High-intensity interval training (HIT) is one of the most effective means of improving cardiorespiratory and metabolic function. An optimal stimulus to elicit both maximal cardiovascular and peripheral adaptations is one where athletes spend at least several minutes per session in their'red zone'
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High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions to the Programming Puzzle Part I Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
High-intensity interval training (HIT) is one of the most effective means of improving cardiorespiratory and metabolic function. An optimal stimulus to elicit both maximal cardiovascular and peripheral adaptations is one where athletes spend at least several minutes per session in their'red zone'
High-intensity interval training (HIT) is one of the most effective means of improving cardiorespiratory and metabolic function. An optimal stimulus to elicit both maximal cardiovascular and peripheral adaptations is one where athletes spend at least several minutes per session in their'red zone'
to the Programming Puzzle Part I: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis Martin Buchheit
Paul B. Laursen Published online: 29 March 2013 Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2013 Abstract High-intensity interval training (HIT), in a variety of forms, is today one of the most effective means of improving cardiorespiratory and metabolic function and, in turn, the physical performance of athletes. HIT involves repeated short-to-long bouts of rather high-intensity exer- cise interspersed with recovery periods. For team and racquet sport players, the inclusion of sprints and all-out efforts into HIT programmes has also been shown to be an effective practice. It is believed that an optimal stimulus to elicit both maximal cardiovascular and peripheral adapta- tions is one where athletes spend at least several minutes per session in their red zone, which generally means reaching at least 90 % of their maximal oxygen uptake ( _ VO 2max ). While use of HIT is not the only approach to improve physiological parameters and performance, there has been a growth in interest by the sport science com- munity for characterizing training protocols that allow athletes to maintain long periods of time above 90 % of _ VO 2max (T@ _ VO 2max ). In addition to T@ _ VO 2max , other physiological variables should also be considered to fully characterize the training stimulus when programming HIT, including cardiovascular work, anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and acute neuromuscular load and musculo- skeletal strain. Prescription for HIT consists of the manipulation of up to nine variables, which include the work interval intensity and duration, relief interval inten- sity and duration, exercise modality, number of repetitions, number of series, as well as the between-series recovery duration and intensity. The manipulation of any of these variables can affect the acute physiological responses to HIT. This article is Part I of a subsequent II-part review and will discuss the different aspects of HIT programming, from work/relief interval manipulation to the selection of exercise mode, using different examples of training cycles from different sports, with continued reference to T@ _ VO 2max and cardiovascular responses. Additional pro- gramming and periodization considerations will also be discussed with respect to other variables such as anaerobic glycolytic system contribution (as inferred from blood lactate accumulation), neuromuscular load and musculo- skeletal strain (Part II). 1 Introduction With respect to prescribing training that improves perfor- mance, coaches know that theres more than one way to skin the cat.[1] Recent reviews [1, 2] have highlighted the potential of varying quantities of both high-intensity interval training (HIT) and continuous high-volume, low- intensity training on performance in highly trained athletes. While there is no doubt that both types of training can effectively improve cardiac and skeletal muscle metabolic function, and that a dose of both types of training are important constitutes of an athletes training programme, M. Buchheit ASPIRE, Football Performance & Science Department, Academy for Sports Excellence, Doha, Qatar M. Buchheit (&) Physiology Unit, Sport Science Department, ASPIRE, Academy for Sports Excellence, P.O. Box 22287, Doha, Qatar e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] P. B. Laursen High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand P. B. Laursen Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Sports Med (2013) 43:313338 DOI 10.1007/s40279-013-0029-x this review will focus solely on the topic of HIT. Indeed, a number of studies in this area have emerged over the last decade, and it is perhaps not surprising that running- or cycling-based HIT is today considered one of the most effective forms of exercise for improving physical perfor- mance in athletes [36]. HIT involves repeated short-to- long bouts of rather high-intensity exercise interspersed with recovery periods [3], and has been used by athletes for almost a century now. For example, in 1920, Paavo Nurmi, one of the best middle- and long-distance runners in the world at that time, was already using some form of HIT in his training routines. Emil Zatopek contributed later in the 1950s to the popularization of this specic training format (see Billat [3] for a detailed history of HIT). The progressive emergence of this training method amongst elite athletes is the rst evidence of its effectiveness (i.e. best practice theory [2]). More recently, the use of sprints and all-out efforts has also emerged, both from the applied (team sport) eld and the laboratory [79]. These particu- larly intense forms of HIT include repeated-sprint training (RST; sprints lasting from 3 to 7 s, interspersed with recovery periods lasting generally less than 60 s) or sprint interval training (SIT; 30 s all-out efforts interspersed with 24 min passive recovery periods). Following pioneering experiments by Hill in the 1920s (Hill included intermittent exercises in his rst studies [2]), Astrand and co-workers published several classical papers in the 1960s on the acute physiological responses to HIT, which created the rst scientic basis for long [10] and short [11, 12] duration intervals. Studies by Balsom et al. followed in the 1990s, emphasizing all-out efforts [13]. As will be detailed in the review, most of the scientic work that followed these studies over the past 2050 years has been an extension of these ndings using new technology in the eld (i.e. more accurate and portable devices). However, the important responses and mechanisms of HIT had already been demonstrated [1012]. It has been suggested that HIT protocols that elicit maximal oxygen uptake ( _ VO 2max ), or at least a very high percentage of _ VO 2max , maximally stress the oxygen trans- port and utilization systems and may therefore provide the most effective stimulus for enhancing _ VO 2max [5, 14, 15]. While evidence to justify the need to exercise at such an intensity remains unclear, it can be argued that only exer- cise intensities near _ VO 2max allow for both large motor unit recruitment (i.e. type II muscle bres) [16, 17] and attainment of near-to-maximal cardiac output (see Sect. 3.2), which, in turn, jointly signals for oxidative muscle bre adaptation and myocardium enlargement (and hence, _ VO 2max ). For an optimal stimulus (and forthcoming car- diovascular and peripheral adaptations), it is believed that athletes should spend at least several minutes per HIT session in their red zone, which generally means attaining an intensity greater than 90 % of _ VO 2max [3, 5, 15, 18]. Consequently, despite our limited understanding of the dose-response relationship between the training load and training-induced changes in physical capacities and per- formance (which generally shows large inter-individual responses [19, 20]), there has been a growing interest by the sport science community for characterizing training protocols that allow athletes to maintain the longest time [90 % _ VO 2max (T@ _ VO 2max ; see Midgley and McNaugh- ton [14] for review). In addition to T@ _ VO 2max , however, other physiological variables should also be considered to fully characterize the training stimulus when programming HIT [2123]. Any exercise training session will challenge, at different respective levels relative to the training content, both the metabolic and the neuromuscular/musculoskeletal systems [21, 22]. The metabolic system refer to three dis- tinct yet closely related integrated processes, including (1) the splitting of the stored phosphagens (adenosine tri- phosphate [ATP] and phosphocreatine [PCr]); (2) the nonaerobic breakdown of carbohydrate (anaerobic glyco- lytic energy production); and (3) the combustion of car- bohydrates and fats in the presence of oxygen (oxidative metabolism, or aerobic system) [184]. It is therefore pos- sible to precisely characterize the acute physiological responses of any HIT session, based on (a) the respective contribution of these three metabolic processes; (b) the neuromuscular load; and (c) the musculoskeletal strain (Fig. 1, Part I). Under these assumptions, we consider the cardiorespiratory (i.e. oxygen uptake; _ VO 2 ) data, but also cardiovascular work [2427]), stored energy [28, 29] and cardiac autonomic stress [3033] responses as the primary variables of interest when programming HIT sessions (review Part I). By logic, anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and neuromuscular load/musculoskeletal strain are therefore likely the more important secondary variables to consider when designing a given HIT session (Part II). Several factors determine the desired acute physiological response to an HIT session (and the likely forthcoming adaptations) [Fig. 1]. The sport that the athlete is involved in (i.e. training specicity) and the athletes prole or sport specialty (e.g. an 800 m runner will likely favour a greater proportion of anaerobic-based HIT compared with a marathon runner [6]) should rst be considered in relation to the desired long-term training adaptations. Second, and more importantly on a short-term basis, training periodi- zation has probably the greatest impact on the HIT pre- scription. Many of the desired training adaptations are likely training cycle dependent (e.g. generic aerobic power development in the initial phase of the preseason vs. sport- specic and more anaerobic-like HIT sessions towards the 314 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen start of the competitive season in team sports). Additionally, for athletes training twice a day, and/or in team sport players training a myriad of metabolic and neuromuscular systems simultaneously [34], the physiological strain associated with a given HIT session needs to be considered in relation to the demands of other physical and technical/ tactical sessions to avoid overload and enable appropriate adaptation (i.e. maximize a given training stimulus and minimize musculoskeletal injury risk). There are likely several approaches (i.e. HIT format) that, considered in isolation, will achieve a similar metabolic and/or neuro- muscular training adaptation outcome. However, the ability of the coach to understand the isolated acute responses to various HIT formats may assist with selection of the most appropriate HIT session to apply, at the right place and time. At least nine variables can be manipulated to prescribe different HIT sessions (Fig. 2 [35]). The intensity and duration of work and relief intervals are the key inuencing factors [10, 12]. Then, the number of intervals, the number of series and between-series recovery durations and intensities determine the total work performed. Exercise modality (i.e. running vs. cycling or rowing, or straight line vs. uphill or change of direction running) has to date received limited scientic interest, but it is clear that it represents a key variable to consider when programming HIT, especially for team and racquet sport athletes. The manipulation of each variable in isolation