of a strategic nature are adopted through
policies appropriate to the actual societies in which we live/
"- Consolidation of democracy and the institutions of the state of the rule of la3
through the participation of citi4ens in political life and the facilitation of non6discriminatory access to
public information% the improvement of the <uality of public services and the moderni4ation of public
administration (e6government% e6adminstration)C
+- (e.elo*ment of a mar4et economy and *rogressi.e mo.ement to3ards the ne3
economy% growth in the competitiveness of economic agents and the creation of new :obs in the
high6technology sector through developing electronic commerce% tele6wor!% and new methods of
business management% financial management and management of human resources% incorporation of
5C0 capacities in new goods and services% development of the 5C0 sector-
3- !m*ro.ing the 5uality of life by using new technologies in areas such as/ social welfare%
health% education% protection of the environment and monitoring of disasters% transport security etc%
and thereby integration into Euro6atlantic structures and the Flobal 5nformation 1ociety-
7- Consolidation and de.elo*ment of a national economic frame3or4 3hich ensures
the *roduction of goods and ser.ices 3hich are com*etiti.e on internal and external
mar4ets% as the evolution of the modern world demands- A branch of the economy based on goods
and services which capitali4e on 5C0 for the internal mar!et and especially for e(port would permit a
ma(imally efficient use of human resources% compared with other branches% because specifically
information society goods and services contain e(panded added value associated with minimal use of
material resources and energy- 1uch an option corresponds to forecasts about the development of
human society in the +" century% and is confirmed by the e(perience of several small countries over
the last ten years% such as 5reland% Finland and 5srael (see Anne( nr 3)-
26
5mportant changes in the development of society have ta!en place in recent years% which have
had a ma:or impact on the way we thin!% wor!% interact% spend our free time and% especially% on the
way we produce goods and services- 0he ma:or changes which have produced these effects and which
will shape the development of society in the new millennium are lin!ed especially to the globali4ation
of competition and the mar!et and progress in the field of 5C0-
5n this conte(t of the 5nformation 1ociety we are witnessing the implementation of !nowledge as
a critical% determining% factor in economic growth and the standard of living- From the division of the
world on the basis of access to !nowledge and use of new technologies in the field (Vglobal digital
divideW)% we can% with appropriate strategies developed at national and global levels% move towards
new opportunities for social development at a planetary level (Vglobal digital opportunityW% 0he
A!inawa 1ummit of the F$9F*% 8uly +,,,)-
Flobali4ation and new 5C0 mean producing goods and services to the standard of e(ternal9global
mar!ets% especially the internal mar!et of the ?D% where standards are the highest-
0he production of innovative goods and services at this level can only be achieved through
maintaining and developing a capacity for sustained research6development6innovation and for active
technology transfer between producers of goods and services- )a!ing people aware of this entails
developing a strategy for development of the national economy and for viable sectors within it which
can compete on internal and e(ternal mar!ets% especially the ?D-
Fiven the e(ample of the countries referred to above and presented in the appendi( (5reland%
5srael% Finland)% 2omania should ma!e a fundamental choice to develop a branch of the economy
which produces the goods and services demanded by the information society% based on 5C0-
27
i
5 am currently embar!ing on research into transition in 2omania and other C?? countries- 0he e(ample 5
discuss here is very much wor! in progress-
ii
Fodin (+,,7) lists some seventy five terms for societal transformation between "#G, and "#*7 alone%
including post6industrial society% neocapitalism% management society-
iii
0he stance of !ey states (notably the D1A% ?uropean states% 8apan) and international institutions and
agencies (the orld @an!% the 5)F etc) towards strategies and discourses is one important factor in the outcome of
struggles for hegemony- Fodin (+,,7) traces the displacement of national systems of innovation (B15s) by
!nowledge6based economy as the favoured strategy of the A?CD in the "##,s-
iv
5n Fairclough +,,3% 5 suggest that analysis of the te(turing of relations of e<uivalence and difference as the
operationali4ation in te(tual analysis of the view of the political (which one can e(tend more generally to social
action) in .aclau & )ouffe ("#*G) as constituted through the simultaneous operation of the logics of e<uivalence
and difference- 5 see this as a case where te(tual analysis can be enriched through transdisciplinary dialogue-
v
0he discourse of social e(clusion which is widely used in the ?D is not widely used in 2omania- 0he discourse
of poverty% which was for instance displaced by the discourse of social e(clusion in the DE in the language of Bew
.abour (Fairclough +,,,)% is by contrast widely used% though it appears only once in this document ; the issue of
poverty is not otherwise referred to-