280

VMI manufactures many high voltage multipliers, most of which are custom designed for
specific requirements. The following information provides general information and basic
guidance necessary for the design of a multiplier assembly.
Outline of Multiplier Design Process:
SECTION 13
Multipliers
III. Other Design Concerns
stray capacitance
corona
leakage currents
reasonable ranges
II. Assembly Type
half wave series multiplier
half wave parallel multiplier
full wave series multiplier
series vs. parallel design considerations
IV. Electrical Operating Conditions
reasonable ranges
input & output voltage
output current
operating frequency
VI. Environmental Conditions
high altitude
chemical exposure
humidity
extreme temperatures
practical limits
I. Introduction
what is a multiplier?
how does a multiplier work?
common multiplier applications
V. Physical Characteristics
size
mounting
terminations
281
Introduction: What is a Multiplier?
Voltage multipliers are AC-to-DC power conversion devices, comprised of diodes
and capacitors, that produce a high potential DC voltage from a lower voltage AC
source. Multipliers are made up of multiple stages. Each stage is comprised of
one diode and one capacitor.
Introduction: How Does a Multiplier Work?
The most commonly used multiplier circuit is the half-wave series multiplier. All
multiplier circuits can be derived from its basic operating principles. Thus, the
half-wave series multiplier circuit is shown in Figure 1 to exemplify general
multiplier operation. The example shown in Figure 1 assumes no losses and
represents sequential reversals of transformer (T
S
) polarity.
FIGURE 1:
1) T
S
= Negative Peak: C
1
charges through D
1
to E
pk
2) T
S
= Positive Peak: E
pk
of T
S
adds arithmetically
to existing potential C
1
, thus
C
2
charges to 2E
pk
thru D
2
.
3) T
S
= Negative Peak: C
3
is charged to 2E
pk
through D
3
.
4) T
S
= Positive Peak: C
4
is charged to 2E
pk
through D
4
.
Therefore, output voltage = E
pk
x N
(where N = the number of stages).
13
MULTIPLIERS
General...
Design Guide
I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
a multiplier is an ac-to-dc
power conversion device.
how does it work?
common applications
CRT's, lasers, X-ray
systems, TWT's, ion
pumps, electrostatic
systems, more...
I. Introduction
I
D4
I
D3
I
D2
I
D2
I
D3
I
D4
I
D1
T
S
C
2
C
4
D
3
D
4
D
2
C
3
C
1
D
1
OUT
282
Introduction: Common Multiplier Applications
Originally used for television CRT's, voltage multipliers are now used for lasers,
x-ray systems, traveling wave tubes (TWT's), photomultiplier tubes, ion pumps,
electrostatic systems, copy machines, and many other applications that utilize
high voltage DC.
Assembly Type: Half-wave Series Multiplier
Characteristics: FIGURE 2:
1) Most common circuit Typical 4x Circuit Schematic
2) Very versatile
3) Uniform stress per stage
on diodes & capacitors.
4) Wide range of multiplication
stages.
5) Low cost
The following schematic (Figure 3) shows some of the many variations which are
available for a half-wave series multiplier configuration.
FIGURE 3
A large number of stages are available:
Negative Output is achieved through reversing diode polarity:
Multipliers: Design Guide
Introduction (continued)
II. Assembly Type
IN
GND C
2
C
1
C
3
C
4
OUT
C
N-2
C
N-3
C
6
C
5
C
4
C
3
OUT C
N
D
N
C
N-1
C
2
GND
C
1
IN
IN
GND
C
1
C
3
C
2
C
4
OUT
283
Assembly Type: Half-wave Series Multiplier (continued)
FIGURE 3 (continued):
Dual polarity output voltage is achieved through joining positive and negative
multipliers:
Odd or even numbers of stages can be produced:
Voltage may be tapped at any point along
the capacitor filter bank:
Any capacitor may be eliminated on the
capacitor filter bank, if the load is
capacitive:
Multipliers: Design Guide
Assembly Type (continued)
GND
IN
OUT(-)
C
2
C
4
C
1
C
3
C
5
C
6
C
7
OUT (+)
D
8
C
8
D
1
C
1

3
C
5
C
2
C
4
IN
GND OUT
13
Specify..
