Botai and the Origins of Horse Domestication

M arsh a A . L ev i n e
McDonald Institutefor Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, DowningStreet,
Cambridge, CB2 3ER, United Kingdom
R ecei v ed A p ri l 22, 1 997; rev i si o n recei v ed A p ri l 27, 1 998; accep ted Ju ly 28, 1 998
T h i s p ap er exp lo res so m e i ssu es related to th e o ri g i n s o f h o rse d o m esti cati o n . F i rst, i t fo cu ses
o n m eth o d o lo g i cal p ro b lem s relev an t to exi sti n g w o rk . T h en , eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal an d arch aeo -
zo o lo g i cal m eth o d s are u sed to p ro v i d e an altern ati v e ap p ro ach to th e su b ject. E th n o lo g i cal,
eth o lo g i cal, an d arch aeo lo g i cal d ata are u sed to co n stru ct a seri es o f p o p u lati o n stru ctu re
m o d els i llu strati n g a ran g e o f h u m an h o rse relati o n sh i p s. A n aly si s o f assem b lag es fro m th e
E n eo li th i c si tes o f B o tai n o rth ern K azak h stan ) an d D erei v k a U k rai n e) su g g ests th at h o rses at
th ese si tes w ere o b tai n ed larg ely b y h u n ti n g . 1 999 A cad em i c P ress
Key Words: arch aeo lo g y ; E u rasi an step p e; h o rse; d o m esti cati o n .
1.0. INTRODUCTION
T h e i m p act o n h u m an so ci ety o f th e
earli est d o m esti cati o n o f th e h o rse m u st
h av e b een as p ro fo u n d as th at o f th e i n -
v en ti o n o f th e steam en g i n e an d y et w e
k n o w v ery li ttle ab o u t w h en , w h ere, o r
h o w i t cam e ab o u t. T h e i n creased m o b i li ty
p ro v i d ed b y th e h o rse w o u ld h av e en -
ab led p eo p le to m o v e fu rth er an d faster
an d to tak e m o re w i th th em th an ev er
b e fo re . T h e y co u ld e x p lo i t la rg e r a n d
m o re d i v erse lan d scap es, m ai n tai n larg er
fam i li es, i n crease th e ran g e o f th ei r trad e
co n tacts. T h ey co u ld m o v e i n to p rev i o u sly
u n i n h ab i tab le reg i o n s. A n d , si n ce a m an
o n fo o t i s n o m atch fo r a m an o n h o rse-
b ack , th e m i li tary i m p li cati o n s o f h o rse
d o m esti cati o n w o u ld h av e b een rev o lu -
ti o n ary . Jo h n E w ers h as sh o w n h o w p ro -
fo u n d ly th e i n tro d u cti o n o f th e h o rse i n to
N o rth A m eri ca ch an g ed B lack fo o t cu ltu re
E w ers 1 955) . W e sh o u ld exp ect n o less o f
i ts early d o m esti cati o n i n cen tral E u rasi a.
H o w ev er, u n ti l recen tly relati v ely li ttle at-
ten ti o n h ad b een p ai d to th i s p ro b lem see
also L ev i n e 1 990, 1 993) .
A ro u n d 7 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o th e re la ti o n -
sh i p b etw een p eo p le an d h o rses ap p ar-
en tly i n ten si ed . F o r a lo n g ti m e arch ae-
o lo g i sts assu m ed th at i n ten si cati o n m ean t
d o m esti cati o n . H o w ev er, th ere are o th er
exp lan ati o n s fo r th i s k i n d o f ch an g e w h i ch
m u st a lso b e e x p lo re d . I t i s i m p o rta n t to
b e a w a re th a t h u m a n h o rse re la ti o n -
sh i p s v ari ed w i d ely o v er ti m e an d sp ace
an d th at m u lti p le relati o n sh i p s co u ld b e
relev an t at a si n g le si te. F u rth erm o re, b e-
h av i o ral p attern s fo r w h i ch w e h av e n o
m o d ern o r eth n o g rap h i c an alo g u es are
li k ely to h av e b een i m p o rtan t i n th e p ast.
W h atev er else i s i n v o lv ed , i t i s clear th at
th ere w as an i m p o rtan t ch an g e i n step p e
eco d y n am i cs at th i s ti m e fro m aro u n d
5000 to 3000 B .C .) . H o rses w ere b eco m i n g
m u ch m o re co m m o n i n arch aeo lo g i cal d e-
p o si ts. I m p o rtan t cu ltu ral, so ci al, an d eco -
n o m i c ch an g es w ere tak i n g p lace. I t w as
also a p eri o d o f si g n i can t cli m ati c ch an g e
S ch n i relm an 1 992) . U n ti l w e can u n d er-
stan d th e d evelo p m en t o f th e h u m an h o rse
relati o n sh i p w e can n o t k n o w h o w all th ese
facto rs w ere related L evi n e 1 993) . I f w e are
to m ak e sen se o f even ts d u ri n g th i s p eri o d ,
w e m u st u n d erstan d th e stru ctu re o f th e
arch aeo zo o lo g i cal d ata.
T h e stu d y o f h u m an h o rse relati o n -
sh i p s h as b een b ed ev i led b y b o th co n cep -
Jo u rn al o f A n th ro p o lo g i cal A rch aeo lo g y 18, 29 78 1 999)
A rti cle I D jaar.1 998.0332, av ai lab le o n li n e at h ttp ://w w w .i d eali b rary .co m o n
0278-41 65/99 $30.00
C o p y ri g h t 1 999 b y A cad em i c P ress
A ll ri g h ts o f rep ro d u cti o n i n an y fo rm reserv ed .
29
tu al an d m eth o d o lo g i cal w eak n esses. T h i s
p ap er exp lo res so m e o f th e relev an t i ssu es
fro m tw o p ersp ecti v es. F i rst, i t fo cu ses o n
so m e o f th e p ro b lem s relev an t to exi sti n g
w o rk , i n p arti cu lar, th e co n fu si o n o f d o -
m esti cati o n w i th i n ten si cati o n an d th e
u se o f a si n g le cri teri o n to classi fy co m p lex
h u m an an i m al relati o n sh i p s. T h en , eth -
n o a rch a e o lo g i ca l a n d a rch a e o zo o lo g i ca l
m eth o d s are u sed to p ro v i d e an altern a-
ti v e a p p ro a ch . A ra n g e o f b e h a v i o rs,
b ased o n arch aeo lo g i cal, eth o lo g i cal, an d
eth n o g rap h i c d ata, are d raw n o n to d e-
v e lo p a se ri e s o f m o d e ls d e scri b i n g a
ran g e o f p o ssi b le strateg i es an d tacti cs
ag ai n st w h i ch th e arch aeo lo g i cal d ata can
b e tested .
1.1. The Concept of the Earliest Date
1.1.1. Biogeographic Range
C . G ri g so n s p ap er, T h e E arli est D o -
m esti c H o rses i n th e L ev an t? N ew n d s
fro m th e F o u rth M i llen n i u m o f th e N e-
g ev 1 993) , i llu strates w h at i s p ro b ab ly
th e m o st fu n d am en tal p ro b lem asso ci ated
w i th th e stu d y o f early h o rse d o m esti ca-
ti o n th e search fo r th e earli est d ate. S h e
m i g h t w ell b e co rrect, o n th e b asi s o f i ts
larg e si ze relati v e to th e ass Equus asinus
an d th e o n ag er Equus hemionus , th at
Equus caballus w as p resen t i n th e L ev an t
earli er th an h ad b een b eli ev ed . H o w ev er,
h er co n v i cti o n th at th i s h o rse m u st h av e
b een d o m esti cated i s ap p aren tly b ased
so lely o n th e assu m p ti o n th at th e g eo -
g rap h i cal ran g e o f th e w i ld h o rse co u ld
n o t h av e exten d ed i n to th e L ev an t: A l-
th o u g h th e h o rse E q u u s cab allu s) w as a
m em b er o f th e P lei sto cen e fau n a o f th e
L ev an t, i t d i ed o u t b efo re th e en d o f th e
p eri o d G ri g so n 1 993, p . 646) . I n fact, re-
cen t research su g g ests th at th e n atu ral
d i stri b u ti o n o f th e H o lo cen e h o rse m i g h t
h av e b een m u ch w i d er th an h ad b een fo r-
m erly b eli ev ed A zzaro li 1 985; C laso n
1 988; C lu tto n -B ro ck 1 992; G ro v es 1 986;
U erp m an n 1 990) . I n an y case, th e ab sen ce
o f h o rse rem ai n s fro m arch aeo lo g i cal d e-
p o si ts sh o u ld n o t b e tak en as p ro o f th at
th ey w ere exti n ct. G ri g so n w o u ld h av e
b een o n rm er g ro u n d h ad sh e en ti tled
h er p ap er: T h e E arli est H o rses i n th e L e-
v an t? N ew F i n d s fro m th e F o u rth M i llen -
n i u m o f th e N eg ev .
1.1.2. TheSearch for theEarliest Date
T h i s k i n d o f p ro b lem ari ses p artly o u t o f
th e ten d en cy o f arch aeo lo g i sts an d ar-
ch aeo zo o lo g i sts to ask certai n k i n d s o f
q u esti o n s, fo r exam p le, w h en an d w h ere
w as th e h o rse o r, fo r th at m atter, co w ,
sh eep , g o at, p i g , etc.) rst d o m esti cated ?
W h i ch cam e rst: th e i n v en ti o n o f th e
w h eel o r th e b i t A n th o n y an d B ro w n
1 991 ) ? T h e w h o le i ssu e o f earli est d ates i s
a red h erri n g , esp eci ally i n a si tu ati o n
su ch as th i s, i n w h i ch th e n u m b er o f w ell-
excav ated an d ab so lu tely d ated si tes i s
v ery sm all an d th e cri teri a u sed to p ro v e
d o m esti cati o n are n o t v ery co n v i n ci n g .
F acto rs co m p letely u n related to an ci en t
h u m an b eh av i o r th at w i ll si g n i can tly i n -
u en ce i d en ti cati o n o f th e earli est si te
i n clu d e th e fo llo w i n g :
n atu ral tap h o n o m i c facto rs: th e d estru c-
ti o n o r p reserv ati o n o f si tes, b o n es, an d
arti facts m ad e fro m o rg an i c m ateri als;
d eci si o n s, w h i ch m ay b e p o li ti cal, n an -
ci al, o r strateg i c, ab o u t w h ere an d h o w
carefu lly to excav ate;
d eci si o n s ab o u t w h eth er b o n es sh o u ld
b e stu d i ed o r d i scard ed ;
d eci si o n s ab o u t w h o w i ll stu d y th e
b o n es, w h eth er th ei r p ri m ary trai n i n g i s
as an arch aeo lo g i st, zo o lo g i st, v eteri n ar-
i an , etc.;
th e sp eci ali st s co u n try o f o ri g i n , si n ce
ed u cati o n al trad i ti o n s i n u en ce th e an a-
ly ti cal m eth o d s u sed ;
cri teri a ch o sen b y th e sp eci ali st as ev i -
d en ce o f d o m esti cati o n .
S ch o lars lo o k i n g fo r earli est d ates co m -
m o n ly u se o n ly o n e li n e o f ev i d en ce e.g .,
b i o g eo g rap h y , si ze, m o rp h o lo g y , b i tw ear)
fro m w h i ch to d raw th ei r co n clu si o n s.
30 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
T h i s ap p ro ach , si m p li fy i n g h u m an an d
an i m al b eh av i o r, as i t d o es, i s u lti m ately
u n sati sfy i n g .
1.1.3. Sizeand Homogeneity
S etti n g th e search fo r th e earli est d ate
as a p ri m ary research g o al m ak es i t rath er
easy to u se i n ad eq u ate cri teri a fo r th e d e-
term i n ati o n o f d o m esti cati o n . T h i s i s b e-
cau se th e search fo r a d ate d o es n o t re-
q u i re an y th i n g to b e sai d ab o u t th e actu al
relati o n sh i p b etw een an i m als an d p eo p le.
F o r i n stan ce, a d ecrease i n si ze an d an
i n crease i n h etero g en ei ty are tak en as
p ro o f o f d o m esti cati o n b y m an y sch o lars.
U erp m an n clai m s th at G rossen red u k ti o n
ei n ersei ts u n d Z u n ah m e d er V ari ab i li tat
an d erersei ts si n d k lassi sch e D o m esti k a-
ti o n si n d i k a to re n U e rp m a n n 1 9 9 0 , p .
1 27) .
1 ,
* S u ch facto rs as ag e an d sex stru c-
tu re are rarely tak en i n to acco u n t. H o w -
ev er, a si ze ch an g e co u ld also resu lt fro m
a ch an g e i n th e tech n i q u e o f exp lo i tati o n .
F o r e x a m p l e , a h u n ti n g m e th o d th a t
cu lle d p ri m a ri ly sta lli o n s fro m fa m i ly
g ro u p s w o u ld tak e larg er h o rses th an o n e
th at fo cu sed o n b ach elo r g ro u p s, w h i ch
m i g h t w ell b e ep i p h y seally m atu re b u t n o t
y et fu ll g ro w n , o r o n e th at fo cu sed o n
fem ales, w h i ch are sm aller th an eq u al-ag e
m ales. E n v i ro n m en tal ch an g e, g eo g rap h i -
cal i so lati o n , an d g en eti c d ri ft are all co n -
n ected w i th si ze ch an g e. M o reo v er, ta-
p h o n o m i c facto rs can also i n u en ce si ze
ran g e an d v ari ab i li ty . F o r exam p le, as an
an i m al ag es, ev en after i ts ep i p h y ses are
fu lly fu sed , th e b o n es co n ti n u e to i n crease
i n d en si ty . A ll o th er th i n g s b ei n g eq u al,
th e d en ser th e b o n e, th e b etter i ts ch an ces
o f su rv i v i n g i n an arch aeo lo g i cal co n text.
P o o r p reserv ati o n co n d i ti o n s th erefo re
ten d to resu lt i n an assem b lag e o f rela-
ti v ely h o m o g en eo u s an d larg e b o n es. A t
th e F ren ch U p p er P alaeo li th i c si te o f S o -
lu tre, b o th th e A u ri g n aci an an d th e M ag -
d alen i an h o rses w ere sm aller th an th o se
fro m th e i n terv en i n g U p p er P eri g o rd i an
lev el. N o o n e co u ld seri o u sly su g g est th at
th i s i s ev i d en ce th at th e fo rm er w ere d o -
m esti cated w h i le th e latter w ere w i ld L e-
v i n e 1 979, 1 983) .
A d ecrease i n si ze acco m p an i ed b y an
i n crease i n h etero g en ei ty m i g h t b e asso -
ci ated w i th d o m esti cati o n , b u t i t co u ld
h av e o th er cau ses. I t i s, o n i ts o w n , i n su f-
ci en t as an exp lan ati o n . O th er co rro b o -
rati v e ev i d en ce m u st b e o b tai n ed . E v en i f
to o few teeth w ere av ai lab le fo r a fu ll-
b lo w n p o p u lati o n an aly si s, a stu d y th at
co m p ared ag i n g d ata fro m a seri es o f rel-
ati v ely sm all sam p les w o u ld su rely b e ju st
as m ean i n g fu l as o n e co m p ari n g m o rp h o -
m etri c d ata fro m a seri es o f sm all sam p les.
T h e latter, b u t n o t th e fo rm er, are u sed b y
U erp m an n an d o th ers e.g ., U erp m an n
1 990; B en eck e 1 993) .
1.1.4. Bitwear
A n o th er exam p le o f th i s co m m i tm en t to
an earli est d ate i s A n th o n y s arg u m en t
th at th e d o m esti cated h o rse w as p resen t
i n th e U k rai n e earli er th an i n K azak h stan .
H i s ev i d en ce fo r th i s co m es fro m b i tw ear
stu d i es o f tw o sam p les o f lo w er seco n d
p rem o lars fro m tw o E n eo li th i c si tes, B o tai
i n n o rth ern K azak h stan 5 fro m a to tal o f
1 9 teeth ) an d D erei v k a i n th e U k rai n e 2
fro m a to tal o f 6 teeth ) . H e i m p li es fro m
th i s th at h o rse d o m esti cati o n sp read fro m
w est to east A n th o n y 1 995) .
R e la ti v e ly li ttle a rch a e o zo o lo g i ca l re -
se a rch h a s b e e n ca rri e d o u t i n th e
fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n , i n clu d i n g b o th K a -
za k h sta n a n d th e U k ra i n e , a n d re la ti v e ly
fe w a b so lu te d a te s a re a v a i la b le re g a rd -
i n g th e U k ra i n e , se e L e v i n e a n d R a ssa -
m a k i n 1 9 9 6 ) . B o ta i a n d D e re i v k a d o n o t
co n sti tu te re p re se n ta ti v e sa m p le s o f
si te s w i th i n th e v a st re g i o n s i n q u e sti o n .
T h e y ca n n o t, th e re fo re , b e u se d to a n -
sw e r q u e sti o n s a b o u t o ri g i n s a n d e a rli -
e st d a te s. M o re o v e r, se ri o u s d o u b ts h a v e
b e e n ra i se d a b o u t th e stra ti g ra p h i c lo ca -
* S ee N o tes secti o n at en d o f p ap er fo r all fo o t-
n o tes.
31 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
ti o n o f th e ri tu a l sk u ll fro m D e re i v k a ,
th e b a si s o f A n th o n y a n d B ro w n s th e o ry
o f th e o ri g i n s o f e a rly h o rse d o m e sti ca -
ti o n R a ssa m a k i n 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e se d o u b ts
se e m to b e co n rm e d b y th e m e a n ca li -
b ra te d ra d i o ca rb o n d a te re ce n tly o b -
ta i n e d fo r th a t sk u ll, 2 9 1 5 B . C . , m o re
th a n 1 0 0 0 y e a rs la te r th a n m o st o f th e
o th e r d a te s fo r th a t si te T a b le 1 ) T e le -
g i n 1 9 8 6 ) .
1.2. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
1.2.1. Conventional Approaches
T h e th eo reti cal fram ew o rk u sed u n ti l
recen tly fo r i n terp reti n g th e arch aeo zo o -
lo g i cal d ata w as seri o u sly aw ed fo r a
m o re d etai led d i scu ssi o n see L ev i n e 1 990,
1 993) . F o r exam p le, th e cri teri a u sed b y
v ari o u s research ers as ev i d en ce th at th e
h o rses fro m D erei v k a w ere d o m esti cated
i n clu d ed th e fo llo w i n g : 1 ) th e ab sen ce o f
o ld h o rses; 2) th e p resen ce o f a larg e p ro -
p o rti o n o f m ale sk u lls; 3) th e p resen ce o f
o b jects i d en ti ed as b ri d le ch eek p i eces;
4) th e resu lts o f a m o rp h o lo g i cal an aly si s
co m p ari n g th e D erei v k a h o rses w i th o th er
eq u i d m ateri al; 5) th ei r asso ci ati o n w i th
o th er d o m esti catescattle, sh eep , g o at,
p i g , an d d o g ; 6) th e relati v ely larg e p er-
cen tag e o f h o rse b o n es an d teeth i n th e
d e p o si t B ok on y i 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 4 ; B i b i k o v a
1 967, 1 970, 1 969; T eleg i n 1 986) . H o w ev er,
o n th e b asi s o f arch aeo lo g i cal, eth n o -
g rap h i c, an d eth o lo g i cal co m p ari so n s, th e
ab sen ce o f o ld i n d i v i d u als i s m u ch m o re
li k ely to i n d i cate h u n ti n g th an h erd i n g
L ev i n e 1 982, 1 990) . M ales w o u ld o u tn u m -
b er fem ales i f ei th er b ach elo r g ro u p s o r
stalli o n s p ro tecti n g th ei r h arem s w ere tar-
g eted i n th e h u n t. T h e ch eek p i eces m i g h t
n o t h av e b een ch eek p i eces at all D i etz
1 992; L ev i n e an d R assam ak i n 1 996) . T h e
m o rp h o lo g i cal stu d y i n v o lv ed v ery sm all
an d d i sp arate sam p les an d p ro d u ced co n -
tra d i cto ry re su l ts. T h e a sso ci a ti o n o f
h o rses w i th o th er assu m ed d o m esti cates
i s n o t ev i d en ce o f h o rse d o m esti cati o n . I n
an y case, th ey w ere also fo u n d w i th th e
rem ai n s o f w i ld an i m als L ev i n e 1 990,
1 993) . T h e o n ly sp eci es fro m D erei v k a to
TABLE 1
Dereivka Radiocarbon Dates
KI 5488: 4330 120 years B.P. (ritual skull)
M ean cali b rated d ate: 291 5 B .C .
1 ; ran g e 30922784 B .C .
3293 0.03) 3277 3268 0.05) 3240 31 05 0.75) 2865
2809 0.1 2) 2750 2724 0.05) 2699
2 ; ran g e 3347261 0 B .C .
3339 0.78) 2838 2828 0.02) 2650 2650 0.02) 261 9
UCLA 1671A: 4900 100 years B.P. (bone)
M ean cali b rated d ates: 3692, 3670 B .C .
1 ; ran g e 37833548 B .C .
3892 0.01 ) 3889 3796 0.86) 2633 3577 0.1 4) 3535
2 ; ran g e 39463383 B .C .
3946 0.1 3) 3832 3829 0.84) 3503 341 7 0.03) 3383
KI 2197: 5230 95 years B.P. (shell)
M ean cali b rated d ates: 4033, 4025, 3998, B .C .
1 ; ran g e 4221 3959 B .C .
4221 0.1 1 ) 41 93 41 54 0.89) 3959
2 ; ran g e 43203799 B .C .
431 7 0.02) 4292 4256 0.89) 3902 3882 0.09) 3802
OXA 5030: 5380 90 years B.P. (bone from
cemetery)
M ean cali b rated d ate: 4237 B .C .
1 ; ran g e 43374048 B .C .
4334 0.58) 421 6 4201 0.28) 41 41 41 20 0.1 4) 4087
2 ; ran g e 44353985 B .C .
4362 1 .00) 3988
KI 2193: 5400 100 years B.P. (shell)
m ean cali b rated d ates: 431 0, 309, 4249 B .C .
1 ; ran g e 43464086 B .C .
4345 0.63) 421 6 4201 0.25) 41 41 41 20 0.1 2) 4087
2 ; ran g e 44563985 B .C .
4451 0.03) 4420 4396 0.02) 4374 4369 0.92)
4030 4030 0.04) 3994
U C L A 1 466a: 551 5 90 B P b o n e)
M ean cali b rated d ate: 4350 B C
1 si g m a; R an g e 44574260 B C
4458 .83) 431 7 4291 0.1 7) 4256
2 si g m a; R an g e 452741 55 B C
4540 .94) 421 8 41 98 0.4) 41 45 41 1 5 .01 ) 4093
Source. D ates fro m T eleg i n , p erso n al co m m u n i ca-
ti o n , an d co n feren ce ab stract fro m T eleg i n 1 995) .
C ali b rati o n fro m S tu i v er an d R ei m er 1 993) .
32 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
b e stu d i ed i n d etai l w as th e h o rse. B e-
cau se alm o st all th e b o n es an d teeth fro m
th i s si te h av e u n fo rtu n ately b een d i s-
card ed , i t i s i m p o ssi b le fo r th em to b e
reassessed . H o w ev er, a p reli m i n ary exam -
i n ati o n o f th e fau n al assem b lag e fro m th e
n ew excav ati o n s at M o lu k h o v B u g o r, an -
o th er D erei v k a cu ltu re si te,
2
h as p ro d u ced
so m e i n teresti n g , b u t extrem ely ten tati v e
resu lts. N o b o n es th at co u ld o n ly h av e
co m e fro m d o m e sti ca te d a n i m a ls a n d
m an y th at m u st h av e co m e fro m w i ld
o n es, fo r exam p le, b i rd s, to rto i se, b eav er,
d eer, h av e b een i d en ti ed , w h i le th e cattle
an d p i g s w ere su g g esti v ely en o rm o u s.
M u ch m o re w o rk n eed s to b e d o n e o n th i s
assem b lag e, b u t th e i n i ti al resu lts len d
su p p o rt to th e far m o re d etai led an aly ses
alread y carri ed o u t o n th e m ateri al fro m
D erei v k a L ev i n e 1 990, 1 993) . O n th e o n e
h an d , th ere i s li ttle o r n o ev i d en ce th at th e
D erei v k a cu ltu re p eo p le w ere p asto rali sts,
w h i le o n th e o th er h an d , th ere i s a g o o d
reaso n to b eli ev e th at th ey w ere h u n ter-
g ath erers L ev i n e an d R assam ak i n 1 996) .
H o rse s a re re la ti v e ly u n co m m o n i n
E u ro p e a n M e so li th i c a n d N e o li th i c a r-
ch a e o lo g i ca l d e p o si ts. I t h a s, th e re fo re ,
co m m o n ly b e e n h e ld to b e th e ca se th a t
th e y co u ld n o t h a v e b e e n d o m e sti ca te d
d u ri n g th o se p e ri o d s. O n th e o th e r
h a n d , re la ti v e ly la rg e q u a n ti ti e s o f h o rse
b o n e s a n d te e th h a v e b e e n re co v e re d
fro m E n e o li th i c si te s o n th e ce n tra l E u r-
a si a n S te p p e . C h a ra cte ri sti cs o f to o th
m o rp h o lo g y , p o p u la ti o n stru ctu re , ta -
p h o n o m y , a n d ta x o n o m i c d i sti n cti o n s
b a se d o n m e a su re m e n ts, h a v e b e e n
cre d i te d a s e v i d e n ce fo r h o rse d o m e sti -
ca ti o n . U n ti l re ce n tly , h o w e v e r, th e m o st
i m p o rta n t cri te ri o n h a d b e e n th a t o f i n -
cre a se d re la ti v e a b u n d a n ce , w h i ch co u ld
b e e x p la i n e d a s w e ll, o r e v e n b e tte r, b y
i n cre a se d h u n ti n g ra th e r th a n b y
d o m e sti ca ti o n B ok on y i 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 4 ;
B i b i k o v a 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 6 9 ; P e tre n k o 1 9 8 4 ;
L e v i n e 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) .