likely has a direct impact on metabolic, cardiopulmonary and/or neu- romuscular responses. When more than one variable is manipulated simultaneously, responses are more difcult to Fig. 1 Decision process for selecting an HIT format based on the expected acute physiological response/strain. The six different types of acute responses are categorized as (1) metabolic, but eliciting essentially large requirements from the O 2 transport and utilization systems, i.e. cardiopulmonary system and oxidative muscle bres; (2) metabolic as for (1) but with a certain degree of neuromuscular strain; (3) metabolic as for (1) but with a large anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution; (4) metabolic as for (3) plus a certain degree of neuromuscular load; (5) metabolic with essentially an important anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and a large neuromuscular load; and (6) eliciting a high predominant neuromuscular strain. While some HIT formats can be used to match different response categories (e.g. short intervals when properly manipulated can match into categories 14), SIT for example can only match category 5. Category 6 is not detailed in the present review since it does not t into any particular type of HIT. HIT high-intensity interval training, [La] blood lactate accumulation; surrogate of anaerobic glycolytic energy release RST repeated-sprint training, SIT spring interval training HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 315 predict, since the factors are inter-related. While our understanding of how to manipulate these variables is progressing with respect to T@ _ VO 2max [14], it remains unclear which combination of work-interval duration and intensity, if any, is most effective at allowing an individual to spend prolonged T@ _ VO 2max while controlling for the level of anaerobic engagement [3] and/or neuromuscular load (review Part II). Considering that long-term physiological and perfor- mance adaptations to HIT are highly variable and likely population-dependent (age, gender, training status and background) [19, 20], providing general recommendations for the more efcient HIT format is difcult. We provide, however, in Part I of this review, the different aspects of HIT programming, from work/relief interval manipulation to the selection of exercise modality, with continued ref- erence to T@ _ VO 2max (i.e. time spent C90 % _ VO 2max , otherwise stated), which may assist to individualize HIT prescription for different types of athletes. Additional programming considerations will also be discussed with respect to other variables, such as cardiovascular responses. Different examples of training cycles from different sports will be provided in Part II of the present review. As this was a narrative, and not a systematic review, our methods included a selection of the papers we believed to be most relevant in the area. Since the main goal of HIT sessions is to improve the determinants of _ VO 2max , only HIT sessions performed in the severe intensity domain (i.e. greater than the second ventilatory threshold or maximal lactate steady state) were considered. Acute responses to running-based HIT were given priority focus, since the largest quantity of literature has used this exercise mode. It is likely, however, that the manipulation of these same HIT variables has comparable effects in other sports (or exercise modes, e.g. cycling, rowing, etc.), with the exception of under-water activities that may require a specic programming approach [36]. Finally, we believe that the present rec- ommendations are essentially appropriate for moderately trained to elite athletes. For special populations (e.g. sed- entary or cardiac patients), the reader is referred to recent reviews [37] and original investigations [3840]. Stan- dardized differences (or effect sizes; ES [41]) have been calculated where possible to examine the respective effects of the manipulation of each HIT variable, and interpreted using Hopkins categorization criteria, where 0.2, 0.6, 1.2 and[2 are considered small, medium, large and very large effects, respectively [42]. 2 Prescribing Interval Training for Athletes in the Field To prescribe HIT and ensure that athletes reach the required intensity, several approaches exist to control and individualize exercise speed/power accordingly. We will discuss these points and illustrate why, in our opinion, using incremental test parameters is far more objective, practical, and likely more accurate and effective at achieving desired performance outcomes. 2.1 The Track-and-Field Approach To programme HIT for endurance runners, coaches have traditionally used specic running speeds based on set times for distances ranging from 800 m to 5000 m, but without using physiological markers such as the speeds Work Relief Duration Duration I n t e n s i t y I n t e n s i t y Series Series duration Time between series # of series Work modality Between-series recovery intensity Fig. 2 Schematic illustration of the nine variables dening a HIT session adapted from Buchheit [35]. HIT high- intensity interval training 316 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen associated with _ VO 2max , lactate or ventilatory thresholds [3]. It is worth mentioning, however, that coaches and athletes have been, and still are, highly successful using this approach; an observation that should humble the exercise physiologist. The attraction of this method is that the entire locomotor prole (i.e. both maximal sprinting and aerobic speeds, Fig. 3) of the athlete can be used to shape the HIT session, so that each run can be performed in accordance with the athletes (maximal) potential. While for short intervals (i.e. 1060 s) the reference running time will be a percentage of the time measured over a maximal 100400 m sprint, the speed maintained over 8001,500 m to 2,0003,000 m can be used to calibrate longer intervals (e.g. 24 to 68 min). The disadvantage of this approach, however, is that it does not allow the coach to consciously manipulate the acute physiological load of the HIT session, and precisely target a specic adaptation (i.e. Fig. 1, when there is a need to improve a physiological quality and not just to prepare for a race). Additionally, this approach tends to be reserved for highly experienced coaches and well trained athletes, for whom best running times on several set distances are known. The translation and application of the track-and-eld method to other sports is, however, difcult. For example, how might a coach determine the expected 800-m run time for a 2.10-m tall basketball player that has never run more that 40 s continuously on a court before? Thus, using the track-and-eld approach for non-track-and- eld athletes is unlikely to be appropriate, practical or effective. 2.2 The Team Sport Approach Due to the technical/tactical requirements of team sports, and following the important principle of training specic- ity, game- (i.e. so-called small sided games, SSG) [4346] or skill-based [47, 48] conditioning has received an expo- nential growth in interest [49]. While understanding of the _ VO 2 responses to SSG is limited [44, 50, 51], T@ _ VO 2max during an SSG in national-level handball players was achieved for 70 % of the session (i.e. 5 min 30 s of the 8- min game) [50]. Although the effectiveness of such an approach has been shown [43, 46, 52, 53], SSGs have limitations that support the use of less specic (i.e. run based) but more controlled HIT formats at certain times of the season or for specic player needs. The acute physio- logical load of an SSG session can be manipulated by changing the technical rules [54], the number of players and pitch size [55], but the overall load cannot, by default, be precisely standardized. Within-player responses to SSG are highly variable (poor reproducibility for blood lactate [coefcient of variation (CV): 1530 %] and high-intensity running responses [CV: 3050 %] [56, 57]), and the between-player variability in the (cardiovascular) respon- ses is higher than more specic run-based HIT [49]. During an SSG in handball, average _ VO 2 was shown to be inver- sely related to _ VO 2max [50], suggesting a possible ceiling effect for _ VO 2max development in tter players. Addition- ally, reaching and maintaining an elevated cardiac lling is believed to be necessary to improve maximal cardiac Fig. 3 Intensity range used for the various run-based HIT formats. ASR anaerobic speed reserve, MLSS maximal lactate steady state, MSS maximal sprinting speed, RST repeated- sprint training, SIT sprint interval training, _ VO 2max maximal oxygen uptake, v _ VO 2max minimal running speed required to elicit _ VO 2max , VD50 speed half way between v _ VO 2max and MLSS, V crit critical velocity, V IFT peak speed reached at the end of the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test, V Inc.Test peak incremental test speed HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 317 function [58, 59]. The repeated changes in movement patterns and the alternating work and rest periods during an SSG might therefore induce variations in muscular venous pump action, which can, in turn, limit the maintenance of a high stroke volume (SV) throughout the exercise and compromise long term adaptations [60] (see Sect. 3.2). Compared with generic run-based exercises, the _ VO 2 /heart rate (HR) ratio (which can be used with caution as a sur- rogate of changes in SV during constant exercise when the arteriovenous O 2 difference is deemed constant [61]) is also likely lower during an SSG [44, 50, 51]. While this ratio is generally close to 1 during run-based long intervals (i.e. _ VO 2 at 95 % _ VO 2max for HR at 95 % of maximal HR (HR max ) [21, 62]), authors have reported values at 79 % _ VO 2max and 92 % HR max during basketball drills [44] and at 52 % _ VO 2max and 72 % HR max during a ve-a-side indoor soccer game [51]. This conrms the aforementioned possible limitations with respect to SV enlargement, and suggests that assessment of cardiopulmonary responses during an SSG (and competitive games) using HR may be misleading [63]. Finally, the _ VO 2 /speed [50] (and HR/ speed [63]) relationship also tends to be higher during an SSG compared with generic running, possibly due to higher muscle mass involvement. While this method of training is often considered to be highly specic, this is not always the case, since during competitive games players have often more space to run and reach higher running speeds (up to 8590 % of maximal sprinting speed [64 66]) for likely similar metabolic demands. 2.3 Heart Rate-Based Prescription Heart rate has become the most commonly measured physiological marker for controlling exercise intensity in the eld [67]. Setting exercise intensity using HR zones is well suited to prolonged and submaximal exercise bouts; however, its effectiveness for controlling or adjusting the intensity of an HIT session may be limited. HR cannot inform the intensity of physical work performed above the speed/power associated with _ VO 2max , which represents a large proportion of HIT prescriptions [35]. Additionally, while HR is expected to reach maximal values ([9095 % HR max ) for exercise at or below the speed/power associated with _ VO 2max , this is not always the case, especially for very short (\30 s) [68] and medium-long (i.e. 12 min) [69] intervals. This is related to the well-known HR lag at exercise onset, which is much slower to respond compared with the _ VO 2 response [70]. Further, HR inertia at exercise cessation (i.e. HR recovery) can also be problematic in this context, since this can create an overestimation of the actual work/physiological load that occurs during recovery periods [69]. It has also been shown that substantially different exercise sessions (as assessed by accumulated blood lactate levels during run-based HIT [71] and by running speed during an SSG [63]) can have a relatively similar mean HR response. Thus, the temporal dissociation between HR, _ VO 2 , blood lactate levels and work output during HIT limits our ability to accurately estimate inten- sity during HIT sessions using HR alone. Further, it is difcult to imagine how an athlete would practically con- trol or adjust exercise intensity during an interval, espe- cially for athletes running at high speed, where viewing HR from a watch is difcult. 2.4 Rating of Perceived Exertion-Based Prescription Prescribing the intensity of HIT bouts using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method [72] is highly attractive because of its simplicity (no need to monitor HR) and versatility. Using this approach, coaches generally pre- scribe independent variables such as the duration or dis- tance of work and relief intervals [71]. In return, the athlete can self-regulate their exercise intensity. The intensity selected is typically the maximal intensity of exercise perceived as sustainable (hard to very hard, i.e. C6 on a CR-10 Borg scale and C15 on a 620 scale) and is based on the athletes experience, the session goal and external considerations related to training periodiza- tion. While the specic roles (or contributions) played by varying biological afferents and other neurocognitive processes involved with the selection of exercise pace based on effort are still debated (see viewpoint/counter- point [73]), RPE responses may reect a conscious sen- sation of how hard, heavy, and strenuous exercise is [74], relative to the combined physiological [75], biomechanical and psychological [76] stress/fatigue imposed on the body during exercise [77]. RPE responses are gender-indepen- dent [78] and comparable during free versus constant pace exercise [79]. In practice, the rst benet of RPE-guided HIT sessions [69, 71] is that they do not require any knowledge of the athletes tness level (no test results needed). Finally, RPE is a universal exercise regulator, irrespective of locomotor mode and variations in terrain and environmental conditions. While more research in trained athletes is needed to conrm the efcacy of RPE- guided training sessions, it has been shown to promote the same physiological adaptations as an HR-based pro- gramme over 6 weeks in young women [80]. The RPE method does have limitations, however, since it does not allow for the precise manipulation of the physiological response to a given HIT session. This could limit the ability to target a specic adaptation (i.e. Fig. 1), and might also be problematic in a team sport setting (as discussed in the three preceding sections). There is also some evidence to suggest that the ability to adjust/evaluate 318 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen exercise intensity based on RPE may be age- [81], tness- [82, 83], exercise-intensity- and pleasure-[84] dependent. 2.5 Velocity/Power Associated with Maximal Oxygen Uptake ( _ VO 2max ) Following early works in the 1970s and 1980s [8588], the physiologists V.L. Billat and D.W. Hill popularized the speed (or power) associated with _ VO 2max (so-called v/p _ VO 2max or maximal aerobic speed/power [MAS/MAP] [89, 90]) as a useful reference intensity to programme HIT [35]. The attractiveness of the v/p _ VO 2max method is that it represents an integrated measure of both _ VO 2max and the energetic cost of running/cycling into a single factor; hence, being directly representative of an athletes loco- motor ability [89]. Since v/p _ VO 2max is theoretically the lowest speed/power needed to elicit _ VO 2max , it makes intuitive sense for this marker to represent an ideal refer- ence for training [5, 15, 89]. v/p _ VO 2max can be determined, or estimated, a number of different ways. Methods include using the following: 1) The linear relationship between _ VO 2 and running speed established at submaximal speeds [88]. 2) The individual cost of running to calculate a theoret- ical running speed for a given _ VO 2max , either with [91] or without [92] resting _ VO 2 values. 3) Direct measurement (i.e. pulmonary gas exchange [93]) during ramp-like incremental running/cycling tests to exhaustion, either on the track, on a treadmill or using an ergometer. On the track, the University of Montreal Track Test (UM-TT [87]) is the protocol most commonly used with athletes [94, 95], although the Vam-Eval [96], which only differs from the UM- TT due to its smoother speed increments and shorter intercones distances, has also received growing inter- est since it is easier to administer in young populations and/or non-distance running specialists [97, 98]. Since the true v/p _ VO 2max during incremental tests requires _ VO 2 measures to determine the lowest speed/power that elicits _ VO 2max (generally dened as a plateau in _ VO 2 or an increase less than 2.1 mL/min/kg despite an increase in running speed of 1 km/h [93]), the nal (peak) incremental test speed/power reached at the end of these tests (V/p Inc.Test ) is only an approximation of v/p _ VO 2max . These two distinct speeds/powers are strongly correlated (r [0.90 [87]), but V/p Inc.Test can be 510 % greater than v/p _ VO 2max , with individuals possessing greater anaerobic reserves presenting gen- erally a greater v/p _ VO 2max - V/p Inc.Test difference. Measurement of V Inc.Test is, however, very practical in the eld since it is largely correlated with distance running performance [99] and match running capacity in team sports (but for some positions only) [98, 100]. 4) A 5-min exhaustive run [101], since the average time to exhaustion at v _ VO 2max has been reported to range from 4 to 8 min [89, 102]. The v _ VO 2max calculated from this test has been shown to be largely correlated with the V Inc.Test reached in the UM-TT (r = 0.94) and on a ramp treadmill test (r = 0.97) [101], while being slightly (i.e. 1 km/h range) slower and faster than these velocities, respectively. The v _ VO 2max estimated via the 5-min test is, however, likely inuenced by pacing strategies, and may only be valid for trained runners able to run at v _ VO 2max for &5 min. v _ VO 2max is also method-[90] and protocol-dependent [103]. A mathematically estimated v _ VO 2max [88, 91] is likely to be lower than a measured v _ VO 2max [93] that is also lower than V Inc.Test [89, 104]. Additionally, irrespec- tive of the method used to determine v _ VO 2max , protocols with longer-stage durations tend to elicit lower speed/ power values [103], while larger speed/power increments result in higher-speed/power values. Similarly, v _ VO 2max also appears to be inversely related to the terrain or treadmill slope [105]. Endurance-trained athletes are likely able to tolerate longer stages and therefore, less likely to present impairments in v _ VO 2max with variations in proto- col. These differences must be acknowledged since small differences in the prescribed work intensity have sub- stantial effects on acute HIT responses. The reliability of v _ VO 2max and V Inc.Test (as examined using CVs) has been shown to be good: 3 % for v _ VO 2max in moderately trained middle- and long-distance runners [68], 3.5 % for UM-TT V Inc.Test in moderately trained athletes [87], 3.5 % (90 % condence limits: 3.0, 4.1 [Buchheit M, unpublished results]) for Vam-Eval V Inc.Test in 65 highly trained young football players, 2.5 % and 3 % for treadmill V Inc.Test in well trained male distance runners [106] and recreational runners [104], respectively, and nally, 12 % for the 5-min test in a heterogeneous sporting population [107]. For training prescription, V Inc.Test , as determined in the eld with the UM-TT [87] or the Vam-Eval [96], is probably the preferred method, since, in addition to not requiring sophisticated apparatus, the tests account for the anaerobic contribution necessary to elicit _ VO 2max [108]. It is, however, worth noting that using v _ VO 2max or V Inc.Test as the reference running speed is essentially suitable for long (26 min) intervals ran around v _ VO 2max (90105 %). For sub- and supramaximal training intensities, however, the importance of other physiological attributes should be HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 319 considered. For instance, endurance capacity (or the capacity to sustain a given percentage of v _ VO 2max over time [109]) and anaerobic power/capacity [110] are likely to inuence time to exhaustion and, in turn, the physio- logical responses. The following section highlights the different options available for the prescription of supra- maximal training (i.e. training at intensities [v _ VO 2max ). 2.6 Anaerobic Speed Reserve Consideration for an individuals anaerobic speed reserve (ASR; the difference between maximal sprinting speed (MSS) and v _ VO 2max , Fig. 3) is often not fully taken into account by coaches and scientists in their training pre- scription. While track-and-eld (running) coaches have indirectly used this concept for years to set the work interval intensity (as discussed in Sect. 2.1), its scientic basis and interest was only brought forth merely a decade ago, when Billat and co-workers [110] showed that time to exhaustion at intensities above v _ VO 2max were better related to the ASR and/or MSS, than to v _ VO 2max . Bundle et al. [111113] demonstrated, using an empirical prediction model, that the proportion of ASR used could determine performance during all-out efforts lasting between a few seconds and several minutes. While these studies have used continuous exercise, ASR has only recently been consid- ered in relation to repeated-sprint performance [114, 115]. In practice, two athletes can present with clearly different MSS ability, despite a similar v _ VO 2max (Fig. 4 [116]). If during an HIT session they exercise at a similar percentage of v _ VO 2max , as is generally implemented in the eld (e.g. see [117]), the exercise will actually involve a different proportion of their ASR, which results in a different physiological demand, and in turn, a different exercise tolerance [116]. Therefore, it appears that, in addition to v _ VO 2max , the measurement of MSS (and ASR) should be considered for individualizing training intensity during supramaximal HIT [110, 116]. 2.7 Peak Speed in the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test While using the ASR to individualize exercise intensity for supramaximal runs might represent an improved alterna- tive over that of v _ VO 2max or V Inc.Test , it still does not capture an overall picture of the different physiological variables of importance during team- or racquet-based specic HIT sessions. In many sports, HIT is performed indoors and includes repeated very short work intervals (\45 s). This implies that, in addition to the proportion of the ASR used, the responses to these forms of HIT appear related to an individuals (1) metabolic inertia (e.g. _ VO 2 kinetics) at the onset of each short interval; (2) physiological recovery capacities during each relief inter- val; and (3) change of direction ability (since indoor HIT is often performed in shuttles) [94, 116]. Programming HIT without taking these variables into consideration may result in sessions with different aerobic and anaerobic energy demands, which prevents the standardization of training load, and likely limits the ability to target specic physi- ological adaptations [94]. To overcome the aforementioned limitations inherent with the measurement of v _ VO 2max and ASR, the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test (3015 IFT ) was developed for intermittent exercise and change of direction (COD)-based HIT prescription [35, 94, 116]. The 3015 IFT was designed to elicit maximal HR and _ VO 2 , but addi- tionally provide measures of ASR, repeated effort ability, acceleration, deceleration, and COD abilities [94, 118, 119]. The nal speed reached during the 3015 IFT , V IFT , is therefore a product of those above-mentioned abilities. In other words, the 3015 IFT is highly specic, not to a spe- cic sport, but to the training sessions commonly per- formed in intermittent sports [116]. While the peak speeds reached in the different Yo-Yo tests [120] (e.g. vYo-YoIR1 for the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Level 1) and V IFT have likely similar physiological requirements [221], only the V IFT can be used accurately for training prescription. For instance, vYo-YoIR1 cannot be directly used for training prescription since, in contrast to V IFT [35], its relationship with V Inc.Test (and v _ VO 2max ) is speed-depen- dent [121], Fig. 5). When running at vYo-YoIR1, slow and unt athletes use a greater proportion of their ASR, while tter athletes run below their v _ VO 2max (Fig. 5). Finally, V IFT has been shown to be more accurate than V Inc.Test for individualizing HIT with COD in well trained team sport players [94], and its reliability is good, with the typical Fig. 4 Illustration of the importance of ASR for two athletes possessing similar running speeds associated with v _ VO 2max , but different maximal sprinting speeds. During an HIT session, Athlete B with a greater ASR will work at a lower percentage of his ASR, and will therefore achieve a lower exercise load compared with Athlete A [116]. ASR anaerobic speed reserve, HIT high-intensity interval training, v _ VO 2max minimal running speeds associated with maximal oxygen uptake 320 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen error of measurement (expressed as CV) shown to be 1.6 % (95 % CL 1.4, 1.8) [122]. Also of note, since V IFT is 25 km/h (1525 %) faster than v _ VO 2max and/or V Inc.Test [35, 116, 119], it is necessary to adjust the percentage of V IFT used when programming. While HIT is generally performed around v _ VO 2max (i.e. 100120 % [3, 4], Fig. 3), V IFT constitutes the upper limit for these exercises (except for very short intervals and all-out repeated-sprint training). Thus, the 3015 IFT permits improved precision of pro- gramming by individualizing the intensity of the prescribed interval bouts around intensities ranging from 85 % to 105 % of V IFT [43, 50, 123125]. 2.8 All-Out Sprint Training Repeated all-out sprinting efforts have received a marked growth in research interest lately [9, 126]. In practical terms, these sessions can be divided into either short (310 s, RST) or long (3045 s sprints, SIT) duration sprints. Since such exercise is consistently performed all-out, they can be prescribed without the need to pre-test the individual (i.e. v/p _ VO 2max is not specically needed to calibrate the intensity). 3 Acute Responses to Variations of Interval Training 3.1 Maximizing the Time Spent at or Near _ VO 2max We lead off this review with data related to T@ _ VO 2max (reviewed previously [14]), since pulmonary _ VO 2 respon- ses may actually integrate both cardiovascular and muscle metabolic (oxidative) responses to HIT sessions. In the present review, we integrate recently published work and provide a comprehensive analysis of the _ VO 2 responses to different forms of HIT, from long intervals to SIT sessions, through short intervals and repeated-sprint sequences (RSS, Fig. 3). Figure 6 illustrates the _ VO 2 responses of four distinct HIT sessions, including long intervals, and highlights how changes in HIT variables can impact the T@ _ VO 2max [21, 50, 127, 128]. There are, however, numerous methodological limitations that need to be con- sidered to interpret the ndings shown from the different studies [68, 103, 129]. In addition to methodological con- siderations between studies (treadmill vs. overground run- ning, determination criteria for both _ VO 2max and v _ VO 2max , data analysis [averaging, smoothing technique], threshold for minimal _ VO 2 values considered as maximal [90 %, 95 %, _ VO 2max minus 2.1 ml/min/kg, 100 %]), differences in the reliability level of analysers and intra-day subject variation in _ VO 2max , _ VO 2 kinetics and times to exhaustion, make comparison between studies difcult. The within- study effects of HIT variable manipulation on the observed T@ _ VO 2max can, however, provide insight towards under- standing how best to manipulate HIT variables. 3.1.1 Oxygen Uptake ( _ VO 2 ) Responses to Long Intervals 3.1.1.1 Exercise Intensity during Long Intervals During a single constant-speed or power exercise, work intensity close to v/p _ VO 2max is required to elicit maximal _ VO 2 responses. In an attempt to determine the velocity associ- ated with the longest T@ _ VO 2max during a run to exhaus- tion, six physical-education students performed four separate runs at 90 %, 100 %, 120 % and 140 % of their v _ VO 2max (17 km/h) [130]. Not surprisingly, time to exhaustion was inversely related to running intensity. T@ _ VO 2max during the 90 % and 140 % conditions was trivial (i.e. \20 s on average), but reached substantially y = x All pooled n = 141 r = 0.84 (0.79, 0.88) y = 0.8x + 6 V Inc.Test (km/h) v Y o - Y o
I R 1
( k m / h ) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 b Male n = 14 r = 0.79 (0.57, 0.86) y = 0.4x + 9.8 y = x V Inc.Test (km/h) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 V I F T
( k m / h ) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 a Male Female Fig. 5 Relationships (90 % condence limits) between the V IFT , upper panel (Buchheit M, personal data [35]), vYo-YoIR1, lower panel [121] and V Inc.Test . V IFT speed reached at the end of the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test , V Inc.Test peak incremental test speed, vYo- YoIR1 peak running speed reached at the end of the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 test HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 321 larger values at 100 % and 120 %: mean standard deviation 190 87 (57 % of time to exhaustion, ES[?2.8) and 73 29 s (59 %, ES[?1.7). In another study, middle-distance runners did not manage to reach _ VO 2max while running at 92 % of v _ VO 2max [131]. The ability to reach _ VO 2max during a single run at the velocity between the maximal lactate steady state and v _ VO 2max (i.e. vD50, &9293 % of v _ VO 2max [130]) via the development of a _ VO 2 slow component [10] is likely tness-dependent [132] (with highly trained runners unlikely to reach _ VO 2max ). In addition, as the determination of vD50 is impractical in the eld, work intensities of C95 % v/p _ VO 2max are therefore recommended for maximizing T@ _ VO 2max during single isolated runs. However, in prac- tice, athletes do not exercise to exhaustion, but use inter- vals or sets. Slightly lower intensities (C90 % v/p _ VO 2max ) can also be used when considering repeated exercise bouts (as during HIT sessions), since interval _ VO 2 is likely to increase with repetitions with the development of a _ VO 2 slow component [10]. As suggested by Astrand in the 1960s [10], exercise intensity does not need to be maximal during an HIT session to elicit _ VO 2max . 3.1.1.2 Time-to-Reach _ VO 2max and Maximizing Long- Interval Duration If _ VO 2max is to be reached during the rst interval of a sequence, its interval duration must at least be equal to the time needed to reach _ VO 2max . Thus, with short intervals, as during typical HIT sessions (work interval duration \time needed to reach _ VO 2max ), _ VO 2max is usually not reached on the rst interval. _ VO 2max values can, however, be reached during consecutive intervals, through the priming effect of an adequate warm-up and/or the rst intervals (that accelerates _ VO 2 kinetics [133, 134]) and the development of a _ VO 2 slow component [10]. The time needed to reach _ VO 2max during constant-speed exer- cise to exhaustion has received considerable debate in the past [104, 131, 135138]. The variable has been shown to range from 97 s [138] to 299 s [131] and has a high in- tersubject variability (2030 % [131, 135, 137] to 40 % [104]). While methodological differences could explain some of these dissimilarities (whether 95 % or 100 % of _ VO 2max is considered, the presence and type of pretrial warm-up), the variability is consistent with those shown in _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset. _ VO 2 kinetics are generally affected by exercise intensity [139], accelerated during running compared with cycling exercise [140] and faster in trained individuals [141]. The relationship between _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset and _ VO 2max , however, is less clear, with some studies reporting relationships [141143], and others showing no correlation [144146], suggesting that the _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset is more related to training status [141, 147] than _ VO 2max per se. T i m e
( m i n ) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Session time T@VO 2max (90%) 43(13)% 26(15)% 24(9)% 70(9)% D i s t a n c e
( m ) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 Total distance Distance >90% vVO 100% 83(55)% 67(30)% N/A RPE:13.5(2) [La]: 5.7(1.8) [La]: 6.5(2.2) RPE:15.8(2.4) [La]: 8.9(2.2) RPE:16.5(2.2) 5x(3min[90% vVO 2max ]/90s[0%]) 1 5x(5min[92% vVO 2max ]/2.5min[46% vVO 2max ]) 2 3min45[SSG]/30s[0%]/3min45[SSG] 4 3x(2x(2min[100% vVO 2max ]/2min[50% vVO 2max ])) 3 T@VO 2max (95%) 43(13)% 38(21)% 20(14)% 70(19)% 34(12)% 2max Fig. 6 Mean SD of total session time, T@ _ VO 2max , total distance and distance ran above 90 % of v _ VO max during four different HIT sessions including long intervals. Percentages (mean SD) refer to T@ _ VO 2max relative to the total session time, and distance ran above 90 % of v _ VO 2max relative to the total distance ran. RPE and [La], mmol/L) are provided as mean SD when available. References: 1 [21]; 2 [127]; 3 [128] and 4 [50]. HIT high-intensity interval training, [La] blood lactate concentration, N/A not available, RPE rating of perceived exertion, SSG small-sided games (handball), _ VO 2max maximal oxygen uptake, T@ _ VO 2max time spent above 90 % or 95 % of _ VO 2max , v _ VO 2max minimal running speed associated with _ VO 2max 322 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen As an alternative to using xed long-interval durations, using 5070 % of time to exhaustion at v _ VO 2max has been suggested by the scientic community as an alternative to individualizing interval training [3, 5, 137, 148150]. However, to our knowledge, prescribing training based on time to exhaustion is very rare compared with how endurance athletes actually train. Additionally, while the rationale of this approach is sound (5070 % is the average proportion of time to exhaustion needed to reach _ VO 2max ), this is not a practical method to apply in the eld. First, in addition to v _ VO 2max , time to exhaustion at v _ VO 2max must be determined, which is only a moderately reliable measure (CV = 12 % [68] to 25 % [93]), is exhaustive by nature and highly dependent on the accuracy of the v _ VO 2max determination [103]. Second, the time required to reach _ VO 2max has frequently been reported to be longer than 75 % of time to exhaustion in some participants [131, 135, 136]. Intervals lasting 70 % of time to exhaustion have also been reported as very difcult to perform, likely due to the high anaerobic energy contribution this requires [150]. For athletes presenting with exceptionally long time to exhaustion, repeating sets of 60 % of time to exhaustion is typically not attainable [137]. Finally, there is no link between the time needed to reach _ VO 2max and time to exhaustion [135, 137]. Therefore, since a given percentage of time to exhaustion results in very different amounts of T@ _ VO 2max , it appears more logical to use the time needed to reach _ VO 2max to individualize interval length [135] (e.g. time needed to reach _ VO 2max ? 1 or 2 min). If the time needed to reach _ VO 2max cannot be determined (as is often the case in the eld), we would therefore recommend using xed intervals durations C23 min that could be further adjusted in accordance with the athletes training status (with the less trained performing lower training loads, but longer intervals) and the exercise mode. Indeed, if we consider that the time constant of the primary phase of the _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset (s) in the severe intensity domain is generally in the range of 20 s to 35 s [131, 140, 146], and that a steady-state (C95 % _ VO 2max ) is reached after exercise onset within &4 s, _ VO 2max should then be reached from within 1 min 20 s to 2 min 20 s (at least when intervals are repeated), irrespective of training status and exercise mode. This is consistent with the data shown by Vuorimaa et al. in national level runners (v _ VO 2max = mean SD 19.1 1 km/h), where _ VO 2max values were reached during 2-min work/2-min rest inter- vals, but not during 1 min/1 min [22]. Similarly, in the study by Seiler and Sjursen [71] in well trained run- ners (v _ VO 2max = 19.7 1 km/h), peak _ VO 2 was only 82 5 % of _ VO 2max during 1-min intervals, while it reached 92 4 during 2-min intervals; extending the work duration did not modify these peak values (93 5 and 92 3 % for 4- and 6-min intervals, respectively). Although performed on an inclined treadmill (5 %), these latter sessions were performed at submaximal self-selected velocities (i.e. 91 %, 83 %, 76 % and 70 % v _ VO 2max for 1- , 2-, 4- and 6-min intervals, respectively [71]), which probably explains why _ VO 2max was not reached [130] (see Sect. 3.1.1.4 below with respect to uphill running). 3.1.1.3 Relief Interval Characteristics during Long-Inter- val High-Intensity Interval Training (HIT) When pro- gramming HIT, both the duration and intensity of the relief interval are important [152]. These two variables must be considered in light of (1) maximizing work capacity during subsequent intervals (by increasing blood ow to acceler- ate muscle metabolic recovery, e.g. PCr resynthesis, H ? ion buffering, regulation of inorganic phosphate (Pi) con- centration and K ? transport, muscle lactate oxidation) and; (2) maintaining a minimal level of _ VO 2 to reduce the time needed to reach _ VO 2max during subsequent intervals (i.e. starting from an elevated baseline) [3, 14]. While per- forming active recovery between interval bouts is appeal- ing to accelerate the time needed to reach _ VO 2max and in turn, induce a higher fractional contribution of aerobic metabolism to total energy turnover [134], its effects on performance capacity (time to exhaustion), and hence, T@ _ VO 2max are not straightforward. The benet of active recovery has often been assessed via changes in blood lactate concentration [153, 154], which has little to do with muscle lactate concentration [155]. Additionally, neither blood [156, 157] nor muscle [155] lactate has a direct (nor linear) relationship with performance capacity. The current understanding is that active recovery can lower muscle oxygenation [158, 159], impair PCr resynthesis (O 2 com- petition) and trigger anaerobic system engagement during the following effort [160]. Additionally, while a benecial performance effect on subsequent intervals can be expected with long recovery periods (C3 min [134, 161, 162], when the possible wash out effects overcome that of the likely reduced PCr resynthesis), active recovery performed dur- ing this period may negate subsequent interval perfor- mance using both long periods at high intensities ([45 % v/p _ VO 2max ) [153] and short periods of varying intensity [159, 163]. In the context of long interval HIT, passive recovery is therefore recommended when the relief interval is less than 23 min in duration. If an active recovery is chosen for the above-mentioned reasons (i.e. [3, 14, 134].), relief intervals should last at least 34 min at a submaximal intensity [153] to allow the maintenance of high-exercise intensity during the following interval. In practice, active recovery is psychologically difcult to apply for the majority of athletes, especially for non- HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 323 endurance athletes. When moderately trained runners (v _ VO 2max = 17.6 km/h) were asked to self-select the nat- ure of their relief intervals during an HIT session (6 9 4 min running at 85 % v _ VO 2max on a treadmill with 5 % incline), they chose a walking recovery mode of about 2 min [69]. Compared with 1-min recovery intervals, the 2- min recovery duration enabled runners to maintain higher running speeds; extending passive recovery to 4 min did not provide further benets with respect to running speeds. The low T@ _ VO 2max /total exercise time ratio shown by Millet et al. [128] (34 % when considering time[90 % _ VO 2max ; Fig. 6) in well trained triathletes (v _ VO 2max = 19.9 0.9 km/h) was likely related to the introduction of 5-min passive pauses every second interval. With intervals performed successively (no passive pauses, no blocks but active recoveries \50 % v _ VO 2max between runs), Demarie et al. [127] reported a longer T@ _ VO 2max in senior long-distance runners (v _ VO 2max = 16.6 1.1 km/h). More recently, Buchheit et al. showed, in highly trained young runners (v _ VO 2max = 18.6 0.3 km/h), that even shorter recovery periods (i.e. 90 s), despite a passive recovery intensity (walk), enabled athletes to spend a relatively high proportion of the session at [90 % of _ VO 2max (43 %) [21]. This particular high efciency was also likely related to both the young age [222] and the training status [141] of the runners (since both are generally associated with accelerated _ VO 2 kinetics). Finally, in an attempt to individualize between-run recovery duration, the return of HR to a xed value or percentage of HR max is sometime used in the eld and in the scientic literature [165, 166]. The present under- standing of the determinants of HR recovery suggest, nevertheless, that this practice is not very relevant [69]. During recovery, HR is neither related to systemic O 2 demand nor muscular energy turnover [142, 167], but rather to the magnitude of the central command and metaboreex stimulations [168]. 3.1.1.4 Uphill Running during HIT with Long Inter- vals Despite its common practice [169], the cardiorespi- ratory responses to eld-based HIT sessions involving uphill or staircase running has received little attention. Laboratory studies in trained runners (V Inc.Test C 20 km/h) [170, 171] have shown that, for a given running speed, _ VO 2 is higher during uphill compared with level running after a couple of minutes, probably due to the increased forces needed to move against gravity, the subsequently larger motor units recruited and the greater reliance on concentric contractions; all of which are believed initiators of the _ VO 2 slow component [172]. However, in practice, athletes generally run slower on hills versus the track [173]. Gajer et al. [174] found in elite French middle-distance runners (v _ VO 2max = mean SD 21.2 0.6 km/h, _ VO 2max = 78 4 ml/min/kg) that T@ _ VO 2max observed during a hill HIT session (6 9 500 m [1 min 40 s] 45 % slope [85 % v _ VO 2max ]/1 min 40 s [0 %]) was lower compared with a reference track session (6600 m [1 min 40 s] {102 % v _ VO 2max }/1 min 40 s [0 %]). While _ VO 2 reached 99 % and 105 % _ VO 2max during the hill and track sessions, respectively, the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio was moderately lower during the hill HIT (27 % vs. 44 %, ES & - 1.0). The reason for the lower T@ _ VO 2max during the hill HIT is unclear. Despite the expected higher muscle force requirement during hill running [173], this is unlikely enough to compensate for the reduction in absolute running speed. If we consider that running uphill at 85 % v _ VO 2max with a grade of 5 % has likely the same (theoretical) energy requirement as level running (or treadmill running with a 1 % grade to compensate for wind resistance [105]) at & 105 %; [175] the differences observed by Gajer et al. could have been even greater if the at condition was ran at a faster (and possibly better matched) speed (105 % vs. 102 % [174]). As well, intervals in these sessions might not have been long enough to observe the additional slow component generally witnessed with uphill running (& 2 min [172]). More research is required, however, to clarify the cardiorespiratory responses to uphill running at higher gradients ([10 %) or to staircase running that may require very high _ VO 2 values due to participation of upper body limbs (back muscles and arms when pushing down or grabbing handrails). 3.1.1.5 Volume of HIT with Long Intervals Another variable that can be used to maximize T@ _ VO 2max is the number of long-interval repetitions. It is worth noting, however, that very few authors have examined HIT ses- sions/programmes that are consistent with the sessions that athletes actually perform, and that research on the optimal T@ _ VO 2max per session is limited. Cumulated high- intensity ([90 % v/p _ VO 2max ) exercise time during typical sessions in well trained athletes has been reported to be 12 min (6 9 2 min or 6 9 &600 m [128]), 15 min (5 9 3 min or 5 9 &8001,000 m [21]), 16 min (4 9 4 min or 4 9 &1,0001,250 m [46]), 24 min (6 9 4 min or 6 9 &1,0001,250 m [69]; 4 9 6 min or 4 9 & 1,500 m [71]) and 30 min (6 9 5 min or 5 9 &1,300 1,700 m [127]), which enabled athletes to accumulate, depending on the HIT format, from 10 min[90 % [21, 128] to 410 min [95 % [127, 128] at _ VO 2max . Anecdotal evi- dences suggest that elite athletes tend to accumulate greater T@ _ VO 2max per session at some point of the season. In recreationally trained cyclists ( _ VO 2max : *52 ml/min/kg), 324 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen Seiler et al. showed that larger volumes of HIT performed at a lower intensity (i.e. 4 9 8 min = 32 min at 90 % HR max ) may be more effective than more traditional HIT sessions (e.g. 4 9 4 min) [176]. Further research examin- ing the inuence of these particular sessions in more highly trained athletes are, however, required to conrm these ndings. 3.1.2 _ VO 2 Responses to HIT with Short Intervals For short interval HIT runs to exhaustion, T@ _ VO 2max is largely correlated with total exercise time (i.e. time to exhaustion) [14]. Hence, the rst approach to maximizing T@ _ VO 2max during such sessions should be to focus on the most effective adjustments to work/relief intervals (intensity and duration) that increase time to exhaustion. In practice, however, coaches do not prescribe HIT sessions to exhaus- tion; they prescribe a series or set of HIT [50, 128, 177, 178]. In this context, it is important to consider the strategies needed to maximize T@ _ VO 2max within a given time period, or to dene time-efcient HIT formats with respect to the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (i.e. T@ _ VO 2max in relation to the total duration of the HIT session, warm-up excluded). 3.1.2.1 Effect of Work Interval Intensity on T@ _ VO 2max Billat et al. [23] were the rst to show the effect of exercise intensity on T@ _ VO 2max during HIT with short intervals (15 s/15 s) in a group of senior (average age: 52 years) distance runners (v _ VO 2max = 15.9 1.8 km/h). While the concurrent manipulation of the relief interval intensity (6080 % of v _ VO 2max , to maintain an average HIT intensity of 85 %) might partially have inuenced the _ VO 2 responses, the authors did show that increasing work interval intensity from 90 % to 100 % of v _ VO 2max was associated with a small improvement in the T@ _ VO 2max / exercise time ratio (81 % vs. 68 %, ES = ? 0.5). How- ever, the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (85 %) was not substantially greater using a work interval xed at 110 compared with 100 % of v _ VO 2max (ES = ?0.2). Using a xed relief interval intensity (Fig. 7a, [117, 177, 179]), increasing work intensity from 100 % to 110 % of v _ VO 2max during a 30 s/30 s format in trained young run- ners (v _ VO 2max = 17.7 0.9 km/h) induced a moderate increase in the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (ES = ? 