A
S
S
E
M
B
L
Y
half-wave series
half-wave parallel
full-wave series
IN
OUT
C
6
C
4
C
2
C
1
C
3
C
5
GND
T
1
T
2
IN
GND
C
1
C
3
C
5
C
2
C
4
OUT
284
Assembly Type: Half-wave Parallel Multiplier
Characteristics: FIGURE 4:
1) Small size Typical Schematic
2) Highly efficient
3) Uniform stress on diodes
4) Increasing voltage stress on
capacitors with successive
stages
Assembly Type: Full-wave Series Multiplier
Characteristics: FIGURE 5:
1) Highly efficient Typical Schematic
2) Uniform stress
3) Increasing voltage stress on
capacitors with successive
stages
4) High power capability
Assembly Type: Series vs. Parallel Design Considerations
In the process of deciding which type of multiplier assembly best suits the end
application, it is necessary to address the series and parallel multiplier formats.
The theory of operation is the same in both the series and the parallel multiplier
assembly types. They are similar also in package volume, but are slightly differ-
ent in package shape capability. Parallel multipliers require less capacitance per
stage than do their series counterparts.
However, parallel multipliers also require higher voltage ratings on each succes-
sive stage. The limit on output voltage in parallel multipliers is determined by the
voltage capability of the capacitors (common single-layer ceramic capacitors do
not exceed 20kV).
Multipliers: Design Guide
Assembly Type (continued)
IN
GND
C
2
C
4
C
1
C
3
OUT
C
1
C
3
AC
GND
AC C
2
C
4
C
5
C
6
OUT
285
Multipliers: Design Guide
Assembly Type (continued)
Assembly Type: Series vs. Parallel Design Considerations (continued)
Regulation Voltage: DC output voltage drops as DC output current is increased.
Regulation is the drop, from the ideal, in DC output voltage at a specified DC
output current (assuming AC input voltage and AC input frequency are constant).
A close approximation for series half-wave multipliers can be expressed as:
V
REG
= [I(N
3
+(9N
2
/4)+(N/2))]/12fC
Where: N = # of stages, (1 capacitor and 1 diode = 1 stage)
f = AC input frequency (Hz)
C = capacitance per stage (F)
I = DC output current (A)
Example: Calculate the regulation voltage of a 6 stage multiplier with 1000pF capacitors, 50kHz
input frequency (sine wave), 1mA DC output current, 20kV DC output voltage:
V
REG
= [1*10
-3
(6
3
+((9*6
2
)/4 + (6/2))]/12*50000*(1*10
-9
)) = 500 volts
This would require increasing the input voltage 167Vp-p (V
REG
/ 3 DC capacitors) to maintain
20kV DC output voltage at 1mA.
An equivalent parallel multiplier would require each capacitor stage to equal the
total series capacitance of the AC capacitor bank. In the above example, the 3
capacitors in the AC bank would equal 1000pF/3 or 333pF. The parallel equiva-
lent would require 333pF capacitors in each stage. (See Figure 6)
Ripple Voltage: Ripple voltage is the magnitude of fluctuation in DC output volt-
age at a specific output current (assuming AC input voltage and AC input fre-
quency are constant). A close approximation for series half-wave multipliers can
be expressed as:
V
RIP
= I(N
2
+N/2)/8FC
Example: Calculate the ripple voltage of a 6 stage multiplier with 1000pF capacitors, 50kHz input
frequency (sine wave), 1mA DC output current, 20kV DC output voltage:
V
RIP
= (1*10
-3
(6
2
+6/2))/8*50000*(1*10
-9
))
V
RIP
= 97.5Vp-p
13
286
Multipliers: Design Guide
Assembly Type (continued)
Assembly Type: Series vs. Parallel Design Considerations (continued)
FIGURE 6:
Series Multiplier
(efficiency comparison
from perfect multiplication)
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
DROP
(VOLTS)
X ( ) = # of stages
Capacitance = 1000pF/stage
Diodes = 12 chips/diodes
Frequency = 25kHz
OUTPUT CURRENT (mA)
Parallel Multiplier
(efficiency comparison
from perfect multiplication)
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
DROP
(VOLTS)
X ( ) = # of stages
Capacitance = 1000pF/stage
Diodes = 12 chips/diodes
Frequency = 25kHz
X 8
X 14
X 12
X 10
X 6
X 4
X 2
OUTPUT CURRENT (mA)
X 8
X 6
X 4
X 2
X 14 X 12 X 10
287
Other Design Concerns: Stray Capacitance
Stray capacitance becomes an important consideration as input frequency
increases. As the following expression indicates, an increase in frequency
decreases the capacitive reactance, resulting in increased current flow through
the insulating materials.
X
C
= 1/(2 FC)
Power losses through insulation, which are negligible at 60Hz, become significant
at high frequency.
Other Design Concerns: Corona
Corona is the result of gas ionization (air, oxygen, etc.), due to a high voltage
field.This extremely destructive phenomena
usually results in slow degradation of the
insulating materials, causing latent failures.