1.2.2. TheIdentication and Signicanceof
Bitwear
A s an an aly ti cal m eth o d , b i tw ear an al-
y si s sh o u ld m ak e a v alu ab le co n tri b u ti o n
to th e stu d y o f h o rse d o m esti cati o n A n -
th o n y an d B ro w n 1 991 ) . H o w ev er, i t h as
i m p o rtan t li m i tati o n s:
1 . T a m e d , a s w e l l a s d o m e sti ca te d ,
h o rses co u ld w ear b i ts.
2. A h o rse can b e ri d d en w i th o u t a b i t.
3. A n th o n y an d B ro w n h av e th em selv es
o b serv ed th at b i tw ear traces w i ll w ear o ff
i f a h o rse i s n o t b i tted reg u larly o v er a
relati v ely lo n g p eri o d recen tly b efo re i ts
d eath .
4. T h e q u esti o n o f w h eth er th e w ear
p attern d escri b ed b y A n th o n y an d B ro w n
co u ld h av e h ad o th er cau ses h as n o t b een
ad eq u ately ad d ressed . T h ei r u n b i tted
sam p le o f feral h o rses co n si sted o f 20 i n -
d i v i d u als fro m tw o N o rth A m eri can p o p -
u lati o n s m u stan g s fro m th e m o u n tai n s o f
N ev ad a an d b arri er i slan d p o n i es fro m
th e A tlan ti c C o ast) . T h ey h av e g en erali zed
fro m th i s sm all sam p le th at u n b i tted
h o rses co u ld n o t m an i fest th e w ear p at-
tern th ey d escri b e as u n i q u e to b i tw ear.
O n th e o th er h an d , A n g ela v o n d en D ri -
esch p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ) h as o b -
serv ed th at si m i lar, i f n o t i d en ti cal, w ear
o n th e lo w er seco n d p rem o lar can resu lt
fro m ab n o rm al o cclu si o n w i th th e u p p er
seco n d p rem o lar.
A s far as w e k n o w , th en , b ev eli n g o n th e
an teri o r p art o f th e lo w er P 2 m asti cato ry
su rface co u ld b e cau sed b y b i tw ear o r ab -
n o rm al o cclu si o n . E i th er a d o m esti cated
h o rse o r a w i ld o n e th at h ad b een tam ed
co u ld b e b i tted . T h e ab sen ce o f b i tw ear
co u ld i n d i cate th at a h o rse h ad n o t b een
ri d d en recen tly o r reg u larly b efo re i ts
d eath , th at i t w as ri d d en u n b i tted , o r th at
i t n ev er w as ri d d en . W e m u st co n clu d e
fro m th i s th at b i tw ear sh o u ld n o t b e u sed
w i th o u t co rro b o rati o n as p ro o f o f d o m es-
ti cati o n . T h i s i s n o t to say th at b i tw ear
stu d i es sh o u ld n o t b e carri ed o u t. O n th e
33 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
co n trary , th ei r u se sh o u ld b e m u ch m o re
w i d esp read , b u t i n co n ju n cti o n w i th o th er
m eth o d s o f an aly si s.
1.2.3. SampleSizeand Innovation
A rch a e o lo g i sts a n d a rch a e o zo o lo g i sts
co n ti n u a lly la m e n t th e i n a d e q u a cy o f
th e i r sa m p le s. T h e a ssu m p ti o n b e i n g
th a t i f o n ly la rg e e n o u g h d a ta se ts w e re
a v a i la b le , th e y w o u ld b e a b le to n d th e
a n sw e r to a n y p ra cti ca lly a n y q u e sti o n .
H o w e v e r, th i s m i g h t n o t b e th e ca se .
C o n si d e ri n g th e sk i lls n e e d e d fo r m a n -
a g i n g la rg e n u m b e rs o f h o rse s a n d co n -
si d e ri n g th e sm a ll-sca le n a tu re o f ta m -
i n g , fro m w h i ch , a s w i ll b e a rg u e d la te r,
d o m e sti ca ti o n i s m o st li k e ly to h a v e
e v o lv e d , th e k e y to th e o ri g i n s o f h o rse
d o m e sti ca ti o n m i g h t w e ll li e w i th sm a ll
sa m p le s. A rch a e o zo o lo g i sts m u st fa ce
u p to th i s a n d d e v e lo p m e th o d o lo g i e s
th a t ca n co p e w i th th i s re a li ty . T o re g a rd
sm a ll sa m p le s o n ly a s a p ro b le m i s to
m i ss a n o p p o rtu n i ty .
1.3. A MULTIDIMENSIONAL
APPROACH
T h e co m m o n th read , co n n ecti n g all as-
p ects o f th e p ro ject, o u t o f w h i ch th i s p a-
p er h as ev o lv ed i s th e q u esti o n o f th e o r-
i g i n s an d ev o lu ti o n o f h o rse h u sb an d ry ,
i ts so ci al an d eco lo g i cal i m p li cati o n s
w h eth er, fo r exam p le, i t aro se o u t o f ag ri -
cu ltu ral, p asto ral, o r fo rag i n g co m m u n i -
ti esh o w th e d o m esti cati o n o f th e h o rse
altered th e b alan ce o f p o w er i n an ci en t
co m m u n i ti es, an d i ts i m p act o n fo rest
ste p p e a n d ste p p e e co sy ste m s. I n th e
b ro ad est sen se, m y g o al i s to ev alu ate th e
w ay s i n w h i ch en v i ro n m en tal, so ci al, an d
eco n o m i c ch an g es are i n terrelated an d to
try to u n d erstan d th e ro le o f th e h o rse i n
th e e q u a ti o n . S u ch a co m p le x p ro b le m
req u i res a m u lti d i m en si o n al attack w i th
am m u n i ti o n p ro v i d ed th ro u g h th e d ev el-
o p m en t o f n ew an aly ti cal m eth o d s. I n ter-
d i sci p li n ary co llab o rati o n , i n clu d i n g , fo r
e xa m p le , b i o m o le cu la r a n a ly se s, sta b le
i so to p e stu d i es, p aleo p ath o lo g y , eth n o ar-
ch aeo lo g y , eth o lo g y , an d p aleo en v i ro n -
m en t research as w ell as m o re co n v en -
ti o n al arch aeo lo g i cal m eth o d s, i s cru ci al to
th i s ap p ro ach . T h e g o al o f th i s p ap er i s to
tak e a step i n th at d i recti o n b y u si n g a
co m b i n ati o n o f eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal, eth o -
lo g i cal, an d arch aeo lo g i cal an aly ses to
lo o k at th e arch aeo lo g i cal an d arch aeo -
zo o lo g i cal d ata. B u t th i s i s o n ly th e b eg i n -
n i n g .
2. POPULATION STRUCTURE AND
MODELS OF HORSE EXPLOITATION
T h e p arti cu lar asp ect o f h o rse h u s-
b an d ry to b e exam i n ed h ere i s p o p u lati o n
stru ctu re. S u rv i v o rsh i p an d m o rtali ty p at-
tern s o f recen t h o rse h erd s are co m p ared
w i th v ari o u s m o d els an d w i th assem -
b lag es fro m E n eo li th i c an d I ro n A g e/R o -
m an arch aeo lo g i cal si tes. T h e m eth o d o l-
o g y u sed i n teg rates tap h o n o m y an d
b u tch ery ev i d en ce w i th m o rp h o m etri cal,
p aleo p ath o lo g i cal, an d p o p u lati o n stru c-
tu re an aly ses. A ll o f th ese are i n terp reted
w i th referen ce to eco lo g i cal, eth o lo g i cal,
eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal, an d co n textu al d ata
L ev i n e 1 979, 1 982, 1 983, 1 990) .
2.1. Relationships between Horses
and People
P eo p le can h av e a w i d e v ari ety o f d i f-
feren t ty p es o f relati o n sh i p s w i th h o rses.
H o rses can b e w i ld , feral,
3
o r d o m esti -
cated . W i ld o r feral h o rses can b e h u n ted
fo r th ei r m eat an d o th er b o d y p arts, o r
tam ed as p ets o r b easts o f b u rd en . D o -
m esti cated an i m als can b e rai sed fo r
ri d i n g , tracti o n , m eat, m i lk , an d o th er
p ro d u cts. M o reo v er, ev en w i th i n o n e so -
ci ety an y co m b i n ati o n o f th ese relati o n -
sh i p s can co exi st.
T h o u g h cu sto m ari ly d e n ed as th e co n -
tro lled b reed i n g o f p lan ts o r an i m als b y
h u m an s, th e real d i sti n cti v en ess o f d o -
m esti cati o n li es i n th e fact th at i t i n v o lv es
o w n ersh i p an d th u s resu lts i n a co m -
34 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
p letely d i fferen t lev el o f h u m an co m m i t-
m en t th an d o es h u n ti n g L ev i n e 1 979) .
H o rse tam i n g also i n v o lv es o w n ersh i p ,
b u t i t seem s li k ely fro m th e h i sto ri cal an d
eth n o g rap h i c ev i d en ce so far av ai lab le
th at th e so ci al an d eco n o m i c i m p li cati o n s
o f h o rse tam i n g w o u ld h av e b een , at m o st,
relati v ely su p er ci al an d lo cali zed an d
w o u ld h av e d i sap p eared w i th th e d eath o f
th e an i m als i n v o lv ed , w h i le th e rep ercu s-
si o n s o f d o m esti cati o n w o u ld h av e rev er-
b erated th ro u g h o u t th e w h o le so ci ety .
O u r g o al sh o u ld n o t, th erefo re, b e si m p ly
to i d en ti fy h o rse ri d i n g , tracti o n , m i lk i n g ,
an d m eat eati n g i n th e arch aeo lo g i cal
reco rd , b u t, ad d i ti o n ally , to n d ev i d en ce
o f h o rse b reed i n g an d tam i n g , w h i ch are,
as su ch , arch aeo lo g i cally i n v i si b le. H o w -
ev er, th ey m ay b e ap p ro ach ed i n d i rectly
th ro u g h i n vesti g ati o n s o f p o p u lati o n stru c-
tu re , a rch a e o lo g i ca l co n te xt, a n d o th e r
ch aracteri sti cs o f th e d ata.
H i sto ri cal an d eth n o g rap h i c acco u n ts,
as w ell as n ew eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal re-
search , are all em p lo y ed h ere to g ai n ac-
cess to th at v ari ab i li ty . H o w ev er, i t i s i m -
p o rtan t to o b serv e at th e v ery o u tset o f
th i s d i scu ssi o n th at th ese k i n d s o f d ata
so u rces h av e th ei r o w n p arti cu lar p ro b -
lem s. F o r exam p le:
1 . I n accu racy . P arti cu larly i n th e case o f
i n terv i ew s relati n g to p ast p racti ces, w e
can exp ect lap ses o f m em o ry to d i sto rt
ev en ts th at to o k p lace i n th e p ast. F o r ex-
am p le, i n th e case o f i n terv i ew s d eali n g
w i th th e p eri o d b efo re co llecti v i zati o n ,
4
m y i n fo rm an ts co u ld n o t recall d etai ls o f
h erd p o p u lati o n stru ctu re.
2. D i sto rti o n s resu lti n g fro m th e i n fo r-
m an t s o w n p erso n al ag en d a. I t i s w ell
k n o w n am o n g an th ro p o lo g i sts th at i n fo r-
m an ts m ay h av e th ei r o w n reaso n s fo r
w h at th ey say . F o r exam p le, th ey m ay u n -
d er- o r o v eresti m ate th e si ze o f th ei r
h erd s, i f th ey th i n k th at th ere i s an eco -
n o m i c o r p o li ti cal ad v an tag e to d o so .
M o reo v er, m an y p eo p le w i ll say w h at i s
exp ected o f th em to p lease o r si m p ly to
h av e a g o o d lau g h . T h ere i s n o reaso n w h y
th e m o ti v ati o n s o f th e i n fo rm an t sh o u ld
b e an y less co m p li cated th an th o se o f th e
i n terv i ew er.
3. W h i ch b ri n g s u s to th e d i sto rti o n s
ari si n g fro m th e i n terv i ew er s sh o rtco m -
i n g s. F o r exam p le, p h rasi n g a q u esti o n
clearly , b u t n o t lead i n g ly , can b e p arti cu -
larly d i f cu lt. I m p erfect k n o w led g e o f th e
i n fo rm an t s n ati v e lan g u ag e i s a seri o u s
p ro b l e m . T h e h o rse h u sb a n d ry a n d
b u tch ery v o cab u lari es o f m o st i n terp ret-
ers are n o t i d eal. M o reo v er, i t i s i m p o ssi -
b le to ask ab o u t ev ery th i n g . C ertai n li m i ts
m u st b e p laced i n resp ect fo r th e ti m e an d
p ati en ce o f th e i n fo rm an t. T h erefo re, th e
ch o i ce o f w h i ch q u esti o n s to ask i s cri ti cal.
T h ey n eed to b e u n am b i g u o u s an d d i -
rected sp eci cally to w ard so lv i n g arch ae-
o lo g i cal p ro b lem s.
4. T h en , assu m i n g th at w e h av e tak en
i n to acco u n t an d m i n i m i zed all th ese d i f-
cu lti es, w e sti ll h av e to d eal w i th p ro b -
lem s asso ci ated w i th th e u se an d m i su se
o f e th n o g ra p h i c a n a lo g y , b y i ts n a tu re
h i g h ly co m p li ca te d a n d p o te n ti a lly b i -
ased , to i n terp ret th e arch aeo lo g i cal ev i -
d e n ce e q u a lly co m p le x a n d p ro b a b ly
ev en m o re b i ased , fo r exam p le, b y tap h o -
n o m i c facto rs.
A rch aeo lo g i sts h av e b een k n o w n to
th ro w u p th ei r arm s i n d esp ai r at th e d i f-
cu lti es en co u n tered w i th eth n o g rap h i c
an alo g y an d , i n d eed , so m e say th at i t can
o n ly lead to tears. H o w ev er, to i n terp ret
arch aeo lo g i cal d ata w e m u st h av e so m e
u n d erstan d i n g o f h o w h u m an b ei n g s ac-
tu ally b eh av e. T h e u n sati sfacto ry n atu re
o f th e w o rk carri ed o u t u n ti l recen tly re-
g ard i n g h o rse d o m esti cati o n h as clearly
d em o n strated th i s p ro b lem L ev i n e 1 990,
1 993) . W i th o u t m i n i m i zi n g th e d i f cu lti es
i n v o lv ed , i t i s th erefo re n ecessary to learn
h o w to u se eth n o g rap h i c an d h i sto ri cal
d ata. C o n seq u en tly , th e o b jecti v e o f th i s
eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal stu d y i s n o t th e d i rect
i n terp retati o n o f arch aeo lo g i cal d ata fro m
eth n o g rap h i c an d h i sto ri cal acco u n ts, b u t
35 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
rath er, an exp lo rati o n o f th e ran g e o f ex-
tan t p o ssi b i li ti es, w i th o u t assu m i n g th at
n o o th ers co u ld h av e exi sted i n th e p ast.
2.1.1. Capturingand TamingHorses
A cco rd i n g to C lu tto n -B ro ck , A tame
an i m al d i ffers fro m a w i ld o n e i n th at i t i s
d ep en d en t o n m an an d w i ll stay clo se to
h i m o f i ts o w n free w i ll 1 987, p . 1 2) .
A b o ri g i n al h u n ter-g ath erers an d h o rti cu l-
tu ri sts th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld are k n o w n to
tam e all k i n d s o f w i ld an i m als to k eep as
p ets S erp ell 1 986, 1 989) .
5
T h ere i s n o rea-
so n to th i n k th at th i s w o u ld n o t h av e b een
th e case at least fro m th e ti m e o f th e ear-
li est an ato m i cally m o d ern Homo sapiens,
an d w h en th e n eed aro se, tam i n g co u ld
w ell h av e b een th e rst step to w ard d o -
m esti cati o n G alto n 1 883; C lu tto n -B ro ck
1 987; S erp ell 1 989) . W i ld h o rses, p arti cu -
larly as fo als, can b e cap tu red an d tam ed
an d , as su ch , ri d d en o r h arn essed an d , at
th e en d o f th ei r li v es, i f n ecessary , slau g h -
tered an d eaten .
2.1.1.1. TamingthePrzewalskis horse. H i s-
to ri cal reco rd s also sh o w th at th e cap tu re,
tam i n g , an d ev en tu al cap ti v e b reed i n g o f
w i ld h o rses w as d ep en d en t o n th e accu -
m u lati o n o f k n o w led g e ab o u t th ei r b eh av -
i o r an d o n th e d ev elo p m en t o f tech n i q u es
to exp lo i t th at b eh av i o r. P erh ap s th e ear-
li est reco rd o f a h o rse cap tu red b y th ese
m ean s d ates fro m 1 1 3 B .C .:
A C h i n ese . . . n ear T u n -h u an g , o n th e n o rth -
w est fro n ti er, freq u en tly saw a h o rse . . . d ri n k -
i n g i n th e ri v er alo n g w i th a n u m b er o f w i ld
h o rses. H e tam ed th e stran g e h o rse b y p u tti n g at
th e w ater-si d e a d u m m y g u re o f a m an i n
w h o se h an d s w ere b ri d le an d h alter. W h en th e
h o rse w as u sed to th i s si g h t h e su b sti tu ted h i m -
self fo r th e d u m m y , cap tu red th e h o rse. W aley
1 955, p p . 98 9)
I n an o th er exam p le M o h r refers to th e
d escri p ti o n b y Jo h n B ell, an 1 8th -cen tu ry
S co tti sh d o cto r an d trav eler, o f P rzew als-
k i s h o rse h u n ti n g fro m h o rseb ack : th ese
an i m als are o ften su rp ri sed b y th e K al-
m u ck s; w h o ri d e i n am o n g th em , w ell
m o u n ted o n sw i ft h o rses, an d k i ll th em
w i th b ro ad lan ces. T h ei r esh th ey esteem
excellen t fo o d ; an d u se th ei r sk i n s to sleep
u p o n M o h r 1 971 , p . 27) .
A cco rd i n g to 1 9th -cen tu ry reco rd s,
th ere w ere tw o m eth o d s o f cap tu ri n g P r-
zew alsk i s h o rse fo als. O n e w as to trap
th em i n p i ts d u g n ear w aterh o les. T h e
o th er w as fo r m o u n ted m en to ch ase an d
cap tu re th em w i th th e arkan a lo n g p o le
w i th a n o o se fasten ed to o n e en d ) . W h en
th e p u rsu er cam e clo se en o u g h to h i s tar-
g et, h e w o u ld d ro p th e n o o se o v er i ts h ead
an d n eck M o h r 1 971 ) . G ru m -G rsh i m ai lo
d o cu m en ts an o th er m eth o d : D u ri n g th e
fo ali n g seaso n th e K alm u ck s tak e tw o
h o rses i n to th e d esert. A s so o n as th ey
h av e fo u n d a h erd , th ey ch ase th em u n ti l
th e exh au sted fo als fall o v er. T h ese fo als
are p i ck ed u p an d p laced i n th e d o m esti -
cated h erd M o h r 1 971 , p . 68) . P rzew als-
k i s h o rses w ere also cap tu red b y d ri v i n g ,
th o u g h i t i s n o t clear w h eth er th e b eaters
w ere o n fo o t o r h o rseb ack : E v en i n 1 750 i t
w as sai d : T h e en ti re lan d aro u n d L y au -
to n g i s a w i ld ern ess; th e em p ero r h u n ts
th ere w i th th ree th o u san d b eaters, w h o
p u t u p th e g am e an d d ri v e i t to w ard s h i m ,
so th at i n o n e d ay 200 to 300 h o rses,
am o n g st o th ers m ay b e cau g h t M o h r
1 971 , p . 27) .
T h e early 20th -cen tu ry co llecto rs fo u n d
th at th ei r g reatest d i f cu lty w as n o t i n
catch i n g th e h o rses, b u t rath er i n k eep i n g
th em ali v e i n cap ti v i ty . A ttem p ts to feed
u n w ean ed fo als o n sh eep an d g o at m i lk
w ere n o t su ccessfu l. T h e so lu ti o n to th i s
p ro b lem w as to fo ster th em w i th d o m es-
ti ca te d m a re s B o u m a n a n d B o u m a n
1 994) . A cco rd i n g to F red eri ck v o n F alz-
F ei n , o n e o f th e early co llecto rs:
I n 1 897 a n u m b er o f y o u n g w i ld h o rses w ere
cap tu red , b u t th ey all d i ed b ecau se th e catch
w as n o t d o n e as i t sh o u ld h av e b een . I w o rk ed
o u t th e fu llest d etai ls o f th e m eth o d an d lai d
m u ch stress o n th e i m p o rtan ce o f th e an i m als
n o t b ei n g ch ased b efo re cap tu re, b u t rath er b y
sh o o ti n g th ei r m o th ers. A s w e co u ld n o t g et
m i lk i n g m ares fro m th e M o n g o li an s li v i n g i n th e
36 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
area, w e h ad to b u y th em i n B i jsk , an d h av e
th em co v ered so th at th ey fo aled at th e sam e
ti m e as th e w i ld m ares.. . . S i n ce th ese ru les w ere
n o t o b ey ed th e catch w as ag ai n u n su ccessfu l
an d all th e an i m als d i ed . W e to ld A ssan o ff ag ai n
to sti ck to th e ru les an d th ereafter th ere w ere n o
m o re fai lu res. M o h r 1 971 , 9596)
P rzew alsk i s h o rse m ares cu rren tly i n
cap ti v i ty u su ally w ean th ei r y o u n g fro m
th e ag e o f 1 y ear u n ti l ju st b efo re th e b i rth
o f th ei r n ext fo al, o r ev en fo r sev eral y ears
i f th ey d o n o t g i v e b i rth ev ery y ear H o u p t
an d B o y d 1 994) . B erg er o b serv ed o f th e
G reat B asi n feral h o rses th at 34 o f 40 85% )
w ere w ean ed b efo re th e ag e o f 1 y ear an d
27 79% ) o f th o se w ere n o t o b serv ed to
su ck le after th ei r n i n th m o n th . B ecau se
o f w i n ter-related stresses an d b ecau se th e
last tri m ester o f p reg n an cy d em an d s th e
m o st n u tri ti o n ally . . . m o th ers w ean ed th ei r
o ffsp ri n g d u ri n g w i n ters B erg er 1 986, p .
1 1 6) . F o als can b e w ean ed m u ch earli er.
H o w ev er, th ere i s a co st to p ay : E v i d en ce
fo r th e i m p o rtan ce o f m i lk v ersu s h i g h ly
n u tri ti o u s fo o d fo r early g ro w th rates i s
sti ll sp arse, b u t an i m al sci en ti sts h av e
fo u n d th at o rp h an ed fo als exp eri en ce
stu n ted d ev elo p m en t d esp i te p ro v i si o n -
i n g w i th h i g h p lan es o f n u tri ti o n B erg er,
1 986, p . 1 1 9) . B erg er m en ti o n s a m u stan g
fro m th e G ran i te R an g e N ev ad a) , o r-
p h an ed at th e ag e o f 2 m o n th s. D esp i te
access to g o o d -q u ali ty g razi n g , ev en at th e
ag e o f 3 y ears, h e w as o n ly th e si ze o f a
y earli n g . S i m i larly a cap ti v e P rzew alsk i
fo al, o rp h an ed at th e ag e o f 2
1
2
m o n th s,
su rv i v ed b u t lag g ed i n g ro w th b eh i n d h i s
u n o rp h an ed p atern al h alf-si b li n g s u n ti l
th e ag e o f 3 y ears d esp i te su p p lem en tal
feed i n g H o u p t an d B o y d 1 994) .
T am i n g an d ri d i n g P rzew alsk i s h o rses
cap tu red fro m th e w i ld w as at o n e ti m e
co n si d ered to b e p racti cally i m p o ssi b le
M o h r 1 971 ) . H o w ev er, E rn a M o h r refers
to a 6-m o n th -o ld P rzew alsk i h o rse th at
h ad b eco m e so far tam e th at i t w as easi ly
led an d w en t q u i etly u p th e g ran i te stai r-
case to th e seco n d sto ry o f th e castle, w as
led i n to a ro o m an d allo w ed th e 78 y ear
o ld so n . . . to si t o n h i s b ack M o h r 1 971 ,
p . 69) . S h e also d escri b es h o w an u n tam -
ab le w i ld stalli o n w as tam ed an d ri d d en :
I n A sk an i a N o v a h o w ev er, h e fo u n d h i s
m aster an d w i th i n a m o n th h e w as b ei n g
ri d d en b y h i s so u th R u ssi an g ro o m an d o n
th e co m m an d w o u ld li e d o w n li k e a C i r-
cassi an h o rse M o h r 1 971 , p . 69) .
T h i s h as i m p o rtan t i m p li cati o n s fo r th e-
o ri es co n cern i n g early h o rse tam i n g . I t
seem s li k ely th at b efo re th e av ai lab i li ty o f
d o m esti cated m ares to fo ster cap tu red
fo als, th ere w o u ld h av e b een b o th lo w er
an d u p p er li m i ts to th e ag es at w h i ch tam -
i n g w o u ld h av e b een su ccessfu l. A lth o u g h
v ery few d ata relev an t to th i s q u esti o n
seem to b e av ai lab le, th e lo w er li m i t m i g h t
h av e b een at aro u n d th e ag e o f 2 m o n th s.
W e can o n ly sp ecu late ab o u t a p o ssi b le
u p p er li m i t o n th e b asi s o f co m m en ts i n
th e li teratu re referri n g to th e d i f cu lty o r
i m p o ssi b i li ty o f tam i n g ad u lts M o h r 1 971 ) .