0.6), despite very large and moderate reduc- tions in time to exhaustion (ES = -4.4) and T@ _ VO 2max (ES = -0.7), respectively [179]. A slight increase in work intensity from 100 % to 105 % of v _ VO 2max during a 30 s/30 s HIT format in well trained triathletes (v _ VO 2max = 19.8 0.93 km/h) was associated with a large improvement in the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (ES = ?1.2) [177]. The twofold magnitude difference in Millet et al. [177] compared with Thevenet et als. study [179] (ES: ?1.2 vs. ?0.6) is likely due to the fact that Millet et als. runs were not performed to exhaustion, but implemented with pre-determined sets. It is therefore possible that if the runs at 100 % had been performed to exhaustion [177], this would have compensated for the lower efciency of the protocol and decreased the differ- ence in T@ _ VO 2max observed. Similarly, increasing the work intensity from 110 % to 120 % of v _ VO 2max during a 15 s/15 s format in physical education students (v _ VO 2max = 16.7 1.3 km/h) lead to a large improve- ment in the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (ES = ?1.8) [117]. Interestingly, in the study by Millet et al. [177], individual improvements in T@ _ VO 2 with the increase in work intensity were inversely correlated with the athletes primary time constant for _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset (r = 0.91; 90 % CI 0.61, 0.98), suggesting that the time constant could be an important variable to consider when selecting HIT variables [116, 177]. Practically speaking, this data implies that coaches should programme HIT at slightly greater exercise intensities for athletes presenting with slow _ VO 2 kinetics (i.e. older/less trained [141]), or for athletes exercising on a bike [140]. However, since increasing exercise intensity has other implications (e.g. greater anaerobic energy contribution, higher neuromus- cular load, see Part II), such programming manipulations need to use a cost/benet approach. With respect to the use of very-high-exercise intensities ([102/120 % V IFT /v _ VO 2max ) for HIT, while the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio is high (81 % and 77 % at 130 % and 140 % of v _ VO 2max , respectively), exercise capacity is typically impaired and, hence, total T@ _ VO 2max for a given HIT series is usually low [117] (i.e. 5 min 47 s at 120 % v _ VO 2max [117]). Nevertheless, the use of repeated sets of such training can allow the accumulation of a suf- cient T@ _ VO 2max . Additionally, well trained athletes are generally able to perform HIT at this intensity for longer periods (i.e. [8 min [43, 50, 95, 180], especially when V IFT , instead of v _ VO 2max , is used [94]). To conclude, it appears that during HIT that involves short work intervals, selection of a work bout intensity that ranges between 100 % and 120 % of v _ VO 2max ([89 % and 105 % of V IFT ) may be optimal. 3.1.2.2 Effect of Work Interval Duration on T@ _ VO 2max The effect of work interval duration on systemic _ VO 2 responses during HIT involving repeated short intervals was one of the rst parameters examined in the HIT lit- erature [11, 12]. Surprisingly, there is little data available on repeated efforts lasting less than 15 s, despite the HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 325 common approach used by coaches (e.g. 10 s/10 s, 10 s/ 20 s) [181, 182]. During very short runs (\10 s), ATP requirements in working muscle are met predominantly by oxidative phosphorylation, with more than 50 % of the O 2 used derived from oxymyoglobin stores [11]. During the recovery periods, oxymyoglobin stores are rapidly restored and then available for the following interval [11]. As a result, the cardiopulmonary responses of such efforts are relatively low [183], unless exercise intensity is set at a very high level (as detailed in Sect. 3.1.4) and/or relief intervals are short/intense enough so that they limit com- plete myoglobin resaturation. Therefore, in the context of HIT involving short intervals (100120 % v _ VO 2max or 89/ 105 % V IFT ), work intervals C10 s appears to be required to elicit high _ VO 2 responses. Surprisingly, the specic effect of work interval duration, using a xed work/rest ratio in the same group of subjects, has not been investi- gated thus far; whether, for example, a 15 s/15 s HIT session enables a greater T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio than a 30 s/30 s session is unknown. What is known of course is that prolonging exercise duration increases the relative aerobic energy requirements [184]. Increasing the work interval duration, while keeping work relief intervals constant, also increases T@ _ VO 2max (Fig. 7b, [128, 185, 186]). For example, extending work interval duration from 30 s to 60 s using a xed-relief duration of 30 s in well trained triathletes (v _ VO 2max = 19.9 0.9 km/h) induced very large increases in T@ _ VO 2max (9 vs. 1.5 min, ES = ? 2.4), despite a shorter total session time (28 vs. 34 min, ES = -0.9; change in the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise ratio, ES = ?2.8) [128]. Simi- larly, in wrestlers (v _ VO 2max = 16.3 1.1 km/h), increas- ing running work interval duration from 15 s to 30 s lead to very large increase in T@ _ VO 2max (4 vs. 0 min, ES = 2.9); [185] a further increase in the interval duration to 60 s extended T@ _ VO 2max to 5.5 min (ES = 0.5 vs. the 30-s condition). Considering the importance of _ VO 2 kinetics for extending T@ _ VO 2max [177], these data suggest that longer work intervals (e.g. 30 s/30 s vs. 15 s/15 s) are preferred for individuals with slow _ VO 2 kinetics (i.e. older/ less trained [141]), or for exercising on a bike [140]. 3.1.2.3 Characteristics of the Relief Interval and T@ _ VO 2max The intensity of the relief interval also plays a major role in the _ VO 2 response during HIT involving short intervals, since it affects both the actual _ VO 2 during the sets and exercise capacity (and, hence, indirectly time to exhaustion and T@ _ VO 2max ; Fig. 7c, [164, 187, 188]). Compared with passive recovery, runs to exhaustion T i m e
( m i n ) 0 10 20 30 40 50 0% vVO 2max 50% vVO 2max /41% V IFT 67% vVO 2max /56% V IFT 84% vVO 2max /71% V IFT T@ VO 2max (90%) 15s[120% vVO 2max ]/15s[--]% 7 30s[105% vVO 2max ]/30s[--]% 89 42(17)% 24(19)% 63(26)% 68(19)% 84(10)% 77(12)% [La]: 10.7(2) [La]: 11.7(2) [La]: 6(2) [La]: 9.6(2) [La]: 8.1(2) [La]: 12.8(2) T i m e
( m i n ) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 a 100% vVO 2max /85% V IFT 105% vVO 2 110% vVO 2 120% vVO 2 130% vVO 2 140% vVO 2 T@VO 2max (90%) 55(20)% 93(23)% 81(48)% 77(53)% 23(18)% 46(20)% 23(10)% 32(22)% 15s[--%]/15s[0] 1 30s[--%]/30s[50% vVO 2max ] 2 30s[--%]/30s[50% vVO 2max ] 3 * [La]: 7.3(2) [La]: 11.5(2) [La]: 12.5(2) [La]: 11.1(3) [La]: 13.1(4) [La]: 14.7(5) [La]: 13.5(3) [La]: 8.2(1) [La]: 11.0(3) max /89% V IFT max /94% V IFT max /102% V IFT max /111% V IFT max /120% V IFT max (95%) b c Fig. 7 Mean SD total time and T@ _ VO 2max during different forms of HIT, including short intervals, as a function of changes in work interval intensity (a: references 1 [117]; 2 [179] and 3 [177]), work interval duration (b: references 4 [128], 5 [185] and 6 [186]) and relief interval intensity (c: references: 7 [190]; 8 [188] and 9 [164]). -- indicates the variable that was manipulated. Percentages refer to the mean SD T@ _ VO 2max relative to total session time. Mean SD [La] mmol/L is provided when available (values for study 6 [186] were all \6 mmol/L and are therefore not provided). HIT high- intensity interval training, _ VO 2max maximal oxygen uptake, T@ _ VO 2max time spent at 90 % or 95 % of _ VO 2max , V IFT running speed reached at the end of the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test, v _ VO 2max minimal running speed associated with _ VO 2max , * indicates HIT not performed to exhaustion 326 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen involving active recovery are consistently reported to be 4080 % shorter [164, 187190]. Therefore, when con- sidering runs to exhaustion during 15 s/15 s exercises, the absolute T@ _ VO 2max might not differ between active and passive recovery conditions [190] (ES = -0.3), but the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio is substantially greater when active recovery is implemented (ES = ?0.9); a factor of obvious importance when implementing pre- determined sets of HIT [50, 128, 178]. During a 30 s/30 s exercise model, compared with passive recovery, recovery intensities of 50 % and 67 % of v _ VO 2max were associated with small and very large improvements in T@ _ VO 2max (ES = ?0.4 and ?0.1, respectively) and the T@ _ VO 2max / exercise time ratio (ES = ?2.3 and ?4.1, respectively) [164, 188]. Increasing the recovery intensity to 84 % reduced moderately T@ _ VO 2max (ES = -0.6), but increased very largely the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio (ES = ?3.4). Taken together, these studies suggest that, for the short HIT formats examined thus far, relief interval intensities around &70 % v _ VO 2max should be recom- mended to increase both T@ _ VO 2max and the T@ _ VO 2max / exercise time ratio [23]. The fact that active recovery had a likely greater impact on T@ _ VO 2max during the 30 s/30 s [164, 188] compared with the 15 s/15 s [190] exercise model is related to the fact that _ VO 2 reaches lower values during 30 s of passive rest, which directly affects _ VO 2 levels during the following effort. For this reason, we recommend programming passive recovery B1520 s for non-endurance sport athletes not familiar with performing active recovery, and/or performing active recovery during longer-relief interval durations (C20 s). In general, the characteristic of the relief interval intensity can be adjusted in alignment with the work intensity, with higher-relief interval intensities used for lower-work interval intensities [23], and lower-relief exercise intensities used for higher- work interval intensities and durations [117, 177, 179]. 3.1.2.4 Series Duration, Sets and T@ _ VO 2max Dividing HIT sessions into sets has consistently been shown to reduce the total T@ _ VO 2max [50, 128, 178]. For example, in endurance-trained young runners (v _ VO 2max = 17.7 0.3 km/h), performing 4-min recoveries (30 s rest, 3 min at 50 % v _ VO 2max , 30 s rest) every 6 repetitions (30 s/30 s) was associated with a moderately lower T@ _ VO 2max (ES = -0.8) despite very large increases in time to exhaustion (ES = ?4.3); the T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio was therefore very largely reduced (ES = -2.3) [178]. This is likely related to the time athletes needed to return to high _ VO 2 levels after each recovery period, irre- spective of the active recovery used. While it could be advised to consistently recommend HIT runs to exhaustion to optimize T@ _ VO 2max , this would likely be challenging, psychologically speaking, for both coaches and athletes alike; this is likely why HIT sessions to exhaustion are not often practiced by athletes. In practice, the number of intervals programmed should be related to the goals of the session (total load or total T@ _ VO 2max expected), as well as to the time needed to reach _ VO 2max and the estimated T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio of the session. The time needed to reach _ VO 2max during different work- and relief-interval intensities involving short HIT (30 s/30 s) was recently examined in young endurance-trained athletes [164, 179, 188]. Not surprisingly, these studies showed shorter time needed to reach _ VO 2max values for work intensities C105 % v _ VO 2max and relief intensities C60 % v _ VO 2max . Conversely, using slightly lower work- and/or relief-interval intensities (i.e. work: 100 % and relief: 50 % v _ VO 2max ) the runners nee- ded more than 7 min to reach _ VO 2max . Despite a lack of statistical differences [164, 179, 188], all ES between the different work/relief ratios examined were small to very large. In the eld then, time needed to reach _ VO 2max might be accelerated by manipulating HIT variables during the rst repetitions of the session, i.e. using more intense work- and/or relief-interval intensities during the rst two to three intervals, or using longer work intervals and/or shorter relief intervals. If we consider that a goal T@ _ VO 2max of &10 min per session is appropriate to elicit important cardiopulmonary adaptations (Sect. 3.1.1.5), athletes should expect to exer- cise for a total of 30 min using a 30 s [110 % v _ VO 2max ]/ 30 s [50 % v _ VO 2max ] format, since the T@ _ VO 2max /total exercise time ratio is approximately 30 % (Fig. 7a). Since it is unrealistic to perform a single 30-min session, it is possible for it to be broken into three sets of 1012 min (adding 12 min per set to compensate for the time needed to regain _ VO 2max during the second and third set). Such a session is typical to that used regularly by elite distance runners in the eld. A lower volume (shorter series or less sets) may be used for other sports (i.e. in team sports, a T@ _ VO 2max of 57 min is likely sufcient [116]) and/or for maintenance during unloading or recovery periods in an endurance athletes programme. In elite handball, for example, 2 9 (20 9 10 s [110 % V IFT ]/20 s [0]) is com- mon practice, and might enable players to spend &7 min at _ VO 2max (considering a T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio of 35 %; Buchheit M, unpublished data). In football (soccer), HIT sessions such as 2 9 (1215 9 15 s [120 % V Inc.Test ]/ 15 s [0]) are often implemented [95], which corresponds to &6 min at _ VO 2max (14 min with a T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio of &45 % [190]). HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 327 3.1.3 Short versus Long Intervals and T@ _ VO 2max A direct comparison between long and short HIT sessions, with respect to T@ _ VO 2max , has only been reported twice in highly-trained athletes. Gajer et al. [174] compared T@ _ VO 2max between 6 9 600 m (track session, 102 % v _ VO 2max , ran in &1 min 40 s) and 10 repetitions of a 30 s/30 s HIT session (work/relief intensity: 105/50 % v _ VO 2max ) in elite middle-distance runners (v _ VO 2max = 21.2 0.6 km/h). While _ VO 2 reached 105 % _ VO 2max during the track session, _ VO 2max was not actually attained during the 30 s/30 s session. If the track session is con- sidered as the reference session (T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio: 44 %), T@ _ VO 2max was very largely lower during the 30 s/30 s intervals (10 %, ES & -2.6). Simi- larly, Millet et al. [128] showed that performing 2 min/ 2 min intervals enabled triathletes to attain a very largely longer T@ _ VO 2max compared with a 30 s/30 s session (ES = ?2.2, T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio = ?2.2). Long intervals were however moderately less efcient than a 60 s/30 s effort model (T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio, ES = -0.8) [128]. Taken together, these data sug- gest that long intervals and/or short intervals with a work/ relief ratio [1 should be preferred due to the greater T@ _ VO 2max /exercise time ratio. 3.1.4 _ VO 2 Responses to Repeated-Sprint Sequences Compared with the extensive data available on cardiore- spiratory responses to long and short HIT, relatively little has been presented on the acute responses to RSS. An RSS is generally dened as the repetition of [two short (B10 s) all-out sprints interspersed with a short recovery period (\60 s) [191]. Early in the 1990s, Balsom et al. [13] demonstrated that RSS were aerobically demanding (i.e. [65 % _ VO 2max ). In addition, Dupont et al. have shown that footballers can reach _ VO 2max during repeated sprinting [192]. To our knowledge, however, T@ _ VO 2max during RSS has not been reported. For the purpose of the present review, we have reanalysed data from previous studies [30, 158, 193, 194] to provide T@ _ VO 2max values for several forms of RSS (Fig. 8, upper panel [13, 30, 158, 192195]). When manipulating key variables already described (Fig. 2 [35]), _ VO 2max is often reached and sustained for 1040 % of the entire RSS duration (i.e. 1060 s; Fig. 8 a). If RSS are repeated two to three times per session, as is often done in practice [180, 196, 197], the majority of athletes may spend up to 23 min at _ VO 2max during the repeated sprints. To increase T@ _ VO 2max during an RSS, it appears that sprints/efforts should last at least 4 s, and that the recovery should be active and less than 20 s (Fig. 8, lower panel [13, 30, 158, 192195]). The introduction of jumps following the sprints [193], and/or changes in direction [194], are also of interest, since these may increase systemic O 2 demand without the need for increasing sprint distance, which could increase muscular load and/or injury risk (see review Part II). Nevertheless, with very short passive recovery periods (i.e. 17 s), some athletes can reach _ VO 2max by repeating 3 s sprints only (15 m). It is worth noting, however, that during all RSS examined here (Fig. 8, except for Dupont et als. study [192]), a number of players did not reach _ VO 2max , and T@ _ VO 2max showed high interindividual variations (CV = 30100 %). More precisely, when considering the four different forms of RSS performed by the same group of 13 athletes [193, 194], it was observed that six (45 %) of them reached _ VO 2max on four occasions, one (8 %) on three, four (31 %) on two, with two (15 %) never reaching _ VO 2max during any of the RSS. When the data from the four RSS were pooled, the number of times that _ VO 2max was reached was inversely related to _ VO 2max (r = -0.61, 90 % CL -0.84, -0.19). Similarly, the total T@ _ VO 2max over the four different RSS was inversely correlated with _ VO 2max (r = -0.55; 90 % CL -0.85, 0.00). There was, however, no relationship between the number of times that _ VO 2max was reached or the T@ _ VO 2max and _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset, as measured during submaximal exercise [144]. These data show that, with respect to T@ _ VO 2max , using RSS may be questionable to apply in some athletes, especially those of high tness. 3.1.5 _ VO 2 Responses to Sprint Interval Sessions The important research showing the benets of SIT [126], notwithstanding, there is, to date, few data available showing the acute physiological responses to typical SIT sessions that might be implemented in practice. Tabata et al. [198] showed that _ VO 2max was not reached (peak of 87 % _ VO 2max ) during repeated 30 s cycling efforts (200 % of p _ VO 2max and therefore not actually all-out) inter- spersed by 2-min passive recovery. In contrast, we recently showed [142] that during a true all-out SIT session, most subjects reached values close to (or above) 90 % of their _ VO 2max and HR. Nevertheless, T@ _ VO 2max was only 22 s on average (range 060 s, with two subjects showing no values [90 % _ VO 2max ) [142], and _ VO 2max was reached by ve (50 %) subjects only. These important individual _ VO 2 responses to SIT sessions were partly explained by variations in cardiorespiratory tness (i.e. there was a negative correlation between T@ _ VO 2max and both _ VO 2max (r = -0.68; 90 % CL -0.90, -0.20) and _ VO 2 kinetics at 328 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen (submaximal) exercise cessation (r = 0.68; 90 % CL 0.20, 0.90). As with RSS, there was no link between T@ _ VO 2max and _ VO 2 kinetics at exercise onset. Finally, it is worth noting that although pulmonary _ VO 2 is not high during SIT, muscle O 2 demand likely is, especially as the number of sprint repetitions increase. It has been shown that there is a progressive shift in energy metabolism during a SIT session, with a greater reliance on oxidative metabolism when sprints are repeated [199, 200]. Along these same lines, muscle deoxygenation levels and post-sprint reoxy- genation rates have been shown to become lower and slower, respectively, with increasing sprint repetition number. This response implies a greater O 2 demand in the muscle with increasing sprint repetition (since O 2 delivery is likely improved with exercise-induced hyperaemia) [142]. 3.1.6 Summary In this section of the review, we have highlighted the _ VO 2 responses to various forms of HIT. It appears that most HIT formats, when properly manipulated, can enable athletes to reach _ VO 2max . However, important between-athlete and between-HIT format differences exist with respect to T@ _ VO 2max . RSS and SIT sessions allow for a limited T@ _ VO 2max compared with HIT that involve long and short intervals. Combined, data from high-level athletes [128, 174] suggest that long intervals and/or short intervals with a work/relief ratio [1 should enable a greater T@ _ VO 2max / exercise time ratio during HIT sessions. The methods of maximizing long-term _ VO 2max development and perfor- mance adaptations using different forms of HIT sessions that involve varying quantities of T@ _ VO 2max , as well as the most efcient way of accumulating a given T@ _ VO 2max in an HIT session (i.e. intermittently vs. continuously), is still to be determined. 3.2 Cardiac Response with HIT and Repeated-Sprint Efforts Due to the varying temporal aspects [70] and possible dissociation between _ VO 2 and cardiac output (Qc) during intense exercise [201, 202], T@ _ VO 2max might not be the sole criteria of importance for examining when assessing the cardiopulmonary response of a given HIT session. Since reaching and maintaining an elevated cardiac lling is believed to be necessary for improving maximal cardiac function [58, 59, 203], training at the intensity associated with maximal SV may be important [201]. Dening this key intensity, however, remains difcult, since this requires the continuous monitoring of SV during exercise (e.g [2527, 201, 204]). Interestingly, whether SV is maximal at v/p _ VO 2max , or prior to their occurrences, is still debated [205207]. SV behaviour during an incremental test is Sprint duration (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R e c o v e r y
t i m e
( L o g
[ s ] ) 10 20 30 40 60 120 VO 2 >50%VO 2max VO 2 >55%VO 2max VO 2 >65%VO 2max VO 2 >75%VO 2max VO 2 >80%VO 2max VO 2 >85%VO 2max 1 5 x
( 4 0 m / 1 2 0 s [ 0 % ] )
1 4 0 x
( 1 5 m / 2 7 . 4 s [ 0 % ] )
2 1 5 x
( 4 0 m / 6 0 s [ 0 % ] )
1 6 x
( 4 s
W d w / 2 1 s [ 0 % ] )
3 2 0 x
( 3 0 m / 2 5 . 5 s [ 0 % ] )
2 1 5 x
( 4 0 m / 3 0 s [ 0 % ] )
1 1 5 x
( 4 0 m / 2 4 . 4 s [ 0 % ] )
2 6 x
( 2 5 m / 2 1 s [ 4 5 % ] )
4 1 5 x
( 4 0 m / 2 5 s [ 5 0 % ] )
5 2 0 x
( 1 5 m / 1 7 s [ 0 % ] )
6 6 x
( 2 5 m
C O D 9 0 / 2 1 s [ 4 5 % ] )
4 6 x
( 4 s
W d w / 2 1 s [ 4 5 % ] )
3 6 x
( 2 5 m + J u m p / 2 1 s [ 4 5 % ] )
7 6 x
( 2 5 m
C O D 9 0 + J u m p / 2 1 s [ 4 5 % ] )
7 V O 2
( %
V O 2 m a x ) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 69% 15(13)% 100% 35%* 46% 9(10)% 53% 19(27)% 69% 29(25)% 100% 41(14)% 50% 8(6)% 90COD +Jump +Jump Wdw Fig. 8 a Mean SD _ VO 2 responses during selected repeated-sprint sequences. The intensity of the relief interval (i.e. [percentage]) is expressed as a fraction of the v _ VO 2max . When available, both the percentage of participants that reached _ VO 2max (runner) and the mean SD time spent above 90 % of _ VO 2max (clock) are provided. b The mean _ VO 2 responses during the repeated-sprint sequences presented in section a are categorized into six colour-coded families (based in the % of _ VO 2max elicited) and then plotted as a function of sprint and recovery duration. The dashed lines represent the shorter sprint and recovery durations likely needed to achieve at least 80 % of _ VO 2max . Circles indicate active recovery. Note (see arrow) that 75 % of _ VO 2max can be achieved with very short sprints (i.e. 15 m) with passive recovery when sprints are interspersed with very short pauses (i.e. 17 s). References: 1 [13]; 2 [195];3 [158]; 4 [194]; 5 [192]; 6 [30] and 7 [193]. COD changes of direction, _ VO 2 oxygen uptake, _ VO 2max maximal _ VO 2 , v _ VO 2max minimal running speed required to elicit maximal _ VO 2 , Wdw refers to sprints performed on a non-motorized treadmill HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 329 likely protocol-dependent [202] and affected by training status (e.g. ventricular lling partly depends on blood volume, which tends to be higher in trained athletes) [206], although this is not always the case [207]. In addition, the nature of exercise, i.e. constant power vs. incremental vs. intermittent, as well as body position (more supine during rowing or swimming vs. more upright during running and cycling), might also affect the SV reached and maintained throughout the exercise bout. In fact, there is limited data on cardiac function during exercises resembling those prescribed during eld-based HIT sessions, i.e. constant- power bouts at high intensity. In these studies, SV reached maximal values within &1 min [26],] &2 min [24, 25, 204] and &4 min [27], and then decreased [24, 26, 204] or remained stable [25, 27] prior to fatigue. Inconsistencies in exercise intensities, individual training background and particular haemodynamic behaviours (e.g. presence of a HR deection at high intensities [208]), as well as meth- odological considerations in the measurement of SV may explain these differences [205207]. As discussed in Sect. 2.2, alternating work and rest periods during HIT with short intervals might also induce variations in the action of the venous muscle pump, which can, in turn, limit the maintenance of a high SV [60]. Following the beliefs of German coach, Woldemar Gerschler, in the 1930s, Cumming reported, in 1972, that maximal SV values were reached during the exercise recovery period, and not during exercise, irrespective of the exercise intensity [209]. Although these results were obtained during supine exercise in untrained patients, and despite contradictory claims [210], they contributed to the widespread belief that the repeated recovery periods and their associated high SV accounted for the effectiveness of HIT on cardiocirculatory function [211]. In partial support of this, Takahashi et al. [212] also reported in untrained males that during the rst 80 s of an active recovery (20 % _ VO 2max ), SV values were 10 % greater than during a pre- ceding submaximal cycling exercise (60 % _ VO 2max ). Sur- prisingly, these particular and still hypothetical changes in SV during recovery had never before been examined dur- ing typical HIT sessions in athletes. We recently collected haemodynamic data in well trained cyclists that partly conrmed Cummings ndings (Buchheit M, et al., unpublished data, Fig. 9). Irrespective of the exercise, i.e. incremental test, 3 min at p _ VO 2max or repeated 15-s sprints (30 % of the anaerobic power reserve, APR), the SV of a well trained cyclist (peak power output = 450 W, _ VO 2max = 69 ml/min/kg, training volume = 10 h/week) showed its highest values consistently during the recovery periods (upright position on the bike). While we acknowledge the limitations inherent to the impedance method used (PhysioFlow, Manaetec, France [213, 214]), and while further analysis on a greater number of subjects is needed, these preliminary data lend support to the belief that despite its supramaximal nature, HIT sessions might trigger cardiocirculatory adaptation via cardiovascular adjustments occurring specically during the recovery periods. Take for example an HIT session involving three sets of eight repetitions of a 15 s sprint (30 % APR) interspersed with 45 s of passive recovery (long enough for peak SV to be reached). Such a format would allow such athletes to maintain their peak SV for 24 9 20 s = 480 s, which is similar to what can be sustained during a constant- power exercise performed to exhaustion [25]. Interestingly, Fontana et al. [215] also observed, using a rebreathing method in untrained men, largely greater SV values at the end of a 30 s all-out sprint compared with an incremental test to exhaustion (127 37 vs. 94 15 ml, ES = ? 1.3). HR max was nevertheless very largely lower (149 26 vs. 190 12 beats/min, ES = -2.2), so there was no substantial difference in maximal cardiac output (Qc max ) [18.2 3.3 vs. 17.9 2.6 L/min, ES = -0.1]. To conclude, the optimal nature and intensity of exercise needed to produce the greatest SV adaptations is not known. In acquiring the answer to this question, one needs to take into account individual characteristics, such as t- ness level, training status and various individual haemo- dynamic behaviours to different exercise modes. In a practical way, on the basis of the limited data available, it might be recommended to prescribe a variety of different training methods to gain the adaptation advantages of each exercise format. HIT sessions, including near-to-maximal long intervals with long recovery durations (e.g. [34 min/ [2 min) might allow athletes to reach a high SV during the work (and possibly the relief intervals). Along these same lines, 4-min intervals &9095 % v/p _ VO 2max appear to be receiving the greatest interest to improve cardiopulmonary function (e.g [46, 59, 216]). Alternatively, repeated short supramaximal work intervals (e.g. 1530 s) with long recovery periods ([45 s) might also be effective at reach- ing high values both during exercise [215] and possibly, in recovery (Fig. 9). However, whether Qc max adaptations are comparable following long- and short-interval sessions (i.e. continuous vs. intermittent), or whether achieving a certain quantity of time at Qc max (T@Qc max ) is needed to maxi- mize its adaptation, is still unknown. In the only longitu- dinal study to date comparing the effect of short versus long HIT on maximal cardiovascular function in university students ( _ VO 2max : 5560 ml/min/kg) [59], there was a small trend for greater improvement in Qc max for the long interval protocol (ES = ?1 vs. ?0.7 for 4 9 4 min vs. 15/15, respectively). It is worth noting that Seiler et al. [176] showed, in recreational cyclists ( _ VO 2max : *52 ml/min/kg), that accumulating 32 min of work at 90 % HR max may 330 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen actually induce greater adaptive gains than 16 min of work at *95 % HR max [176]. While SV was not measured, these results contrast with the idea that exercise intensity directly determines the training responses [59]. Rather, they show that both exercise intensity and accumulated duration of interval training may act in an integrated way to stimulate physiological adaptations in this population [176]. In this latter case [176], the decrease in exercise intensity may have allowed for a greater T@Qc max (or near Qc max ), and, in turn, a greater adaptation. Whether similar results would be observed in highly trained athletes who are more likely to require greater levels of exercise stress for further adaptations, is still unknown. Finally, since T@Qc max has been shown to be largely correlated with time to exhaustion during severe exercise (r ranging from 0.79; 90 % CL 0.45, 0.93 to r 0.98; 90 % CL 0.94, 0.99) [25], pacing strategies that can increase time to exhaustion but that sustain a high cardiorespiratory demand may also be of interest. For instance, adjusting work intensity based on _ VO 2 responses (constant- _ VO 2 exercise at 77 % _ VO 2max on average) instead of power (constant-power exercise at 87 % p _ VO 2max ) led to moderate increases in time to exhaustion (20 min 10 min vs. 15 min 5 min, ES = ?1.0) and, in turn, T@Qc max (16 min 8 min vs. 14 min 4 min, ES = ?0.9) [25]. 4 Conclusions In Part I of this review, the different aspects of HIT pro- gramming have been discussed with respect to T@ _ VO 2max and cardiopulmonary function. Important between-athlete and between-HIT format differences exist, so that precise recommendations are difcult to offer. Most HIT formats, if properly manipulated, can enable athletes to reach _ VO 2max , but RSS and SIT sessions allow limited T@ _ VO 2max compared with HIT sessions involving long and short intervals. The _ VO 2 responses during RSS and SIT appear to be tness-dependent, with the tter athletes less able to reach _ VO 2max during such training. Based on the current review, the following general recommendations can be made: 1. To individualize exercise intensity and target specic acute physiological responses (Fig. 1), v/p _ VO 2max and ASR/APR or V IFT are likely the more accurate references needed to design HIT with long (C12 min) and short (B45 s) intervals, respectively. For run-based HIT sessions, compared with the ASR, V IFT integrates between-effort recovery abilities and COD capacities that make V IFT especially relevant for programming short, supramaximal intermittent runs Time (s) H R
( b p m ) ,
S V
( m l )
a n d
m u s c l e
T S I
( % ) 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 HR SV TSI V O 2
( m l / m i n / k g ) 0 20 40 60 80 VO 2 Time (s) H R
( b p m ) ,
S V
( m l )
a n d
m u s c l e
T S I
( % ) 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 a HR SV TSI V O 2
( m l / m i n / k g ) 0 20 40 60 80 VO 2 Time (s) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 H R
( b p m ) ,
S V
( m l )
a n d
m u s c l e
T S I
( % ) 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 HR SV TSI V O 2
( m l / m i n / k g ) 0 20 40 60 80 VO 2 b c Fig. 9 a _ VO 2 , HR, SV and muscle oxygenation (TSI) during an incremental test followed by two sets of three supramaximal 15-s sprints (35 % APR); b 5-min bout at 50 % of p _ VO 2max immediately followed by 3 min at p _ VO 2max ; and (c) the early phase of an HIT session (i.e. rst four exercise bouts (15-s [35 % APR]/45 s [passive]; in a well trained cyclist. Note the reductions in SV for intensities above [50 % of _ VO 2max during both the incremental and constant power tests, which is associated with a greater muscle deoxygenation during the incremental test. In contrast, maximal SV values are consistently observed during the post-exercise periods, either follow- ing incremental, maximal or supramaximal exercises. APR anaerobic power reserve, HIT high-intensity interval training, HR heart rate, _ VO 2max maximal oxygen uptake, p _ VO 2max minimal power associated with _ VO 2max , SV stroke volume, TSI tissue saturation index HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis 331 performed with COD, as implemented in the majority of team and racket sports. 2. Especially in well trained athletes that perform exer- cises involving large muscle groups, and assuming the accumulation of T@ _ VO 2max may maximize the train- ing stimulus to improving performance, we recom- mend long- and short-bout HIT with a work/relief ratio [1 (see Part II, Table 1 for practical programming suggestions). Additionally: a. There should be little delay between the warm-up and the start of the HIT session so that the time needed to reach _ VO 2max is accelerated. Warm-up intensity can be B6070 % v/p _ VO 2max , or game based (moderate intensity) for team and racket sport athletes. b. Total session volume should enable athletes to spend between &5 (team and racket sports) and &10 (endurance sports) min at _ VO 2max . 3. Until new evidence is provided, the importance of continuous versus repeated ventricular lling at high rates for developing cardiovascular adaptations is not known. Near-to-maximal and prolonged work intervals currently appear to be the preferred HIT option (i.e. [4 min at 9095 % v/p _ VO 2max , with likely decreasing external load with increasing fatigue to prolong T@Qc max ). 5 Perspective Further research is required to specify the acute cardio- pulmonary responses to HIT/RST/SIT in particular popu- lations such as youth and female athletes, as well as the inuence that training status and cardiorespiratory tness have on these responses. Further research is also needed to improve our understanding of how to optimally manipulate HIT variables, in particular, environmental conditions (e.g. altitude [21], heat [217]), where typical HIT sessions, as suggested for programming in the present review, cannot be performed. The impact of time of day, timing within a session, and external training contents should also be examined, as typically most studies are conducted with fresh participants in controlled environments, while in practice, HIT sessions are often performed in a state of accumulated fatigue (end of a team-sport session or in the afternoon following an exhaustive morning training session). Understanding the physiological responses to technical/tactical training sessions is also likely an impor- tant aspect of successful training in team sport athletes, so that the optimal HIT sessions can be programmed as sup- plemental sessions (i.e. how does one best solve the programming puzzle, while adding what is missed during the technical/tactical sessions [151], since physio- logical and performance adaptations have been shown to occur in relation to the accumulated training load com- pleted at high intensities [218]). Finally, since in team sports improvements in physical tness might not have a similar impact on match running performance for all players (inuence of playing positions, systems of play, individual playing styles) [63, 98, 219, 220], the imple- mentation of HIT sessions should be individualized and considered using a cost-benet approach. 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Effects of Different Recovery Periods Following A Very Intense Interval Training Session On Strength and Explosive Performance in Elite Female Ice Hockey Players