Careful design, consistent manufacturing
processes, eliminating air entrapment in
encapsulation, and a thorough understanding
of what causes corona minimize this problem.
Other Design Concerns: Leakage Currents
Losses due to leakage in diodes, capacitors
and insulation are significant considerations
in applications using very low capacitor
values (i.e. night vision power supplies) and
in applications, which operate at high temp-
eratures (>125C). Figure 7 (on the following
page) represents some of the factors affecting
multiplier efficiency.
Multipliers: Design Guide
Other Design Concerns
13
III. Other Design Concerns
Consider...
C
O
N
C
E
R
N
S
stray capacitance
corona
leakage currents
288
Multipliers: Design Guide
Other Design Concerns (continued)
Other Design Concerns; Leakage Currents (continued)
FIGURE 7:
OUT
IN
GND
I
R
I
R

1
C
3
C
2
C
4
D
1
D
3
D
4
D
2
I
R
I
R
C
SR
IV. Electrical Operating Conditions
Electrical Operating Conditions: Reasonable Ranges
Practical limits do exist, which determine multiplier design and application. Here
are some typical rules of thumb for the most commonly used VMI multipliers:
1) AC Input Voltage: 0 to 15kV p-p
2) AC Input Frequency: 5kHz to 100kHz
3) DC Output Voltage: 1kV to 150kV
4) DC Output Power: 0 to 50W
289
Electrical Operating Conditions: Reasonable Ranges (continued)
The following chart can be used to determine reasonable ranges for VMI multipli-
ers, utilizing rugged epoxy encapsulation and single layer ceramic capacitors.
Input frequency is assumed to be from 5kHz to 100kHz.
DC
Output Output AC Input Half Full Other Other
Voltage Power Voltage Wave Wave Type Type
VDC W VAC (p-p) Caps Encap.
1k 0-50 200-1000 X
50-200 500-1000 X
>200 500-1000 X X X
2.5k 0-50 250-2500 X
50-200 1000-2500 X
>200 1000-2500 X X X
5k 0-50 250-5000 X
50-200 2500-5000 X
>200 2500-5000 X X X
10k 0-50 2500-10000 X
50-200 5000-10000 X
>200 5000-10000 X X X
20k 0-50 2500-10000 X
50-200 5000-10000 X
>200 5000-10000 X X X
30k 0-50 2500-10000 X
50-200 5000-10000 X
>200 5000-10000 X X X
50k 0-30 5000-10000 X
30-100 5000-10000 X
>100 5000-15000 X X X
75k 0-30 7500-15000 X
>30 >5000 X X X
100k 0-30 7500-15000 X
>30 >5000 X X X
150k 0-30 7500-15000 X
>30 >5000 X X X
Multipliers: Design Guide
Electrical Operating Conditions (continued)
Specify..
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L
input voltage
output voltage
output current
operating frequency
output regulation
output ripple
Note: Multipliers are
available that exceed the
limits (as listed on the
previous page), but may
require other types of
capacitors, encapsulation,
etc.
13
290
Multipliers: Design Guide
Electrical Operating Conditions (continued)
Electrical Operating Conditions: Input and Output Voltage
The input voltage is usually specified as peak or peak-to-peak voltage. The
theoretical no-load output voltage is equal to the number of stages times the
peak input voltage. In most cases, the output voltage will be reduced from the
theoretical value due to the effects of regulation and stray capacitance.
In most applications, the output voltage from the multiplier is a primary
requirement. The input voltage may need to be increased to provide the required
output voltage. Care must be taken to insure that the voltage stresses on the
components do not exceed ratings during multiplier operation at maximum output
voltage and current.
Electrical Operating Conditions: Output Current
For typical multipliers, output current can range from 1A to 5mA. Due to the
effects of regulation, output current can affect the voltage stresses on a
multiplier's diodes and capacitors. Since regulation is directly proportional to
output current, and as input voltage is usually increased to compensate for
regulation, the diodes and capacitors near the input side of the multiplier will be
subjected to higher voltage stress at higher output currents.
For higher current ratings, it is important to insure that the diodes' junction
temperature does not exceed 125C. A thermal analysis may be necessary to
evaluate junction temperature. Typically, for output currents less than 1.0mA, the
power dissipated in the diodes is low enough to prevent overheating.
Electrical Operating Conditions: Operating Frequency
The lower the operating frequency for a multiplier, the larger its capacitors will
need to be to maintain electrical performance. For low frequency multipliers, the
operational characteristics must be calculated to determine feasibility.
The upper limit to operating frequency will be affected by diode recovery time,
stray capacitance, and inductance effects.