H o w ev er, o th er facto rs, w h i ch w o u ld also
h av e b een cri ti cal, i n clu d e th e sk i lls o f th e
cap to r an d th e p erso n ali ty o f th e h o rse.
2.1.1.2. Taming North American feral
horses. S o m e p arallels b etw een cen tral
E u rasi an an d N o rth A m eri can ab o ri g i n al
h o rse cap tu re an d tam i n g tech n i q u es are
p arti cu larly i n teresti n g b ecau se th ey su g -
g est th at certai n asp ects o f th e h u m an
h o rse relati o n sh i p are n o t cu ltu re-b o u n d ,
b u t are rath er m ed i ated b y b o th sp eci es
n atu ral p attern s o f b eh av i o r i n a m u ch
m o re fu n d am en tal w ay . F o r exam p le, ac-
co rd i n g to E w ers 1 955) , n o rth ern P lai n s
p eo p les su ch as th e B lack fo o t an d th e
C ree w ere n o t v ery sk i lled at tam i n g m u s-
tan g s, th e N o rth A m eri can feral h o rses.
M o st o f th e few ad u lt feral h o rses cap -
tu red b y th em d i ed after th ey reach ed
cam p . H o w ev er, so m e co lts an d y earli n g s
w ere cau g h t b y h o rse m ed i ci n e m en ,
sp eci ali st feral h o rse tam ers, w h o se tam -
i n g tech n i q u e w as d escri b ed as fo llo w s:
A m an w h o p o ssessed h o rse m ed i ci n e fo r u se i n
catch i n g w i ld h o rses ru b b ed i t o n h i s h an d s, feet,
an d ro p e. T h en h e ci rcled th e w i ld h o rse u p w i n d
so th at th e o d o u r o f th e m ed i ci n e w o u ld b e carri ed
37 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
to th e n o stri ls o f th e w i ld o n e. W h en th e w i ld
h o rse sm elled th e m ed i ci n e i t cam e to h i m . H e
ro p ed i t b y th e fro n t feet an d th rew i t d o w n . O n ly
h o rse m ed i ci n e m en w ere sai d to h ave h ad su ccess
i n cap tu ri n g w i ld h o rses. E w ers 1 955, p . 274)
A cco rd i n g to E w ers, th e so u th ern an d
cen tral P lai n s tri b es w ere m u ch m o re
sk i lled th an th e n o rth ern tri b es at cap tu r-
i n g m u stan g s. T h e fo rm er h ad m o re an d
earli er exp eri en ce o f h o rses an d th ey h ad
b i g g er h erd s, w h i ch su g g ests th at th ey
w ere m o re fam i li ar w i th h o rse b eh av i o r.
H o w ev er, all th e P lai n s g ro u p s w ere i n
ag reem en t th at m u stan g s w ere d i f cu lt to
catch . A cco rd i n g to G eo rg e C atli n :
T h ere i s n o o th er an i m al o n th e p rai ri es so w i ld
an d so sag aci o u s as th e h o rse; an d n o n e o th er so
d i f cu lt to co m e u p w i th . S o rem ark ab ly k een i s
th ei r ey e, th at th ey w i ll g en erally ru n at th e
si g h t, w h en th ey are a m i le d i stan t; b ei n g , n o
d o u b t, ab le to d i sti n g u i sh th e ch aracter o f th e
en em y th at i s ap p ro ach i n g w h en at th at d i s-
tan ce; an d w h en i n m o ti o n , w i ll seld o m sto p
sh o rt o f th ree o r fo u r m i les. C atli n 1 841 , V o l. 1 ,
p . 57) .
T h e tw o m ai n to o ls u sed fo r cap tu ri n g
feral h o rses w ere th e lasso w i th a ru n n i n g
lo o p an d th e lasso lo o p xed to a lo n g
sti ck , v ery m u ch li k e th e M o n g o l arkan
E w ers 1 955) . I n co n ju n cti o n w i th an i n ti -
m ate k n o w led g e o f h o rse b eh av i o r an d a
t, w ell-trai n ed m o u n t, th ese co u ld b e
u sed su ccessfu lly to cap tu re an d b reak
m u stan g s C atli n 1 841 ; E w ers 1 955; G ri n -
n ell 1 923; Jam es 1 823; W allace an d H o eb el
1 952) . A n u m b er o f m eth o d s o f cap tu ri n g
h o rses h av e b een d escri b ed i n th e eth n o -
g rap h i c li teratu re:
1 . C o rralli n g : T h i s m eth o d w as u sed ex-
ten si v ely b y th e K i o w a an d o ccasi o n ally
b y th e C o m m an ch e
6
an d C h ey en n e. W al-
lace an d H o eb el 1 952) sp ecu late th at i t
co u ld h av e ev o lv ed o u t o f an telo p e an d
b i so n h u n ts, b u t th e sam e tech n i q u e w as
also u sed b y th e S p an i sh fo r h u n ti n g
h o rses. O n o n e o ccasi o n i n 1 852, 400 to 500
h o rses w ere d ri v en i n to an en clo su re b y
th e C o m m an ch es W allace an d H o eb el
1 952) . G ri n n ell g i v es a d etai led d escri p -
ti o n o f a co rral ap p aren tly u sed b y th e
C h ey en n e:
[I ]n th e y ear 1 836, m em b ers o f C h ey en n e w ar
p arti es . . . i n w h at i s n o w O k lah o m a, fo u n d a
g reat co rral w h i ch h ad b een u sed fo r catch i n g
h o rses. T h i s p en w as si tu ated i n a p ark o r o p en -
i n g i n th e b lack -jack ti m b er . . . T h i s p en w as n o t
ci rcu lar i n sh ap e, b u t w as o v al, th e o p en i n g b e-
i n g at o n e en d . T h e fen ce . . . w as a sto ck ad e
fo rm ed o f b lack -jack p o sts set o n en d i n th e
g ro u n d an d clo se to g eth er. O n th e o u tsi d e o f th e
fen ce b ru sh an d th e li m b s o f trees w ere p i led
ag ai n st th e sto ck ad e. T h e w i n g s o f u n d erb ru sh
w ere h eap ed u p h i g h an d w i d e, so th at a h o rse
co u ld n ei th er see th ro u g h n o r ju m p o v er
th em . . .
. . . th e K i o w as exp lai n ed to th e C h ey en n es th e
p u rp o se an d th e m an n er o f u se o f th e stru ctu re.
O f th e h o rses d ri v en i n to th i s co rral th e b est
y o u n g o n es w ere ro p ed an d d rag g ed o u t to b e
u sed , w h i le th e o ld er an d o th erw i se less u sefu l
an i m als w ere b u tch ered fo r th ei r esh an d
h i d es. T h e K i o w as u sed h o rse-h i d e fo r all p u r-
p o ses fo r w h i ch th e sk i n s o f larg e an i m als are
em p lo y ed . G ri n n ell 1 923, p . 292)
2. T h e C h ase: A ll o th er th i n g s b ei n g
eq u al a m an o n h o rseb ack i s n o m atch fo r
a free-ru n n i n g m u stan g . T h erefo re, th e
I n d i an s d ev elo p ed v ari ati o n s o n th e ch ase
th em e th at w o u ld en ab le th em to cap tu re
stro n g , h ealth y an i m als.
a. C h asi n g an i m als i n a w eak en ed
state: T h e eth n o g rap h i c li teratu re i s n o t
alw ay s clear ab o u t d etai ls o f h o w h o rses
w ere cap tu red . H o w ev er, th e m o st w i d e-
sp read m eth o d seem s to h av e i n v o lv ed
ru n n i n g d o w n th e m u stan g s o n h o rseb ack
an d d ro p p i n g a n o o se o v er th ei r h ead .
T h i s m eth o d w as em p lo y ed b y th e M an -
d an an d th e O sag e C atli n 1 841 ) , th e C o m -
m an ch e W allace an d H o eb el 1 952) , an d
th e C h ey en n e G ri n n ell 1 923) . A s o b -
serv ed b y W allace an d H o eb el, all o th er
th i n g s b ei n g eq u al, th i s m eth o d co u ld b e
su ccessfu l o n ly fo r w eak an i m als, fo r ex-
am p le, fo als an d p reg n an t o r su ck li n g
m ares, si n ce a stro n g h o rse sh o u ld b e ab le
to ru n faster th an a h o rse an d ri d er. H o w -
ev er, th i n g s w ere n o t alw ay s eq u al. F o r
exam p le, u si n g a w ell-fed ri d i n g h o rse
g av e th e cap to r an ad v an tag e i n th e w i n ter
38 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
o r early sp ri n g w h en m o st feral h o rses
w ere i n p o o r co n d i ti o n . O n th e o th er
h an d , a t h o rse co u ld b e u sed to ru n
d o w n fat h o rses i n su m m er o r to ch ase
w aterlo g g ed h o rses ju st leav i n g th e w a-
terh o le W allace an d H o eb el 1 952; G ri n -
n ell 1 923) .
b . C h asi n g i n relay s: T h i s m eth o d w as
exp en si v e i n term s o f en erg y co n su m p -
ti o n , b u t w o u ld h av e resu lted i n th e cap -
tu re o f th e v ery b est an i m als, i n clu d i n g
stalli o n s. I t w as u sed b y th e O sag e Jam es
1 823) an d th e C o m m an ch e W allace an d
H o eb el 1 952) .
I n cap tu ri n g th e h ard -to -tak e stalli o n s . . . th e
b est w ay w as to stalk th em w i th a team o f co -
o p erati n g h u n ters. E ach h erd ten d ed to m o v e
ab o u t w i th i n a li m i ted ran g e o f terri to ry ; w h en
u sh ed , i t w as li k ely to trav el i n a ci rcle, retu rn -
i n g ev en tu ally to o r n ear th e sp o t w h ere i t w as
o ri g i n ally fo u n d . T o acco m p li sh th i s en d , o n e o r
m o re h o rsem en k ep t th e h erd co n ti n u o u sly o n
th e m o v e w i th o u t allo w i n g i t ei th er to eat o r to
d ri n k . . . th e stalk ers, b y rem ai n i n g o n th e i n -
si d e o f th e ci rcle, trav elled a m u ch sh o rter d i s-
tan ce th an th e h erd . W h en th ei r o w n m o u n ts
w eari ed , th e ri d ers w ere rep laced b y o th ers o r
w ere su p p li ed w i th fresh m o u n ts. T h i s p ro ce-
d u re w as co n ti n u ed w i th o u t let-u p fo r tw o o r
th ree d ay s o r u n ti l th e h erd b ecam e exh au sted ,
w h en a n u m b er o f ri d ers o n fresh m o u n ts ro d e
i n an d lasso ed th ei r p i ck o f th e w i ld h o rses.
W allace an d H o eb el 1 952, p . 44)
c. T h e su rro u n d : O n th e o p en p lai n s,
m u stan g s w o u ld b e su rro u n d ed b y a
g ro u p o f ri d ers. W h en a h o rse w o u ld try to
b reak aw ay , a n o o se w as d ro p p ed o v er i ts
h ead W allace an d H o eb el 1 952) .
d . C h asi n g o n fo o t: A cco rd i n g to C atli n ,
th e C h ey en n e, w h o cap tu red m o re m u s-
tan g s th an an y o th er tri b e, freq u en tly
u sed th i s m eth o d . A h o rsem an w o u ld
start o u t b y p lu n g i n g i n to a b an d o f w i ld
h o rses, fo rci n g o n e an i m al o u t o f th e
g ro u p , w h ereu p o n h e w o u ld d i sm o u n t
fro m h i s o w n an i m al an d set o u t o n fo o t
after th e p an i ck ed i n d i v i d u al. T h i s i s an -
o th er m eth o d th at exp lo i ts th e h o rse s ten -
d en cy to ci rcle to th e left w h en b ei n g fo l-
lo w ed :
T h e I n d i an seei n g th e d i recti o n i n w h i ch th e
h o rse i s lean i n g , k n o w s ju st ab o u t th e p o i n t
w h ere th e an i m al w i ll sto p , an d steers i n a
strai g h t li n e to i t, w h ere th ey arri v e n early at th e
sam e i n stan t, th e h o rse h av i n g ru n a m i le, w h i le
h i s p u rsu er h as g o n e b u t h alf o r th ree-q u arters
o f th e d i stan ce. C atli n 1 875, p . 1 1 3) .
H e w o u ld th u s k eep i t o n th e m o v e u n ti l i t
w as so exh au sted th at h e co u ld th ro w a
lasso o v er i ts h ead .
3. C ap tu ri n g w i th d eco y s: B o th th e
C h ey en n e an d th e C o m m an ch es targ eted
b ach elo r g ro u p s b y sen d i n g o u t a few o ld ,
g en tle m ares as d eco y s W allace an d
H o eb el 1 952; G ri n n ell, 1 923) . A cco rd i n g to
G ri n n ell, after a ti m e th e h erd co u ld b e
ap p ro ach ed , d ri v en to g eth er, an d p erh ap s
m an y o f th e y o u n g h o rses cau g h t G ri n -
n ell 1 923, p . 295) .
2.1.1.3. Taming captured mustangs. S o m e
o f th e eth n o g rap h i c rep o rts are rath er
self-co n trad i cto ry i n th at th ey su g g est, o n
th e o n e h an d , th at tam i n g feral h o rses w as
v ery d i f cu lt w h i le, o n th e o th er h an d ,
th ey d escri b e th e p ro cess as i f i t w ere v ery
si m p le. F o r exam p le, reg ard i n g th e ab -
o ri g i n al i n h ab i tan ts o f th e G reat P lai n s,
C atli n states th at S carcely a m an i n th ese
reg i o n s i s to b e fo u n d , w h o i s n o t th e
o w n er o f o n e o r m o re o f th ese h o rses; an d
i n m an y i n stan ces o f ei g h t, ten o r ev en
tw en ty , w h i ch h e v alu es as h i s o w n p er-
so n al p ro p erty C atli n 1 841 a, p . 1 42) .
M o reo v er, w i th reg ard to th e acq u i si ti o n
o f a m u stan g b y a F ren ch m an , rai sed i n an
O sag e v i llag e, h e rem ark s: th e w h o le
th i n g , th e cap tu re, an d b reak i n g , all h av -
i n g b een acco m p li sh ed w i th i n th e sp ace o f
o n e h o u r, o u r u su al an d d ai ly h alt at m i d -
d ay C atli n 1 841 b , p . 60) . T h i s p arad o x i s
p artly exp lai n ed b y th e d i v erse o ri g i n s o f
th e so u rces referred to h ere, b u t p erh ap s
also b y th e talen t th at exp erts h av e to
m ak e th e m o st d i f cu lt acti v i ti es ap p ear
si m p le. I n o th er w o rd s, i t i s p o ssi b le th at
th e E u ro p ean o b serv ers o v erstated th ei r
39 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
u n d erstan d i n g o f th e ev en ts tak i n g p lace
aro u n d th em . T h i s i g n o ran ce i s w ell i llu s-
trated b y C atli n s acco u n t o f h i s o w n m i s-
b eg o tten attem p t to cap tu re a feral h o rse:
[W ]e w o u ld try th e exp eri m en t o f creasi n g
o n e . . . w h i ch i s d o n e b y sh o o ti n g th em th ro u g h
th e g ri stle o n th e to p o f th e n eck , w h i ch stu n s
th em so th at th ey fall, an d are secu red w i th
h o b b les o n th e feet; after w h i ch th ey ri se ag ai n
w i th o u t fatal i n ju ry . T h i s i s a p racti ce o ften re-
so rted to b y exp ert h u n ters. . . . M y fri en d Jo e
an d I . . . h av i n g b o th lev elled o u r p i eces at th e
w i th ers o f a n o b le, n e-lo o k i n g i ro n g rey , w e
p u lled tri g g er, an d th e p o o r creatu re fell. . . .W e
ad v an ced sp eed i ly to h i m , an d h ad th e m o st
i n exp ressi b le m o rti cati o n . . . to n d th at o n e o f
o u r sh o ts h ad b ro k en th e p o o r creatu re s n eck ,
an d th at h e w as q u i te d ead . C atli n 1 841 b , p . 58)
D esp i te i ts sh o rtco m i n g s, i t i s u sefu l to
co n si d er so m e o f th e d o cu m en tati o n re-
ferri n g to th e p ro cess o f b reak i n g an d
tam i n g feral h o rses. A cco rd i n g to C atli n ,
th e affect o f th e lasso o n th e h o rse w as to
co n stri ct i ts ai r p assag e u n ti l i t fell o v er,
w h ereu p o n i ts cap to r h o b b led i ts fo refeet
to g eth er, tted a h alter w i th a n o o se th at
ti ed u n d er i ts jaw , an d lo o sen ed th e lasso
so th at i t co u ld b reath e. T h en ,
b y a g reat m an y u seless stru g g les to ri se, th e
h o rse rem ai n i n g y et i n i ts si tti n g p o stu re, an d
th e I n d i an ap p ro ach i n g n earer an d n earer i n ch
b y i n ch ) to i ts n o se, o n th e sh o rten ed h alter, an d
y elli n g as lo u d as h e can , th e an i m al s fear i s
i n creased to th e h i g h est d eg ree. T h e I n d i an sti ll
ad v an ces n earer o n th e ti g h ten ed h alter, an d at
len g th b eg i n s p atti n g th e h o rse o n th e n o se, an d
g rad u ally sli p p i n g h i s h an d o v er i ts ey es, b eg i n s
b reath i n g i n i ts n o stri ls, th ei r n o ses b ei n g to -
g eth er.
A fter a few b reath s exch an g ed i n th i s m an n er,
th e relaxati o n o f th e h o rse s m u scles an d i ts
o th er m o ti o n s, sh o w th at i ts fears are at an en d
th at i t reco g n i ses a fri en d i n stead o f a fo e, i n i ts
cap to r; an d th i s co m p ro m i se b ei n g effected , th e
I n d i an i s seen stro k i n g d o w n i ts m an e, an d o th -
erw i se caressi n g i t; an d i n fteen o r tw en ty m i n -
u tes h e i s seen ri d i n g i t q u i etly o ff!
. . . th e excess o f fati g u e, o f fri g h t, an d actu al
p ai n , fo llo w ed b y so o th i n g an d k i n d n ess, seem s
to d i sarm th e sp i ri ted an i m al, an d to attach i t at
o n ce, i n a m y steri o u s w ay , to i ts n ew m aster.
C atli n 1 875, p . 1 09 1 1 0)
I n teresti n g ly th i s m eth o d em p lo y s th e
sam e k i n d o f p sy ch o lo g i cal ap p ro ach as
th at recen tly d ev elo p ed b y M o n ty R o b ert
i n w h i ch th e safe sp ace o r co m fo rt zo n e,
o ccu p i ed b y th e g en tle b u t d o m i n an t
trai n er, i s o p p o sed to th e d an g ero u s sp ace
aw ay fro m h i m , i n w h i ch th e h o rse feels
th reaten ed an d i so lated B ay ley an d M ax-
w ell 1 996) . T h i s trai n i n g m eth o d tak es ad -
v an tag e b o th o f th e h o rse s i n sti n cti v e
i g h t resp o n se an d o f i ts n atu ral so ci ab i l-
i ty .
O n e C o m m an ch e an d C h eyen n e m eth o d
o f tam i n g i n v o lv ed ty i n g th e ch o k ed cap -
ti v e to th e tai l o f a g en tle m are W allace
an d H o eb el 1 952; G ri n n ell 1 923) :
T h ree o r fo u r d ay s later . . . i t w as set free, an d
th ereafter fo llo w ed h er ab o u t w h erev er sh e
w en t. T h e m are w as th en u sed to tam e an o th er
h o rse, an d i f th e p arty w as o u t fo r a lo n g ti m e
so m e m ares m i g h t h av e ei g h t o r ten cap tu red
h o rses fo llo w i n g th em ab o u t. T h ese w i ld h o rses
w ere read i ly b ro k en to th e sad d le. W h i le th ey
w ere tai led to th e m are, th e o w n er w o u ld o c-
casi o n ally g o u p to th e m are, p at h er fo r a li ttle
w h i le, an d th en p ass o n to th e y o u n g h o rse,
h an d li n g i t an d g en tli n g i t. I n th i s w ay i t b ecam e
accu sto m ed to th e si g h t an d sm ell o f m an , an d
n o lo n g er feared h i m . S o m eti m es after th e h o rse
h ad b eco m e so m ew h at g en tle, a y o u n g m an
w o u ld sp ri n g o n i ts b ack an d at o n ce ju m p o ff
ag ai n . T h e w i ld h o rse so o n learn ed th at i t w as
n o t to b e h u rt. T h e m an w h o m o u n ted w o u ld
p resen tly si t o n th e h o rse fo r a li ttle w h i le, an d
th en th e o ld m are m i g h t b e led ab o u t b y so m e-
o n e w h i le th e y o u n g m an w as si tti n g o n th e w i ld
h o rse s b ack . T h u s th e w o rk o f b reak i n g i t to ri d e
w as n o t lo n g . G ri n n ell 1 923, p p . 294 295)
U n fo rtu n ately , n o su rv i v al rates are
av ai lab le fo r an y o f th ese m eth o d s. B u t
so m e w ere, ap p aren tly , b ru tal en o u g h to
exp lai n th e d i f cu lty so m e g ro u p s exp eri -
en ced i n k eep i n g cap ti v es ali v e. O th er rel-
ev an t facto rs co u ld w ell h av e b een th e
ag e, sex, co n sti tu ti o n , an d p erso n ali ty o f
th e h o rse as w ell as th e sk i ll o f th e cap to r.
2.1.2. ModellingHorseUse
D u ri n g h i sto ri cal ti m es b o th th e N o rth
A m eri can P lai n s tri b es an d th e M o n g o ls
40 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
u sed th e arkan, lasso , o r h erd d ri v e to cap -
tu re w i ld o r feral h o rses to eat o r to tam e.
H o rses tam i n g w as reg ard ed as a sk i ll
m o st su ccessfu lly carri ed o u t b y sp eci al-
i sts, w h o se m o st i m p o rtan t to o l w as th ei r
i n ti m ate k n o w led g e o f h o rse b eh av i o r. O n
th i s b asi s I w o u ld li k e to p ro p o se a p o ssi -
b le scen ari o fo r th e d ev elo p m en t o f h o rse
h u sb an d ry .
A s a w o rk i n g h y p o th esi s, I w o u ld li k e to
su g g est th at h o rse tam i n g p ro b ab ly rst
aro se as a b y -p ro d u ct o f h o rse h u n ti n g fo r
m eat. O rp h an ed fo als, cap tu red b etw een
th e ag es o f p erh ap s 2 m o n th s an d 1 y ear,
o r p o ssi b ly so m ew h at later, w o u ld so m e-
ti m es h av e b een ad o p ted an d rai sed as
p ets. E v en tu ally , an d p erh ap s rep eated ly ,
th e d i sco v ery w as m ad e th at th ese p ets
co u ld b e p u t to w o rk . T h i s k n o w led g e
co u ld h av e b een acq u i red an d lo st m an y
ti m es fro m th e P lei sto cen e o n w ard . B u t i t
w as, ap p aren tly , o n ly d u ri n g th e H o lo -
cen ep o ssi b ly b etw een th e N eo li th i c an d
th e E arly B ro n ze A g eth at i t b eg an to
i n u en ce h u m an so ci al d ev elo p m en ts.
I n i ti a l l y th e d i f cu l ti e s i n v o l v e d i n
k eep i n g cap tu red w i ld h o rses ali v e w o u ld
h av e set li m i ts to th ei r i m p act as w o rk
an i m als o n h u m an so ci ety . F u rth erm o re,
co n si d eri n g th e p ro b lem s en co u n tered b y
m o d ern co llecto rs try i n g to b reed P rzew -
alsk i s h o rses, i t seem s li k ely th at h o rse-
k e e p i n g w o u ld h a v e h a d to h a v e b e e n
re l a ti v e l y a d v a n ce d b e fo re co n tro l l e d
b reed i n g , an d th u s d o m esti cati o n , w o u ld
h av e b een p o ssi b le: F ai lu re to co n si d er
th e ty p i cal so ci al o rg an i zati o n o f th e sp e-
ci es can resu lt i n p ro b lem s su ch as p aci n g ,
excessi v e rates o f ag g ressi o n , i m p o ten ce
an d i n fan ti ci d e B o y d an d H o u p t 1 994, p .
222) . T o b reed w i ld h o rses su ccessfu lly i n
cap ti v i ty , th ei r en v i ro n m en tal, n u tri ti o n al,
an d so ci al req u i rem en ts m u st b e m et:
I n zo o s, ju v en i le m ale P rzew alsk i s h o rses
sh o u ld b e left i n th ei r n atal b an d s fo r at least a
y ear so th at th ey can o b serv e m ati n g b eh av i o u r.
T h ey sh o u ld b e p laced i n b ach elo r h erd s w h en
rem o v ed fro m th e n atu ral b an d , an d n o t g i v en
h arem s u n ti l th ey are at least fo u r o r v e y ears o f
ag e. T h e rst m ares p laced w i th th e stalli o n
sh o u ld b e y o u n g er th an h e an d th e h arem si ze
sh o u ld b e k ep t sm all u n ti l th e stalli o n g ai n s ag e
an d exp eri en ce. B o y d an d H o u p t 1 994, p . 226)
T h at cap tu ri n g w i ld h o rses an d steali n g
ta m e d o r d o m e sti ca te d o n e s w e re re -
g ard ed b y th e P lai n s tri b es as p referab le
to b reed i n g th em su p p o rts th e scen ari o
p ro p o sed h ere. I f i t i s co rrect, i t seem s
li k ely th at th ere w o u ld h av e b een a rela-
ti v ely lo n g p eri o d w h en n ew h o rses w o u ld
h av e b een recru i ted fro m w i ld p o p u la-
ti o n s. T h i s co u ld h av e b een carri ed o u t b y
trap p i n g , d ri v i n g , an d ch asi n g , as d o cu -
m en ted fo r th e M o n g o ls an d N o rth A m er-
i can P lai n s tri b es.
T h i s lead s m e to h y p o th esi ze th at h o rse
d o m esti cati o n co u ld h av e tak en a rela-
ti v ely lo n g ti m e to d ev elo p an d m i g h t w ell
h av e d ep en d ed o n th e tam i n g o f i n d i v i d -
u als p red i sp o sed to b reed i n cap ti v i ty .
H o rse d o m esti cati o n w o u ld th u s, i n a
sen se, h av e b een i n i ti ated b y th e h o rses
th em selv es. A lso si g n i can t i s th e p o ssi -
b i li ty th at h u m an u n d erstan d i n g o f h o rse
b eh av i o r h ad d ev elo p ed to su ch a d eg ree
th at h o rses n ally co u ld b reed i n cap ti v -
i ty . P erh ap s th e m o st li k ely scen ari o i s
th at th e h u m an an d eq u i n e p arts o f th e
e q u a ti o n w o u ld h a v e e v o lv e d to g e th e r.
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h o rse b re e d i n g
w o u ld , o f co u rse, h av e h ad p arti cu lar si g -
n i can ce o u tsi d e th e n atu ral ran g e o f th e
w i ld h o rse.
2.2. An Ethnoarchaeological
Investigation of Equine Pastoralism
S ch o lars fro m R u ssi a an d o th er p arts o f
E astern E u ro p e h av e carri ed o u t i m -
m en sely v alu ab le eth n o g rap h i c research
o n cen tral E u rasi an eq u i n e p asto rali sm .
H o w ev er, th i s w o rk d o es n o t u su ally d i -
rectly ad d ress th e q u esti o n s o f p arti cu lar
relev an ce to th e stu d y o f th e o ri g i n s o f
h o rse d o m esti cati o n . T h e p ro ject to b e
d i scu ssed b elo w h as b een d esi g n ed sp e-
ci cally to d eal w i th i ssu es co n n ected w i th
th at p ro b lem . I t p resen ts so m e resu lts
fro m a n o n g o i n g e th n o a rch a e o l o g i ca l
41 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
stu d y o f eq u i n e p asto rali sm o n th e E u r-
asi an step p e. T h e d ata h av e ari sen p ri n ci -
p ally i n th e co u rse o f v e i n terv i ew s, co n -
d u cte d b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 2 , w i th
p eo p le i n v o lv ed w i th h o rse h u sb an d ry i n
M o n g o li a an d n o rth ern K azak h stan i n th e
recen t p ast o r p resen t.
2.2.1. TheInterviews
A lth o u g h th e i n terv i ew s co v ered all as-
p e cts o f h o rse h u sb a n d ry fro m th o se
related to ri d i n g an d tracti o n to th o se co n -
n ected w i th m i lk , m eat, an d h i d e p ro d u c-
ti o n th i s p a p e r co n ce n tra te s o n th o se
asso ci ated w i th p o p u lati o n stru ctu re. I t at-
tem p ts to d em o n strate h o w certai n ar-
ch aeo zo o lo g i cally v i si b le ch aracteri sti cs o f
h o rse h u sb an d ry , su ch as ag e an d sex
stru ctu re, t i n to th e o v erall p i ctu re o f
p asto ral li fe. I t also g i v es so m e i n d i cati o n
o f th e v ari ab i li ty o f p o ssi b le b eh av i o rs re-
lated to eq u i n e p asto rali sm . A lth o u g h th e
d ata co llected are n o t g en erally ap p ro p ri -
ate fo r d i rect tran slati o n i n to li fe tab les,
th ey can b e u sed fo r th e d ev elo p m en t o f
m o d els an d i n g en eral co m p ari so n s.
T h e w o rd traditional i s u sed h ere p ri -
m a ri l y to d e scri b e p re co l l e cti v i za ti o n
m eth o d s o f h o rse h u sb an d ry . C o llecti v i za-
ti o n to o k p laceo r p erh ap s m o re si g n i -
can tly , to o k h o ld i n d i fferen t p laces at
d i fferen t ti m es. I n n o rth ern K azak h stan i t
i s d ated to th e 1 930s, b u t i t w as n o t i m -
p o sed o n M o n g o li a u n ti l 1 955. S i n ce m y
i n fo rm an ts acco u n ts are en ti rely d ep en -
d en t o n th ei r m em o ri es, th e earli est p e-
ri o d d i scu ssed h ere w i ll b e th at o f th ei r
ch i ld h o o d o r as far b ack as th ei r p aren ts
rem i n i scen ces. T h u s, traditional, as d e-
n ed h ere, exten d s fro m th e en d o f th e
1 9th cen tu ry to th e 1 930s i n th e case o f
K azak h stan an d to th e 1 950s i n th e case o f
M o n g o li a.
2.2.1.1. Background information (Table
2). T h e rst tw o i n terv i ew s w ere carri ed
o u t i n C am b ri d g e i n 1 989 an d 1 990. T h e
i n fo rm an ts, D am d i n an d Jam b alsu ren , w ere
v i si ti n g sch o lars at th e M o n g o li an an d I n -
n er A si an S tu d i es U n i t C am b ri d g e) .
D am d i n , a sen i o r lectu rer i n th e D ep art-
m en t o f F o rei g n L an g u ag es U lan B ato r
U n i v ersi ty , M o n g o li a) , g rew u p o n th e
step p e i n th e extrem e eastern p art o f
M o n g o li a, i n th e Jarg alan t d i stri ct o f th e
D o rn o d p ro v i n ce d u ri n g th e late 1 930s
an d 1 940s. H e w as fro m a fam i ly o f p asto -
ral n o m ad s b elo n g i n g to th e K h alk h a clan .
S i n ce co llecti v i zati o n d i d n o t tak e p lace i n
D o rn o d u n ti l 1 955, th e w ay o f li fe h e d e-
scri b es w as sti ll rath er trad i ti o n al. I m p o r-
tan t ch aracteri sti cs o f th i s li festy le i n clu d e
th e ab sen ce o f p erm an en t d w elli n g s th ey
li v ed i n felt ten ts, k n o w n as y u rts) , an d
y ear-ro u n d m i g rati o n s, seaso n al i n ch ar-
acter, i n search o f g razi n g fo r th ei r h erd s
o f h o rses, sh eep , g o ats, cattle, an d cam els.
Jam b alsu ren A cad em y o f S ci en ces, I n -
sti tu te o f L an g u ag e, U lan B ato r, M o n g o -
li a) g rew u p i n th e m o u n tai n o u s reg i o n o f
cen tral M o n g o li a d u ri n g th e 1 950s. H i s fa-
th er w as a carp en ter an d h i s fam i ly w as
settled . U n ti l th e ag e o f 1 6 y ears Jam b al-
su ren w as a y ak h erd er. B ecau se h i s fath er
TABLE 2
Informants Background Information
I n fo rm an t L o cati o n E co sy stem
H u sb an d ry
ty p e
E co n o m i c
sy stem
D am d i n E . M o n g o li a S tep p e T rad i ti o n al N o m ad i c
Jam b alsu ren C . M o n g o li a M o u n tai n s T rad i ti o n al S ettled
M u rsab aev N . K azak h stan F o reststep p e M o d ern R an ch i n g
S h av ard ak N . K azak h stan F o reststep p e M o d ern S ettled
K o zak h m eto v N . K azak h stan F o reststep p e T rad i ti o n al S em i -n o m ad i c
42 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
w as a craftsm an an d b ecau se o f th e m o u n -
tai n o u s terrai n , h i s fam i ly d i d n o t h av e
m an y h o rses. H e, th erefo re, h ad o n ly a
li m i ted k n o w led g e o f h o rse h u sb an d ry .
T h e n ext th ree i n terv i ew s to o k p lace i n
1 992 i n th e fo reststep p e zo n e o f n o rth ern
K azak h stan , w h ere th e i n fo rm an ts li v e.
D astan C h ali evi ch M u rzab aev, p resi d en t
o f th e trad e u n i o n at th e K i ro v so vk h o z i n
th e D zh am b u l reg i o n o f N o rth K azak h stan ,
d i scu ssed co n tem p o rary h o rse ran ch i n g at
th e state farm w h ere h e w o rk ed .
Y u ri i I v a n o v i ch S h a v a rd a k w o rk s fo r
th e B u rlu k sk i i so v k h o z V o lo d a ro v sk i i
d i stri ct, N o rth K azak h stan ) . H e h erd s all
th e h o rses fro m N i k o lsk o e, a v i llag e n ear
th e arch aeo lo g i cal si te o f B o tai . M o st o f
th e h o rses are o w n ed p ri v ately b y th e K a-
zak h i n h ab i tan ts o f th e v i llag e, b u t so m e
b elo n g to th e so v k h o z. S h av ard ak g rew u p
i n N i k o lsk o e an d , alth o u g h h e i s R u ssi an ,
h e w as trai n ed to h erd an d b u tch er h o rses
u si n g a m i xtu re o f m o d ern , th at i s, p o st-
co llecti v i zati o n , an d trad i ti o n al K azak h
m eth o d s. C o llecti v i zati o n to o k p lace i n
th i s reg i o n d u ri n g th e 1 930s.
M am et K o zh ak h m eto v i ch K o zh ak h m e-
to v , b o rn i n 1 91 5, i s a fo rm er h erd sm en ,
th en sch o o lteach er, an d n ally , at th e ti m e
o f th e i n terv i ew , a p en si o n er. H e w as b o rn
an d b ro u g h t u p at B o tai au l
7
K aratalsk i i
so v k h o z, V o lo d aro v sk i i d i stri ct, N o rth K a-
zak h stan ) . W i th th e h elp o f E sly am b ey
Z ak i r y an o v i ch Z ak i r y an o v , h i s relati v e
an d h ead m aster o f th e sch o o l i n N i k o ls-
k o e, h e d escri b ed h o rse h u sb an d ry as i t
w as i n h i s ch i ld h o o d , b efo re co llecti v i za-
ti o n . T h e p eo p le fro m B o tai au l are p er-
m an en tly settled n o w , b u t b efo re co llec-
ti v i zati o n th ey w ere sem i n o m ad i c. T h ey
sp en t th e co ld m o n th s o f th e y ear i n th e
p erm an en t d w elli n g s o f th e au l. I n th e
su m m er, h o w ev er, th ey m o v ed o n to th e
step p e. E ach h o u seh o ld h ad trad i ti o n al
ri g h ts to a p arti cu lar terri to ry an d to a p lo t
o f lan d w h ere th ey co u ld set th ei r y u rt
each y ear.
A relati v ely w i d e v ari ety o f eco sy stem s
step p e an d fo reststep p e) an d h u sb an d ry
strateg i es n o m ad i c, sem i -n o m ad i c, an d
settled ) are rep resen ted i n th ese i n ter-
v i ew s. T h e d i v ersi ty o f th e d ata g i v es
so m e i d ea o f th e ran g e o f p o ssi b le strate-
g i es av ai lab le to h o rse h erd ers i n th e
step p e an d fo reststep p e reg i o n s o f cen -
tral E u rasi a. I t i s h y p o th esi zed th at si m i -
lari ti es an d d i fferen ces ari si n g fro m th at
d i v ersi ty m i g h t h av e so m e v alu e i n elu ci -
d ati n g so m e o f th e fu n d am en tal elem en ts
o f eq u i n e p asto rali sm . O f co u rse, care
m u st b e tak en i n g en erali zi n g fro m su ch a
sm all sam p le. M o reo v er, th ro u g h o u t th e
m i llen n i a w av es o f ch an g e h av e rep eat-
ed ly sw ep t acro ss E u rasi a, d raw i n g p eo p le
to g eth er an d teari n g th em ap art, rem i n d -
i n g u s th at h i sto ry i s n o b i t p lay er i n th i s
sto ry .
2.2.1.2. Number of horses per household
(Table 3). G e n e ra l i z a ti o n s a b o u t th e
q u an ti ty o f h o rses i n settled h o u seh o ld s
are n o t v ery u sefu l, b u t i t i s q u i te i n terest-
i n g to co m p are g u res o b tai n ed fro m
D am d i n an d K o zh ak h m eto v co n cern i n g
th e p eri o d b efo re co llecti v i zati o n . T ak i n g
care n o t to read to o m u ch i n to a sam p le o f
2, i t d o es seem th at co n cep ts relati n g to
h erd si ze w ere v ery si m i lar fo r b o th th e
n o m ad i c M o n g o ls an d sem i -n o m ad i c K a-
zak h s i n terv i ew ed . T o carry o u t seaso n al
m i g rati o n s at least 1 0 h o rses w ere n eces-
sary . A n av erag e h o u seh o ld h ad ab o u t 20
to 40 an d a ri ch h o u seh o ld m i g h t h av e
k e p t h u n d re d s o r e v e n th o u sa n d s o f
h o rse s. T h e se g u re s a re i n li n e w i th
th o se g i v en b y K h azan o v 1 984) , T o k ta-
b aev 1 992) , an d K rad er 1 955) . S h av ard -
TABLE 3
Number of Horses per Household
I n fo rm an t M i n i m u m A v erag e M axi m u m
D am d i n 1 0 2030 1 00s1 000s
Jam b alsu ren 1 /p erso n 40 3000
M u rsab aev 1
S h av ard ak 1 1 0
K o zh ak h m eto v 41 0 40 300
43 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
ak s h erd co m p ri ses ab o u t 1 00 h o rses,
aro u n d 1 5 o f w h i ch b elo n g to th e state
farm , w h i le th e rest are p ri v ately o w n ed .
N early all th e K azak h h o u seh o ld s i n N i -
k o lsk o e h av e at least o n e h o rse, w h i le
so m e h av e as m an y as 1 0.
2.2.1.3. Populationstructure(Table4). T h e
n a tu ra l re p ro d u cti v e u n i t o f th e
h o rse i s th e fam i ly g ro u p , co m p o sed o f a
stalli o n , h i s m ares, an d th ei r y o u n g u p to
th e ag e o f ab o u t 2 to 4 y ears. I t m ay co m -
p ri se u p to 21 m ares, alth o u g h th e av erag e
i s u su ally m u ch less, p erh ap s aro u n d 2 to
4 an d u su ally n o m o re th an 5 o r 6 B erg er
1 986; K li n g el 1 969, 1 974; B o u m an an d B o u -
m an 1 994, H o u p t an d B o y d 1 994) . T h e stal-
li o n n o rm ally starts h i s o w n fam i ly g ro u p
at th e ag e o f 5 o r 6 y ears, alth o u g h h e
m i g h t n o t b e su ccessfu l at h o ld i n g o n e
ag ai n st attack s fro m o th er m ales u n ti l th e
ag e o f 7 K li n g el 1 969; B erg er 1 986; M o n -
fo rt et al. 1 994; H o u p t an d B o y d 1 994) . T h e
seco n d n atu ral ty p e o f h o rse so ci al u n i t i s
th e b ach elo r g ro u p , m ad e u p en ti rely o f
m ales fro m th e ag e o f 2 y ears u n ti l th ei r
d ep artu re fro m th e g ro u p to fo rm th ei r
o w n b an d s an d , less co m m o n ly , o f o ld er
m ales w h o h av e lo st th ei rs to stro n g er
stalli o n s. T h e b ach elo r g ro u p m ay co m -
p ri se u p to 1 5 i n d i v i d u als, b u t th e av erag e
i s m u ch lo w er, ab o u t 2 to 4 K li n g el 1 969;
B erg er 1 986) .
T h e stru ctu re o f th e w i ld h erd i s rele-
v an t h ere b ecau se all th e h o rse h u sb an d ry
p attern s, d escri b ed b y m y i n fo rm an ts, ex-
p lo i t to so m e exten t th e n atu ral ten d en cy
o f h o rses to stru ctu re th em selv es i n to
fam i ly g ro u p s. T h at i s, th e p asto rali st re-
p ro d u cti v e u n i t m i m i cs th e n atu ral fam i ly
g ro u p , co m p o sed o f a stalli o n , h i s m ares,
an d th ei r y o u n g . H o w ev er, th e stru ctu re
o f th e p asto rali st h erd i s, i n all cases, d i s-
to rted b y th e arti ci ally larg e n u m b er o f
m ares assi g n ed to each stalli o n . T h i s i s
m o st extrem e fo r th e n o n trad i ti o n al h erd -
ers. T h e rati o o f 1 stalli o n to 1 5 to 20 m ares
i s rem ark ab ly co n stan t i n th e trad i ti o n al
co n text. T h i s i s p arti cu larly i n teresti n g i n
th e li g h t o f an o b serv ati o n b y H o u p t an d
B o y d th at P rzew alsk i s stalli o n s w i th h ar-
em s o f th i rteen to ei g h teen fem ales h av e
b eco m e o v erly ag g ressi v e to w ard th ei r
m ares o r ap ath eti c ab o u t b reed i n g B o y d
an d H o u p t 1 994, p . 226) . T h at th e d o m esti c
m are:stalli o n rati o i s o n ly a li ttle g reater
th an th e P rzew alsk i rati o , attests b o th to
th e co n si sten cy o f h o rse b eh av i o r an d to
th e h erd ers k n o w led g e. G eld i n g s are th e
d o m esti c eq u i v alen t o f eq u i n e b ach elo rs.
A ll m ales su rp lu s to b reed i n g req u i re-
m en ts are castrated .
I n th e M o n g o li an cases all ag e an d sex
classes g raze m o re o r less to g eth er. I n
D am d i n s p asto ral n o m ad i c exam p le, th e
g eld i n g s g raze i n th ei r n atal fam i ly
g ro u p s. A cco rd i n g to Jam b alsu ren , g eld -
i n g s g raze to g eth er n ear th e fam i ly g ro u p
b u t ap art fro m i t. T h e K azak h h erd stru c-
tu re seem s g en erally to b e m o re co m p li -
cated . A cco rd i n g to M u rzab aev s ran ch i n g
TABLE 4
Herd Population Structure
I n fo rm an t R ep ro d u cti v e u n i t G eld i n g stru ctu re
H erd sex co m p o si ti o n
S talli o n s M ares F o als G eld i n g s
D am d i n F am i ly g ro u p W i th fam i ly g ro u p 1 1 520 1 520 1 520
Jam b alsu ren F am i ly g ro u p N ear fam i ly g ro u p 1 1 5 1 5 1 0
0)
a
1 ) 0) 4)
M u rsab aev S talli o n s m ares I n sep arate g ro u p 1 25 ? ?
S h av ard ak F am i ly g ro u p I n sep arate g ro u p 1 45 45 1 5
K o zh ak h m eto v F am i ly g ro u p I n sep arate g ro u p 1 1 520 20 ?
a
F i g u res i n p aren th eses refer to h i s o w n fam i ly s h o rses.
44 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
exam p le, all fo als are tak en fro m th ei r
m o th ers at th e ag e o f ab o u t 6 o r 7 m o n th s,
w h en th ey are w ean ed . T h ey are th en k ep t
i n a sep arate h erd , co m p o sed en ti rely o f
y o u n g h o rses. T h e fam i ly g ro u p d escri b ed
b y S h av ard ak i s co m p o sed o f th e stalli o n ,
m ares, y o u n g o f th e y ear, y earli n g s, an d a
few 2- to 3-y ear-o ld s T ab le 5) . I n K o zh a-
k h m eto v s sem i -n o m ad i c h erd , fo als u n -
d er 1 y ear an d y earli n g s w ere left w i th
th ei r m o th ers i n th e fam i ly g ro u p . A ll th e
2- to 3-y ear-o ld s fro m th e au l g razed to -
g eth er i n a sep arate h erd . T h e g eld i n g s
w o u ld g raze w i th th e 2- to 3-y ear-o ld s u n -
less th ere w ere to o m an y , i n w h i ch case
th ey co n sti tu ted a h erd o f th ei r o w n .
2.2.1.4. Reproduction (Table 6). T h e fe-
cu n d i ty o f th e h o rse i s, at i ts m o st b asi c
lev el, co n tro lled b y i ts b i o lo g y an d i ts
eth o lo g y , so th at d i v erg en ce fro m th e n at-
u ral si tu ati o n i s o f co n si d erab le i n terest.
H o rses are g en erally m o st p ro d u cti v e b e-
tw een th e ag es o f 4 an d 1 5 y ears.
P rzew alsk i s m ares are cap ab le o f co n -
cei v i n g b y 2 y ears o f ag e; h o w ev er, m o st
d o n o t b reed u n ti l th ei r fo u rth y ear. T h ey
u su ally rem ai n ferti le u n ti l aro u n d th e ag e
o f 20 y ears, th o u g h o n e i s k n o w n to h av e
g i v en b i rth at 24 y ears M o n tfo rt et al.
1 994) . G ran i te R an g e feral m ares h av e
b een k n o w n to b ear th ei r rst y o u n g at th e
ag e o f 2 y ears, w h i ch m ean s th at so m e
b ecam e p reg n an t as y earli n g s. T h ey can
co n ti n u e to p ro d u ce fo als at least u n ti l th e
ag e o f 22 y ears; h o w ev er, th e p eri o d o f
g reatest p ro d u cti v i ty i s b etw een th e ag es
o f 5 an d 1 7 y ears:
A b o u t 37% o f th e tw o -y ear-o ld s an d 40% o f th e
th ree-y ear-o ld s p ro d u ced fo als, w h i le fem ales
fo u r y ears an d o ld er w ere m o re su ccessfu l at
p ro d u ci n g fo als . . . fo r th e m o st p art, fem ales
b etw een v e to sev en teen y ears o f ag e en jo y ed
th e g reatest su ccess i n fo al p ro d u cti o n . . . A t
least 83% o f p .79) fem ales w i th i n th i s ag e co h o rt
g av e b i rth to fo u r fo als o v er a v e y ear p eri o d .
B erg er 1 986, p . 80 81 )
W h en h e lo o k ed at so m e o th er m u stan g
p o p u lati o n s, B erg er d i sco vered th at 2-year-
o ld s d i d n o t p ro d u ce yo u n g . T h e 3-year-
o ld s d i d , b u t p ercen tag es ran g ed fro m 1 1
to 25% . F i v e-y ear-o ld s w ere fo u n d to b e
m o re fecu n d th an 4-y ear-o ld s i n all p o p -
u lati o n s. T h e rates fo r each co h o rt w ere
TABLE 5
Shavardaks Herd: Population Structure
A g e
y ears) F req u en cy S ex
01 40 M ale:fem ale rati o ap p ro x 1 :1
1 2 30 M ale:fem ale rati o ap p ro x 1 :1
23 23 F em ales o n ly
35 81 0
F em ales o n ly , h av e h ad rst
b i rth
51 0 1 0 F em ales o n ly
1 01 5 1 0 F em ales o n ly
1 520 8 F em ales o n ly
20 1 0 F em ales o n ly
30 1 S talli o n
1 20.5 E xclu d es g eld i n g s
TABLE 6
Reproduction
I n fo rm an t
A g e b eg i n b reed i n g
y ears)
A g e cease b reed i n g
y ears)
F o als/y ear/m are S talli o n s M ares S talli o n s M ares
D am d i n 45 45 O ld 1 41 6 A lm o st 1
Jam b alsu ren 4 ?) 4 1 01 5 ?) 1 0 ?) A ro u n d 1 ?)
M u rsb aev 2 2 1 5 1 5 1
S h av ard ak 4 23
a
30 3035 A lm o st 1
K o zh ak h m eto v 4 34 20 2030 1
a
T h e m o st freq u en t ag e i s i n b o ld face.
45 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
lo w er th an th o se i n th e G ran i te p o p u la-
ti o n , w h i ch i s g ro w i n g . B erg er also o b -
serv ed th at fo ali n g rates fo r N o rth A m er-
i can feral h o rses w ere g en erally h i g h er
th an th o se o f S o u th A fri can th o ro u g h -
b red s B erg er 1 986) .
W i ld an d feral stalli o n s u su ally start
b reed i n g later th an m ares, at aro u n d 5
y ears o f ag e, b u t can co n ti n u e lo n g er. T h e
o ld est k n o w n su ccessfu lly b reed i n g P rze-
w alsk i stalli o n w as 36 y ears o ld . E xp eri -
en ce w i th b reed i n g cap ti v e P rzew alsk i
m ales su g g ests th at i m m atu re m ales u p
to fo u r y ears o f ag e) m ay b e i n cap ab le o f
b reed i n g b ecau se th ey ei th er are su b o rd i -
n ate to o ld er stalli o n s/m ares o r exh i b i t i n -
co m p eten t sexu al b eh av i o u r M o n tfo rt et
al. 1 994, p . 1 88) . A p p aren tly n o n e o f th e
G ran i te R an g e m ales u n d er 5 y ears o f ag e
su cceed ed i n p ro d u ci n g y o u n g . O f th o se 5
y ears o ld o r less, 71 % 5 o f 7) lo st th ei r rst
m ares, w h i le n o n e 6 y ears o r o ld er d i d .
T h e stalli o n s th at fath ered th e g reatest
n u m b ers o f o ffsp ri n g w ere 7 to 1 0 y ears
o ld an d th e n ext m o st p ro d u cti v e w ere 1 1
to 1 3 y ears o ld . T h e o ld est stalli o n th at
su cceed i n g i n si ri n g o ffsp ri n g w as ab o u t
22 y ears o f ag e B erg er 1 986) .
D o m esti cated M o n g o l an d K azak h stal-
li o n s b eg i n b reed i n g earli er th an th e w i ld
an d feral o n es. M o reo v er, w h i le all th e
d o m esti cated fem ales b eg i n to b reed at
aro u n d th e sam e ag e as free-li v i n g o n es,
th e M o n g o l m ares start later th an th o se o f
th e K azak h s. A cco rd i n g to B erg er, th e
cau ses o f th i s k i n d o f v ari ab i li ty are u n -
k n o w n B erg er 1 986) . H o w ever, su ch facto rs
as th e av ai lab i li ty o f h i g h -q u ali ty fo rag e
an d fav o rab le en v i ro n m en tal co n d i ti o n s
are p ro b ab ly i m p o rtan t.
T h e ag e at w h i ch stalli o n s cease b reed -
i n g i s si m i lar i n all th e p o p u lati o n s d i s-
cu ssed h ere. F o r m ares, h o w ev er, i t i s
m u ch m o re v ari ab le. K azak h m ares m ay
co n ti n u e p ro d u ci n g y o u n g u n ti l th e ag e o f
20 to 35 y ears. H o w ev er, acco rd i n g to
D am d i n , after th e ag e o f 1 5 o r 1 6 y ears,
M o n g o l m ares are n o lo n g er ab le to p ro -
d u ce stro n g en o u g h fo als. T h ey are th ere-
fo re slau g h tered at th at ag e. S i n ce m o st o f
th e fo als fro m th e K azak h p o p u lati o n s d i s-
cu ssed h ere are rai sed fo r m eat rath er
th an to ri d e, th ei r q u ali ty i s n o t as i m p o r-
tan t as th ei r q u an ti ty . I t m i g h t also b e
si g n i can t th at en v i ro n m en tal co n d i ti o n s
i n n o rth ern K azak h stan are g en erally less
h arsh th an th o se i n eastern M o n g o li a.
2.2.1.5. Riding (Table 7). G e n e ra li zi n g
fro m th e v e i n terv i ew s d i scu ssed h ere, i t
i s clear th at, alth o u g h stalli o n s an d m ares
as w ell as g eld i n g s are ri d d en , th e latter
are m o st i m p o rtan t fo r th i s p u rp o se.
H o rses are u su ally b ro k en at aro u n d 23
y ears o f ag e, b u t are n o t ri d d en h ard u n ti l
th ey are ap p ro xi m ately 34 y ears o ld . T h e
p arti cu lar arran g em en ts d escri b ed b y
each o f th e i n fo rm an ts relate to th e w ay s
TABLE 7
Riding
I n fo rm an t
W h i ch ri d d en ?
A g e b ro k en fo r ri d i n g
y ears) G eld i n g s S talli o n s M ares
D am d i n Y
a
y y 1 2
b
3
Jam b alsu ren Y ? y 1 3
M u rsab aev y ? y 2
S h av ard ak Y n n 3
K o zh ak h m eto v Y 35
c
n y 2
a
Y , m o st freq u en tly ri d d en ; y , ri d d en n o t as freq u en tly as Y ; n , n o t u su ally ri d d en .
b
A g e m o st u su ally b ro k en .
c
N u m b er o f ri d i n g h o rses/h o u seh o ld .
46 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
i n w h i ch h o rse h u sb an d ry ts i n to th ei r
lo cal en v i ro n m en ts an d eco n o m i es.
T h e n o m ad i c p asto rali sts d escri b ed b y
D am d i n ri d e m ai n ly g eld i n g s; h o w ev er,
m ares an d stalli o n s are also b ro k en an d
trai n ed . I t i s th e atti tu d e o f th ese p eo p le
th at all th e h o rses i n a h erd m u st b e ri d -
d en ; o th erw i se th ey m i g h t as w ell b e w i ld .
I t i s o n ly a b ad h erd sm an w h o d o es n o t
u se all h i s an i m als. T h i s i s, n o d o u b t, a
resp o n se to th e h arsh n ess o f th e eastern
M o n g o li an step p e en v i ro n m en t. I m p o r-
tan t as th ey are fo r m eat an d o th er p u r-
p o ses, su rvi val d ep en d s o n h avi n g en o u g h
m o u n ts. B reak i n g h o rses h ere i s a rela-
ti v ely g rad u al p ro cess. A t th e ag e o f 1 th e
fo al i s trai n ed to w ear a h alter an d i s b ro -
k en to th e sad d le w h en i t i s 2 to 3 y ears o f
ag e. T h i s jo b i s carri ed o u t b y b o y s fro m 1 0
to 1 6 y ears o f ag e. I n i ti ally th e y o u n g
h o rses are ri d d en o n ly n ear th e y u rt b y
ch i ld ren .
S ettled M o n g o ls li k e Jam b alsu ren ap -
p aren tly ro d e b o th m ale an d fem ale h o rses,
th o u g h g eld i n g s ag ai n w ere m o st i m p o r-
tan t. Jam b alsu ran s fam i ly d i d n o t b reed
h o rses an d k ep t th em m ai n ly fo r ri d i n g .
T h ei r th ree m o u n ts, o n e fo r each m em b er
o f th e fam i ly, w ere p u rch ased fro m fri en d s
an d n ei g h b o rs.
A cco rd i n g to S h a v a rd a k , th e ri d i n g
h o rses i n N i k o lsk o e are alm o st exclu si v ely
g eld i n g s. M ares are u sed alm o st en ti rely
fo r b reed i n g , m i lk , an d m eat p ro d u cti o n ,
w h i le th e stalli o n w as u sed o n ly fo r b reed -
i n g . L i k ew i se i n K o zh ak h m eto v s sem i -
n o m ad i c p asto rali st exam p le, th e i n d i v i d -
u als selected fo r ri d i n g o r tracti o n w ere
m o st u su ally g eld i n g s. I t w as n o t co n si d -
ered n ecessary to b reak all h o rses fo r
ri d i n g . T h ree to v e m o u n ts w o u ld u su -
ally b e en o u g h fo r a h o u seh o ld . M ares
co u ld b e b ro k en as w o rk an i m als, b u t i t
w as reg ard ed as b etter to sav e th em fo r
b reed i n g . T h e d i fferen ce b etw een th ese
K azak h s an d th e M o n g o ls, d escri b ed b y
D am d i n , i s p ro b ab ly at least p artly refer-
ab le to th e sh o rter d i stan ces trav eled an d
less extrem e cli m ati c co n d i ti o n s i n n o rth -
ern K azak h stan b y co m p ari so n w i th east-
ern M o n g o li a.
2.2.1.6. Milk, meat, fat, and other products
(Table 8). I n b o th n o rth ern K azak h stan
an d M o n g o li a h o rses are slau g h tered
fro m late N o v em b er to late D ecem b er o r
Jan u ary , w h i le th ei r fat co n ten t i s sti ll
h i g h . B ecau se o f th e lo n g an d i n ten sely
co ld w i n ters i n th i s reg i o n , m eat can b e
sto red o u td o o rs w i th o u t refri g erati o n . E x-
cep t fo r sp eci al o ccasi o n s li k e w ed d i n g s
an d fu n erals, h o rses are alm o st n ev er
slau g h tered d u ri n g th e rest o f th e y ear.
A cco rd i n g to D am d i n , u n li k e b eef, h o rse-
m eat can n o t b e d ri ed , so th at i n h i s reg i o n
i t i s alw ay s eaten fresh . H o w ev er, i n
n o rth ern K azak h stan th e u su al p racti ce i s
to sm o k e an y fresh m eat left o v er at th e
en d o f th e w i n ter.
H o rse m i lk , m eat, an d fat are v alu ab le
an d h i g h ly v alu ed reso u rces fo r th e T u rk i c
i n clu d i n g K azak h ) an d M o n g o li an i n h ab -
i tan ts o f th e A si ati c step p e L ev i n e 1 998a) .
M ed i ci n al as w ell as n u tri ti o n al p ro p erti es
are attri b u ted to th em . T h ese trad i ti o n al
b eli efs are, i n fact, su p p o rted b y sci en ti c
research . H o rse esh i s an i m p o rtan t so u rce
o f v i tam i n s, m i n erals, essen ti al am i n o ac-
i d s, an d essen ti al fatty aci d s G u n g a 1 976;
R o ssi er an d B erg er 1 988) . B y co m p ari so n
w i th th at o f ru m i n an ts su ch as cattle an d
sh eep , eq u i d esh i s h i g h i n p ro tei n an d
lo w i n fa t p a rti cu la rly sa tu ra te d a n d
m o n o -u n satu rated fat) G ad e 1 976) . T ab le
9 sh o w s th at h o rse m eat an d m i lk are p ro -
p o rti o n ately m u ch ri ch er i n essen ti al fatty
aci d s p arti cu larly li n o lei c an d -li n o len i c
TABLE 8
Milk, Meat, and Fat
I n fo rm an t M i lk M eat F at v alu ed ?
D am d i n N o Y es H i g h ly
Jam b alsu ren Y es R arely H i g h ly
M u rsab aev Y es Y es A s b o v i d ae
S h av ard ak Y es Y es H i g h ly
K o zh ak h m eto v Y es Y es H i g h ly
47 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
aci d ) th an ru m i n an t m eat an d m i lk S i n -
clai r 1 964; W i lli am s an d C raw fo rd 1 987;
R o ssi er an d B erg er 1 988) . E v en th e m eat o f
o ld h o rses i s relati v ely ten d er an d , b y
co m p ari so n w i th ru m i n an t esh , h i g h ly
d i g esti b le G ad e 1 976; R o ssi er an d B erg er
1 988) . T h i s d i fferen ce i s also re ected i n
th e b eh av i o r o f th e H ad za, h u n ter-g ath er-
ers fro m T an zan i a Jam es W o o d b u rn , p er-
so n al co m m u n i cati o n ) . A cco rd i n g to W o o d -
b u rn , trad i ti o n ally th e H ad za h u n ted a
w i d e v ari ety o f h erb i v o res o f w h i ch th e
m o st i m p o rtan t n u m eri cally w ere i m p ala
an d zeb ra. Z eb ra w as p referred , b ecau se
o f th e n atu re an d ab u n d an ce o f i ts fat. T h e
H ad za, li k e m an y o th er trad i ti o n al h u n t-
ers, v alu e fat m o re h i g h ly th an p ro tei n
S p eth 1 983) . T h ey classi fy fat as ei th er
h ard h i g h i n satu rated fat, as i n th e case
o f b o v i d s) o r so ft h i g h i n p o ly u n satu rated
fat, as i n th e case o f eq u i d s) . B ecau se o f
th e i m p o rtan ce o f so ft fat as a w ean i n g
fo o d , an ad u lt m ale zeb ra i s an i d eal
H ad za p rey .
H o rse esh i s reg ard ed b y b o th K aza-
k h s an d M o n g o ls as esp eci ally i m p o rtan t
i n w i n ter o r w h en th ey m u st trav el. A c-
co rd i n g to D am d i n , a p erso n w h o eats
h o rse e sh fo r b re a k fa st ca n w o rk
th ro u g h o u t th e w h o le d ay . A n i m al fat i s
co n si d ered b y step p e p asto rali sts to b e
v ery g o o d fo r h u m an h ealth an d , o f all th e
d o m esti cates, th at o f th e h o rse i s reg ard ed
as b est. H o rse fat i s eaten o n i ts o w n o r
w i th m eat, b o i led o r i n sau sag es. I n K aza-
k h stan i t i s th o u g h t to b e g o o d fo r treati n g
tu b ercu lo si s an d i s o f p arti cu lar i m p o r-
tan ce as a w ean i n g fo o d fo r b ab i es. A c-
co rd i n g to B u lat K an a n , a K azak h fro m
P etro p av lo v sk , b ab i es w ere trad i ti o n ally
w ean ed o n p asta m i xed w i th fat fro m o n e
o f th ree so u rces: 1 ) fat fro m th e h u m p o f
a cam el i s u sed i n th e so u th , 2) ram s tai l
fat b o i led i n m i lk i s u sed ev ery w h ere, 3)
fat fro m o v er th e h o rse s stern u m o r cer-
v i cal v erteb rae i s also u sed ev ery w h ere.
O f th e th ree, cam el fat an d h o rse fat are
co n si d ered b y b o th ch i ld ren an d ad u lts to
b e th e b est b y far b ecau se o f th ei r su p eri o r
taste an d d i g esti b i li ty . T h e h o rse fat o v er-
ly i n g th e cerv i cal v erteb rae i s reg ard ed b y
all m y K azak h i n fo rm an ts as a g reat d eli -
cacy to b e g i v en to h o n o red g u ests. A c-
co rd i n g to D am d i n , i n eastern M o n g o li a
th e fat sk i m m ed o ff b o i led h o rse m eat can
b e ad d ed to th e fo d d er o f exh au sted li v e-
sto ck o r fed to d o g s. I t i s also u sed as a
TABLE 9
Fatty Acid Composition of Some Animals
F atty aci d
D ep o t fat % b y w ei g h t) M i lk % b y w ei g h t)
C o w S h eep H o rse H u m an P i g C h i ck en W h ale C o w H o rse H u m an W h ale
S atu rated
C
1 4
an d b elo w 3 3 5 6 1 1 9 25 22 1 5 8
P alm i ti c C
1 6
) 29 25 26 25 30 25 1 5 25 1 6 23 1 7
S teari c C
1 8
) 21 28 5 6 1 6 4 4 9 3 7 2
C
20
an d ab o v e 1 0 T race 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
M o n o -u n satu rated
P alm i to lei c C
1 6
:1 ) 3 1 7 7 3 7 1 4 4 7 5 6
O lei c C
1 8
:1 ) 41
a
37
a
34 45 41 43 33 30
a
1 9 36 1 8 ?)
P o ly u n satu rated :
L i n o lei c C
1 8
:2) 2
a
5
a
5 8 7 1 8 0 4
a
8 8 ?
L i n o len i c C
1 8
:3) 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 4 0 1 6 0 9 ?)
A rach i d o n i c C
20
:4) T race 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 T race 5 3 26 ?)
C
22
an d ab o v e T race 1 2 2 2 1 8 T race 5 3 1 3
a
M ai n ly trans-i so m ers i n li n o lei c aci d an d p artly i n o lei c aci d .
Source. R ep ri n ted , w i th p erm i ssi o n , fro m S i n clai r 1 964) .
48 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
face o i n tm en t to p ro tect ag ai n st th e co ld
an d w i n d .
O f all th e p eo p le d i scu ssed h ere, o n ly
Jam b alsu ren s settled y ak b reed ers d o n o t
v alu e h o rse esh as fo o d . S h eep an d y ak
are th ei r p referred m eat an i m als. M o re-
o v er, th ei r w h o le ap p ro ach to h o rse m eat
co n su m p ti o n i s at v ari an ce w i th th at o f all
th e o th er g ro u p s d i scu ssed h ere. H o rse
m eat i n th i s n o n -h o rseb reed i n g reg i o n i s
relati v ely ch eap . T h erefo re, i t i s eaten
m ai n ly b y p o o r fam i li es. M o reo v er, w h i le
i n th e o th er reg i o n s, th e rati o o f m ales to
fem ales slau g h tered fo r m eat i s ei th er
eq u al o r fav o ri n g m ales, i n th i s m o u n tai n -
o u s reg i o n i t i s p ri m ari ly fem ales th at are
slau g h tered . G eld i n g s are n o t eaten at all.
Jam b alsu ran sai d th at h e h i m self w o u ld
n o t eat h o rse m eat, th at th e sm ell w as
terri b le, an d th at p eo p le i n th i s reg i o n
p referred n o t to eat h o rse m eat o u t o f
resp ect fo r h o rses. T h o se w h o d i d eat i t, to
av o i d i ts b ad sm ell, d i d so i n w i n ter w h en
th e w eath er w as co ld . T h i s p reju d i ce
ag ai n st h o rse m eat co n su m p ti o n seem s
m o st li k ely to b e referab le to th e n eed i n
th i s n o n -h o rseb reed i n g reg i o n to k eep
h o rses as m u ch as p o ssi b le fo r ri d i n g an d ,
w h ere th i s i s n o t p o ssi b le, to slau g h ter
an i m als least u sed fo r ri d i n g , th at i s, fe-
m ales.
H o rse m i lk p ro d u cti o n ap p aren tly tak es
p lace ev ery w h ere o n th e step p e w h erev er
eco lo g i cal co n d i ti o n s are fav o rab le F i g . 1 ) .
D ak h sh lei g er 1 980) . O f all m y i n fo rm an ts
o n ly D am d i n cam e fro m a p lace w h ere
v ery li ttle m i lk w as p ro d u ced . H e sai d th at
th e m i lk fro m h i s reg i o n i s o f v ery p o o r
q u ali ty : i t d o es n o t ferm en t w ell, p erh ap s
b ecau se o f th e cli m ate o r g razi n g co n d i -
ti o n s. U n fo rtu n ately h e co u ld n o t elab o -
rate fu rth er o n th e eco lo g i cal co n d i ti o n s
n ecessary fo r h o rse m i lk p ro d u cti o n . A c-
co rd i n g to K ry sty n a C h ab ro s p erso n al
co m m u n i cati o n ) h o rse m i lk p ro d u cti o n i s
p arti cu larly i m p o rtan t i n cen tral M o n g o -
li a. H o rses are so m eti m es m i lk ed i n th e
w est, b u t n o t i n th e sem i -d esert reg i o n s,
w h ere th ere are relati v ely few h o rses. F er-
m en ted h o rse m i lk , kumys, p lay s an ex-
trem ely i m p o rtan t ro le i n K azak h ev ery -
d ay li fe. I t i s to K azak h s w h at b read i s to
R u ssi an p easan ts. I t i s n o t o n ly a p alatab le
d ri n k , b u t also so m eti m es th ei r o n ly fo o d
T o k tab aev 1 992, p . 1 1 ) . A cco rd i n g to a
K azak h p ro v erb , K u m y s cu res 40 d i s-
FIG. 1. M i lk i n g at B o tai au l. T h e fo al m u st b e p resen t fo r th e m are to let d o w n h er m i lk .
49 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
eases T o k tab aev 1 992, p . 1 2) . I n fact,
m are s m i lk i s m u ch h i g h er th an th at o f
co w i n li n o lei c, -li n o len i c, an d arach i -
d o n i c aci d T ab le 9) . F o r th i s reaso n d o n -
k ey m i lk , w h i ch h as a si m i lar co m p o si ti o n ,
h as b een u sed i n F ran ce i n p referen ce to
co w s m i lk fo r feed i n g p reterm h u m an b a-
b i es M i ch ael A . C raw fo rd , p erso n al co m -
m u n i cati o n ) .
T h e h o rse i s u sed exten si v ely i n K azak h
fo lk m ed i ci n e T o k tab aev 1 992) . H o rse fat,
excrem en t, b o n e, h ai r, li v er, k i d n ey , an d
sto m ach are u sed i n th e treatm en t o f
m an y ai lm en ts. H o rse sw eat i s sai d to cu re
g astri c d i seases, u lcers, ty p h o i d fev er,
p lag u e, fev er, an d can cer o f th e g u llet.
B ack p ro b lem s w ere treated b y w rap p i n g
th e su fferer i n a fresh h o rse sk i n .
H o rse m i lk , fat, an d m eat are i m p o rtan t
fo o d s i n cen tral E u rasi a L evi n e 1 998a) .
H o w ever, th ey are n o t co n su m ed every-
w h ere w i th i n th at reg i o n . S o m e cu rb s are
clearly eco lo g i cal; i n D am d i n s reg i o n m i lk
can n o t b e p ro d u ced fo r h u m an co n su m p -
ti o n . O th ers are ap p aren tly cu ltu ral; i n Jam -
b u lsu ren s reg i o n h o rse m eat i s reg ard ed as
d i sg u sti n g . H o w ever, th i s reacti o n m i g h t
h ave an eco lo g i cal o ri g i n . I n th e m o u n tai n s,
h o rses can n o t b e b red i n larg e n u m b ers;
th ei r m o st i m p o rtan t u se i s fo r tran sp o rt.
T h e B ri ti sh tab o o ag ai n st eati n g h o rse m eat
p ro b ab ly co m b i n es reli g i o u s, cu ltu ral, h i s-
to ri cal, an d u lti m ately eco lo g i cal facto rs
G ad e 1 976) . A lth o u g h th i s su b ject i s o f
g reat relevan ce to o u r u n d erstan d i n g o f th e
d yn am i cs o f h u m an ad ap tati o n s, i t h as, w i th
th e n o tab le excep ti o n o f G ad e 1 976) , as yet
recei ved li ttle atten ti o n .
2.2.1.7. Mortality(Tables10and11). A c-
co rd i n g to m y i n fo rm an ts, h o rses n o t u sed
TABLE 10
Usual Cause of Death
I n fo rm an t
S talli o n s/
co n secrated
g eld i n g s M ares
G eld i n g s/m ale
fo als S easo n o f slau g h ter
D am d i n N atu ral cau ses S lau g h ter S lau g h ter L ate au tu m n to w i n ter
Jam b alsu ren N atu ral cau ses
Natural causes
a
/
slau g h ter N atu ral cau ses L ate N o v em b er to D ecem b er
M u rsab aev S lau g h ter S lau g h ter S lau g h ter E sp eci ally D ecem b er
S h av ard ak S lau g h ter S lau g h ter S lau g h ter L ate au tu m n to early w i n ter
K o zh ak h m eto v S lau g h ter S lau g h ter S lau g h ter N o v em b er to D ecem b er
a
T h e m o st p ro b ab le cau se i s i n b o ld face.
TABLE 11
Age at Death
I n fo rm an t
A g e at d eath y ears)
a
M axi m u m ag e
S talli o n s/co n secrated
g eld i n g s M ares G eld i n g s/m ale fo als
D am d i n 1 6 1 41 6 1 51 6 o r m o re 27
Jam b alsu ren 30 4/30 30 33
M u rsab aev 1 520 ? 1 1 .5/1 520 ? 11.5/1520 ? 30
S h av ard ak 2530 25/2530 25/2530 3540
K o zh ak h m eto v 20 1 3/20 13/25 30
a
A g e/sex classes p referred fo r slau g h ter are i n b o ld face.
50 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
fo r m eat are allo w ed to d i e o f o ld ag e, b u t
o n th e step p e th i s i s clearly excep ti o n al.
T h ere are tw o m ai n p eri o d s o f slau g h ter,
relev an t i n v ary i n g d eg rees to b o th K aza-
k h stan an d M o n g o li a. T h e rst exten d s
fro m th e ag es o f aro u n d 2 to 4 y ears an d i s
u su ally b i ased to w ard m ales. T h e seco n d
p eri o d u su ally tak es p lace b etw een th e
ag es o f 1 4 an d 20 y ears an d i s b i ased to -
w ard fem ales.
I n th e p asto ral n o m ad i c co n text d e-
scri b ed b y D am d i n , g eld i n g s co n secrated
to th e sp i ri ts an d all stalli o n s d i e o f n atu ral
cau ses. O th er h o rses are slau g h tered o n ly
w h en th ey are n o lo n g er p ro d u cti v e, u su -
ally after th e ag e o f 1 4 to 1 6 y ears. B ecau se
th e m ai n u se o f m ares i s fo r p ro d u ci n g
y o u n g an d i n so m e reg i o n s) m i lk , after
th ey h av e b een b arren fo r 2 o r 3 y ears
ru n n i n g , th ey are slau g h tered . G eld i n g s
are u su ally k i lled later th an m ares si n ce
th ey are p ro d u cti v e lo n g er. I n th e m o d ern
si tu ati o n 2- to 3-y ear-o ld h o rses m i g h t b e
slau g h tered b ecau se th ei r m eat i s m o re
ten d er th an th at o f o ld er an i m als, b u t th at
i s n o t u su ally th e case trad i ti o n ally . I n
Jam b u lsu ren s reg i o n h o rses are u su ally
allo w ed to d i e o f n atu ral cau ses, w h i ch
m i g h t b e after th e ag e o f 30 y ears. I n th at
co n text, o n ly fem ales, aro u n d 4 y ears o f
ag e, are slau g h tered fo r m eat.
A ll m y K azak h i n fo rm an ts d escri b ed
tw o cu lli n g p eri o d s fo r h o rses. T h e rst
i n clu d es y o u n g an i m als b etw een th e ag es
o f 1 an d 4 y ears, su rp lu s to b reed i n g an d
w o rk req u i rem en ts, an d i s b i ased to w ard
m ales. T h e seco n d co m p ri ses i n d i v i d u als
th at are n o lo n g er p ro d u cti v e, b etw een
th e ag es o f 1 5 an d 30 y ears, an d i s b i ased
to w ard fem ales. T h e relati v e lo n g ev i ty o f
K azak h h o rses b y co m p ari so n w i th b o th
free-li v i n g h o rses an d M o n g o l p o n i es
m i g h t b e at least p artly exp lai n ed b y th e
fact th at th e h o rses i n a K azak h b reed i n g
h erd are n o t n o rm ally exp o sed to th e
stresses o f b ei n g ri d d en o r u sed fo r trac-
ti o n . T h e less extrem e en v i ro n m en tal co n -
d i ti o n s o f n o rth ern K azak h stan , fro m th e
p o i n t o f v i ew o f b o th h u m an an d b east,
m i g h t also b e a relev an t facto r.
A cco rd i n g to M u rzab aev , i n th e m o d ern
co n text h o rses are b u tch ered ei th er at 1 to
1
1
2
y ears, w h en h o rse m eat i s m o st ten d er,
o r at aro u n d 1 5 to 20 y ears. Y o u n g h o rses
are u su ally slau g h tered fo r fam i ly n eed s,
w h i le o ld o n es are so ld to th e m eat fac-
to ry . A s far as y o u n g an i m als are co n -
cern ed , m ales are selected i n p referen ce
to fem ales fo r slau g h ter.
T h e stru ctu re o f S h av ard ak s h erd i s n o t
trad i ti o n al. T h e h o rses h e cares fo r are n o t
h i s o w n , b u t rath er, b elo n g to th e v ari o u s
K azak h h o u seh o ld s o f N i k o lsk o e an d to
th e co llecti v e farm . H i s ai m i s n o t to i n -
crease th e si ze o f th e h erd , b u t rath er to
p ro v i d e m eat fo r i ts o w n ers. S i n ce th e m a-
tu re h o rses i n th e h erd are n o t u sed fo r
ri d i n g o r tracti o n , b u t o n ly fo r b reed i n g ,
th ey h av e a relati v ely lo n g li fe sp an , al-
th o u g h th ey rarely d i e o f n atu ral cau ses.
B reed i n g an i m als are u su ally slau g h tered
at ab o u t 25 y ears o f ag e, b u t so m e li v e
u n ti l aro u n d th e ag e o f 30 y ears. G eld i n g s
are u su ally slau g h tered w h en th ey can n o
lo n g er b e u sed fo r ri d i n g an d tracti o n , b y
25 y ears o f ag e. M o st h o rses u sed fo r
m eat, b o th m ale an d fem ale, are slau g h -
tered b etw een th e ag es o f 2 an d 5 y ears.
B y th ei r th i rd y ear, o n ly 2 to 3 i n d i v i d u als
h ad su rv i v ed o u t o f a co h o rt i n to w h i ch
ap p ro xi m ately 40 fo als h ad b een b o rn T a-
b le 5) . M eat fro m y o u n g h o rses i s u su ally
co n su m ed b y i ts o w n ers, w h i le th at fro m
o ld o n es i s u su ally so ld to state farm s. F o r
exam p le, th e m eat fro m N i k o lsk o e s o ld
h o rses i s so ld to a n earb y p o lar fo x farm .
H o w ev er, i n earli er y ears th i s m eat w o u ld
also h av e b een co n su m ed b y th e fam i ly .
I n th e trad i ti o n al p asto rali st co n text, d e-
scri b ed b y K o zh ak h m eto v , h o rses d i d n o t
n o rm ally d i e o f n atu ral cau ses. S o m e-
ti m es, o f co u rse, th ey d i ed o f i lln ess o r
fro m an i n ju ry an d , v ery seld o m , w ere
k i lled b y w o lv es. H o w ev er, th ey w ere u su -
ally slau g h tered ei th er after th e ag e o f 20
y ears, w h en th ey w ere n o lo n g er u sefu l
51 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
fo r b reed i n g o r fo r w o rk , o r b etw een th e
ag es o f 1 an d 3 y ears, w h en th ei r m eat w as
m o st ten d er. T h e d eci si o n to slau g h ter a
h o rse w as b ased o n a h o u seh o ld s n eed
fo r m eat. A lth o u g h th e m eat an d fat fro m
all slau g h tered h o rses w ere co n su m ed ,
th o se fro m y o u n g h o rses w ere p referred
an d w ere serv ed i n p arti cu lar o n sp eci al
o ccasi o n s, fo r exam p le, w h en g u ests cam e
to th e h o u se. M ales w ere cu lled b efo re
fem ales, si n ce far few er o f th em w ere
n eed ed fo r b reed i n g an d m i lk p ro d u cti o n .
2.2.2. Importanceof theHorsein Mongol
and Kazakh Life
O f all th e li v esto ck sp eci es av ai lab le to
ste p p e p a sto ra l i sts, n o n e i s a s w e l l
ad ap ted to th e h u m an an d n atu ral en v i -
ro n m en t as th e h o rse an d n o n e i s h eld i n
su ch h i g h esteem . T h e h o rse can m o v e
rap i d ly an d easi ly lo n g d i stan ces o v er
h ard g ro u n d , p ro v i d i n g i ts o w n ers w i th
b o th m o b i li ty ri d i n g , p ack i n g , tracti o n )
an d n o u ri sh m en t m i lk , m eat, fat) . O th er
p ro d u cts, su ch as b o n e, h o o f, h ai r, h i d e,
excrem en t, an d ev en sw eat, are also v al-
u ed , fo r exam p le, as fu el, raw m ateri als fo r
th e fab ri cati o n o f to o ls, u ten si ls, m u si cal
i n stru m en ts, an d o th er o b jects, an d fo r
m ed i ci n al p u rp o ses.
T h e h o rse o ccu p i es a p o si ti o n i n th e
g razi n g su ccessi o n th at co m p lem en ts th at
o f o th er step p e li v esto ck : cattle, sh eep ,
g o ats, cam els, y ak s. I t can su b si st o n lo n g ,
d ry , relati v ely p o o r-q u ali ty h erb ag e, th u s
en co u rag i n g th e g ro w th o f th e sh o rter,
m o re n u tri ti o u s g rasses, o n w h i ch b o v i d s
cattle, sh eep , g o ats) d ep en d B ell 1 969) . I t
d o es n o t n eed as m u ch w ater as cattle.
M o reo v er, i t can n d i ts o w n fo o d u n d er
d eep sn o w b y d i g g i n g to i t w i th i ts h o o fs,
th ereb y m ak i n g i t av ai lab le to th e b o v i d s,
w h i ch can n o t d o so fo r th em selv es M o h r
1 971 ) .
2.3. Population Structure Models
A s reg ard s relati o n sh i p s b etw een p eo -
p le an d h o rses, each p attern o f b eh av i o r
o r m eth o d o f exp lo i tati o n i s ch aracteri zed
b y i ts o w n ty p i cal, th o u g h n o t n ecessari ly
u n i q u e , se x a n d a g e stru ctu re . T h e se
stru ctu res can b e u sed as m o d els to w h i ch
th e arch aeo lo g i cal d ata can b e co m p ared .
T h e d ev elo p m en t o f th ese m o d elsfro m
eth n o g rap h i c, eth o lo g i cal, an d arch aeo -
lo g i cal d atah as b een d etai led i n L ev i n e
1 979, 1 983, 1 990) . A lth o u g h th e i n fo rm a-
ti o n o b tai n ed fro m th e i n terv i ew s d e-
scri b ed ab o v e i s b y n o m ean s co m p lete, i t
d o es p artly ll so m e g ap s i n th e d ata u sed
i n th e co n stru cti o n o f th e m o d els. I n co n -
ju n cti o n w i th i n fo rm ati o n fro m eth o lo g i -
cal, eth n o lo g i cal, arch aeo lo g i cal, an d h i s-
to ri cal so u rces, th e eth n o arch aeo lo g i cal
d ata th u s faci li tate i n terp retati o n o f targ et
arch aeo lo g i cal eq u i d assem b lag es i n term s
o f h u m an b eh av i o r.
T h e raw m ateri al fo r th i s m eth o d o f
an aly si s i s th e ag ed h o rse teeth fro m ar-
ch aeo lo g i cal d ep o si ts. D eterm i n ati o n o f
an i n d i v i d u al s ag e at d eath i s b ased o n an
an aly ti cal tech n i q u e th at em p lo y s m ea-
su rem en ts o f cro w n h ei g h t an d assess-
m en ts o f eru p ti o n an d w ear. T h e m eth o d
h as b een d escri b ed i n co n si d erab le d etai l
elsew h ere L ev i n e 1 979, 1 982, 1 990) . O n ce
th e teeth fro m a d ep o si t h av e b een ag ed ,
th e n ext step i s to d eterm i n e w h at th e ag e
d i stri b u ti o n o f th at w h o le assem b lag e
m ean s i n term s o f h u m an b eh av i o r. T h e
ag e at w h i ch an i n d i v i d u al an i m al d i es i s
i n i tself o f li m i ted i n terest. W h at i s i m p o r-
tan t i s th e p attern m an i fested b y th e p o p -
u lati o n as a w h o le an d h o w i t co m p ares
w i th th e v ari o u s p o p u lati o n stru ctu re
m o d els to b e d i scu ssed b elo w .
2.3.1. TheAttritional AssemblageModel
T h e m o rtali ty d i stri b u ti o n s fo r n atu ral
attri ti o n , scav en g i n g , an d li v esto ck h u s-
b an d ry , w h ere m eat p ro d u cti o n i s o f sec-
o n d ary i m p o rtan ce, are all si m i lar to th e
attri ti o n al assem b lag e m o d el F i g . 2) .
M o rtali ty i s lo w fo r ad u lts d u ri n g th ei r
rep ro d u cti v e y ears, an d h i g h fo r ju v en i les
an d sen escen t i n d i v i d u als C au g h ley 1 966;
52 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
D ah l an d H jo rt 1 976) . T h i s i s essen ti ally
th e p asto ral n o m ad k i ll-o ff p attern re-
v ealed to m e b y D am d i n . A s exp lai n ed
earli er, w h ere m eat p ro d u cti o n i s o f sec-
o n d ary i m p o rtan ce, i n d i v i d u als n o t d y i n g
o f n atu ral cau ses w i ll p ro b ab ly n o t b e
slau g h tered u n ti l after th e ag e o f 1 5 o r 1 6
y ears.
A s y et, n o eq u i d assem b lag e fro m a p as-
to ral n o m ad i c co n text h as b eco m e av ai l-
ab le fo r an aly si s. H o w ev er, i t h as b een
p o ssi b le to stu d y an assem b lag e fro m an -
o th er k i n d o f co n text i n w h i ch m o b i li ty ,
rath er th an m eat p ro d u cti o n , w as o f p ri -
m ary i m p o rtan ce: T h o rn h i ll F arm , an I ro n
A g e an d early R o m an settlem en t, fro m th e
T h am es V alley G lo u cestersh i re) F i g . 3) .
F ro m th e relati v ely u n d am ag ed co n d i ti o n
o f th e b o n es, i t i s p retty clear th at h o rses
fro m th i s si te w ere n o t eaten , b u t w ere
certai n ly u sed as ri d i n g , tracti o n , o r p ack
an i m als. T h e assem b lag e i s sm all, w i th
o n ly 1 60 ag eab le h o rse an d p o ssi b ly so m e
m u le) ch eek teeth an d a d en tal m i n i m u m
n u m b er o f i n d i v i d u als M N I ) o f 1 7 F i g . 4) .
T h i s i n clu d es 53 lo o se ch eek teeth an d 20
jaw frag m en ts w i th ag eab le teeth . T h e
sm all si ze o f th e assem b lag e p ro b ab ly ac-
co u n ts fo r th e jag g ed n ess o f th e d i stri b u -
ti o n . A n i n i ti ally d i sco n certi n g featu re o f
th e assem b lag e i s th e relati v ely larg e p ro -
p o rti o n o f h o rses d y i n g d u ri n g th ei r ap -
p aren tly p ri m e rep ro d u cti v e y ears, at least
b y co m p ari so n w i th th e p attern d escri b ed
b y m y K azak h an d M o n g o l i n fo rm an ts.
R o m an h o rses w ere b ro k en at ab o u t th e
sam e ag e as M o n g o l an d K azak h h o rses,
an d as w i th th e M o n g o ls, th e m o st i m p o r-
tan t u se th e R o m an s m ad e o f th em w as fo r
tran sp o rt. H o w ev er, i t seem s th at th e R o -
m an h o rses h ad a m u ch sh o rter exp ected
li fe sp an th an th e M o n g o l p o n i es H y lan d
1 990) . T h e exp lan ati o n fo r th i s m i g h t li e i n
th e d i fferen t atti tu d e o f th e R o m an o -B ri t-
i sh ag ri cu ltu rali sts to w ard th ei r h o rses.
A n n H y lan d , i n Equus, the Horse in the
Roman World, arg u es th at R o m an eq u i d s
co m m o n ly su stai n ed i n ju ri es th at w o u ld
h av e b een cau sed b y p o o r li v i n g co n d i -
ti o n s an d g ro ss o v erw o rk H y lan d 1 990, p .
59) . S h e esti m ates th at a h o rse w as ex-
p ected to last o n ly ab o u t 3 y ears i n acti v e
FIG. 2. A ttri ti o n al assem b lag e m o d el. T h e p u rp o se o f th e b ro k en li n e i s to su g g est h o w th e sh ap e
o f th e cu rv e m i g h t b e b i ased b y th e d i fferen ti al d estru cti o n o f i m m atu re teeth .
53 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
m i li tary serv i ce an d , o n av erag e, 4 y ears as
a p o st h o rse H y lan d 1 990, p . 86, 88) .
M o reo v er, th e b reed i n g p eri o d w as also
co m p arati v ely ab b rev i ated , w i th m ares
b ei n g co n si d ered p ast th ei r p ri m e at 1 0
y ears o f ag e, th o u g h so m e d i d b reed u n ti l
1 5 H y lan d 1 990, p . 238) . T h e relati v ely
h i g h i n ci d en ce o f p ath o lo g y , as w ell as th e
p o p u lati o n stru ctu re, seem s to co n rm
th i s p attern at T h o rn h i ll F arm . A si m i lar,
b u t ev en m o re extrem e, d i stri b u ti o n h as
b een rev ealed fo r th e R o m an cem etery at
K esteren i n T h e N eth erlan d s, d ated fro m
th e rst to th e th i rd cen tu ri es A .D .
8
F i g . 5)
L au w eri er an d H essi n g 1 992) .
T h ese d i fferen ces m i g h t b e referab le to
eco lo g y . T h at i s, u n li k e th e R o m an s, n o -
m ad i c p asto rali st M o n g o ls d ep en d o n
h o rses fo r th ei r h o u r-to -h o u r su rv i v al.
H o rses p erm eate ev ery asp ect o f th ei r ex-
i sten ce. A s a resu lt o f th i s, th ey are h eld i n
h i g h resp ect an d treated w i th g reat care.
F o r th e R o m an s, h o rse p ro d u cti o n w as
larg ely a co m m erci al en terp ri se an d an y
lo ss w as fo r th e m o st p art n an ci al. H o w -
ev er, th e p o ssi b i li ty th at th e p i ctu re d e-
scri b ed to m e b y D am d i n m i g h t h av e b een
so m ew h at i d eali zed m u st b e reco g n i zed
an d aw ai ts fu rth er i n v esti g ati o n .
2.3.2. TheCarnivorous Husbandry Model
A m o rtali ty cu rv e resem b li n g th e car-
n i v o ro u s h u sb an d ry m o d el F i g . 6) m i g h t
b e g en erated i f th e slau g h ter o f i n d i v i d u -
als at aro u n d th e ag e o f 2 to 4 y ears w ere
su p eri m p o sed o n D am d i n s p asto ral n o -
m ad i c attri ti o n al p attern L ev i n e 1 990) . A t
FIG. 3. M ap sh o w i n g lo cati o n o f T h o rn h i ll F arm .
54 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
th at ag e th e m eat i s sti ll at i ts m o st ten d er
R o ssi er an d B erg er 1 988) . M o reo v er, b y
th a t ti m e a h o rse s g ro w th ra te w o u ld
h av e d ecreased su b stan ti ally , w h i le i ts en -
e rg y n e e d s w o u ld co n ti n u e to i n cre a se
F i g . 7) W i llo u g h b y 1 975, p p . 40 43) . I t
w o u ld , th e re fo re , b e m o st e f ci e n t to
sl a u g h te r h o rse s, su rp l u s to a h e rd s
b re e d i n g a n d w o rk re q u i re m e n ts, b e -
tw een th e ag es o f 2 an d 4 y ears. T h i s w as
th e p attern d escri b ed b y m y i n fo rm an ts
fro m K a za k h sta n a n d b y Ja m b a lsu ra n .
S u ch a slau g h ter p attern h as also b een
o b serv ed fo r m o d ern M o n g o li a D am d i n ,
p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ) .
A v ery si m i lar ag e d i stri b u ti o n w as p ro -
d u ced fro m i n fo rm ati o n p ro v i d ed b y Y u ri
S h av ard ak , th e sem i -trad i ti o n al h o rse
h erd er fro m n o rth ern K azak h stan T ab le
5) . U n fo rtu n ately , th e d ata o n w h i ch th e
FIG. 4. T h o rn h i ll F arm ag e stru ctu re: ad ju sted an d u n ad ju sted . A h y p o th eti cal ad ju stm en t facto r
h as b een ap p li ed to co m p en sate fo r th e p ro b ab le u n d errep resen tati o n o f i m m atu re an i m als fo r
d etai ls see L ev i n e 1 979, 1 983) . T o o b tai n th e av erag e ad ju sted freq u en cy o f teeth fo r each ag e class
fro m b i rth to th e ag e o f 5 y ears, th e freq u en cy o f teeth i n each ag e class fro m 0 to 5 y ears) i s
m u lti p li ed b y 1 /0.23 0.1 7 ag e) . A g e refers to av erag e ag e; fo r exam p le, 0.5 i s u sed fo r 0 1 y ear) .
FIG. 5. T h o rn h i ll F arm an d K esteren ag e stru ctu re.
55 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
d i stri b u ti o n i s b a se d a re i n co m p l e te .
T h ere i s alm o st n o i n fo rm ati o n ab o u t i n -
fan t m o rtali ty . T h e ag es g i v en are ap p ro x-
i m ate an d th e ei g h t g eld i n g s, asso ci ated
w i th th e h erd , are exclu d ed fro m th e d i s-
tri b u ti o n . M o reo v er, i t i s n o t clear ei th er
FIG. 6. C arn i v o ro u s h u sb an d ry m o d el.
FIG. 7. H o rse g ro w th rate.
56 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
th at th e p o p u lati o n w as stab le o r th e ag e
stru ctu re stati c. O n th e o th er h an d , i ts
si m i lari ty to th e carn i v o ro u s h u sb an d ry
m o d el i s n o tew o rth y , as i s i ts d i fferen ce
fro m th e li fe assem b lag e m o d el F i g . 8) .
2.3.3. TheLifeAssemblageor CatastropheModel
T h e li fe assem b lag e m o d el F i g . 9) i s
rep resen tati v e ei th er o f a li v i n g p o p u la-
ti o n , a catastro p h e assem b lag e, o r an as-
FIG. 8. A g e stru ctu re o f S h av ard ak s h erd .
FIG. 9. L i fe assem b lag e m o d el.
57 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
sem b lag e i n w h i ch all ag e classes are rep -
resen ted as th ey w o u ld b e i n th e li v i n g
p o p u lati o n b ecau se o f co m p letely ran d o m
sam p li n g C au g h ley 1 966; D ah l an d H jo rt
1 976) . T h i s w o u ld also b e th e ag e stru ctu re
o f a li v i n g K h alk h a M o n g o l h erd . H erd
d ri v i n g o r an y h u n ti n g tech n i q u e th at
w o u ld ran d o m ly sam p le a w i ld -li v i n g
h o rse p o p u lati o n w o u ld p ro b ab ly p ro d u ce
th i s m o rtali ty p attern o r th at o f th e fam i ly
g ro u p v ari an t.
2.3.4. Social Group Models (Variants of the
LifeAssemblageModel)
2.3.4.1. The family group model. T h e
m ai n d i fferen ce b etw een th e li fe assem -
b lag e m o d el an d th e fam i ly g ro u p m o d el
F i g . 1 0) i s th e relati v ely sm all p ro p o rti o n
i n th e latter o f i n d i v i d u als 3 to 6 y ears o f
ag e, m ark i n g th e ab sen ce o f b ach elo r
m ales L ev i n e 1 979, 1 983) .
T h i s i s th e k i n d o f p a tte rn p ro d u ce d
b y th e w e ste rn E u ro p e a n , U p p e r P le i s-
to ce n e m a te ri a l p re v i o u sly stu d i e d , p a r-
ti cu la rly w h e n a n a d ju stm e n t fa cto r h a s
b e e n a p p li e d to co m p e n sa te fo r th e
p ro b a b le u n d e r-re p re se n ta ti o n o f i m -
m a tu re a n i m a ls L e v i n e 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 3 ) . F i g -
u re 1 1 sh o w s th e p o p u la ti o n stru ctu re o f
th e h o rse te e th fro m Ja u re n s, a n a tu ra l
d e p o si t, fo rm e d w h e n a ca ta stro p h i c
e v e n t o r se ri e s o f e v e n ts, p ro b a b ly
o o d s, o v e rca m e a n d sw e p t i ts v i cti m s
i n to a ca v e . F i g u re 1 2 sh o w s th e a g e
d i stri b u ti o n o f th e p o o le d a sse m b la g e s
fro m 1 0 P a le o li th i c si te s. S o m e o f th e
d e p o si ts i n clu d e d , fo r e x a m p le , th o se a t
S o lu tre, w e re fo rm e d b y h e rd d ri v e s,
a n d o th e rs, p ro b a b ly b y th e h u n ti n g o f
si n g le fa m i ly g ro u p s o r ra n d o m i n d i v i d -
u a ls.
2.3.4.2. The bachelor group model. T h e
m o st i m p o rtan t ch aracteri sti c o f th e h o rse
b ach elo r g ro u p , th e ab sen ce o f fem ales,
m ay b e d i f cu lt to d etect i n th e arch eao lo g i -
cal reco rd , si n ce few an ato m i cal elem en ts
sh o w m u ch sexu al d i m o rp h i sm L evi n e
1 979, 1 983) . T h e m o st arch aeo lo g i cally vi si -
b le featu re o f th e b ach elo r g ro u p m o d el
m i g h t, th erefo re, b e th e ab sen ce o f i n d i vi d -
u als less th an ab o u t 2 years o f ag e F i g . 1 3) .
F ro m th e ag e o f ab o u t 5 o r 6 years, so m e
leave th e b ach elo r g ro u p to b u i ld u p th ei r
FIG. 10. F am i ly g ro u p m o d el.
58 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
FIG. 12. P o o led P aleo li th i c si tes ag e d i stri b u ti o n .
FIG. 11. Jau ren s ag e d i stri b u ti o n .
59 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
o w n fam i ly g ro u p s B erg er 1 986) . S talli o n s
th at h ave lo st th ei r h arem s w i ll ei th er rejo i n
a b ach elo r g ro u p o r rem ai n so li tary. B ach e-
lo r g ro u p h u n ti n g m i g h t, i n th e arch aeo lo g -
i cal co n text, b e i n d i sti n g u i sh ab le fro m th e
stalk i n g o f p ri m e ad u lts.
2.3.5. TheStalkingModel
S talk i n g F i g . 1 4) i s a selecti ve h u n ti n g
tech n i q u e i n w h i ch th e p rey i s ap p ro ach ed
b y stealth an d k i lled L evi n e 1 983) . C h asi n g
i n d i vi d u al p rey fro m h o rseb ack w o u ld also
FIG. 13. B ach elo r g ro u p m o d el.
FIG. 14. S talk i n g m o d el.
60 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
b e i n clu d ed i n th i s categ o ry, si n ce th e i n i ti al
ap p ro ach w o u ld b e b y stealth an d th e selec-
ti o n b ased o n th e p referred rath er th an th e
m o st vu ln erab le i n d i vi d u al. H u n ti n g m ai n ly
p ri m e ad u lts sh o u ld p ro d u ce a d i stri b u ti o n
ap p ro xi m ati n g a b ell-sh ap ed cu rve. T h i s i s
th e k i n d o f p attern th at w o u ld resu lt fro m
th e H ad za d eci si o n to select larg e fat m ale
zeb ra as th ei r p referred p rey see S ecti o n
2.2.1 .6) .
T h e p o p u lati o n stru ctu re o f th e h o rses
fro m th e U k rai n i an settlem en t si te, D e-
rei v k a, b est ts th e stalk i n g m o d el F i g .
1 5) L ev i n e 1 990, 1 993) . T h e relev an t d e-
p o si ts are E n eo li th i c S red n i S to g I I a) ,
9
w i th cali b rated rad i o carb o n d ates ran g i n g
fro m aro u n d 3095 to 4570 B C , o f w h i ch th e
m ajo ri ty t w i th i n th e seco n d h alf o f th e
fth m i llen n i u m B C T ab le 1 ) T eleg i n
1 986) . T h e m o rtali ty d i stri b u ti o n o f th e
h o rses fro m D erei v k a i s ch aracteri zed b y
v ery sm all p ercen tag es o f i n d i v i d u als less
th an 4 y ears o ld an d m o re th an 8 o r 1 0
y ears o ld F i g . 1 6) . M o re th an h alf d i ed
b etw een th e ag es o f 5 an d 8 y ears 50.1 % ,
u n ad ju sted ) , w h en th ey w o u ld h av e b een
m o st u sefu l, b o th rep ro d u cti v ely an d as
w o rk an i m als, h ad th ey b een d o m esti -
cated . I t i s m o st u n li k ely th at h erd ers
w o u ld h av e slau g h tered th ei r h o rses at
th at ag e.
I t th erefo re seem s reaso n ab le to co n -
clu d e th at th e v ast m ajo ri ty , i f n o t th e
to tali ty , o f th e h o rses fro m D erei v k a w ere
w i ld an d , b ecau se o f th e relati v ely larg e
p ro p o rti o n d y i n g d u ri n g th ei r m o st p ro -
FIG. 15. M ap o f th e U k rai n e.
61 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
d u cti v e y ears, th e m o rtali ty d i stri b u ti o n
th at th ey b est t i s th e stalk i n g m o d el o r a
m i xtu re o f th e stalk i n g an d ran d o m i n d i -
v i d u al o r fam i ly g ro u p m o d els. T h e fact
th at 9 o f 1 0 sexab le to o th ro w s cam e fro m
m ales m i g h t i n d i cate th at b ach elo r g ro u p s
w ere h u n ted o r th at so m ew h at i n exp eri -
en ced stalli o n s w i th fam i ly g ro u p s w ere
relati v ely easy to k i ll. S tu d i es o f eq u i d b e-
h av i o r h av e sh o w n th at w h en a fam i ly
g ro u p i s attack ed , th e stalli o n w i ll tu rn
an d g h t to p ro tect h i s m ares an d y o u n g
D am d i n , p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ; M o h r
1 971 ; K ru u k 1 972) .
A cco rd i n g to G . an d M . G rsh i m ai lo i n
M o h r 1 971 , p . 67) ,
a w i ld stalli o n w h en h e scen ted d an g er, h e i n -
fo rm ed h i s h erd b y sn o rti n g an d at o n ce th ey
w ere o ff i n si n g le le, a y o u n g co lt i n th e lead
an d th e fo als i n th e m i d d le b etw een th e m ares.
A s lo n g as th e h erd w as o n th e m o v e an d th e
h u n ters w ere to th e si d e, so th e stalli o n stay ed to
th at si d e an d k ep t h i s h erd g o i n g i n th e d i recti o n
h e h ad ch o sen . . . A s so o n as th e h o rses h ad
b ro k en th ro u g h th e ch ai n o f h u n ters w h o n o w
h u n ted th em fro m b eh i n d , so th e stalli o n
ch an g ed h i s p o si ti o n an d w as n o w o n g u ard i n
th e v an an d i n th e w ay o f th o se fo llo w i n g h i m .
C lem en z 1 903) o b serv ed as rep o rted
b y M o h r 1 971 , p . 68) th at
th e stalli o n rem ai n s b eh i n d an d w atch es h i s
p u rsu ers. . . . T h e n earer th e h u n ters ap p ro ach
th e m o re u n easy i s th e stalli o n an d h e k eep s
b etw een th e h erd an d th o se p u rsu i n g i t . . . B u t
w h en th e terri b le en em y h o rses w i th th ei r tw o -
leg g ed ri d ers p ress th e h erd , th en th e stalli o n
tu rn s to attack h i s p u rsu ers an d i s th e rst to fall
to a b u llet.
H u n ters fro m D erei v k a m i g h t w ell h av e
tak en ad v an tag e o f th e ten d en cy o f stal-
li o n s to d efen d th ei r b an d s. I t i s also p o s-
si b le th at th e i n h ab i tan ts o f th e settlem en t
alread y h ad d o m esti cated o r tam ed h o rses
an d th at th ey w ere u sed fo r h u n ti n g w i ld
o n es, as h as b een reco rd ed fo r th e C en tral
A si an K alm u ck s an d so m e o f th e N o rth
A m eri can , cen tral, an d so u th ern P lai n s
tri b es M o h r 1 971 ; E w ers 1 955) . T h i s p o s-
si b i li ty seem ed to h av e b een su p p o rted b y
A n th o n y an d B ro w n s 1 991 ) ap p aren t d i s-
co v ery o f b i tw ear o n th e teeth o f th e so -
called ri tu al sk u ll fro m D erei v k a. H o w -
ev er, i t i s w o rth reaf rm i n g th at th ere i s
co n si d erab le d o u b t n o w ab o u t th e d ati n g
an d strati g rap h i c p o si ti o n o f th at sk u ll
R assam ak i n 1 994; T eleg i n , p erso n al co m -
m u n i cati o n ) .
T h at b ei n g sai d , i t m u st b e em p h asi zed
th at i n terp retati o n o f p o p u lati o n stru ctu re
sh o u ld n o t b e m ad e w i th referen ce to
m o rtali ty d ata alo n e. F o r exam p le, acco rd -
i n g to F i g . 1 7, th e ag e d i stri b u ti o n o f th e
h o rses fro m th e R o m an si te o f K esteren i s
FIG. 16. D erei v k a ag e stru ctu re.
62 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
rath er si m i lar to th at at D erei v k a. T h e p ro -
p o rti o n s o f h o rses d y i n g b etw een th e ag es
o f 5 an d 8 y ears are p arti cu larly clo se,
50.1 % at D erei v k a an d 46.3% at K esteren ,
w h ereas at T h o rn h i ll F arm i t i s o n ly 26.2% .
H o w ev er, a m u ch larg er p ro p o rti o n at
b o th K esteren 31 .5% ) an d T h o rn h i ll F arm
49.9% ) d i e b etw een th e ag es o f 8 an d 1 4
y ears th an at D erei v k a 1 8.6% ) . T h e av er-
ag e li fe exp ectan cy i s lo w er at D erei v k a
7.7 y ears) th an at ei th er T h o rn h i ll F arm
9.3 y ears) o r K esteren 8.3 y ears) . M o re-
o v er, co n textu al d ata leav e li ttle d o u b t
th at th e h o rses fro m K esteren w ere d o -
m esti cated an d su g g est th at th ey m i g h t
w ell h av e b een u sed fo r m i li tary p u rp o ses
L au w eri er an d H essi n g 1 992) . A lth o u g h
D erei v k a s co n text i s less strai g h tfo rw ard ,
i t n ev erth eless seem s to su p p o rt th e p ro p -
o si ti o n th at h o rses fro m th at si te w ere p re-
d o m i n an tly , i f n o t en ti rely , w i ld L ev i n e
1 990, 1 993 an d b elo w ) .
3. BOTAI
B o tai i s an E n eo li th i c settlem en t si te lo -
cated i n K o k ch etau O b last i n th e fo rest
step p e reg i o n o f n o rth ern K azak h stan
1 0
F i g . 1 8) Z ai b ert 1 993; K i slen k o 1 993) . T h e
si te co v ers ap p ro xi m ately 1 5 h ectares,
aro u n d 1 0,000 m
2
o f w h i ch h av e b een ex-
cav ated , o n th e h i g h , ri g h t b an k o f th e
I m an -B u rlu k , a tri b u tary o f th e ri v er I sh i m
F i g . 1 8) . A lth o u g h so m e rem ai n s o f P lei s-
to cen e m am m als h av e b een d i sco v ered
ero d i n g o u t o f th e ri v er b an k , th e p reh i s-
to ri c h u m an o ccu p ati o n o f B o tai ap p ar-
en tly exten d ed o n ly fro m th e M eso li th i c to
th e E n eo li th i c. S u b stan ti al N eo li th i c re-
m ai n s are p ro b ab ly p resen t, b u t excav a-
ti o n h as so far b een co n n ed larg ely to th e
E n eo li th i c o ccu p ati o n , d ated to aro u n d
3500 B .C . T ab le 1 2) L ev i n e an d K i slen k o
1 997) .
B o tai co m p ri ses aro u n d 300 p o ly g o n al
d w elli n g s, w h i ch sh o w u p o n th e su r-
face o f th e g ro u n d as ro w s o f sh allo w d e-
p ressi o n s. T h ey are p ack ed clo se to g eth er
i n a k i n d o f h o n ey co m b p attern , an d are
o ri en ted i n p arallel ro w s o n ei th er si d e o f
streets, 4 to 8 m w i d e. M o re th an 1 40 o f
th ese stru ctu res, each ran g i n g i n area
fro m 30 to 70 m
2
, h av e b een excav ated so
far K i slen k o 1 993) . M o re th an 40 rst p h a-
lan g es, m ai n ly o f h o rse, p o li sh ed an d co v -
ered w i th g eo m etri c d esi g n s, h av e b een
fo u n d i n v ari o u s d w elli n g s, as h as a
carv ed h u m an g u ri n e. A lth o u g h n o cem -
etery h as b een d i sco v ered at B o tai , so m e
FIG. 17. K esteren an d D erei v k a ag e stru ctu re.
63 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
h u m a n re m a i n s h a v e b e e n re co v e re d
fro m th e se ttl e m e n t, i n cl u d i n g a tre -
p an n ed h u m an sk u ll co v ered w i th o ch re,
fo u n d i n a n i ch e i n a w all; a saw n p i ece o f
o cci p i tal b o n e; an d a sk eleto n i n a p i t su r-
ro u n d ed b y h o rse sk u lls. I t h as b een esti -
m ated th at, d u ri n g th e 1 5 y ears o f B o tai s
excav ati o n , m o re th an 300,000 arti facts
an d 1 0 to n s o f b o n es 99.9% o f w h i ch b e-
lo n g ed to h o rse) h av e b een u n co v ered
V . F . Z ai b ert, p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ) .
T w o sh o rt p ap ers h av e b een p u b li sh ed
ab o u t th e b o n es, o n e b y K u z m i n a 1 993)
an d th e o th er b y E rm o lo v a 1 993) . T h e
fo rm er co n clu d es fro m a m o rp h o m etri cal
an aly si s o f 428 b o n es an d teeth th at th e
h o rse s fro m B o ta i w e re d o m e sti ca te d ,
w h i le th e la tte r m a i n ta i n s i n h e r v e ry
sh o rt, th o u g h b ro a d ly b a se d , stu d y o f
m o re th an 300,000 an ato m i cal elem en ts,
th at th ey w ere w i ld .
3.1. Site 31
D u ri n g Ju ly an d A u g u st 1 992, th e N o rth
K azak h stan A rch aeo lo g i cal E xp ed i ti o n , u n -
d er th e o verall d i recti o n o f V . F . Z ai b ert A .
K h . M arg u lan a I n sti tu te o f A rch aeo lo g y,
P etro p avlo vsk ) , excavated B o tai , S i te 31 F i g .
1 9) . A . M . K i slen k o A . K h . M arg u lan a I n sti -
tu te o f A rch aeo lo g y) an d N . S . T ataryn tseva
N o rth K azak h stan R eg i o n al H i sto ry an d
E th n o g rap h y M u seu m ) d i rected th e excava-
ti o n .
1 1
I ts ai m w as to p ro vi d e m e w i th a
fau n al assem b lag e to w h i ch m y an alyti cal
m eth o d s co u ld b e ap p li ed .
S i te 31 i s si tu ated i n th e so u th w estern
p art o f B o tai , ad jacen t to th e p resen t ri v er
b an k . T h i s lo cali ty w as ch o sen b ecau se o f
i ts v ery h i g h d en si ty o f cu ltu ral rem ai n s
b y co m p ari so n w i th o th er p arts o f th e set-
tlem en t, resu lti n g fro m i ts lo n g er p eri o d
o f u se. I t i n clu d es tw o stru ctu res, th e h ex-
FIG. 18. M ap sh o w i n g lo cati o n o f B o tai .
64 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
ag o n al D w elli n g s 26 an d 29 th e latter p ar-
ti ally d u g i n 1 981 ) ; a p o ssi b le earli er, rect-
a n g u l a r stru ctu re , D w e l l i n g 2 9 a ; a n d
v ari o u s d i tch es an d p i ts, b o th i n si d e an d
o u tsi d e o f th e stru ctu res F i g . 20) . T h e 1 992
excav ati o n co v ered 96 m
2
, o f w h i ch ab o u t
1 8 m
2
h ad b een ero d ed aw ay b y a g u lly .
T h e si te w as d i v i d ed i n to 2 2-m sq u ares,
w h i ch w ere fu rth er su b d i v i d ed i n to m eter
sq u ares. T h ese w ere d u g i n arb i trary
1 0-cm sp i ts an d all n d s, i n clu d i n g b o n es
an d teeth , w ere lo cated w i th i n th ese u n i ts.
A ll o steo lo g i cal m ateri al, i n clu d i n g v erte-
b rae an d u n i d en ti ab le b o n e frag m en ts,
w as co llected .
L a rg e co n ce n tra ti o n s o f b o n e s w e re
fo u n d w i th i n D w elli n g s 26, 29, an d 29a: o n
th ei r o o rs an d i n th e p o st-o ccu p ati o n al ll,
an d b etw een th e d w elli n g s an d w i th i n p i ts
an d tren ch es b o th i n si d e an d o u tsi d e o f
th em . A ro u n d 40,000 an ato m i cal elem en ts
an d alm o st 5000 arti factsi n clu d i n g ceram -
i cs, b o n e, an d sto n e to o ls, an d an en g raved
h o rse rst p h alan g ew ere reco vered fro m
S i te 31 F i g s. 21 an d 22) . M o re th an 99% o f
th e b o n es an d teeth reco vered w ere fro m
h o rse. A cu rso ry g lan ce at th e rest o f th e
fau n a su g g ests th at th e o th er b o n es w ere
larg ely i f n o t w h o lly fro m w i ld taxa. H erb i -
vo res, carn i vo res, an d b i rd s w ere p resen t.
S everal frag m en ts o f h u m an b o n e w ere also
reco vered , i n clu d i n g a p i ece o f saw n cra-
n i u m .
S u ch d en se b o n e co n cen trati o n s are
ch aracteri sti c i n p arti cu lar o f th e d w ell-
i n g s lo cated n ear th e ri v er b an k . V ari o u s
TABLE 12
Botai Radiocarbon Dates
Oxford Accelerator Laboratory
OxA-4315 Botai: 4630 75 years B.P. (bone)
1
361 1 B .C . 0.02) 3602 B .C . 351 2 B .C . 0.56) 3397 B .C . 3391 B .C . 0.28) 3332 B .C .
3221 B .C . 0.07) 31 93 B .C . 31 56 B .C . 0.06) 31 34 B .C .
2
3625 B .C . 0.07) 3572 B .C . 3538 B .C . 0.71 ) 3262 B .C . 3242 B .C . 0.22) 31 01 B .C .
OxA-4316 Botai: 4620 80 years B.P. (bone)
1
3508 B C 0.46) 3403 B .C . 3386 B .C . 0.27) 3327 B .C . 3321 B .C . 0.03) 3309 B .C .
3228 B C 0.1 3) 31 86 B .C . 31 59 0.1 1 ) 31 25 B .C .
2
3625 B C 0.06) 3572 B .C . 3538 B .C . 0.94) 3095 B .C .
OxA-4317 Botai: 4630 80 years B.P. (bone)
1
361 3 B .C . 0.03) 3601 B .C . 351 3 B .C . 0.54) 3396 B .C . 3392 B .C . 0.27) 3331 B .C .
3224 B .C . 0.09) 31 90 B .C . 31 57 B .C . 0.07) 31 33 B .C .
2
3628 B .C . 0.08) 3566 B .C . 3540 B .C . 0.69) 3258 B .C . 3245 B .C . 0.23) 3099 B .C .
Other Dates
a
I G A N -432 4340 1 20 y ears B .P . b o n e)
I G A N -449 3530 1 60 y ears B .P . ch arco al)
I G A N -4234 4900 50 y ears B .P . b o n e)
I G A N -4235 41 60 40 y ears B .P . b o n e)
I G A N -4236 4540 60 y ears B .P . b o n e)
I G A N -4237 4430 60 y ears B .P . b o n e)
a
F ro m Z ai b ert an d K i slen k o p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ) .
65 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
th eo ri es h av e b een p ro p o sed to exp lai n
th e fo rm ati o n p ro cesses i n v o lv ed . F o r th e
m o m en t, I b eli ev e th at th e b est exp lan a-
ti o n i s th at, as a d w elli n g fell i n to d ecay
an d w as ab an d o n ed , i t w as co n v erted i n to
a d u m p fo r th e b o n es an d carcass p arts o f
h o rses b u tch ered fo r co n su m p ti o n . T h i s
w o u ld exp lai n w h y th e b o n e co n cen tra-
ti o n s w ere fo u n d at v ari o u s lev els ab o v e
th e o o r, m i xed w i th th e clay o f w h i ch
w alls w ere ap p aren tly co n stru cted . I t i s
h o p ed th at n ew li g h t w i ll b e th ro w n o n
th i s p ro b lem b y a m i cro m o rp h o lo g i cal
an aly si s o f th e d ep o si ts b ei n g carri ed o u t
b y C . A . I . F ren ch D ep artm en t o f A rch ae-
o lo g y , C am b ri d g e) .
FIG. 19. P lan o f B o tai , sh o w i n g lo cati o n o f S i te 31 .
66 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
3.2. Botai Age Structure
T h e an aly si s o f th e o steo lo g i cal m ateri al
fro m S i te 31 h as so far b een co n cern ed
m ai n ly w i th th e p o p u lati o n stru ctu re o f
th e assem b lag e, b ased o n to o th eru p ti o n
an d w ear. B ecau se a d etai led strati g rap h i c
stu d y o f th e si te h as n o t y et b een co m -
p leted , fo r th e p u rp o ses o f th i s p ap er, all
o steo lo g i cal d ata h av e b een p o o led . T h e
rem ai n s stu d i ed to d ate co m e alm o st en -
ti rely fro m F , X , C H 35-37, an d T 38, th at i s,
fro m D w elli n g s 26, 29, 29a, p i t 4, an d th e
d ep o si ts b etw een th e d w elli n g s F i g . 20) .
5556 b o n es an d teeth exclu d i n g ri b s an d
u n i d en ti ab le b o n es) h av e b een exam -
i n ed an d co n sti tu te all th e eq u i d m ateri al
reco v ered fro m th o se u n i ts.
T h e ag e stru ctu re o f th e m ateri al exam -
i n e fro m B o tai so far i s b ased o n th e stu d y
o f 526 ch eek teeth ,
1 2
so m e lo o se, so m e i n
jaw s, w i th an M N I o f 29, b ased o n u p p er
D 2s an d P 2s. T ab le 1 3 sh o w s th at th e teeth
fro m B o tai , T h o rn h i ll F arm , an d D erei v k a
are all v ery si m i lar i n si ze to th o se u sed i n
th e d esi g n o f th e ag i n g sy stem em p lo y ed
h ere. T h e ag e d i stri b u ti o n s p ro d u ced b y
th i s m ean s sh o u ld , th erefo re, b e co m p a-
rab le fo r d etai ls o f ag i n g m eth o d see L e-
v i n e 1 979, 1 982, 1 983, 1 990) .
A s i n th e case o f Jau ren s an d th e p o o led
P alaeo li th i c d ata p rev i o u sly d escri b ed , th e
m o rtali ty d i stri b u ti o n o f th e teeth fro m
B o tai i s co m p arab le w i th th e li fe assem -
b lag e o r catastro p h e m o d el, p arti cu larly
w h en i t i s ad ju sted to co m p en sate fo r th e
u n d er-rep resen tati o n o f i m m atu re i n d i -
v i d u als F i g s. 1 1 , 1 2, 23) . T h at i s, all ag e
classes are rep resen ted ap p ro xi m ately as
th ey w o u ld h av e b een i n th e li v i n g p o p u -
lati o n .
A co m p ari so n o f th e d ata fro m B o tai
w i th th o se fro m D erei v k a an d T h o rn h i ll
F arm F i g . 24) sh o w s th at th e h o rses fro m
T h o rn h i ll F arm , d esp i te th e p ro b ab le i ll
treatm en t as m an i fested b y h i g h i n ci -
d en ces o f b o n e p ath o lo g y , h ad a lo n g er
av erag e li fe exp ectan cy 9.3 y ears) th an
th o se fro m D erei v k a 7.7 y ears) an d B o tai
6.5 y ears) .
1 3
O n ly ab o u t 33% o f th e h o rses
at T h o rn h i ll F arm d i ed b etw een th e ag es
o f 3 an d 8 y ears, w h i le th e g u re fo r D e-
rei v k a w as 63% an d th at fo r B o tai w as
55% . A p p ro xi m ately 55% o f th e h o rses
fro m T h o rn h i ll F arm d i ed b etw een th e
ag es o f 8 an d 1 6 y ears, as ag ai n st 20% fo r
D erei v k a an d 24% fo r B o tai .
T h e ag e d i stri b u ti o n s fo r b o th B o tai an d
D erei v k a t h u n ti n g m o d els, b u t th e d i f-
feren ces b etw een th em stro n g ly su g g est
th at d i fferen t h u n ti n g tech n i q u es w ere
u sed F i g . 24) . F o r exam p le, alth o u g h th e
m o rtali ty rates fo r b o th B o tai an d D e-
rei v k a are v ery si m i lar fro m th e ag e o f 8
y ears an d o n w ard , th e rates fo r y o u n g er
h o rses are d i sti n ctly d i v erg en t. A t D e-
rei v k a m o rtali ty i s co n cen trated b etw een
th e ag es o f 5 an d 8 y ears, w h i le at B o tai i t
exten d s b ack at least to 3 y ears. T h e d i f-
feren ce i s ev en g reater w h en th e d i stri b u -
ti o n i s ad ju sted . W h i le th e h o rses fro m
D erei v k a w ere p ro b ab ly stalk ed , i t seem s
th at th o se fro m B o tai w ere k i lled i n h erd
d ri v es.
3.3. Other Supporting Data
T h i s i n te rp re ta ti o n i s su p p o rte d b y
o th e r ch a ra cte ri sti cs o f th e a sse m b la g e s.
F o r e x a m p le , th e se x ra ti o s a t th e tw o
si te s a re v e ry d i ffe re n t. A t D e re i v k a th e
ra ti o o f m a le s to fe m a le s i s 9 : 1 o n th e
b a si s o f ja w b o n e s) , w h i ch i s co m p a ti b le
w i th sta lk i n g ; w h i le a t B o ta i th e ra ti o i s
a lm o st 1 : 1 7 : 6 fo r ja w b o n e s a n d 1 7 : 2 0
fo r p e lv e s) , w h i ch i s b e st e x p la i n e d b y a
n o n -se le cti v e te ch n i q u e , su ch a s h e rd
d ri v i n g . T h e sm a ll p ro p o rti o n s o f p a th o -
lo g i ca l b o n e s a t D e re i v k a a n d B o ta i b y
co m p a ri so n w i th T h o rn h i ll F a rm a lso
su p p o rt th e th e o ry th a t th e h o rse s a t th e
fo rm e r tw o si te s w e re w i ld L e v i n e , i n
p re p a ra ti o n ) .
H erd d ri v i n g i s a b etter p arad i g m fo r
w h at w as h ap p en i n g at B o tai th an o th er
n o n -selecti v e h u n ti n g tech n i q u es fo r v ar-
i o u s re a so n s. H e rd d ri v e s n e ce ssi ta te
la rg e -sca le h u m a n co o p e ra ti o n a n d a t
67 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
F
I
G
.
2
0
.
P
l
a
n
o
f
e
x
c
a
v
a
t
i
o
n
,
F
-
X
-
C
h
-
T
.
R
e
d
r
a
w
n
f
r
o
m
K
i
s
l
e
n
k
o
a
n
d
T
a
t
a
r
y
n
t
s
e
v
a

u
n
p
u
b
l
i
s
h
e
d
)
.
68 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
least seaso n al ag g reg ati o n . A lth o u g h th e
si ze o f th e p o p u lati o n at B o tai at an y o n e
ti m e i s n o t k n o w n , av ai lab le ev i d en ce su g -
g ests th at i t p ro b ab ly w as relati v ely larg e.
H erd d ri v es u su ally resu lt i n th e d eath s o f
larg e n u m b ers o f an i m als. T h e q u an ti ty o f
h o rses k i lled at B o tai w as i m m en se. A d d i -
ti o n ally , su ch a larg e-scale slau g h ter, ac-
co rd i n g to eth n o g rap h i c an d arch aeo lo g i -
cal ev i d en ce, o ften resu lts i n v ery w astefu l
u n d er-u ti li zati o n o f carcasses. T h e rela-
ti v ely h i g h i n ci d en ces o f arti cu lated li m b
b o n es an d v erteb rae at B o tai , th e larg e
co n cen trati o n s o f b o n es ap p aren tly d i s-
card ed to g eth er, th e u n d am ag ed state o f
m an y an ato m i cal elem en ts, an d th e rela-
ti v ely sm all p ro p o rti o n o f u n i d en ti ab le
frag m en ts su g g est th at larg e n u m b ers o f
an i m als w ere k i lled m o re o r less si m u lta-
n e o u sl y a n d th a t e sh w a s p l e n ti fu l
en o u g h to b e w asted .
D e re i v k a w a s, b y co m p a ri so n , a sm a ll
se ttle m e n t, co m p ri si n g p ro b a b ly th re e
d w e l l i n g s a t m o st. F e w e r th a n 5 0 0 0
b o n e s a n d te e th o f a ll ta x a w e re re co v -
e re d , a b o u t 6 0 % o f w h i ch w e re fro m
h o rse . I ts p o p u la ti o n , a lm o st ce rta i n ly
n e v e r co n si sti n g o f m o re th a n a fe w fa m -
i li e s, w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n su f ci e n t fo r
th e h u g e k i lls su sta i n e d a t B o ta i . T h e
re la ti v e ly sm a ll si ze o f th e se ttle m e n t
a n d fa u n a l a sse m b la g e a t D e re i v k a , a s
w e ll a s i ts a g e a n d se x stru ctu re , i s co m -
p a ti b le w i th th e sta lk i n g m o d e l.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. Speculating about the Social
Implications of Horse Hunting Methods
T h ere i s, acco rd i n g to A n th o n y 1 995) ,
ev i d en ce o f b i tw ear o n so m e o f th e teeth
fro m B o tai . L eav i n g m eth o d o lo g i cal q u es-
ti o n s asi d e, i n v i ew o f th e i m p o rtan t ar-
ch aeo lo g i cal an d o steo lo g i cal d i fferen ces
b etw een th e tw o si tes, i t i s i n teresti n g to
sp ecu late ab o u t th e so ci al i m p li cati o n s o f
stalk i n g an d ch asi n g fro m h o rseb ack v er-
su s h erd d ri v i n g at B o tai an d D erei v k a.
C are m u st, o f co u rse, b e tak en w h en i n -
v o k i n g eth n o g rap h i c p arallels to i n terp ret
arch aeo lo g i cal d ata. N ev erth eless, ev en
tak i n g i n to acco u n t th e b eh av i o ral d i ffer-
en ces b etw een h o rses an d b i so n , an exam -
i n ati o n o f E w er s stu d y o f th e B lack fo o t
can tak e u s d o w n so m e i n teresti n g an d
FIG. 21. B o tai b o n e co n cen trati o n .
69 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
u n exp ected p ath s i n to E n eo li th i c cen tral
E u rasi a E w ers 1 955) .
A cco rd i n g to E w ers, th ere w ere b asi -
cally tw o m eth o d s o f b i so n h u n ti n g fro m
h o rseb ack , th e su rro u n d an d th e ch ase:
T h e su rro u n d m eth o d em p lo y ed a co n si d erab le
n u m b er o f h o rsem en to en ci rcle a h erd o f b u f-
falo , start th em m i lli n g i n a ci rcle, an d sh o o t
d o w n th e fri g h ten ed an d co n fu sed an i m als as
th ey ro d e aro u n d th em .
T h e ch a se w a s a stra i g h ta w a y ru sh b y
m o u n ted m en , each h u n ter si n g li n g o u t an an i -
m al fro m th e h erd , ri d i n g alo n g si d e i t an d k i lli n g
i t at clo se q u arters, th en m o v i n g o n to an o th er
an i m al an d k i lli n g i t i n li k e m an n er. T h e B lack -
fo o t seem to h av e v i rtu ally ab an d o n ed th e su r-
ro u n d i n fav o r o f th e ch ase aro u n d th e m i d d le o f
th e 1 9th cen tu ry . D u ri n g th e last tw o d ecad es o f
b u ffalo h u n ti n g th e ch ase alo n e w as em p lo y ed
as a m eth o d o f k i lli n g b u ffalo fro m h o rseb ack .
E w ers 1 955, p . 1 54)
E w ers h y p o th esi zed th at th e su rro u n d
m eth o d h ad ev o lv ed o u t o f th e p re-h o rse
co m m u n al h erd d ri v e. T h i s h u n ti n g tech -
n i q u e w as d ep en d en t b o th o n th e sea-
so n al ag g reg ati o n o f u su ally sm all scat-
tered b an d s i n to larg e cam p s an d o n th e
b i so n s h i g h p o p u lati o n d en si ty , p arti cu -
larly i n early w i n ter. T h e w h o le co m m u -
n i ty w o u ld h av e co o p erated i n d ri v i n g th e
b i so n h erd d o w n V -sh ap ed ap p ro ach es i n to
co rrals o r p o u n d s o r o v er cli ffs. W h en su c-
cessfu l, i t co u ld p ro d u ce h u g e su rp lu ses,
p erm i tti n g i n ef ci en t exp lo i tati o n o f th e
carcasses. H o w ev er, b u ffalo h u n ti n g o n
fo o t i n th e P ed estri an C u ltu re P eri o d m u st
h av e b een exceed i n g ly d an g ero u s, ard u -
o u s, ti m e co n su m i n g , an d so m eti m es u n -
su ccessfu l E w ers 1 955, p . 304) .
A cco rd i n g to E w ers, th e acq u i si ti o n o f
th e h o rse e v e n tu a l l y tra n sfo rm e d th e
co m m u n al h erd d ri v e i n to th e su rro u n d :
I n th e m o u n te d su rro u n d th e I n d i a n s
si m p ly to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e h o rse s
g re a te r m o b i l i ty to e x p e d i te th e k i l l .
H o rsem en also rep laced fo o tm en i n d ri v -
i n g an d lu ri n g b u ffalo i n to p o u n d s o r o v er
cli ffs E w ers 1 955, p . 304) .
T h e ch ase rep resen ted a fu rth er step i n
th e d ev elo p m en t o f b i so n h u n ti n g . I t w as
m o re exi b le, ef ci en t, an d less h azard -
o u s th an th e su rro u n d ; an y n u m b er o f
h u n ters co u ld p arti ci p ate; i t w as less ti m e
co n su m i n g ; an d i t faci li tated th e slau g h ter
FIG. 22. E n g rav ed p h alan g e fro m B o tai 31 .
70 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
TABLE 13
Tooth Size Comparison
T o o th Jaw
H ei g h t
m m )
M ean
M -D
P al. X )
S D
P al.
N o .
P al.
M -D
D er
x) z D er
M -D
B o t
x) z B o t
M -D
F T F
x) z F T F
P 2 U 250300 377 1 1 .9 5 323 0.45
350400 374 26.7 1 4 406 1 .20 362 0.04
361 0.05
550600 389 23.3 1 7 368 0.90 347 0.1 8
383 0.26 354 0.1 5
37 0.52
L 250300 339 1 8.2 1 6 333 0.33
347 0.44
300350 340 1 8.6 23 293 2.53 344 0.22 343 0.02
450500 335 1 8.7 25 307 1 .50 340 0.27 328 0.04
344 0.48 335 0.00 290 0.24
500550 325 1 6.6 1 1 331 0.36 303 0.06
P 3 U 350400 299 1 4 9 309 0.71
307 0.57
277 1 .57
450500 302 1 2.8 1 7 301 0.08
31 2 0.78
650700 31 4 1 3.5 1 0 295 1 .41
700750 31 4 1 5 8 297 1 .1 3 282 0.21
324 0.67 281 0.22
P 4 U 450500 287 1 1 .4 1 2 294 0.61 258 0.25
266 1 .84 259 0.25
750800 298 1 5.7 1 0 287 0.70
L 350400 273 1 3.4 4 267 0.45
400450 293 3.6 3 242 1 .42
247 1 .28
M 1 U 350400 258 1 1 .7 7 264 0.51
400450 257 21 .8 1 6 229 0.1 3
231 0.1 2
650700 274 1 0.8 1 6 259 1 .39
266 0.74
700750 283 25.3 5 268 0.59 275 0.04
274 0.04
M 2 U 700750 270 1 2.4 9 258 0.97
259 0.89
750800 280 1 8 1 6 273 0.39 268 0.07
267 0.07
L 400450 279 20.3 4 232 0.23
241 0.1 9
750800 288 6.3 4 284 0.63
M 3 U 400450 300 25.8 9 295 0.02
286 0.05
L 350400 322 21 .7 32 332 0.46 301 0.1
31 7 0.23 325 0.01
309 0.60
a
M easu rem en ts to 0.1 m m . D er, D erei vk a; F T F , T h o rn h i ll F arm ; B o t, B o tai . N o . P al., n u m b er o f sp eci m en s i n
P aleo li th i c sam p le; S D P al., stan d ard d evi ati o n o f P aleo li th i c sam p le; h ei g h t to o th h ei g h t fro m d i vi si o n o f th e
ro o t; M -D , m esi o -d i stal d i am eter o f to o th ; X, sam p le m ean o f th e P aleo li th i c teeth ; x, th e sam p le i n d i vi d u al teeth
fro m B o t, F T F o r D er m esi o -d i stal d i am eter to b e co m p ared w i th th e P aleo li th i c m ean ; z, n u m b er o f stan d ard
d evi ati o n s xi s fro m th e sam p le m ean zxX/S D ) 1 .0 S D i n d i cates th at xi s n o t si g n i can tly d i fferen t i n si ze
fro m X, 2.0 S D i n d i cates th at th ey m i g h t b elo n g to tw o sep arate p o p u lati o n s, 3.0 S D i n d i cates th at th ey are
si g n i can tly d i fferen t) . N o n e o f th e z sco res fro m D er, F T F , o r B o t are m o re th an 3 S D fro m th e m ean o f th e
P aleo li th i c m ateri al an d o n ly o n e i s m o re th an 2S D , w h i ch m ean s th at, fo r th e p u rp o ses o f ag i n g , th ey can b e
treated as i f th ey b elo n g ed to o n e p o p u lati o n .
71 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
o f selected i n d i v i d u als. A cco rd i n g to E w -
er s i n fo rm an ts, i n th e co u rse o f a si n g le
ch ase, n o m o re th an fo u r o r v e b i so n
co w s w o u ld h av e b een k i lled . L ess sk i lled
h u n ters o r th o se w i th i n feri o r h o rses
w o u ld cap tu re n o m o re th an o n e o r tw o
E w ers 1 955, p . 1 59) .
4.2. Botai and Dereivka
A lth o u g h E w ers w as talk i n g ab o u t th e
b i so n h u n t, w e k n o w S ecti o n 2.1 .1 .2) th at
feral h o rses can b e cap tu red b y d ri v i n g ,
su rro u n d i n g , ch asi n g , o r stalk i n g . T h ere
are o b v i o u s p arallels b etw een B o tai an d
th e h erd d ri v e o r su rro u n d an d b etw een
D erei v k a an d th e ch ase o r th e stalk . T h i s
i n terp retati o n i s su p p o rted n o t o n ly b y th e
p o p u lati o n stru ctu res o f th e tw o si tes, b u t
also b y o th er featu res, su ch as th e settle-
m en t an d assem b lag e si ze an d th e sex
stru ctu re. H o w ev er, i t w o u ld b e fo o lh ard y
to try to d raw to o m an y co n clu si o n s fro m
a sam p le o f o n ly tw o si tes, p arti cu larly i n
v i ew o f th e fact th at B o tai i s ro u g h ly 2400
k m aw ay fro m an d , ap p aren tly , 1 000 y ears
FIG. 23. B o tai ag e stru ctu re: ad ju sted an d u n ad ju sted .
FIG. 24. B o tai , D erei v k a, an d T h o rn h i ll F arm ag e stru ctu re.
72 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
later th an D erei v k a. H o w ev er, n ew re-
search su g g ests th at th e E n eo li th i c lev el at
D erei v k a, i n fact, exten d s fro m T ri p o ly e
B -I I /C -I to C -I I an d th erefo re sh o u ld b e
d ated to 3700 31 50 B .C ., n o t 4000 4500
B .C . as su g g ested b y T eleg i n R assam ai n
1 994; p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n ) . I f th i s i s
tru e , th e n B o ta i a t a ro u n d 3500 B . C . )
co u ld b e co n tem p o rary w i th o r ev en ear-
li e r th a n D e re i v k a . T h e a rch a e o lo g y o f
th ese tw o reg i o n s i s sti ll o p en to rev i si o n
so th at i t w o u ld b e a u n w i se to tak e an y o f
th i s to o seri o u sly . N ev erth eless, i t i s w o rth
co n si d eri n g fo r a m o m en t w h y o n e h u n t-
i n g m e th o d ra th e r th a n a n o th e r m i g h t
h av e b een selected .
P erh ap s E w ers w as w ro n g i n co n clu d -
i n g th at th e h erd d ri v e w as m o re d an g er-
o u s, ti m e co n su m i n g , an d g en erally i n ef-
ci en t th an th e ch ase. M ay b e th ese w ere
n o t th e p ri m e co n si d erati o n s d eterm i n i n g
w h i ch m eth o d o f h u n ti n g sh o u ld b e em -
p lo y ed . P o ssi b ly th e h o rses at D erei v k a
w ere stalk ed o n fo o t rath er th an ch ased
fro m h o rseb ack . F acto rs q u i te d i fferen t
eco lo g i cal, so ci al, eco n o m i c, o r cu ltu ral
th an th o se i n sp i ri n g th e B lack fo o t co u ld
h av e b een cru ci al to th e d eci si o n ab o u t
w h i ch m eth o d to u se. F o r exam p le, th e
h erd d ri v e co u ld h av e b een th e m ag n et
u sed to d raw to g eth er th e larg e n u m b ers
o f p eo p le n eed ed fo r o th er acti v i ti es. T h e
ad v an tag es th u s o b tai n ed m i g h t w ell h av e
o u tw ei g h ed th o se d eri v ed fro m th e m o re
i n d i v i d u ali sti c ch ase. S o ci al o r en v i ro n -
m en tal i n stab i li ty m i g h t w ell h av e fav o red
su ch a sce n a ri o . T ra d i ti o n co u ld h a v e
acted as a b rak e to p ro g ress, m ai n tai n i n g
te ch n o lo g i ca lly o b so le te , b u t cu ltu ra lly
u sefu l p racti ces. I n o th er w o rd s, i t seem s
m o st li k ely th at h o rse h u n ti n g d i d n o t so
m u ch ev o lv e as ad ap t.
5. CONCLUSION
T h e resu lts o f th e an aly ses carri ed o u t
o n th e d ata fro m D erei v k a an d B o tai su g -
g est th at th e v ast m ajo ri ty o f th e h o rses
fro m th o se si tes w ere k i lled i n th e h u n t.
D i fferen t h u n ti n g tech n i q u es w ere em -
p lo y ed at each o f th em : stalk i n g o r ch as-
i n g at D erei v k a an d d ri v i n g o r su rro u n d -
i n g at B o tai . T h e p o ssi b i li ty th at so m e o f
th e h o rses m i g h t h av e b een tam ed o r d o -
m esti cated , as su g g ested b y A n th o n y an d
B ro w n s b i tw ear stu d i es, i s certai n ly n o t
exclu d ed . H o w ev er, th e p o ssi b i li ty th at
th e w ear p attern th ey d e n e as b i tw ear
co u ld h av e o th er cau ses h as n o t b een d i s-
p ro v ed .
A lth o u g h th e stu d y o f p o p u lati o n stru c-
tu re i s a cru ci al step i n th e an aly si s o f
alm o st an y fau n al assem b lag e, i t sh o u ld
n o t b e th e o n ly step . I f, as i s o ften th e case,
an assem b lag e w ere co m p o sed o f a p al-
i m p sest o f exp lo i tati o n m eth o d s, i t m i g h t
n o t b e p o ssi b le b y m ean s o f th e p o p u la-
ti o n stru ctu re alo n e to d i sen tan g le th e
w h o le ran g e o f co m p o n en t p attern s. I f, fo r
exam p le, a relati v ely sm all n u m b er o f
h o rses at B o tai o r D erei v k a w ere ri d d en ,
th ei r ag e d i stri b u ti o n w o u ld b e sw am p ed
b y th at o f th e m u ch larg er n u m b er o f
h u n ted an i m als. C o m p lem en tary an aly ti -
cal m eth o d s m u st, i n th at case, b e selected
th at w i ll i d en ti fy , o u t o f th e w h o le assem -
b lag e, p o o rly rep resen ted b u t i m p o rtan t
acti v i ti es.
S o m e su ch m eth o d s are q u i te si m p le,
ju st req u i ri n g ap p li cati o n o f k n o w n tech -
n i q u es. F o r exam p le, th e p resen ce o f sh ed
d e ci d u o u s te e th w i th i n , a n d co n te m p o -
rary w i th , en clo su res m i g h t su g g est th at
y o u n g an i m als w ere b ei n g rai sed an d p o s-
si b ly th at co n tro lled b reed i n g h ad b een
tak i n g p lace. B u t u n less carefu l si ev i n g
w ere carri ed o u t, i t i s u n li k ely th at th ese
elem en ts w o u ld b e reco v ered . V ari o u s sci -
e n ti c m e th o d s, cu rre n tly b e i n g d e v e l-
o p ed , co u ld also b e ap p li cab le to th e stu d y
o f h o rse e xp lo i ta ti o n . F o r i n sta n ce , th e
cu rren t h o p e i s th at i t w i ll b e p o ssi b le to
u se an ci en t D N A to d i sti n g u i sh p o p u la-
ti o n s a n d to i d e n ti fy g e n e ti c v a ri a b i li ty
a n d ch a n g e . O n e a p p l i ca ti o n o f th i s
m eth o d w o u ld b e to d eterm i n e w h eth er
sp eci m en s w i th b i tw ear b elo n g ed to th e
73 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
sa m e p o p u l a ti o n a s th o se w i th o u t i t.
L i p i d , stab le i so to p e, an d trace elem en t
an aly ses co u ld b e u sed to lo o k at an o th er
asp ect o f p o p u lati o n v ari ab i li ty d i et.
1 4
I t
h a s b e e n h y p o th e si ze d th a t a h o m o g e -
n eo u s h o rse p o p u lati o n w o u ld h av e h ad a
h o m o g en eo u s d i et. D i fferen t m eth o d s o f
exp lo i tati o n co u ld affect th e n atu ral p at-
tern ei th er, fo r exam p le, b y m i xi n g to -
g eth er i n d i v i d u als fro m v ari o u s p o p u la-
ti o n s o r b y co n tro lli n g access to fo o d so
th a t d o m e sti ca te d o r ta m e d a n i m a l s
w o u ld h av e a d i fferen t i so to p i c si g n atu re
th an w i ld o n es H en ry S ch w arcz, p erso n al
co m m u n i ca ti o n ) . M i cro m o rp h o l o g i ca l
an aly ses o f si te fo rm ati o n p ro cesses can
also co n tri b u te to o u r u n d erstan d i n g o f
h u m a n h o rse re la ti o n sh i p s. S i n ce w i ld
an d feral h o rses are n o to ri o u sly sh y o f
h u m an b eg i n s, th e i d en ti cati o n o f an -
ci en t h o rse d u n g h eap s w i th i n a settle-
m en t co u ld i n d i cate th at tam ed o r d o m es-
ti cated h o rses h ad b een li v i n g at th e si te
o r n earb y . T h e d u n g , a b y -p ro d u ct o f i n -
ti m acy b etw een p eo p le an d h o rses, co u ld
h av e b een co llected as a b u i ld i n g m ateri al,
fo r fu el, o r fo r ferti li zer C . A . I . F ren ch ,
p erso n al co m m u n i cati o n
1 5
) . A n o th er ap -
p ro ach i s th e stu d y o f h o rse p aleo p ath o l-
o g y . O n th e o n e h an d , th e i n ci d en ce o f
p ath o lo g y am o n g w i ld h o rses i s li k ely to
b e lo w er th an th at am o n g d o m esti cates.
O n th e o th er h an d , th e k i n d s o f p ath o lo -
g i es fo u n d i n h o rses ri d d en o r u sed fo r
tracti o n sh o u ld also b e i n d i cati v e o f th e
k i n d o f w o rk to w h i ch th ey w ere p u t. P re-
li m i n ary w o rk o n th e o steo lo g i cal m ateri al
fro m B o tai , D erei v k a, T h o rn h i ll F arm , an d
a sam p le o f m o d ern an d S cy th i an co m p ar-
ati v e m ateri al su p p o rts th ese h y p o th eses
1 6
L ev i n e 1 998b ) .
A s n ew an aly ti cal tech n i q u es b eco m e
av ai lab le, w e m u st co n si d er h o w w e can
exp lo i t th em to su i t th e p u rp o ses o f o u r
research . T h e p o ten ti al fo r th e stu d y o f th e
b e g i n n i n g s o f h o rse d o m e sti ca ti o n a n d
p asto ral n o m ad i sm to y i eld n ew an d ex-
ci ti n g resu lts i s alm o st u n li m i ted , i f ap -
p ro ach ed w i th an o p en m i n d an d a sen se
o f ad v en tu re.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I co u ld n o t p o ssi b ly n am e all th e p eo p le, p arti cu -
larly fro m th e fo rm er S o v i et U n i o n , w h o se su p p o rt
an d h o sp i tali ty co n tri b u ted to th e p ro d u cti o n o f th i s
p ap er. T h o se to w h o m I am m o st i n d eb ted i n clu d e
A . M . K i slen k o , N . S . T atary n tsev a, V . F ., Z ai b ert, A .
B ay o v , an d V . R u tter fo r th ei r h elp i n K azak h stan ;
an d D . Y . T eleg i n , Y . Y . R assam ak i n , an d th e late
N . G . B elan fo r th ei r h elp i n K i ev . I also ack n o w led g e
th e k i n d n ess an d p ati en ce o f m y i n fo rm an ts: D am -
d i n , Jam b alsu ran , D . C h . M u rzab aev , Y . I . S h a-
v ard ak , M . K . K o zh ak h m eto v , E . Z . Z ak i r y an o v , an d
B . K an a n . F ro m m y sm all arm y o f i n terp reters an d
tran slato rs I , i n p arti cu lar, th an k N . M u si n a, N .
Z h ab ro v ets, G . Z ero v a, G . L . B arn es, K . C h ab ro s, an d
H . L ew i s. I am p arti cu larly g ratefu l to M . K . Jo n es fo r
h i s u n fai li n g su p p o rt o f th i s p ro ject an d fo r read i n g
an d co m m en ti n g o n th i s p ap er. I also th an k , fo r th ei r
su p p o rt, A . C . R en frew , P . A . Jew ell, A . G ., S h erratt,
G . N . B ai ley , L . B . Jeffco tt, J. C lu tto n -B ro ck , M . L eg -
g att, an d J. R i p p en g al. I am g ratefu l to th e O xfo rd
A ccelerato r L ab o rato ry fo r p ro v i d i n g m e w i th rad i o -
carb o n d ates. I th an k G . O w en an d A . B ak er H ad -
d o n L i b rary , C am b ri d g e) fo r th ei r h elp w i th th e p h o -
to g rap h y . I also th an k Jo h n O S h ea an d m y
rev i ew ers, p arti cu larly R . W . R ed d i n g , fo r th ei r v alu -
ab le co m m en ts an d su g g esti o n s. I g ratefu lly ac-
k n o w led g e th e fo llo w i n g o rg an i zati o n s fo r fu n d i n g
th i s research : th e M cD o n ald I n sti tu te fo r A rch aeo -
lo g i cal R esearch , th e W en n erG ren F o u n d ati o n , th e
B ri ti sh A cad em y , th e L eak ey F o u n d ati o n , th e O xfo rd
A rch aeo lo g i cal U n i t, an d th e N atu ral E n v i ro n m en tal
R esearch C o u n ci l.
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1 996 P ro b lem s related to arch aeo zo o lo g i cal re-
search o n U k rai n i an N eo li th i c to B ro n ze
A g e si tes [O p ro b lem e ark h eo zo o -
lo g i ch esk i k h i ssled o v an i i p am i atn i k o v N e-
o li ta-B ro n zy U k rai n y ]. I n The Don-Donets
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European Steppe and Forest Steppe [Dono-
Donetskii Region v Sisteme Drevnoctei Epokhi
Bronzy Vostochnoevropeiskoi Stepi i Lesostepi].
76 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E
R u ssi an -U k rai n i an C o n feren ce an d U k rai -
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NOTES
1
R ed u cti o n i n si ze o n th e o n e h an d an d i n crease
i n v ari ab i li ty o n th e o th er are classi c i n d i cato rs o f
d o m esti cati o n U erp m an n 1 990, p . 1 27) .
2
E xcav ated i n 1 994 an d 1 995 b y T ati an a N eru -
d en k o , S ci en ti c D i recto r o f th e C h i g i ri n S tate H i s-
to ri cal P ark , U k rai n e.
3
C lu tto n -B ro ck 1 992, p . 1 9) d e n es feral an i m als
as th o se th at li v e i n a self-su stai n ed p o p u lati o n
after a h i sto ry o f d o m esti cati o n .
4
C o llecti v i zati o n refers to th e so ci ali sati o n o f ag -
77 O R I G I N S O F H O R S E D O M E S T I C A T I O N
ri cu ltu re, b y w h i ch fo o d p ro d u cti o n w as tran sferred
fro m p ri v ate farm s to co llecti v e an d state farm s re-
sp ecti v ely , k o lk h o zes an d so v k h o zes) . T h i s p ro cess
b eg an i n R u ssi a i n 1 927 Z alesk i 1 984) .
5
F o llo w i n g S erp ell, T h e O xfo rd E n g li sh D i cti o -
n ary O E D ) d e n es a p et as A n y an i m al th at i s
d o m esti cated o r tam ed an d k ep t as a fav o u ri te, o r
treated w i th i n d u lg en ce an d fo n d n ess. I n p racti ce,
h o w ev er, th e w o rd ten d s to b e u sed m o re lo o sely as
a b lan k et d escri p ti o n fo r an i m als th at are k ep t fo r n o
o b v i o u s p racti cal o r eco n o m i c p u rp o se S erp ell
1 989, p . 1 0) . S i n ce th e fo rm er d e n i ti o n m ay b e i m -
p o ssi b le to ap p ly to arch aeo lo g i cal an d eth n o g rap h i c
co n texts, th e latter i s b e u sed h ere.
6
A lso w ri tten as C o m an ch e.
7
A n aul i s a K azak h v i llag e.
8
A g e d eterm i n ati o n s fro m L au w eri er an d H essi n g
1 992) .
9
A cco rd i n g to a n ew ty p o lo g y , i t b elo n g s to th e
D erei v k a cu ltu re w i th i n th e S red n i S to g reg i o n R as-
sam ak i n 1 994) .
1 0
B o tai i s lo cated at 53 1 0 n o rth lati tu d e, 67 40
east lo n g i tu d e. T h e cen tral p art o f th e settlem en t i s
238 m ab o v e sea lev el.
1 1
A ll th e si te i n fo rm ati o n p resen ted h ere i s fro m
th e excav ati o n n o tes o f A . M K i slen k o an d N . S .
T atary n tsev a.
1 2
T eeth less th an h alf co m p lete are exclu d ed fro m
th e p o p u lati o n stru ctu re an aly si s.
1 3
A lth o u g h i n creased ag e i s asso ci ated w i th i n -
creased i n ci d en ces o f certai n ty p es o f p ath o lo g i es,
th e ag e d i fferen ce b etw een th e h o rse p o p u lati o n s at
th ese tw o si tes i s u n li k ely to b e g reat en o u g h to
acco u n t fo r th e o b serv ed p ath o lo g i cal d i fferen ces.
T h i s i s th e su b ject o f o n g o i n g research b y M . A .
L ev i n e, G . N . B ai ley , an d L . B . Jeffco tt.
1 4
I am co llab o rati n g w i th R . P . E v ersh ed an d S .
V au g h an O rg an i c G eo ch em i stry U n i t, S ch o o l o f
C h em i stry , B ri sto l) o n an an aly si s o f li p i d s i n p o t
resi d u es an d b o n e fro m B o tai an d fro m b o n es an d
esh fro m A k -A lak h a 3; an d w i th T . O C o n n ell an d
R . E . M . H ed g es R esearch L ab o rato ry fo r A rch aeo l-
o g y an d th e H i sto ry o f A rt, O xfo rd ) o n a stab le i so -
to p e stu d y o f m ateri al fro m A k -A lak h a 3, B o tai , M o l-
u k o v B u g o r, an d o th er U k rai n i an si tes.
1 5
C . A . I . F ren ch D ep artm en t o f A rch aeo lo g y ,
C am b ri d g e) i s carry i n g o u t a m i cro m o rp h o lo g i cal
an aly si s o f sed i m en ts fro m B o tai .
1 6
I n co llab o rati o n w i th G . N . B ai ley D ep artm en t
o f A rch aeo lo g y , N ew castle) an d L . B . Jeffco tt D e-
p artm en t o f C li n i cal V eteri n ary M ed i ci n e, C am -
b ri d g e) , I am w o rk i n g o n a N E R C fu n d ed p ro ject
co n cern ed w i th h o rse p alaeo p ath o lo g y .
78 M A R S H A A . L E V I N E