291
Multipliers: Design Guide
Electrical Operating Conditions (continued)
Electrical Operating Conditions: Operating Frequency
Diode recovery time can be a factor at frequencies above 100kHz. The effects of
capacitance and inductance will depend on component layout, potting material
used, and the choice of components.
Physical Characteristics: Size
Custom multiplier assemblies can usually be constructed in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes to meet customer needs. The customer may also specify
special physical characteristics, provided such specifications do not
compromise design constraints. Actual design of the package size/shape must
account for internal mechanical stresses and voltage isolation issues.
Clearly defining the dimensions and necessary tolerances is very helpful. When
the specific shape and/or size is not
defined, as much information as possible
should be provided regarding the enclosure
where the part will be installed and/or the
customer's preferred physical characteristics.
Typically, packaging that is "as small as
possible", is desired. However, an indication
of preferences and expectations, with respect
to package size, will aid in the development
of a suitable package design.
Physical Characteristics: Mounting
The preferred end-application mounting or
installation provisions need to be specified.
Through holes, integral threads, encap-
sulated inserts, pcb mount and suspension
are some examples of mounting techniques.
13
V. Physical Characteristics
Specify..
P
H
Y
S
I
C
A
L
package size & shape
mounting requirements
terminations
292
Multipliers: Design Guide
Physical Characteristics (continued)
Physical Characteristics: Terminations
Multiplier assemblies can have a large variety of terminations. Some possibilities
include the turret terminal, bus wire, high voltage leads, high voltage connectors,
inserts, pcb pins, or combinations of these configurations. Special terminal
plating requirements should be noted as required.
VI. Environmental Conditions
Environmental Conditions: High Altitude
High altitudes can amplify what would, at lower altitudes, be relatively benign
design issues. For example, some dielectric materials will outgas in low pressure
or vacuum installations, causing degradation of the dielectric and/or
contamination from insulating film deposition. Also, corona problems will
generally vary non-linearly with increased altitude.
Environmental Conditions: Chemical Exposure
The level of exposure an assembly receives to various chemicals should be
identified if known. Many applications use dielectric oils or gases to surround
the custom multiplier assembly. While these materials can provide excellent
isolation, reduced corona effects, minimal mechanical stresses, and usually good
cooling, they can also damage or degrade some encapsulants and remove
assembly labeling. As such, materials compatibility must be addressed during
the design stage.
Environmental Conditions: Humidity
Environments with high humidity can sometimes cause certain types of dielectric
materials to absorb moisture. Also, humidity severely limits the voltage isolation
capabilities of air-insulated applications.
As a result, it may be necessary to overpot, or otherwise insulate any exposed
high voltage connections.
293
Environmental Conditions: Extreme Temperature
Assembly exposure to high or low temperature extremes requires special
consideration. This is due to the electrical and mechanical effects of the ma-
terials used in the assembly construction. For example, very high tempera-
ture extremes, such as in excess of 150C, can sigificantly reduce the voltage
isolation capabilities of some encapsulants.
Additionally, high temperatures can induce significant mechanical stresses,
due to mismatches in material thermal expansion coefficients. (See Table 1
in Section 12).
Similarly, very low temperature extremes can induce mechanical stresses due
to material thermal expansion mismatches. Low temperatures can also cause
radical changes in the physical characteristics of the encapsulant, making it
brittle, or causing the encapsulant to exhibit non-linear shrinkage effects. (See
Table 2 in Section 12)
Environmental Conditions: Practical Limits
Practical limits do exist, which determine
multiplier design and application. Here are
some environmental rules of thumb for the
most commonly used VMI multipliers:
1) Operating Temp Range: -55C to +125C
2) Relative Humidity: 0 to 100%
3) Altitude: 0 to space
Note: Altitude and humidity affect materials,
terminations, plating, etc. Please specifiy.
Environmental Conditions (continued)
13
Identify..
E
N
V
I
R
O
N
M
E
N
T
high altitude
chemical exposure
humidity
extreme temperature
Multipliers: Design Guide
294
Fax: Telephone:
Company:
Engineer(s):
Program/Application: Target Price:
Due Date:
Assembly Type:
Special Requirements:
MULTIPLIER ASSEMBLY
Design Specification Sheet
(Attach/Provide a Sketch)
Qty/Usage/Time Span:
Customer P/N:
VMI Part Number:
Quantity to Quote:
Size (Max/Preferred):
Mounting:
Operating Temp:
Non-Op Temp:
Terminations:
Number of Stages:
Input Voltage: (pk-pk)
Output Voltage:
Output Ripple:
Operating Frequency:
Output Current:
Output Regulation: