Haematology
Haematology
1
CLINICAL
HEMATOLOGY
Prof Dr Gamal Abdul Hamid
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
2
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
Dr Gamal Abdul Hamid
MB, BS, GBIM , PhD HMO(Germany)
Professor and Director, National Oncology Center, Aden
Head, Clinical laboratory and Hematology unit,
Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences
Consultant Hematologist Oncologist
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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PREFACE
Clinical Hematology, first edition is written specifically for medical students, the
clinician and resident doctors in training and general practioner. It is a practical guide to
the diagnosis and treatment of the most common disorders of red blood cells, white blood
cells, hemostasis and blood transfusion medicine.
Each disease state is discussed in terms of the pathophysiology, clinical and
paraclinical features which support the diagnosis and differential diagnosis. We bring
together facts, concepts, and protocols important for the practice of hematology. In
addition this book is also supported with review questions and quizzes.
G.A-H
2013
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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CONTENTS
Preface
1. Hematopoiesis
7
2. Anemia
26
3. Iron Deficiency Anemia
32
4. Hemolytic Anemia
41
5. Sickle Cell Hemoglobinopathies
49
6. Thalassemia
57
7. Hereditary Hemolytic Anemia
63
8. Acquired Hemolytic Anemia
68
9. Macrocytic Anemia
75
10. Bone Marrow Failure, Panctopenia
87
11. Spleen
96
12. Acute Leukemia
100
13. Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders
126
14. Chronic Lymphoproliferative Disorders
138
15. Malignant Lymphoma
148
16. Multiple Myeloma and Related Paraproteinemia
172
17. Hemorrhagic Diseases
180
18. Transfusion Medicine
202
19. Bone Marrow Transplantations
216
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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Appendices: I. Hematological Tests and Normal Values
222
II. CD Nomenclature for Leukocytes Antigen
227
III. Cytotoxic Drugs 229
IV. Drugs Used in Hematology
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
230
232
247
251
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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HEMATOPOIESIS
1
Learning Objectives
1. To understand how blood cells are produced from pluripotent hematopoietic
stem cells and how hemopoiesis is regulated
2. To be able to identify the various types of normal blood cells in photographs
3. To know the functions, concentration and life-span of various types of blood
cells
4. To understand the concept of a stem cells
5. To be to identify erythroblasts, neutrophil precursors and megakaryocytes
6. To have a basic understanding of the structure and functions of hemoglobin
molecule
Blood Cells and Hematopoiesis
All of the cells in the peripheral blood have finite life spans and thus must be
renewed continuously. The mechanisms responsible for regulating steady-state
hematopoiesis and the capacity to modulate blood cell production in response to
stresses such as anemia or infection consist of a series of progenitor cells in the
bone marrow and a complex array of regulatory factors.
It is the process of blood cell production, differentiation, and development. The
hematopoietic system consists of the bone marrow, liver, spleen, lymphnodes, and
thymus.
It starts as early as the 3
rd
week of gestation in the yolk sac. By the 2
nd
month,
hematopoiesis is established in the liver and continuous through the 2
nd
trimester.
During the 3
rd
trimester it shifts gradually to bone marrow cavities. During infancy:
all marrow cavities are active in erythropoiesis "Red Marrow". During childhood:
erythropoiesis becomes gradually restricted to flat bones as; skull, vertebrae,
sternum, Ribs and pelvic bones, in addition to ends of long bones. The shafts of long
bones become populated by fat "yellow marrow".
Blood Cell Development
The pluripotent stem cell is the first in a sequence of steps of hematopoietic cell
generation and maturation. The progenitor of all blood cells is called the
multipotential hematopoietic stem cell. These cells have the capacity for self-renewal
as well as proliferation and differentiation into progenitor cells committed to one
specific cell line.
The multipotential stem cell is the progenitor for two major ancestral cell lines:
Lymphocytic and non-lymphocytic cells. The lymphoid stem cell is the precursor of
mature T cells or B cells/ plasma cells. The non-lymphocytic (myeloid) stem cell is
progress to the progenitor CFU-GEMM (colony-forming unit granulocyte-
erythrocyte-monocyte-megakaryocyte). The CFU-GEMM can lead to the formation
of CFU-GM (CFU-granulocyte-macrophage / monocyte), CFU-Eo (CF-Eosinophil),
CFU-Bs (CFU-basophil) And CFU-MEG (CFU-Megakaryocyte). In erythropoiesis,
the CFU-GEMM differentiates, into the BFU-E (Burst-Forming unit Erythroid). Each
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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of the CFUs in turn can produce a colony of one hematopoietic lineage under
appropriate growth conditions. CFU-E is the target cells for erythropoietin.
Hematopoietic Growth Factors
The hematopoietic growth factors are glycoprotein hormones that regulate the
proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic progenitor cells and the function
of mature blood cells. These growth factors were referred to as colony stimulating
factors (CSFs) because they stimulated the formation of colonies of cells derived
from individual bone marrow progenitors. Erythropoietin, granulocyte-macrophage
colony stimulating factors (GM-CSF) granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF),
macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and interleukin-3 are representative
factor that have been identified, cloned and produced through recombinant DNA
technology.
The hematopoietic growth factors interact with blood cells at different levels in the
cascade of cell differentiation from the multipotential progenitor to the circulating
mature cell.
Table 1.1: Human hematopoietic growth factors
Growth Factor Source Major Function
GM-CSF T-Lymphocyte, endothelial
cells, Fibroblasts
Stimulates production of
neutrophils, eosinophils,
monocytes, red cells and
platelets.
G-CSF Monocytes, Fibroblasts Stimulates production of
neutrophils.
M-CSF Macrophages, endothelia
cells
Stimulates production of
monocytes
ERYTHROPOIE
TIN
Peritubular cells, Liver,
Macrophages
Stimulates production of red
cells.
IL-1 Macrophages, activated
lymphes, endothelial cells.
Cofactor for IL-3 and IL-6.
Activated T cells
IL-2 Activated T cells T cell growth factor.
Stimulates IL-1 synthesis.
Activated B cells and NK cells
IL-3 T cells Stimulates production of all
non-lymphoid cells.
IL-4 Activated T cells Growth factor for activated B
cells, resting T cells and mast
cells.
IL-5 T cells Induces differentiation of
activated B cells and
eosinophils.
IL-6 T cells Stimulates CFU-GEMM
Stimulates Ig synthesis
IL-7 T cells, Fibroblasts,
Endothelial cells
Growth factor for pre B cells
Development and Maturation
Erythrocytes are rapidly maturing cells that undergo several mitotic divisions
during the maturation process. The Pronormoblast" is the first identifiable cell of this
line followed by the " Basophilic normoblast ", polychromatic normoblast ",
orthochromatic normocyte " and reticulocyte stages in the bone marrow.
Reticulocytes enter the circulating blood and fully mature into functioned
erythrocytes.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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A defect in nuclear maturation can occur. This is referred to as megaloblastic
maturation. In this condition, the nuclear maturation, which represents an impaired
ability of the cell to synthesize DNA, lags behind the normally developing
cytoplasm.
Reticulocytes represent the first nonnucleated stage in erythrocytic development.
Although the nucleus has been lost from the cell by this stage, as long as RNA is
present, synthesis of both protein and heme continues. The ultimate catabolism of
RNA, ribosome disintegration, and loss of mitochondria mark the transition from
the reticulocyte stage to full maturation of the erythrocyte. If erythropoietin
stimulation produces increased numbers of immature reticulocytes in the blood
circulation, these Reticulocytes are referred to as stress or shift reticulocytes.
Supravital stains such as new methylene blue are used to perform quantitative
determination of blood reticulocytes.
Figure 1.1: Developemntal characteristics of erythrocytes
Pronormoblast
Size 12- 19 m in
diameter
N:C ratio 4:1
Nucleus Large, round
nucleus
Chromatin has a fine
pattern 0-2 nucleoli
Cytoplasm: distinctive
basophilic colour
without granules
Basophilic Normoblast
Size 12- 17 m in diameter
N:C ratio 4: 1
Nucleus:
Nuclear chromatin more clumped
Nucleoli usually not apparent
Cytoplasm: Distinctive
basophilic colour
Polychromatic Normoblast
Size 11-1 m in
diameterN:C ratio 1:1
Nucleus:
Increased clumping of
the chromatin
Cytoplasm: Colour:
Variable, with
pink staining
Mixed with
Basophilia
Reticulocyte (Supravital
stain)
Size 7-10 m
Cell is anuclear
Polychromatic
Erythrocyte
Diffuse reticulum
(Wright stain)
Cytoplasm:
Overall blue
appearance
Orthochromic Normoblast or
nucleated RBC
Size: 85-12 m
Nucleus:
Chromatin pattern is tightly
condensed.
Cytoplasm:
Colour: reddish-pink
(acidophilic)
Erythrocyte
Average diameter 6-8 m
Pronormoblast (1) basophilic
normoblast(2) polychromatic N (3-
4) Orthochromatic normoblast (5-6)
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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(1.
The myeloblast is the first identifiable cell in the granulocytic series. Myeloblast
constitutes approximately 1% of the total nucleated bone marrow cells. This stage
lasts about 15 hours. The next stage, the promyelocyte, constitutes approximately
3% of the nucleated bone marrow; this stage lasts about 24 hours. The myelocyte is
the next maturational stage, with approximately 12% of the proliferative cells
existing in this stage. The stage from myelocyte to metamyelocyte lasts an average
4.3 days.The time requerd for the division and maturation of a myeloblast to a
mature granulocyte is 5-12 days. Two stages of granulocytes are observed in the
circulating blood: the band form of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils and in
end stage of maturation.
The normal number of neutrophilic granulocytes in the peripheral blood is about
2500-7500/l. Neutrophilic granulocytes have a dense nuleus split into two to five
lobes and a pale cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains numerous pink blue or gray
blue granules. Two types of granules can be distinguished morphologically;
primary or azurophilic granules which appear at the promyelocyte stage and
secondary granules, which appear later. The primary granules contain
myeloperoxidase, and acid hydrolase, whereas lyszymes, lactoferrin, and
collagenase are found in the secondary granules.
It has been estimated that 1.5X10
9
granulocytes/kg are produced daily in the
healthy organism. Most of these cells stay at various stages of maturation in the
bone marrow from where they can be mobilized in case of lymphopoietic stress.
Following their release from the bone marrow, granulocytes circulate for no longer
than 12 h in the blood. About half of the granulocytes present in the blood stream
are found in the circulating pool, whereas the other half is kept in a marginated pool
attached to blood vessel walls. After granulocytes move from the circulation into
tissues, they survive for about 5 days before they die while fighting infection or as a
result of senescence.
The major function of granulocytes (neutrophils) is the uptake and killing of
bacterial pathogens. The first step involves the process of chemotaxis by which the
granulocyte is attracted to the pathogen. Chemotaxis is initiated by chemotactic
factors released from damaged tissues or complement components. The next step is
phagocytosis or the actual ingestion of the bacteria, fungi, or other particles by the
granulocyte. The recognition and uptake of a foreign particle is made easier if the
particle is opsonized. This is done by coating them with antibody or complement.
The coated particles then bind to Fc or C3b receptors on the granulocytes.
Opsonization is also involved in the phagocytosis of bacteria or other pathogens by
monocytes. During phagocytosis a vesicle is formed in the phagocytic cell into
which enzymes are released. These enzymes, including collagenase, amino
peptidase, and lysozyme, derive from the secondary granules of the granulocyte.
The final step in the phagocytic process is the killing and digestion of the pathogen.
This is achieved by both oxygen dependent and independent pathways. In the
oxygen-dependent reactions, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and OH radicals are
generated from oxygen and NADPH. The reactive oxygen species are toxic not only
to the bacteria but also to surrounding tissue causing the damage observed during
infections and inflammation.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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Table 1.2: Causes of neutrophilia & neutropenia
Causes of neutrophilia
Bacterial infection
Inflammation e.g collagen disease, Crohns disease
Trauma/surgery
Tissue necrosis/infarction
Hemorrhage and hemolysis
Metabolic, e.g diabetic ketoacidosis
Primary causes:Myeloproliferative disorders. Down
syndrome, hereditary neutropenia
Pregnancy, stress excercise .
Drugs e.g steroids, G-CSF
Causes of neutropenia
A.Decreased Production
1. General bone marrow failure, e.g aplastic anemia,
megaloblastic anemia, myelodysplasia, acute leukemia,
chemotherapy, replacement by tumor
2. Specific failure of neutrophil production
Congenital, e.g Kostmans syndrome
Cyclical
Drug induced, e.g sulphonamides, chloropromazine,
clorazil, diuretics,
neomercazole, gold
B.Increased destruction
1.General, e.g hypersplenism
2. specific e.g autoimmune- alone or in association with
connective tissue disorder, rheumatoid arthritis Feltys
syndrome
Eosinophils: Eosinophils, which make up 1-4% of the peripheral blood
leukocytes, are similar to neutrophil but with some what more intensely
stained reddish granules. In absolute terms, eosinophils number upto
400/l. Eosinophil cells can first be recognised at the myelocyte stage.
Eosinophils have a role in allergic reactions, in the response to parasites,
and in the defense against certain tumors.
Table 1.3: Causes of eosinophilia
Allergic diseases e.g asthma, hay fever, eczema, pulmonary
hypersensitivity reaction e.g Loefflers syndrome
Parasitic disease
Skin diseases, e.g psoriasis, drug rash
Drug sensitiviry
Connective tissue disease
Hematological malignancy e.g lymphomas, Eosinophilic leukemia
Idiopathic hypereosinophilia
Myelproliferative disorders, chronic myeloid leukemia, polycythemia vera,
myelofibrosis
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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Basophils: Basophils are seen less ferquenly than eosinophils; under
normal conditions, less than 100/l are found in the peripheral blood.
Basophils have receptors for immunoglobulin E (IgE) and in the cytoplasm;
characteristic dark granules overlie the nucleus. Degranulation of basophils
results from the binding of IgE and allergic or anaphylactic reactions are
associated with release of histamine and heparin. Basophilia can be
associated with drugs, tuberculosis and ulcerative colitis. The most
common setting of basophilia is in myeloproliferative disorders suc as
CML. Peripheral blood smear confirm basophilia and management focuses
on the underlying etiology. Peripheral blood can be sent for Jak2 and
bcr/abl to evaluate a myeloproliferative disorder.
A monocyte is influenced by hematopoietic growth factors to transform
into a macrophage in the tissue. Functionally, monocytes and macrophages
have phagocytosis their major role, although they also have regulatory and
secretory functions.
In contrast to the granulocytic leukocytes, the promonocytic will undergo
two or three mitotic divisions in approximately 2 to 2.5 days. Monocytes
are released into the circulating blood within 12 to 24 hours after precursors
have their last mitotic division.
Histiocytes are the terminally differentiated cells of the monocyte
macrophage system and are widely distributed throughout all tissues.
Langerhans cells are macrophages present in epidermis, spleen, thymus,
bone, lymph nodes and mucosal surfaces. Langerhans cell histiocytosis is a
single organ/system or multisystem disease occurring principally in
childhood.
Monocytosis usually represent a malignant histiocyte disorders include
monocytic variants of leukemia and some types of non-Hodgkins
lymphoma. Peripheral blood smear confirms monocytosis and
management focuses on the underlying etiology. Peripheral blood can be
sent for Jak2 and bcr/abl to evaluate a myeloproliferative disorder. If
suspicion of a myeloproliferative disorder is high, a bone marrow biopsy is
necessary.
Lymphocytes: Hematopoietic growth factors play an important role in
differentiation into the pathway of the pre-B cell or prothymocyte. The
majority of cells differentiate into T lymphocyte or B-lymphocytes. The
plasma cell is the fully differentiated B cell.
The stages of lymphocyte development are the lymphoblast, the
prolymphocyte, and the mature lymphocyte. Mature lymphocytes can be
classified as either large or small types.
Lymphocytosis occurs in viral infection, some bacterial infections (e.g
pertusis) and in lymphoid neoplasia.
Lymphopenia occurs in viral infection (e.g HIV), lymphoma, connective
tissue disease, and severe bone marrow failure.
Platelets: Two classes of progenitors have been identified: The BFU-M and
The CFU-M. The BFU-M is the most primitive progenitor cells committed
to Megakaryocyte lineage.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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The next stage of Megakaryocyte development is a small, mononuclear
marrow cell that expresses platelet specific phenotype markers.
The final stage of Megakaryocyte development is recognised in bone
marrow, because of their large size and lobulated nuclei. These stages are
polypoid.
Megakaryocyte is largest bone marrow cells, ranging up to 160um in size.
The N: C ratio is 1:12. Nucleoli are no longer visible. A distinctive feature of
the Megakaryocyte is that it is a multilobular, not multinucleated. The fully
mature lobes of the Megakaryocyte shed platelets from the cytoplasm on
completion of maturation. Platelet formation begins with the initial
appearance of a pink colour in the basophilic cytoplasm of the
Megakaryocyte and increased granularity.
Mature platelets have an average diameter of 2-4 m, with young platelets
being larger than older ones.
Table 1.4: Characteristics of neutrophilic granulocytes
MYEL
OBLAS
T
PROMY
ELOCYT
E
MYELOCY
TE
METAMYE
LOCYTE
BAND SEGMENT
ED
Size (m) 10 18 14 20 12 18 10 18 10 -16 10 16
N:C ratio 4:1 3:1 2:1 1:1 1:1 1:1
Nucleus
Shape
Oval/r
ound
Oval/
round
Oval/roun
d
Intended Enlarged Distinct
lobes 2-5
Nucleoli 1-5 1-5 Variable None None None
Cytoplas
m
Inclusion:
Auer
rods
None None None None None
Granules None Heavy Fine Fine Fine Fine
Amount Scanty Slightly
increase
d
Moderate Moderate Abunda
nt
Abundant
Colour Mediu
m blue
Moderat
e blue
Blue-pink Pink Pink Pink
A. B C. D. E.
Figure 1. 2: Mature leukocytes : (A) Neutrophil, (B) Eosinophil, (C)
Basophil , (D) Monocyte and (E) Lymphocyte
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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Table 1.5. Characteristics of monocytes
Hemoglobin Synthesis
It occurs in the RBC precursors from the globin polypeptide chain and
heme. This synthesis stops in the mature RBCs.
Hb is a tetramer, formed of 4 polypeptide chains with a heme group
attached to each chain. These polypeptides are of different chemical types.
Each chain is controlled by a different gene, which is activated and
inactivated in a special sequence. Alpha chain is controlled by two sets of
gene (i.e. 4 genes), which are present on chromosome No. 6. Beta, Gamma
and Delta chains are controlled by one set of genes (i.e 2 genes) for each
chain, which are present on chromosome No. 11.
The most common Hbs are HbA (o2|2, the major adult Hb), HbF (o22, the
major fetal Hb), and HbA2, a minor adult Hb
Table 1.6: The human hemoglobins
Hemoglobin Composition Representation
A o2|2 95-98% of adult Hb
A2 o2o2 1.5-3.5% of adult Hb
F o22 Fetal Hb, 0.5-1%
Gower 1 ,2c2 Embryonic hemoglobin
Gower 2 o2c2 Embryonic hemoglobin
Portland ,22 Embryonic hemoglobin
At birth, Hbf forms about 70% of the total Hb, while Hb-A forms the rest.
By 6 months of age, only trace amounts of gamma chain are synthesised
and very little amounts of residual Hb-F are present. At 6-12 months age,
Hb-F forms 2% of the total Hb, while Hb-A forms the rest. Hb-A2 forms
about 3% of the total Hb.
The release of oxygen from red cells into tissue is strictly regulated. Under
normal condition, arterial blood enters tissues with an oxygen tesion of 90
mmHg and hemoglobin saturation close to 97%. Venous blood returning
from tissues is deoxygenated. The oxygen tension is about 40 mmHg; the
oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve describes the relation between the
Monoblast Promonocyte Mature
monocyte
Size (m) 12-20 12-20 12-18
N:C ratio 4:1 3:1-2:1 2:1-1:1
Nucleus shape Oval/folded Elongated/folded Horseshoe
Nucleus 1-2 or more 0-2 None
Chromatin Fine Lace-like Lace-like
Cytoplasm Vacuoles Vacuoles Vacuoles
Inclusion Variable Variable Common
Granules None None or fine Fine dispersed
Amount Moderate Abundant Abundant
Colour Blue Blue-grey Blue-grey
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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oxygen tensions at equilibrium. The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and
the deoxygenation in tissues is influences by temperaure, by CO2
concentration, and by the level of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in the red cells. In
the case of tissue or systemic acidosis, the oxygen dissociation curve shifted
to the right and more oxygen is released. The same effect results from the
uptake of carbon dioxide, which raises the oxygen tension of carbon
dioxide.
The oxygen supply to peripheral tissues is influenced by three mechanisms:
1. The blood flow, which controlled by the heart beat volume and the
constriction or dilatation of peripheral vessels.
2. The oxygen transport capacity, which depends on the number of red blood
cells and the hemoglobin concentration.
3. The oxygen affinity of hemoglobin
Table 1.7: Some normal haematological values according to age
Age RBC/ million Hb g/dl Hematocrit WBC/1000
/l
Cord blood 5+-1 16.5 +- 3 55+-10 18+-8
3 months 4+- 0,8 11.5 +- 2 36+-6 12+-6
6 months 4.8 +-0,7
7 Y-12Years 4.7 +-0.7 13+- 1 38+-4 9+-4.5
Adult M 5.5+- 1 15.5 +- 2.5 47+-7 7+-3.5
Adult
Female
4.8+-1 14+- 2.5 45+-5 7.5+-3.5
Clinical Applicability of Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Stem Cell Disorders: Disorders of hematopoietic stem cells include
aplastic anemia, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, and the various
forms of acute non-lymphocytic (myelogenous) leukemia, the
myeloproliferative disorders and myelodysplastic syndromes. The fact
that the myeloid pluripotential stem cell is the usual locus of disease in
these disorders can be inferred from the fact that the three major cell
lines derived from that cell, erythrocytes, granulocytes, and platelets are
often affected. Chronic myelogenous leukemia is believed to arise at a
still more primitive level, that of the multipotential stem cell; lymphoid
as well as myeloid cells appear to be involved in the neoplastic process,
and some patients with this disease undergo transformation to acute
lymphocytic leukemia. Direct evidence that these disorders originate at
the level of the pluripotential stem cell has been obtained by
chromosome analysis and by studies of black female patients who are
heterozygotes for two isotypes of the enzyme glucose 6-phosphate
dehydrogenase.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
16
Growth Factors as Therapeutic Agents
Now that purifies growth factors can be produced in large quantities,
clinical trails are taking place to examine their ability to stimulate
hematopoiesis in patients. The recombinant GM-CSF can offset the
neutropenia that follows intensive chemotherapy for malignant
disorders. This agent also hastens recovery of the peripheral blood
counts after bone marrow transplantation. Recombinant reverses the
anemia of chronic renal insufficiency.
The effective use of granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) as a
part of a therapeutic maneuver enabling otherwise lethal therapy to be
given for an uncontrollable disorder. G-CSF and GM-CSF (granulocyte
macrophage colony stimulating factor), originally derived from human
leukocytes or fibroblasts, are now manufactured by recombinant
techniques. They have been shown to be involved in the process of
proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow progenitors. GM-CSF is
a growth factor for both macrophages and neutrophils and is
presumably active slightly earlier in the identification pathway than G-
CSF, which is restricted to the granulocyte cell line. Both can be given
intravenously or subcutaneously depending upon circumstances. Bone
pain is the major complaint registered by patients who receive G-CSF or
GM-CSF, but fever, malaise, and discomfort at the injection site also
occur. At higher doses (e.g >32g/kg) the side effects are worsened, and
a capillary leak syndrome is well known to occur with GM-CSF.
Erythropoietin (Epo) is currently available for therapeutic use, and in
anephric individuals it has been demonstrated to raise levels of
hemoglobin from a base of about 60 gm/L to 100 gm/L. It has value in
secondary chronic anemia, and also been tried with variable results in
some cases of myelodysplasia. However, it is not clear exactly how Epo
exerts its effect on red cell production, but it likely acts on the immediate
post-stem cell daughter cells, shifting them to the red cell line and also
shortening the RBC period of maturation within marrow itself. Epo
receptors are also present on the surface of marrow erythroid precursors
megakaryocytes and fetal liver cells.
Identification of Cells
In identifying a cell, the technologist should think in the following terms:
1. What is the size of the cells?
a. Small
b. Medium
c. Large
2. What are the characteristics of the nucleus?
3. What are the characteristics of the cytoplasm?
When attempting to identify cells, it is important to note the degree to
which the cells take up the stain.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
17
Shape: A normal RBC is a biconcave disc about 2 microns in thickness.
Size: The mean corpuscular diameter is 6.7 - 7.9 microns (average 7.2).
The variation from normal can be classified as:
1. Variation in size
2. Variation in shape
3. Alteration in color
4. Inclusions in the erythrocytes
5. Alteration in RBC distribution.
VARIATION IN SIZE
"ANISOCYTOSIS"
1. Microcytes are small cells less
than 6.7 micron
Iron deficiency anemia
Thalassemia
Sideroblastic anemia
Lead poisoning
Chronic disease
2. Macrocytes are abnormally large
cell (8-12 micron)
Deficiency of Vitamins B12 or
Folate.
Hypothyroidism
Liver disease
Alcohol
Smoking
3. Megaloblasts are extremely
large (12 to 25 micron )
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Folate deficiency
Drugs:
Methotrexate, Cyclophosphamide,
Nitrous oxide, Arsenic
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
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VARIATION IN SHAPE
POIKILOCYTOSIS
1. Poikilocytes are pear-shaped RBC denoting destruction.
Poikilocytosis caused by a defect in the formation of red
cells. It may be seen in
pernicious anemia, IDA, congenital hemolytic anemia
and many other types of anemia.
2. Acanthocytes has multiple thorny spike-
like projections that are irregularly
distributed around the cellular membrane
and vary in size. found in:
Liver cirrhosis
Hepatic hemangioma
Neonatal hepatitis
Postsplenectomy
Retinitis pigmentosa
3. Spherocyte is red cells of smaller diameter
but more thicker than normal cells. They
represent RBC imbedding waters and so
become more fragile than normal.
ABO hemolytic disease of newborn.
Acquired hemolytic anemia
Congenital spherocytosis
Blood transfusion reaction
DIC
4. Sickle cells are red cells due to the presence of HbS.
They can only be seen in wet film (Sickling test) and
appear as sickle shaped cells when the oxygen tension is
reduced in the preparation or on addition of reducing
substances as sodium metabisulfate.
5. Ovalocytes : are elliptical cells, oval biconvex cells
instead of the normal biconcave cells. It is an inherited
anomaly. It may be found in:
H. elliptocytosis
Thalassemia
S.C.A
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
19
6. Elliptocytes are generally narrower and more
elongated than megalocyte. These cells have a rod,
cigar or sausage shape. Elliptocytosis associated
with:
Anemia of malignancy
Hemoglobin C disease
H. Elliptocytosis
IDA, Pernicious anemia
Sickle Cell Trait
Thalassemia
7. Crenated erythrocyte (Echinocytes):
Crenated erythrocytes have puckered
outer edges. Crenated RBC may be
produced in Blood smear which dries
slowly. They are often found in various
portions of the blood smear.
8. Burr cells are erythrocytes having one or
more spine projections of cellular
membrane. Increased in:
Anemia
Bleeding gastric ulcers
Gastric carcinoma
Peptic ulcer
Renal insufficiency, uremia
Pyruvate kinase insufficiency
9. Stomatocytes have a slitlike opening that
resembles a mouth. Increase stomatocytes
in acute alcoholism, alcoholic cirrhosis,
H.sepherocytosis , infection
mononucleosis,, lead poisoning and
malignancies.
10. Target cell (codocytes) are erythrocytes
that resemble a shooting target. A central
red bull's eye is surrounded by a clear
ring and then an outer red ring.
Clinically, Target cells are seen in:
Hemoglobinopathies
Hemolytic anemia, Hepatic disease
IDA & Postsplenectomy
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
20
11. Teardrop cell (dacrocytes) is usually
smaller than erythrocytes. Teardrop cell
resemble tears. This cellular abnormality
is associated with homozygous beta
thalassemia, myeloproliferative syndrome,
pernicious anemia and severe anemia.
12. Schistocytes are red blood cell fragments and may
occur in microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, uremia,
severe burns, and hemolytic anemiacaused by
physical agents, as in DIC
ALTERATION IN ERYTHROCYTE COLOUR:
ANISOCHROMIA
Hypochromia term used when central
pallor exceeds one third of the cells
diameter or the cell has a pale overall
appearance. It is clinically associated with
iron deficiency anemia.
Polychromatophilia is used if a nonnucleated
erythrocyte has a faintly blue orange colour
when stained with Wright stain. This cell
lacks the full amount of hemoglobin and the blue colour
is due to diffusely distributed residual RNA in the
cytoplasm.
The polychromatophilic erythrocyte is larger than a
mature erythrocyte. If stained with a supravital stain, a
polychromatophilic
erythrocyte would appear to have a threadlike netting
within it and would be called a reticulocyte.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
21
VARIATION IN ERYTHROCYTE
INCLUSIONS
1. Basophilic stippling appears as deep blue
granulations of variable size and number. Stippling
represents granules composed of pathological
aggregation of ribosome and RNA that are
precipitating during the process of staining of a
blood smear. Stippling is associated clinically with
lead poisoning and severe anemia and thalassemia.
2. Cabot rings are ring-shaped, figure-
eight or loops shaped structures. These
inclusions represents nuclear cabot rings
can be seen in lead poisoning and
pernicious anemia.
3. Howell-Jolly bodies are round solid staining,
dark-blue to purple inclusions. If presents,
cells contain only one or two H-J bodies. Most
frequently seen in mature RBC.
They are DNA remnant.
H-J bodies is associated with:
Hemolytic anemia
Pernicious anemia
Postsplenectomy
Physiological atrophy of spleen
4. Papenheimer bodies (siderotic granules) are
dark-staining particles of iron in the erythrocyte
that are visible with a special iron stain-
Prussian blue. They appear as blue
dots and represents ferric ions.
Clinically they are associated with:
Iron loading anemia
Hyposplenism
Hemolytic anemia
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
22
ALTERATION IN ERYTHROCYTE DISTRIBUTION
1. Agglutination is due to presence of
antibodies reacting with antigens on
the erythrocyte. e.g, MAHA, AIHA
2. Rouleaux formation is associated with the
presence of cryoglobulin. E.g, Multiple myeloma and
Waldensrtom Macroglobulinemia
Table 1.8 Red blood cell morphology grading chart
Morphology Grade As
Polychromatophilia
Tear drop RBC
Acanthocytes
Schistocytes
Spherocytes
1+ = 1 to 5/field
2+ = 6 to 10/field
3+ = > 10/field
Poikilocytosis
Ovalocytes
Elliptocytes
Burr cells
Bizarr-shaped RBC
Target cells
Stomatocytes
1+ = 3 to 10/field
2+ = 11 to 20/field
3+ = > 20/field
Rouleaux 1+ = aggregate of 3 to 4 RBCs
2+ = aggregate of 5 to 10 RBCs
3+ = Numerrous aggregates with only a
few free RBCs
Sickle Cells
Basophilic stippling
Pappenheimer bodies
Howell-Jolly bodies
Grade as positive only
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
23
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The primary site of hematopoiesis in fetus between the 10
th
and the
30
th
week of gestation is the:
a. Spleen
b. Bone marrow
c. Thymus
d. Liver
2. Active blood cell producing marrow begins to regress in the fourth
year of life and replaced by:
a. Bone
b. Fat
c. Fibrous tissue
d. Collagen
3. The red cell progenitor that requires relatively large amount of
erythropoietin to respond is the
a. CFU-GEMM
b. BFU-E
c. CFU-E
d. Pronormoblast
4. The two cell types that produce their own growth factors are:
a. Neutrophils and monocytes
b. Neutrophils and lymphocytes
c. Neutrophils and eosinophils
d. Lymphocytes and monocytes
5. The following cells are of the myeloid cell line except
a. Platelets
b. T-lymphocyte
c. Promyelocyte
d. Monocyte
6. The major erythrocyte production site is the
a. Bone marrow
b. Kidney
c. Liver
d. Spleen
7. The normal red cell
a. Is biconvex
b. Has only hemoglobin within the cell membrane
c. Has a normal MCV of 80-100 fl
d. Is an erythroblast?
8. A normal mature erythrocyte has a life span of
a. 8.2 hours
b. 5 days
c. 28 days
d. 120 days
9. Howell-Jolly bodies are clinically seen in the following except:
a. Hemolytic anemia
b. Iron deficiency anemia
c. Pernicious anemia
d. Postsplenectomy
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
24
10. The major site for removal of normal, aged erythrocytes is the
a. Bone marrow
b. Liver
c. Kidney
d. Spleen
11. The elliptopcyte is prominent morphology in :
a. Myeloid metaplasia
b. Hemolytic anemia
c. Iron deficiency anemia
d. Sickle cell anemia
12. The blood smear of a patient with a prosthetic heart valve may show:
a. Target cells
b. Burr cells
c. Schistcyte
d. Elliptocyte
13. How would a cell that has a diameter of 9 m and an
MCV of 104 be classified?
a. Macrocyte
b. Microcyte
c. Normal
d. Either normal or slightly microcytic
14. Which type of red cell inclusion is a DNA remnant?
a. Heinz bodies
b. Howell-Jolly bodies
c. Pappenheimer bodies
d. Cabot rings
!5. In apteinet with an MCHC> 36%, one would expect
to observe:
a. Target cells
b. Spherocytes
c. Elliptocytes
d. All of them
16. A microcytic cell can described as possessing:
a. A thin rim of hemoglobin
b. A blue-gray color
c. A size of less than 7m
d. An oval shape
17. Basophilic stippling is composed of
a. DNA
b. Precipitated stain
c. Denatured hemoglobin
d. RNA
18. Which inclusion cannot be visualized on wrights
stain?
a. Basophilic stippling
b. Pappenheimer bodies
c. Howell-Jolly bodies
d. Heinz bodies
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
25
19. Which morphologies would be prominent on a smear of a patient
with sever liver disease?
a. Target cells, macrocytes
b. Microcytes, elliptocytes
c. Schistocytes, bite cells
d. Sickle cell, crystals
20. The progression of erythropoiesis from prenatal life to adulthood is:
a. Yolk sac red bone marrow liver and spleen
b. Yolk sac liver and spleen red bone marrow
c. Red sac liver and spleen yolk sac
d. Liver and spleen yolk sac red bone marrow
21. Normal adult hemoglobin has
a. Two alph and two delta chains
b. Three alpha and one beta chains
c. Two alpha and two beta chain
d. Two beta and two epsilon chain
22. The number of heme groups in a hemoglobin molecule is:
a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four
23. Which of the following is the term for erythrocytes
resembling a stock of coins on thin sections
of a peripheral blood smear?
a. Anisocytosis
b. Poikilocytosis
c. Agglutination
d. Rouleaux formation
Questions 24 through 30, match the following
24. Basophilic stippling a. Pernicious anema
25. H-Jolly bodies b. G6PD deficiency
26. Heinz bodies c. Lead poisoning
27. Pappenheimer bodies d.Iron deficiency anemia
28. Acanthocytes e. Iron loading anemia
29. Spherocytes f. Abetalipoproteinemia
30. Microcytes g. Blood transfusion reaction
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
26
ANEMIA
2
Learning Objectives
1. To know how the symptoms and signs of anemia are caused
2. To understand the mechanism of production of anemia
3. To understand the morphologicalclassificationand diagnostic approach
of anemia
4. List and interpret the investigations of anemia
Anemia a decrease in red cell mass is also defined as a decrease in the
hemoglobin concentration or decrease in the hematocrit when compared
with a normal group.
Anemia is functionally defined as a decrease in the competence of blood to
carry oxygen to tissues thereby causing tissue hypoxia.
The symptoms of anemia depend upon the degree of reduction in the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, the change in the total blood
volume, the rate at which these changes occurs, the degree of severity of the
underlying disease contributing to the anemia, and the power of the
cardiovascular and hematopoietic systems to recuperate and compensate.
To understand how anemia develops, it is necessary to understand normal
erythrocyte kinetics. Total erythrocyte mass in the steady state is equal to
the number of new RBCs produced per day times the erythrocyte life span
(100-120 days):
Mass (M) = Production (p) X Survival (s)
Thus, the average 70-Kg man with 2 litres of erythrocytes must produce 20
ml of new erythrocytes each day to replace the 20 ml per day normally lost
due to cell senescence.
2000 ml (M) = 20 ml /day (p)
100 days (S)
Using this formula it can be seen that if the survival time of the erythrocyte
is decreased by half, the bone marrow must double production to maintain
a constant mass.
2000 ml (M) = 40 ml /day (P)
50 days (S)
New red cells are released from marrow as reticulocytes; thus a doubling of
the absolute count reflects the increased production. The marrow can
compensate for decreased survival in this manner until production is
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
27
increased to a level 5 to 10 times normal, which is the maximal functional
capacity of the marrow.
Diagnosis of Anemia
History
Physical Examination
Clinical Laboratory
Laboratory Investigations
1. RBC count, Hematocrit and Hemoglobin
2. Red Cell Indices.
3. Reticulocytes count
4. Blood smear examination
5. Bone marrow examination
MCV: Indices the average volume of individual red cells in the femtoliters
(fl) by the use automated cell counter is manually calculated: MCV (FL) =
Hematocrit (L/L)
RBC count (X10
12
/L)
Example: A patient has a hematocrit of 0.45L/L and an RBC of 5X10
12
/L
MCV= 0.45 = 90X10
-15
or 90 fl
5X10
12
The MCV is used to classify cells as normocytic (80-100), microcytic cells
have (< 80) and macrocytic (>100 fl).
Mean Corpuscular hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC): MCHC is the
average concentration of hemoglobin in grams in a decilitre of red cells.
The MCHC is calculated from the hemoglobin and hematocrit as follows:
MCHC g/dl = Hemoglobin (g/dl)
Hematocrit (L/L)
Example: A patient has a hemoglobin amount of 15 g/dl and a hematocrit
of 0.45 (L/L)
MCHC =15 g/dl = 33 g/dl
0.45 L/L
Normal MCHC is 31 to 36% normochromic
< 31% Hypochromic
> 36% Hyperchromic
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) is a measurement of the average
weight of hemoglobin in individual red cells. The MCH may be calculated
as follows:
MCH (pg) = Hemoglobin (g/d) X 10
RBC count (X10
12
/l)
The normal MCH should always correlate with the MCV and MCHC
< 27 pg microcytic > 34 pg macrocytic
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
28
The Hematological Rules of Three and Nine
The First Rule of Three
Red cell count (in million) X 10
12
/L X3 = Hemoglobin/dl
This rule expresses the normal ratio of hemoglobin to red cells. It applies to
all hemoglobinized cells regardless of whether or not the patient is anemic.
Such normalized cells are found in anemias of various causes, so if this rule
is found to fit an anemia, and leukemia. If the test results do not fit this rule,
the anemia, if present, may be broadly subclassified into that possessing
increased numbers of red cells in proportion to the total hemoglobin (e.g.
hypochromic microcytic anemias) and that with a disproportionately low
red cell count in relation to the hemoglobin (e.g. macrocytic anemia).
Hypochromasia, commonly seen in severe iron deficiency anemia, can
usually be detected on the peripheral blood smear when the hemoglobin is
less than 10 g/dl.
The Second Rule of Three
This rule is an expression of normal red cell relationship, and
abnormalities of rule 2 are indicative of pathological states. For example,
moderate to severe iron deficiency anemia usually is indicated when the
hemoglobin is disproportionately lower than the hematocrit, producing
an abnormal result when rule 2 is applied. The hypochromia of
thalassemia frequently does not violate this rule, as there is often
agreement between the hemoglobin and the hematocrit. Consequently,
rule 2 holds in such situations. Thus this rule is most often used for
corroborative rather than diagnostic proposes. Its main use is as a check
on the validity of the test results as part of a quality control program.
The Rule of Nine
If the normal ratio of the red cell count to the hemoglobin and that of
hemoglobin to hematocrit is known, a rule of nine can be calculated that
express the numerical relationship of the hematocrit to the red cell count.
Red cell count (10
12
/L X 9 = Hematocrit (%)
This is derived from the two rules of three as follows:
1. Red cell count X 3 = Hemoglobin
2. Hemoglobin X 3 = Hematocrit, that is Hemoglobin = Hematocrit/3
3. Red cell count X 3 = Hemoglobin, that is, red cell count X 9= Hematocrit
The Peripheral Blood Smear
The peripheral blood smear is the most practical diagnostic tool for the
hematologist. A drop of blood is applied against slide that is subsequently
stained with polychrome stains
(Wright-Giemsa) to permits identification of the various cell types. These
stains are mixtures of basic dyes (methylene blue) that are blue and acidic
dyes (eosin) that are red. As such, acid components of the cell (nucleus,
cytoplasmic RNA, basophilic granules) stain blue or purple, and basic
components of the cell (hemoglobin, eosinophilic granules) stain red or
orange. In addition to the polychrome stains, monochrome stains are
sometimes used to visualize young red cells (reticulocyte stain), denatured
hemoglobin (Heinz body stain) or cellular iron (Prussian blue stain).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
29
The blood smear is used to assess red cell size/shape; white cell appearance
and differential; abnormal cells; platelet size and morphology; detection of
parasites, e.g malaria. The smear may suggest a diagnosis, e.g. type of
anemia, presence of malaria, leukemia and myelodysplasia.
Bone Marrow Examination
Marrow examination complements clinical and laboratory in
determining the cause of anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis,
thrombocytopenia and thrombocytosis, as well as contributing of
lymphoproliferative disease and various solid tumors.
Smear on approximately 12 slides should be prepared to enable 5 slides
to be stained with Wright-Giemsa stain for Hemosiderin and ringed
sideroblast evaluation. Additional aliquots of 3-5 ml. of anticoagulated
marrow for each ancillary study are prepared.
Table 2.1: Bone marrow specimen collection
Study Anticoagulant
Molecular Diagnostic studies E.D.T.A
Flow Cytometry Heparin
Cytogenetics Heparin
Biopsy
Following fixation, decalcification and paraffin embedding, staining is
conventionally accomplished with Hematoxylin and Eosin stain (H&E).
Reporting
A. The report should include a review of the peripheral blood smear
including red cell, leukocyte and platelet morphology, as well as
adequacy, etc.
B. The report should include an assessment of the marrow aspirate
including adequacy and technical quality of the specimen, conclusion
and diagnosis.
Review of the marrow including
1. Marrow differential count of 500 Nucleated cells
2. Comments regarding cellulatity
3. M:E ratio
4. Type of Erythropoiesis (Normoblast, Megaloblastic, Dysplastic)
5. Hemosiderin content Grade 0-6
6. Evaluation of Ringed sideroblasts if appropriate
7. Myeloid series comments
8. Lymphoid elements comments
9. Plasma cell elements
10. Megakaryocytes Series- (Normal, Increased, Decreased, Dysplastic)
Bone Marrow analysis
1. The interpretation correlates observations made from the marrow
examination with data obtained from the complete blood count.
2. More than one diagnosis may be possible for each case.
3. Each bone marrow aspirate may have a cytologic and / or etiologic
diagnosis.
4. The cytologic interpretation utilizes the M/E ratio and the differential
cell count to provide diagnostic data for the clinician.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
30
Table 2.2 Cytology interpretation of bone marrow aspiration
M:E ratio Complete Blood Count Cytologic Diagnosis
Increased Anemia
Normal Leukogram
Erythroid Hypoplasia
Increased Anemia
Leukocytosis
Erythroid Hypoplasia or
Myeloid Hyperplasia or both
Decreased Leukopenia
Normal Erythrogram
Myeloid Hypoplasia
Decreased Leukopenia
Polycythemia
Erythroid Hyperplasia or
Myeloid Hypoplasia or Both
5. The interpretation of bone marrow aspirate results may be heavily
influenced by the patients history and alterations in sequential
hemograms.
Classification of Anemia
Morphologic classification
This morphologic classification is helpful since the MCV and MCHC are
known at the time anemia is diagnosed, and certain causes of anemia
characteristically produce a specific size of red cells (large, small or normal)
and a specific type of hemoglobin content (normal or abnormal). The
general categories of a morphologic classification include macrocytic-
normochromic, normocytic-normochromic, and microcytic hypochromic.
Functional classification
Considering that the normal bone marrow compensatory response to
decreased peripheral blood hemoglobin levels is an increase in erythrocyte
production, persistent anemia may be expected as the result of three
pathophysiologic mechanisms:
a. Proliferation defect b. Maturation defect c. Survival defect
Classification of Anemia according to Severity:
1. Mild anemia Hb < 11 8 g/dl
2. Moderate Hb <8 - > 5g/dl
3. Severe anemia Hb < 5 g/dl
Classification of RBC Distribution Width (RDW)
RDW is the mathematically expression of variation in size of RBC (or
anisocytosis) which is calculated by the cell counters. The RDW is the
coefficient of variation of the normally gaussian curves shaped RBC
volume distribution histogram. The RDW is determined by dividing the
standard deviation of the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) by MCV and
multiplying by 100 to convert to a percentage value. Thus the RDW is a
quantitative measure of the size variation of circulating RBCs. The normal
value for RDW is 12-15 %.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
31
Table 2.3: Classification of RBC distribution width (RDW)
MCV low MCV normal MCV high
RDW
normal
Microcytic-
Homogenous
Normocytic-
Homogenous
Macrocytic-
Homogenous
Heterogenous
Thalassemia
Chronic disease
Normal
Chronic disease
Chronic liver disease
Transfusion
Chemotherapy
CML
Hemorrhage
H. Spherocytosis
Aplasic anemia
Preleukemia
RDW
high
Microcytic
Heterogenous
Normocytic
Heterogenous
Macrocytic
Heterogenous
IDA
S.|-Thalassemia
Hemoglobin H
R.cell
fragmentation
Early iron or folate
deficiency
Sickle cell disease
Myelofibrosis
Sideroblastic anemia
Folate deficiency
Vitamin B12 def.
IHA
Cold agglutination
Table 2. 4: Classification of anemia using morphology, RPI and iron
status .
Type of
anemia
RPI Causese
Macrocytic >2
<2
<2
Survival defect
- Hemolysis, Hemorrhage
Nuclear maturation defect (megaloblastic)
- B12 and folate deficiency.
- Drug induced
- Congenital
- myelodysplasia
Non-megaloblastic
- Liver disease, Alcoholism
- Endocrinopathy and aplasia
Normocytic
Normochromic
>2
<2
Survival defect
- Hemolysis and Hemorrhage
Proliferation defect
Marrow damage or replacement
Stem cell defects
Renal disease and endocrinopathies
Chronic disease and liver disease
Microcytic
Hypochromic
Iron in
serum
Decreased:
Cytoplasmic maturation defect
- Iron deficiency anemia/ Ch. disease
Normal or increased
Cytoplasmic maturation defect:
- Hemoglobinopathies
- Sideroblastic anemia
- Lead intoxication
- Porphyria
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
32
IRON DEFICIENCY
ANEMIA
3
Learning Objectives
1. To know the causes of iron deficiency at all in all ages and sexes
2. To know the stages of iron deficiency and progression from iron
depletion to iron deficieny anemia
3. To the changes in the morphology of the red cells , in the red cell indices,
in the serum levels or iron, transferrin and ferritin and in the bone marrow
iron stores associated with iron deficieny
4. To know how to differentiate between the anemia due to chronic
disorders and that due to iron deficiency
5. To know the causes of hypochromic microcytic red cells other than iron
deficiency
Iron Deficiency Anemia
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common nutritional deficiency in the
world. In order to understand the symptoms, etiology and treatment of this
anemia, it is necessary to review normal iron and heme metabolism.
Iron Metabolism
The total body iron content of the normal adult varies from 3 to 5 g
depending on the sex and weight of the individual. It is great in males
than in females, and it increases roughly in proportion to body weight.
Hemoglobin iron constitutes approximately 60-70% of the total body iron.
The absolute amount is varying from 1.5 to 3 grams. At the end of their life
span, the aged red cells are phagocytosed by cells of the RES. Nearly all the
iron derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin is released into the
circulation bound to the iron binding protein, transferrin, and is re-utilised
by marrow erythroblasts for hemoglobin synthesis.
Storage
The amount of storage iron has been estimated to be about 1000-2000 mg
in the healthy adult male, and less in the female. Storage irons occur in
two forms- ferritin and hemosiderin. Ferritin is normally predominant.
In the normal person, storage iron is divided about equally between the
reticuloendothelial cells (mainly in spleen, liver and bone marrow),
hepatic parenchyma cells and skeletal muscle. Hemosiderin, the main
storage form in reticuloendothelial cells, is more stable and less readily
mobilized for hemoglobin formation than ferritin, which predominates
in hepatocytes. In states of iron overload, hemosidern increases to a great
degree than ferritin and became the dominant storage form.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
33
Plasma (transport) Iron
Between 3 and 4 mg iron are present in the plasma, where it is bound to a
specific protein, transferrin, a B-globulin of molecular weight 88000 that is
synthesized in the liver. Each molecule of transferrin binds one or two
atoms of ferric iron.
The function of transferrin is the transport of iron. It is the means by which
iron absorbed from the alimentary tract is transported to the tissue stores,
from tissue stores to bone marrow erythroblasts, and from one storage site
to another. When transferrin reaches the storage sites or the bone marrow,
it attaches to specific receptors on the cells and liberates its ferric ions,
which pass into the cell to be stored or utilized. The total amount of
transferrin in the plasma is about 8 g in the extracellular fluid. The level of
serum iron in normal subjects averages about 20 mol (men > women).
Transferrin is a glycoprotein present in the serum in concentration, which
enables it to combine with 44-80 mol of iron per litre. This value is known
as the total iron binding capacity of the serum.
Serum ferritin concentration in adults range between 15-300 g/l and the
mean level in men and women are 123 g/l and 56 g/l. In iron deficiency,
concentration is less than 12 g/l. In iron overload, levels are very high.
Serum ferritin increased in: infections, inflammations, malignancy
(lymphomas, leukemias) and liver diseases.
Absorption
The small intestine is highly sensitive to repletion of iron stores and rapidly
corrects imbalance by decreasing or increasing absorption. The daily intake
of a normal adult on a mixed western type diet contains 10-20 mg iron of
which 10% or somewhat less is absorbed. Absorption is greater
requirement due to menstrual loss and childbearing.
The chief dietary sources are meats (liver, kidney) egg yolk, green
vegetables and fruit milk.
Heme iron present in the hemoglobin and myoglobin of meat is well
absorbed.
Non-heme iron is released from food as ferric or ferrous ions by the action
of acid in the stomach. It is absorbed only in the ionic state and almost
exclusively as the ferrous form. Ferric ions are soluble at low PH. Ferrous
ions are more soluble under these conditions.
Absorption of iron is most efficient in the duodenum and proximal
jejunum, following entry into the cell, depending on the body requirement
for iron; a proportion is rapidly transferred across the cell and on to the
portal circulation for distribution to tissue iron stores. Most of the
remaining iron in the mucosal cell combines with apoferritin to form
ferritin. The ferritin containing cells are exfoliated from the mucosal surface
at the end of their 2-3 lifespan, and the iron is lost in the faeces.
Excretion
The amount of iron lost from the body per day is between 0.5 and 1.0 mg
under physiological conditions. The rate of loss is relatively constant and
independent of intake.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
34
Iron Imbalance
Under normal circumstances, iron absorption exceeds iron excretion. The
diet normally contains 10-20 mg of iron, of which 10% is absorbed.
Uptake varies from 1-2 mg per day. Basal loss ranged from 0.5 to 1 mg per
day. Menstrual iron loss is monthly 15-25 mg that mean between 0.5 and 1
mg per day. (28 days). The daily absorption necessary to compensate for
daily loss is 0.5 to 1mg in males and about twice this amount i.e. 1-2 mg in
female during the reproductive period of life.
The daily iron requirement for hemoglobin synthesis is 20-25 mg. It has
been pointed out that the body conserves its iron stores by reutilising the
iron derived from the breakdown of the hemoglobin from aged red cells. In
normal individual red cell destruction and formation take place at almost
identical rates. Normal males are a state of positive iron balance. Female of
childbearing age, the positive balance is only very slender, because of the
additional loss by menstruation. Thus, a moderate increase in menstrual
loss, especially if associated with impaired intake, can easily induce
negative iron balance.
Causes
1. Increased physiological requirements;
a. Growth: IDA is more common in children between age of 6 month and 2
years, and froom11 to 16 years due to spurts of growth during these
periods.
b. Menstruation: Anemia common in adult menstruating females.
c. Pregnancy: During pregnancy anemia is almost universal.
2. Pathological blood loss:
a. Menorrhagia- Antepartum and postpartum bleeding.
b. Gastrointestinal tract:
Bleeding piles
Drugs: Aspirin, Indomethacin, Butazolidin and Corticosteroids
Peptic ulcer
Intestinal infestations and infections: Ankylostoma, whipworm,
chronic colitis
due to amoebic or bacillary infections and giardiasis,
Miscellaneous: Cirrhosis of liver, hiatus hernia, diverticulosis of colon,
TB bowels,
Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis and malignancy of bowels.
c. Malabsorption: Coeliac disease, postgastrectomy and atrophic gastritis.
d. Urinary Tract: Recurrent hematuria and hemoglobinuria
d. Others
- Regular blood donation , recurrent epistaxis, recurrent hemoptysis.
- Pulmonary hemosiderosis, hereditary telangiectasis
3. Nutritional defect
- Low iron intake
- Inhibitors in diet
4. Excess iron loss
Exfoliative dermatitis, PNH, gastritis, GI infection and intravascular
hemolysis.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
35
Pathophysiology
Iron deficiency develops in sequential stages over a period of negative
balance (loss exceeds absorption).
Since Fe is absorbed with difficulty, most people barely meet their daily
requirements added losses due to menstruation (mean 0.5 mg/day),
pregnancy (0.5 to 0.8 mg/day), lactation (0.4 mg/day) and blood loss due
to disease or accident readily lead to Fe deficiency. Fe depletion results in
sequential changes or stages.
Stage I (Depletion of iron stores): Fe loss exceeds intake: with this negative
Fe balance, storage Fe (represented by bone marrow Fe content) is
progressively depleted. Although the Hb and serum Fe remain normal, the
serum ferritin concentration falls to <20 ng/ml. As storage Fe decreases,
there is a compensatory increase in absorption of dietary Fe and in the
concentration of transferrin (represented by a rise in Fe-binding capacity.
Stage II (Impaired erythropoiesis: Exhausted Fe stores cannot meet the
needs of the erythroid marrow, while the plasma-transferrin level increases,
the serum-Fe concentration declines, leading to a progressive decrease in Fe
available for RBC formation. When serum falls to < 50 g/dl, and
transferrin saturation to <16%, erythropoisis is impaired. The serum ferritin
receptor concentration rises (>8.5mg/l)
Stage III (Anemic stage): The anemia with normal appearing RBCs and
indices is defined.
Stage IV: Microcytosis and then hypochromia are present. The most
significant finding is the classic microcytic hypochromic anemia.
Stage V: Fe deficiency affects tissue, resulting in symptoms and signs.
Clinical and laboratory features
The onset is insidious. In early stage, there is no clinical manifestation. But
with complete depletion of iron stores, anemia develops and clinical
symptoms appear. Symptoms such as weakness and lethargy are
considered to be related to hypoxia cause by the decrease in hemoglobin.
A variety of other abnormalities may occur from an absence of tissue iron
in iron-containing enzymes. These include koilonychia (concavity of nail)
glossitis, pharyngeal webs, muscle dysfunction, impaired thermogenesis
and gastritis.
The most common dysphagia described in patients with IDA includes ice-
eating (phagophagia), dirt eating (geophagia), and starch eating
(amylophagia).
Peripheral blood Picture: The blood picture is well-developed iron
deficiency is microcytic (MCV 55 to 74 fl), hypochromic (MCHC 22 to 31
g/dl, MCH 14 to 26 pg). When the anemia is mild, the morphologic aspects
of the red blood cells are little affected. Microcytosis and anisocytosis are
usually the first morphologic signs to develop even before anemia
develops.
The blood film demonstrates progressive poikilocytosis.The most frequent
poikilocytes are target cells and elliptocytes. Nucleated red cells may be
seen if hemorrhage has occurred.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
36
Both the relative and absolute number of reticulocytes may be normal or
even slightly increased.
WBC is usually normal but some times eosinophilia may be present.
Platelets may be normal, increased or decreased. Thrombocytopenia may
occur in severe or long-standing anemia especially if associated with folate
deficiency. It has proposed that thrombocytosis is related to iron deficiency
caused by chronic blood loss.
Iron studies: The serum iron is decreased. It is usually less than 30g/dl
and the TIBC is increased with less than 15% transferrin saturation.
Serum ferritin levels are decreased in all stages of IDA and may be the first
indication of a developing iron deficiency. Serum ferritin is an important
test to differentiate iron deficiency anemia from other microcytic
hypochromic anemia.
Serum ferritin levels are normal in the anemia of chronic disease, and
increased in sideroblastic anemia and thalassemia.
Bone marrow characterized by decreased M:E ratio, moderate increased of
cellularity and mild to moderate erythroid hyperplasia. In erythroid series
there is poorly hemoglobinized normoblasts with scanty ragged cytoplasm
and erythroid nuclear abnormalities (nuclear fragmentation,
multinuclearity). The stains for iron shows absence of hemosiderin in the
macrophage and the sideroblasts are markedly reduced or absent.
Treatment of Iron Deficiency Anemia
A. Prophylactic
1. Adequate iron intake for pregnant mothers, a supplement of 30 mg/day
should be adequate.
2. Breast-feeding: Has a preventive effect during at least the first 6 months.
3. Prophylactic iron supplementation after the 3rd Month, and earlier in
premature by fortified formulas or cereals during infancy.
4. Prophylactic needed after partial gastrectomy.
B. Curative
1. Specific treatment of the causes e.g. as Ancylostoma, or cow- milk protein
allergy etc.
2. Oral iron therapy: The best is ferrous sulphate in a dose of 6 mg/kg/day
of elemental iron (=30 mg/kg/day ferrous sulphate), in 3 divided doses.
Better absorption occurs if given between meals (on empty stomach). It is
given for 4-6 weeks after correction of hematological values.
3. Parenteral iron therapy: Iron dextran complex (Imferon). It is not
superior to oral iron administration (50 mg iron/ml).
Calculation of the dose
(Normal Hb-initial Hb) X 1/100 X blood volume (ml) X3.4 X 1.5
Blood volume= 80 ml/kg body wt
3.4 is the amount of iron (mg) in one gram Hb.
1.5 provides extra-iron to replenish iron stores.
4. Packed RBCs: Are given only if there is severe anemia or in presence of
infection which may interfere with hematologic response.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
37
If anemic heart failure; a modified exchange transfusion using fresh packed
RBCs +/- Fursemide are used.
5. Following correction of anemia, an adequate diet should be instituted.
A hemorrhage response in the form of reticulocytosis is evidence after 48-72 hours
from start of iron therapy. The treatment should continue for 3 months to replenish
iron stores.
The Expected effect of Iron Therapy
1. Within the first day: Repletion of intracellular iron containing enzymes
which leads to increase appetite and improved irritability.
2. Within the first 2 days; bone marrow shows erythroid hyperplasia.
3. At the 3rd day, reticulocytosis appears in peripheral blood, which peak,
about the 6th day.
4. From fourth to 30th day; gradual increase of Hb level.
5. From 1-3 months gradual repletion of body iron stores.
Anemia Refractory to Oral Iron
1. Medication
a. Poor preparation (e.g expired drugs)
b. Drug interaction
2. Patient
a. Poor compliance
b. Bleeding continues
c. Malabsorption (rare)
3. Physcian
a. Misdiagnosis
b. Consider also:
- Anemia of chronic disease
- Thalassemia (minor)
- Sideroblastic anemia
- IV Fe
Figure
3.1: Iron
deficiency anemia: The RBCs are smaller than normal and have an
increased zone of central pallor. This is indicative of a hypochromic
microcytic anemia. There is increased anisocytosis and poikilocytosis.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
38
OTHER CAUSES OF HYPOCHROMIC ANEMIA
CHRONIC LEAD POISONING
It is a hypochromic microcytic anemia, with coarse basophilic stippling of
RBCs.
Diagnosed by increased of free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP) more
than 150mg/dl of blood and urinary excretion of large amounts of
corporphirin in urine.
Other manifestations of chronic lead poisoning are usually present as:
Acute abdominal colic associated with constipation, acute lead
encephalopathy; with vomiting, ataxia impaired consciousness,
convulsions and coma. Peripheral neuropathy (motor) is less common in
children than adults.
SIDEROBLASTIC ANEMIAS
These are hypochromic microcytic anemia, caused by defects in iron or
heme metabolism. There is elevated serum iron. The bone marrow contains
sideroblasts, which are nucleated red blood cells with a perinuclear collar of
coarse hemosiderin granules that represent iron-laden mitochondria.
A. X-linked type usually presents in late childhood (splenomegaly is
usually present).
B. Vitamin B responsive anemia. Responds to large doses of vitamin B6
(200-500 mg/day)
ANEMIA OF CHRONIC DISEASE
It is seen in patients with infection, cancer, liver disease, inflammatory
and rheumatoid disease, renal disease and endocrine disorders (thyroid).
Pathophysiology
A mild hemolytic component is often present. Red blood cell survival
modestly decreased.
Erythropoietin levels are normal or slightly elevated but are
inappropriately low for the degree of anemia. Erythropoietin level is low in
renal failure.
Iron cannot be removed from its storage pool in hepatocytes and
reticuloendothelial cells.
Laboratory Features
Usually anemia is mild normocytic and normochromic. It may be
microcytic and normochromic if the anemia is moderate. May be microcytic
and hypochromic if the anemia is severe but rarely <90 g/L.
Bone marrow shows normal or increased iron stores but decreases
normal sideroblasts.
Iron Indices
Serum iron is normal or slightly reduced. Total iron binding capacity
(transferrin) is normal or slightly reduced. Percent saturation is normal or
slightly reduced.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
39
Serum ferritin is normal or increased
Treatment
Treat the underlying disease. Erythropoietin may normalize the
hemoglobin value
Dose of erythropoietin required is lower for patients with renal disease
Only treat patients who can benefit from a higher hemoglobin level.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary function of iron
a. Molecular stability
b. Oxygen transport
c. Cellular metabolism
d. Cofactor
2. Which of the following influences iron absorption?
a. Amount and type of iron in food
b. Function of GI mucosa and pancreas
c. Erythropoiesis needs and iron stores
d. All of the above
3. What is the correct sequence for iron transport?
a. Ingestion, conversion to ferrous state in stomach
reconversion to ferric state in blood stream, transport by
transferring, incorporation into cells and tissues
b. Ingestion, transport by transferring to cells and tissues,
conversion to ferrous state prior to incorporation into cells
and tissues.
c. A and B are correct
d. Non of them
4. In iron deficiency anemia there is characteristically
a. An atrophic gastritis
b. A low mean corpuscular volume
c. A reduced total iron binding capacity
d. Megaloblastic changes in the bone marrow
5. What are the two major categories of iron deficiency?
a. Defect in globin synthesis and iron incorporation
b. Low availability and increased loss of iron
c. Defective RBC catabolism and recovery of iron
d. Problems with transport and storage of iron
6. Which are characteristic laboratory findings(s) for IDA?
a. Increased RDW
b. Decreased MCV, MCH, MCHC
c. Ovalocytes, elliptocytes, microcytes
d. All of the above
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
40
7. Which laboratory test results would be most helpful in
distinguishing
IDA from anemia of chronic disease?
a. Decreased MCV, MCH, marked poikilocytosis
b. Increased MCV, MCH, MCHC, decreased RDW
c. Increased RDW and TIBC
d. Decreased RDW and TIBC
8. What term refers to the accumulation of excess iron in
macrophages?
a. Sideroblastic anemia
b. Hemosiderosis
c. Porphyria
d. Thalassemia
9. Which of the following would not be seen in sideroblastic
conditions?
a. Increased RDW
b. Pappenheimer bodies
c. Ringed sideroblasts
d. Decreased serum iron
10. What is the characteristic finding in lead poisoning?
a. Basophilic stippling
b. Target cells
c. Sideroblasts
d. Spherocytes
11. The following statements are correct about the expected
effect of iron therapy except:
a. Within the first 2 days; bone marrow shows erythroid
hyperplasia.
b. At the 3rd day, Reticulocytosis appears in peripheral
blood, which peak, about the 6th day.
c. From fourth to 30th day; gradual increase of Hb level.
d. From 1-3 weeks gradual repletion of body iron stores.
12. The following statement concern iron deficiency
anemia except
a. stage I :is stage of depletion of iron store
b. stage II: impaired erythropoiesis
c. stage III: stage of anemia with marked appearing of
microcytic RBCs and pathologic indices
d. stage IV: The most significant finding is the classic
microcytic hypochromic anemia
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
41
HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
4
Learning Objectives:
1. To know the tests for recognizing :
a. that red cells are being destroyed at an excessive rate and
b. that the marrow is producing cells at a rate in excess of normal
2. To know the division of haemolytic anemias into congenital and
acquired, and to know the etiological factors in each division
3. To understand the mode of inheritance, biochemical basis and clinical
and laboratory features of hereditary spherocytosis.
4. To understand the ways in which abnormalities in the structure and rate
of synthesis of globin chains cause clinical and haematological
abnormalities.
5. To understand the role of autoantibodies in the production of haemolytic
anemias and to know the types of disease with which they are associated
6. To know some of the causes of non-immune acquired haemolytic
anemias
Hemolytic anemia results from an increase in the rate of red cell
destruction. The life span of the normal red cell is 100-120 days; in the
hemolytic anemia varying degrees shortens it. The investigation of
hemolytic anemia can be challenged and interesting. Many clinicians see it
as "all too complicated" and prefer to refer the patient with the question:
Has this patient got a hemolytic anemia? As hemolysis is an important
diagnosis to establish and may present in a plethora of clinical settings and
in many deceptive ways it does behove most clinicians to have a basic
problem solving approach to the initial assessment. If hemolysis is
suspected the following questions need to be addressed.
Most hemolysis occurs extravascularly; i.e. in phagocyte cells of the spleen,
liver and bone marrow (monocytic-macrophage system). Hemolysis
usually stems (1) from intrinsic abnormalities of RBC contents (Hb or
enzymes or membrane (permeability structure of lipid content or (2)
problems extrinsic to RBCs (serum antibodies (AB), trauma in the
circulation or infectious agents). The spleen is usually involved and if
splenomegaly results it reduces RBC survival by destroying mildly
abnormal RBC or warm AB-coated cells. Severely abnormal RBC or those
with cold Abs or complement coating are destroyed with the circulation or
in the liver, which (because of its large blood flow) can remove damaged
cells efficiency.
The pathways of red blood cell destruction effectively recover heme iron
for new red blood cell production. This process is true whether the red
blood cells break down in circulation (intravascular destruction).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
42
Destruction of senescent cells is largely limited to extravascular pathway.
Red blood cells are phagocytized by the reticuloendothelial cells, the
membrane is disrupted, and hemoglobin is broken down by lysozymal
enzymes. The iron recovered from heme is then stored or transported back
to the marrow for new red blood cell production. Amino acids are also
recovered. At the same time, the protoporphyrin ring is metabolised to the
tetrapyrrol (bilirubin) with the release of carbon monoxide. The bilirubin is
subsequently transported to liver where it is conjugated and excreted into
bile.
Intravascular hemolysis is uncommon; it results in hemoglobinuria when
the Hb released into plasma exceeds the Hb-binding capacity of plasma
haptoglobin. Hb is reabsorbed into renal tubular cells when Fe is converted
to hemosiderin, part of which is assimilated for reutilization and part of
which reaches the urine when the tubular cells sloughs. Identification of
hemosiderinuria in a fresh urine specimen provides clear evidence of an
intravascular hemolytic process.
Table 4.1 Diagnostic criteria of hemolysis
1. GENERAL EVIDENCE OF HEMOLYSIS
- Jaundice and hyperbilirubinemia
- Reduced plasma haptoglobin and hemopexin
- Increased plasma lactate dehydrogenase
2. EVIDENCE OF INTRAVASCULAR HEMOLYSIS
- Hemoglobinemia
- Hemosiderinuria
- Hemoglobinuria
- Methemalbuminemia
3. EVIDENCE OF COMPENSATORY ERYTHROID HYPERPLASIA
- Reticulocytosis
- Macrocytosis and polychromasia
- Erythroid hyperplasia of the bone marrow
- Radiological changes of the skull and tubular bone
4. EVIDENCE OF DAMAGE TO THE RED CELLS
- Spherocytosis and increased red cell fragility
- Fragmentation of red cells
- Heinz bodies
5. DEMONSTRATION OF SHORTENED RED CELL LIFE SPAN
- Reticulocytosis and hyperbilirubinemia are the main criteria
suggesting overt hemolytic anemia.
6. SUGGESTIVE CLINICAL FEATURES OF HEMOLYSIS?
Family history
Past history e.g., jaundice, gallstone, leg ulcers.
Recent history e.g., jaundice, dark urine, pains, Raynauds phenomenon,
shivers and sweats, pyrexia, blood transfusion, toxin exposure,
envenomation, burns.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
43
Hyperbilirubinemia
If liver and biliary functions are normal an unconjugated
hyperbilirubinemia occurs in hemolysis and the only real differential
diagnosis is that of Gilbert's syndrome which is usually a diagnosis of
exclusion.The standard teaching that a conjugated hyperbilirubinemia
excludes hemolysis is incorrect. Firstly, the techniques used for measuring
conjugated bilirubin are indirect and not truly accurate.
There are several clinical situations in which there may be a combination of
hemolysis in conjugation with impaired hepatobiliary handling of con-
jugated bilirubin. The system may thus be stressed by hemolysis with
hepatic conjugation proceeding normally, but a build up occurring at the
excretory level. Excluding the obvious biliary obstruction from gallstone
(possibly pigment stones in a chronic hemolytic anemia) is the commonest
defect seen in seriously ill patients (who are high-risk candidates for
hemolysis secondary to blood transfusion, drugs, infections etc) at the
energy-requiring level of the active transport of conjugated bilirubin from
the hepatocyte into the biliary canaliculus. Many patients with acute
hemolysis are also likely to have impaired bilirubin transport due to the
effects of shock or sepsis.
Reticulocytosis
Reticulocytes are usually expressed as a percentage of the red cells. In
normal subjects the reticulocyte count varies from 0.2-2%. In hemolytic
anemia it usually ranges from 5-20% but occasionally raises too much
higher values e.g. 50-70% or even more. In acute hemolysis there may not
have been time for the bone marrow to respond, as some days are usually
necessary for erythropoiesis to increase to a point where the reticulocytosis
is manifest in the peripheral blood. As long as the hematocrit and level of
erythropoietin stimulation are normal, the observed reticulocyte percentage
may also be considered of production (normal reticulocyte production
index=1). With a lower than normal hematocrit level, however, the
reticculocyte count must first be corrected to a hematocrit of 45 before
calculating the reticulocyte production index (RPI).
Table 4.2 : Maturation time correction
Hematocrit Reticulocyte maturation time
0.45
0.35
0.25
1.0
1.5
2.0
Corrected Reticulocyte Count:
Reticulocyte count (%) X Patient packed cell volume/Normal Hematocrit
based on age and sex =%
The reticulocyte production index may be calculated as follows:
Reti count (%) X Patient's Hematocrit (Hct)
45 (Normal Hct)
/ Reticulocyte Maturation Time
Example: A patient has a reticulocyte count of 9%, a hematocrit of 25%,
and easily visible "shift" red cells (Polychromasia) on the peripheral smear.
RPI= 9% X 25
45 / 2.0 = 2.5 %
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
44
Elevated Lactic Dehydrogenase (LDH), or Isoenzyme
Hydroxybutric Dehydrogenase (HBDH)
Lactic dehydrogenase is a cytoplasmic enzyme and can be helpful in
determining the presence of hemolysis. An isolated marked elevation of
LDH with other "profile" enzymes remaining normal (AST, ALT, CPK,
ALP) is highly suggestive of red cell destruction (hemolysis or ineffective
erythropoiesis). Red cells do not contain mitochondria so the levels of other
"standard" enzymes for tissue damage (e.g., ALT and AST) which are
mitochondrial in origin are normal or only marginally elevated.
Haptoglobins
This family of hemoglobin binding plasma proteins will be reduced if
significant hemolysis is occurring. Haptoglobins are acute phase reactants
and may be elevated in infection and inflammation. In contrast they may be
rapidly reduced by blood transfusion as a result of nonsurviving-stored red
cells. If they are present or increased significant hemolysis can be inter-
preted with caution.
The normal range is 30-200 mg/100 ml. It is estimated either chemically or
by electrophoresis.
Hemosiderinuria
A Week after an episode of intravascular hemolysis, or in-patients with
chronic intravascular hemolysis, examination of the urine with a Prussian
blue stain for iron may confirm the presence of hemosiderinuria. After the
kidney filters the dimers of hemoglobin they are resorbed by the proximal
tubules and metabolised. The resultant iron can be found in the tubular
cells shed into the urine.
Blood Film
Whatever it was the cause of hemolysis. The end result is rupture and
destruction of the red cell. This rupture involves membrane damage,
which need not be complete from the outset, so degrees of development
of red cell damage may be observed in the circulating red cells.
Methods Used For Diagnosis of Hemolytic Anemia
1. High peripheral reticulocytes more than 2% (usually >10%) + nucleated
RBCs in the peripheral.
2. Bone marrow aspiration: Increased erythroid tissue; with low
Myeloid/Erythroid ratio. Normally it is 2:1 to 4:1
3. Hyperbilirubinemia (indirect).
4. High serum irons and low iron-binding capacity.
5. Low red blood cell life span (Normal is 120 days).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
45
6. High urobilinogen in urine (Normal level is 2-5 mg/d and in stool is 30-
300 mg/d)
7. Hemoglobinuria in acute hemolysis.
8. Serum haptoglobin and hemopexin are low.
9. High Co in blood and expired air due to degradation of Hb to bilirubin.
10. X-Ray picture in chronic hemolytic anemia:
A. Skull-wide diploeic space and hair on end appearance.
B .Long and short long bones: wide medullary space and thin cortex
- Mosaic appearance of bone
- Pathologic fractures may be present
C. Cholecystography; may show bile stones
D. Chest and heart; cardiomegaly and heart failure may be present.
What is the precise diagnosis?
1. If a heriditary hemolytic anemia is suspected
- Osmotic fragility determination (*).
- Autohemolysis test +/- the addition of glucose (**).
- Screening test for red cell G6PD deficiency.
- Red cell pyruvic kinase assay.
- Assay of other red cell enzymes involving in glycolysis.
- Sickling preparation for Hbs
- Electrophoresis for abnormal Hb estimation
HbF in beta thalassemia and sickle cell anemia
HbS in sickle cell anemia
HbC in Target cell anemia
2. If an autoimmune acquired hemolytic anemia is suspected
- Direct antiglobulin test using anti-Ig and anticomplement sera
- Test for the auto-bodies in the patient serum
- Titration of cold agglutinins
- Electrophoresis of serum proteins
3. If hemolytic anemia is suspected of being drug induced
- Screening test for red cell G6PD
- Staining for Heinz bodies
4. In all instance of hemolytic anemia of abscure type (and in all cases of
aplastic anemia)
- Acidified serum test (Heinz test) for paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.
- Cold antibody lysis test.
*Osmotic Fragility Test is increased in most hemolytic anemia
(spherocytes). In congenital spherocytosis the initial hemolysis occurs in
0.73 saline solutions and is complete in 0.40 saline solutions. Decreased
osmotic fragility is noted in thalassemia, sickle cell disease, HbC, iron
deficiency anemia. In thalassemia occurs in 0.50 and is complete in 0.07
saline solutions.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
46
**Autohemolysis: Incubation of normal sterile defibrinated or oxalated
blood at 37C
0
in their own serum with or without added glucose shows
only mispontaneous hemolysis during the first 24-48h, after which time
rapid autohemolysis take place. This acceleration is due to several factors
among which spherocytosis, action of antibodies and action of chemicals
can be mentioned. The rate of hemolysis can be slowed by the addition of
glucose, mannose.
Normal values after 48 hours incubation are:
Without added glucose, 0.2-2% haemolysis
With added glucose, 0.01-0.9%
Etiological Classification of Hemolytic Anemia
A. Due to intracorpuscular mechanism
I. Congenital
1. Membrane defect
H. Spherocytosis, H. elliptocytosis, H. hydrocytosis.
2. Hemoglobin defect
a. Hemoglobinopathies; due to abnormal molecular structure: Sickle cell
anemia,
HbC, HbE, HbD etc
b. Rate of synthesis: e.g. B-Thalassemia major, alpha Thalassemia.
c. Double heterogeneous disorder: Sickle cell B-Thalassemia
3. Enzyme defect
a. Non-spherocytic congenital hemolytic anemia
Private kinase deficiency and G.6.P.D deficiency
b. Drug-induced hemolytic anemia and favism
II. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
B.Due to extracorpuscular mechanism
I. Immune mechanisms
Autoimmune acquired hemolytic anemia
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
Incompatible blood transfusion
Drug induced hemolytic anemia
II.Non-immune mechanism
Mechanical hemolytic anemia
March hemoglobinuria
Cardiac hemolytic anemia
Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
47
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In the absence of blood loss, the laboratory result most useful in the
initial diagnosis of a hemolytic anemia is a (an)
a. Increased reticulocytic count
b. Increased total bilirubin level
c. Decreased Hb and Hct
d. Increased LDH
2. The laboratory test that is abnormal because of intravascular
hemolysis, but usually normal with increased extravascular hemolysis
a. Fecal urobilinogen
b. Urine urobilinogen
c. Reticulocyte count
d. Plasma hemogolobin
3. The substance that is present in the urine in increased amounts if
extravascular hemolysis is increased but there is no intravascular
hemolysis is increased but there is no intravascular hemolysis
a. Methemoglobin
b. Urobilinogen
c. Hemoglobin
d. Hemosiderin
4. A decrease in the concentration of ----------in plasma is the earliest
indicator of a decrease rate of hemolysis.
a. Haptoglobin
b. Lactate dehydrogenase
c. Serum haptoglobin
d. Urine free hemoglobin
5. If an intravascular hemolysis is suspected, but hemoglobinemia is not
detected visually or spectrophotometrically, the first test that could be
recommended that may confirm the suspicion is
a. Serum heopexin
b. Serum Lacate dehydrogenase
c. Serum Haptoglobin
d. Urine free hemoglobin
6. Hemolytic anemia is not indicated by a (an)
a. Positive urine hemosiderine
b. Positive fecal occult blood
c. Increased plasma unconjugated bilirubin
d. Decreased serum haptoglobin
7. If a male patient has a reticulocyte count of 6% and a packed cell
volume of 0.45 L/L, what is his RPI%?
a. 1.5%
b. 3%
c. 4.5%
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
48
d. 6%
8. If a male patient has a reticulocyte count of 5% and a packed cell
volume of 0.45 L/L. What is his corrected reticulocyte count?
a. 2.5 %
b. 4.5 %
c. 5.0 %
d. 10 %
9. The following statements about hemolytic
anemia are true except:
a. Is often accompanied by an increase in serum
unconjugated bilirubin
b. Is usually accompanied by increased urinary
bilirubin
c. Is predominantly extravascular in hereditary
spherocytosis
d. Can lead to kernicterus in the neonate
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
49
SICKLE CELL
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
5
Learning Objectives
1. To know the clinical and laboratory manifestations of sickle cell
anemia and the common thalassemia syndromes, and to have a general
understanding of the ethinic groups in which such abonoralities are
likely to occur
The term sickle cell disease is used generically to describe a group of
genetic disorders characterized by the production of the abnormal
hemoglobin S (HbS). Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is the most common type
of sickle cell disease and represents the homozygous form, in which the
individual inherits a double dose of the abnormal gene, which codes for
hemoglobin S. This type of hemoglobin differs from normal hemoglobin
by the single amino acid substitution of valine for glutamic acid in the
sixth position from the NH2 terminal end of the | chain. The structural
formula for sickle cell anemia (HbSS) is o2|2.
Pathophysiology
1. When oxygenated, HbS is fully soluble. Sickling occurs when oxygen
decreases at the tissue level. When oxygen is released from the Hb
molecules, a conformational change occurs, which results in polymerisation
of the Hb molecule and leads to the formation of tactoids or crystals, which
cause the cell to become rigid.
2. The distorted and rigid sickle cells impede blood flow to tissues and
organs, resulting in tissue death, organ infarction, and pain.
3. Repeated of sickle-unsickle cycles lead to loss of fragments of red cell
membrane, and the cells become spherocytic and fragile. They are removal
prematurely by the reticulo-endothelial system, and to a lesser extent
destroyed in the circulation resulting in both extravascular and
intravascular hemolysis. The bone marrow responds by increasing
erythropoiesis. As a result, the marrow spaces widen and the bone cortex
thins.
The amount of HbS in the red cell is clearly of great importance. The cells of
a patient with sickle cell trait which contain less than 50% HbS are less
likely to sickle at a particular level of deoxygenation than the cells of a
patient with homozygous sickle cell disease which contain 100% HbS
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
50
Sickle Cell Trait
Patients with one normal |-globin gene and one |
s
gene are said to have
sickle cell trait. This condition is by far the most common of the sickle cell
variants; it is asymptomatic carrier state for HbS. HbS comprises 38-45% of
the total hemoglobin, the rest being HbA, HbA2 and HbF. The cells do not
contain sufficient HbS to undergo sickling at the lowest oxygen tension
normally occurring in the body and the red cell lifespan is normal. In the
stained blood film, no sickle cells are present and the red cells appear
normal. The MCV and MCH are normal. However sickling can readily be
demonstrated by the sickle test, and the hemoglobin solubility test is
positive.The sickle cell trait does not cause anemia, and in general is
asymptomatic. If anemia is present, other causes, e.g. iron deficiency,
should be sought.
Homozygous Sickle Cell Disease
The worst of the sickle cell diadease is sickle cell anemia. Like othe
hemoglobinopathies, it is an inherited disease. I s is trabsnitted in an
autosomal recessive manner, occurring in persons who have inherited two
|
s
-globin genes. The patient receives one HbS from each parent, both of
whom show sickle cell trait. The probability for each child such unions to
have normal hemoglobin only, sickle cell trait or homozygous disease are
25%, 50% and 25%. In these persons, hemoglobin S accounts for more than
90% of the hemoglobin in the red cell.
In sickle cell disease, the red cells contain sufficient HbS for sickling to be
produced in vivo by the reduction of oxygen tension that occurs in
capillaries.
In vivo sickling is responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease.
These are chronic hemolytic anemia, organ damage and episodes of pain.
Clinical manifestations fall into two categories: those caused by the
anemia and those attributable to occlusions of the microvasculature.
The diagnosis is usually made in childhood (before two years). Symptoms
are infrequent in first six months (High HbF protecting the RBC from
sickling). Many children died in the first 7 years. Bacterial infection is the
most common cause of mortality and morbidity. (e.g. Pneumococcal
meningitis). Hand foot syndrome is caused by microinfarction of the
medulla of the carpal and tarsal bones. This syndrome manifested by hand
and feet tender, swollen and febrile.
Spleen is palpabe between six months and 8 years. Splenic sequestration
syndrome developed due to sudden pooling of blood within the spleen,
often with acute hypovolemia and shock. The spleen enlarges rapidly and
death may occur.
Blood film: Howell-Jolly bodies and target cell found in splenectomized
patients.
Repeated episodes of infarctions eventually lead to atrophy and
autosplenectomy; by eight years of age, the spleen is no longer palpable
and its function is permanently impaired.
In Adult all patients are anemic (many of them adapt to anemia.
Sickle cell crises are characteristic features of disease and are responsible for
morbidity.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
51
A.Vaso-occlusive crises :( Occlusion--Ischemia--Infarction) consist of
sudden attacks of bone pain usually in the limbs, joints, back and chest or of
abdominal pain.
B. Aplastic crises: occur when there is sudden cessation of marrow
erythropoiesis related to infection with human parvovirus. Hemolysis
continues and the red cell mass rapidly diminishes to life-threatening
levels. Significant reductions are in erythrocyte count, Hb, Hct, reticulocyte
count and bone marrow erythroblasts.
C. Infectious crises: Children with sickle cell anemia have an increased
susceptibility to potentially life-threatening bacterial infections, including
sepsis and meningitis caused by streptococcus pneumoniae and
Haemophilus influenzae. The relative risk of sickle cell anemia patients
compared with that of normal individuals for pneumococcal H. influenzae
and all bacterial meningitis is 579:1, 116:1, and 309:1, respectively. Thease
patients also are susceptible to bacterial pneumonia, osteomyelitis
(salmonella and staphylococcus) and urinary tract infections (Eschrichia
coli and klebsiella). Increased susceptibility also is seen for shiegella and
Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Bacterial infection is the most common reason
for hospitalization of pediatric patients with sickle cell anemia and often
leads to the diagnosis. Serious bacterial infections are seen in one third
of children with sickle cell anemia before 4 years of age and a
primary cause of death these patients.
Other Features
Conjunctival icterus is common and liver enlarged and some times is
tender due to infarction. Cholelithiasis is common.
Cardiac enlargement and systolic ejection murmur/thrills.
Progressive loss of renal function occurs in many patients
Chronic leg ulcers are common.
Bone: Osteomyelitis due to salmonella and avascular necrosis of the
femoral or humeral head.
Blood Picture
Anemia: Hb of 6-9 g/dl is usual but they may be lower and an occasional
patient has a normal value.The anemia is due reduction of red cell life span
and in some patient due to hypersplenism (red cell destruction). The
anemia is usually normochromic normocytic with a normal MCV and
MCH.
Blood Smear: Anisocytosis, Poikilocytosis with elongated, rounded, sharper
to typical sickle cells. Oval cells are common and occasional target cells and
Howell-Jolly bodies are present. Nucleated RBC may be present
(polychromatic cells). Leukocytes increased with shift to left.
Reticulocyte is increased (10-20%). The ESR is low even with marked
anemia as the abnormal shape of the sickle cells prevents rouleaux
formation. Serum folate is subnormal and the red cell folate is low. Serum
haptoglobin and hemopexin are decreased and serum bilirubin is
moderately increased
Sickle Cell Preparation
The metabisulfate (reducing agent) is added to a suspension of whole red
cells in saline. Cells containing any quantity of hemoglobin S The test is
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
52
simple to perform and detects even those from patients with sickle cell trait
will sickle under these conditions.
Hemoglobin Solubility Test
The basis of these tests is the relative insolubility of reduced HbS in
concentrated phosphate buffer. In practice, the hemoglobin is added to a
solution of sodium dithionite, a reducing agent, in phosphate buffer. If HbS
is present, the solution becomes turbid. Homozygotes and heterozygotes
for the sickling gene are detected.
Currently, prenatal screening with recombinant DNA technology is done;
the availability of the polymerase chain reaction has remarkably improved
sensitivity of prenatal diagnosis.
Hemoglobin Electrophoresis
It is the mandatory for precise diagnosis of the sickle hemoglobinopathies.
HbS may be demonstrated by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate at PH 8.6
in a position between HbA and HbA2 or agar gel electrophoresis using
citrate buffer done at PH 6.0.
Table 5.1: HB-electophoresis of sickle hemoglobinopathies
Disorder A A2 F S
Sickle cell trait(AS) 55-70 2-4 N 38-45%
Sickle cell disease (SS) 0 2-5 1-20 75-95%
Sickle cell Beta-
Thalassemia
S-B
+
S-B
0
10-30
0
4-8
4-8
2-10
5-30
60-85
70-90
Sickle cell Hb-C
disease
0 35-50 1-5 50-65
Sickle cell Hb-D
disease
0 N 1-5 95 (S+D)
S.C.trait-o
thalassemia trait
65-75 N N 20-30
Figure 5.1: Peripheral blood smear shows marked poikilocyosis and
anisocytosis with numerous sickled erythrocytes
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
53
Treatment of Sickle Cell Anemia
With advances in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of complication,
the life expectancy of individuals with sickle cell disease has improved.
There is an 85% chance that infants with SCA will survive to age 20 or
more.
The principal causes of death in infants with SCA include overwhelming
infections with S. pneumonia, cardiovascular accidents, and acute splenic
sequestration crises. The treatment program includes the following:
1. Repeated packed RBCs transfusion: May be required for acute situation
and for prevention of certain complication of SCA.
2. Iron chelation agents: May be needed to prevent hemosiderosis (desferal
+ SHAM).
3. Vigorous treatment of complicating bacterial infections.
4. Polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine and Hemophilus influenza type B
vaccine are better given after 2 years age.
5. Prophylactic long acting penicillin may be given every 4 weeks, which
reduces both morbidity and mortality from pneumococcus infection in SCA
in infants.
6. Treatment of crises:
a. Pain crises: Correct the factors: infection, hypoxia, dehydration
- Give packed RBC
- Analgesics as codeine or phenothiazine
- " Avoid addiction"
- Avoid dehydration and acidosis
b. Aplastic crises: Give packed RBCs
c. Sequestration crises: Plasma expanders
- Blood transfusion
- Emergency splenectomy may be indicated
d. Megaloblastic crises: folic acid 1mg/day is preventive.
7. Hydroxyuria therapy appear to provide an increment in Hb content and
a decrease in incidence of pain crisis.
Why this drug works in SCA is not completely understood, but it is
believed to include the production of HBf in RBCs. Increased levels of HBf
in RBCs prevent the sickling, therefore preventing vasoocclusion and
painful crises. Hydroxyuria, however is a cytotoxic agent and has the
potential to cause life threatening cytopenia. Therefore, SCA patients using
this drug must be carefully evaluated and monitored.
8. 5-(2-formyl-3hydroxyl) pentamolic acid and Bepridil is under study.Also
clotimazole, magnesium, nitric oxide are under evaluation.
HEMOGLOBIN C SYNDROME
HbC is caused by substitution of lysine for glutamic acid in the sixth
position from the N-terminal end of the |-hemoglobin chain.
Hemoglobin C Trait (HbAC) patients with this syndrome are
asymptomatic and not anemic. The peripheral blood smear shows
increased numbers of target cells and Hb-electrophoresis reveals about 40%
hemoglobin C migrating faster than HbS but slower than HbA.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
54
Hemoglobin C disease (HbCC) is characterized by a mild hemolytic anemia
associate with splenomegaly and by peripheral blood smear showing many
target cells and some microspherocytes. Hemoglobin C crystals may appear
after slow drying of a peripheral blood smear and may account for the
marked targeting, with pudding and then crystallization of hemoglobin in
the center of these cells.
HEMOGLOBIN D (HB D) DISEASE AND TRAIT
Result from the inheritance of one gene for HbS from one parent and one
gene for HbC from the other parent. HbD has several variants. Both
homozygous (o2|2
121 Glu Gln
) and the heterozygous (o2|1|1
121 Glu Gln
) states
are asymptomatic.
The peripheral blood smear is undermarkable, except for a few target
cells. Hemoglobin migrate electrophotecally to the same position as HbS
and HbC at Alkaline PH but migrates with HbA at acid PH. HbD is non-
sickling soluble hemoglobin.
HEMOGLOBIN E (HBE)
HbE results from the substitution of lysine for glutamic acid in the beta
chain of Hb. It occurs with greatest frequency in Burma, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia and Indonesia. The homozygous state (o2|2
26
Glu lys
) presents with little anemia; target cells and microcytic
hypochromic red cells. HbE trait (o2|1|126
Glu-lys
) is asymptomatic
clinically. There is microcytosis, target cells and approximately 70% HbA
and 30% HbE and A2 on routine electrophoresis.
HEMOGLOBIN Oarab (HbOarab) DISEASE AND TRAIT
HbOarab is rare hemoglobin variant that occurs infrequently in blacks
Arab and Sudanese population. Homozygous HbOarab (o2|2
121 Glu lys
)
exhibits a mild hemolytic anemia with slight splenomegaly and target
cells on the peripheral blood smear. This hemoglobin migrates
electrophotecally with HbC, HbE and HbA2 at alkaline PH. In the
heterozygous state of HbOarab (o2|1|1
121 Glu-lys
) the patient is
asymptomatic.
HEMOGLOBIN S WITH OTHER ABNORMAL
HEMOGLOBIN
HEMOGLOBIN SB THALASSEMIA
Because of the increased frequency of both HbS and B-thalassemia genes in
similar population groups, inheritance of both defects is relatively common.
Clinically, the disorder produces symptoms of moderate anemia and many
signs of sickle cell anemia, which are usually less frequent and less severe.
Laboratory finding are mild to moderate microcytic anemia, some sickled
RBCs on stained blood smear, and reticulocytosis. The HbA2 is > 3% Hbs
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
55
predominates on electrophoresis and HbA is decreased or absent. Hbf
increase is variable.
Treatment: Like sickle cell anemia.
HEMOGLOBIN SC DISEASE (HbSC)
HbSC is of intermediate severity between hemoglobin SS disease and
hemoglobin CC disease. Patients may have a mild anemia, with
hemoglobin ranging from 10 to 13 gm/dl and a reticulocytosis of 3 to
10%. In the peripheral smear, target cells are more prominent than
sickled cells. Hemoglobin electrophoresis shows equal amounts of
hemoglobin S and C. The clinical course varies from asymptomatic to
severe.
HEMOGLOBIN SD DISEASE (HbSD)
HBSD is the combination of HbS and HbD. Because these hemoglobins
migrate together at alkaline PH, the electrophoretic pattern is similar to
that of SCA.
HEMOGLOBIN SOarab (HbSOarab)
The combination of HbS and HbOarab can have a clinical presentation
that is similar in severity to that of SCA. The anemia is severe, with
typical sickle cells seen on the peripheral blood smear. This condition
might initially be confused with HbSC on routine electrophoresis;
however differentiation can be made with acid electrophoresis.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Abnormal hemoglobin are most often caused by
a. Amino acid substitutions
b. Amino acid deletion
c. Globin chain elongation
d. Globin chain fusion
2. Which one of the followings is not a characteristic of
hemoglobinopathies?
a. Conditions in which abnormal hemoglobins are synthesized
b. Result from inherited abnormalities or genetic mutation
c. All are manifested in clinically significant conditions
d. Result in a defect instructional integrity of function of the
hemoglobin molecule.
3. The most common cause of hemoglobinopathies is an abnormality in
the ----- globin chain
a. o
b. |
c.
d. o
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
56
4. What factors contribute to the sickling of RBCs?
a. Increase in PH and oxygenation
b. Decrease in PH and oxygenation and dehydration
c. Increase in PH and decrease in oxygenation
d. Decrease in dehydration and increase in PH and oxygenation
5. What are the therapeutic goals in the treatment of sickle cell
anemia?
a. Decrease microvascular entrapment of sickle cells or change
the volume of RBCs
b. Modify oxygen affinity or solubility of sickle hemoglobin
c. Increase production of fetal hemoglobin
d. All of the above
6. Laboratory values that could be found in a patient with sickle
cell anemia
(HbSS) disease includes all of the following except:
a. 40% HbS on cellulose acetate electrophoresis
b. 7% HbA2 on cellulose acetate electrophoresis
c. Normocytic, normochromic anemia
d. Hemoglobin 6.0 g/dl
7. Cellulose acetate hemoglobin electrophoresis
is run at a (an)
a. Alkaline PH
b. Acid PH
c. PH gradient
d. Alkaline and acid PH
8. The condition (s) associated with increased
levels of HbF is (are)
a. Infancy
b. Hemoglobinopathies
c. Thalassemia
d. All of the above
9. Two HbS that migrates together on cellulose
acetate electrophoresis at alkaline PH are
a. A1 and A2
b. A1 and E
c. S and C
d. S and D
ANSW
ERS
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. D
6. B
7. A
8. D
9. D
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
57
Learning Objectives:
1. To discuss Thalassemia Syndromes
2. To understand different types of mutations.
3. To explain pathogenesis of thalassemia syndromes.
4. To identify morphological features on peripheral blood smear.
The thalassemias are a heterogenous group of disorders with a genetically
determined reduction in the rate of synthesis of one or more types of the
normal hemoglobin polypeptide chain. This results in a decrease in the
amount of the hemoglobin involving the affected chain.
Classification
There are two main groups of thalassemia:
1. Alpha thalassemia, affecting the synthesis of alpha chain
2. Beta Thalassemia, affecting the synthesis of Beta chain
1. Alpha thalassemia:
Single gene deletions give rise to the so-called silent carrier state and the
person is normal, both clinically and hematologically.
Table 6.1: o-Thalassemia syndrome : Phenotype , Genotype
Phenotype Genotype Abbreviation
Normal Normal o o
Silent carrier of o thalassemia Heterozygous o
0
o o
+
o -Thalassemia trait Heterozygous o
0
o o
0
o -Thalassemia trait Homozygous o
+
o
+
o
+
Hemoglobin H disease Copmpound
heterozygous o
+
o
0
o
0
o
0
Hemoglobin Barts hydrops fetals Homozygous o
0
o
0
o
0
o
0
HB H DISEASE
HbH (|4) disease usually results from coinheritance of o
+-
and o
0
thalassemia alleles (--/-o), with o chain production only 25% to 39% of
normal, but there are non-deletional forms (--/oo) as well. It is
characterized by a variable degree of anemia with splenomegaly and a
typical thalassemia blood picture.
On the pripheral blood film, red cells are microcytic, hypochromic with
anisopoikilocytosis. The RDW is increased. Almost all red cells have HbH
inclusion, which are visible microscopically when erythrocytes are
incubated and supravitally stained with brilliant crysyl blue (BCB). HbH
inclusions generally occur in multiples and cover the cell surface,
producing, a golf-ball like appearance.
THE THALASSEMIA 6
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
58
Hb electrophoresis (alkaline PH) in affected neonates shows about 25%
to 40% Hb Barts (4), but as |-chain synthesis replaces during the first
few months of life, Hb Barts is gradually replaced by HbH (|4)
Most individuals with HbH disease require no therapy; their growth,
development and life expectancy are usually normal.
Hb Barts (4 gamma chain) hydrops syndrome results from deletion of all
four alpha genes and is a common cause of stillbirth.
THE BETA THALASSEMIA
The genetic mutation of beta thalassemia leads to a decreased rate of beta
chain synthesis and consequently a reduction in the amount of normal
HbA in the red cells. A microcytic hypochromic anemia is results.
On the basis of the extent of reduction of Beta chain synthesis, two main
types of beta thalassemia are recognized.
B
+
thalassemia is characterized by incomplete suppression.
B
0
thalassemia is characterized by complete absence of beta chain synthesis.
Clinically, beta thalassemia occurs in two forms. Beta thalassemia major or
Cooley's anemia is usually a severe illness characterized by the major or
total suppression of chain synthesis and is the homozygous form of the
disease.
Beta thalassemia minor, or trait, is a mild and some times asymptomatic
condition and represents the heterozygous form.
Table 6.2: The beta thalassemia and related syndromes
Disorder
HbA%
HbA2%
HbF%
B-thalassemia minor
B-thalassemia Intermedia
|-Thalassemia
+
|-Thalassemia
|-Delta-Thalas. Intermediate
|-o Thala. Minor
Beta thalassemia major
B Thalassemia
+
B Thalassemia
0
|-o Thala Major
Thalassemia minimum
Hereditary persist.
of fetal Hb (HPFH)
90-95
Present
Present
0
80-95
10-90
0
Present
60-85
60-85
3.5-7
5.4 10%
>3.2
0
1-3.5
1.5-4
1.5-4
0.6 3.4
1-2
1-2
1.5
30-73%
1.5-12
100
5-20
10-90
98
>75%
15-35
15-35
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
59
Figure: 6.1
Thalassemia major:
The blood smear show
hypochromic microcytic
anemia in which targets
cells, tear drops, and
fragments are frequent.
BETA THALASSEMIA MINOR (TRAIT)
It is a heterozygous state for the Beta thalassemia gene.
Clinical Features
Mild disorder with little or no anemia, there are no symptoms, and a
normal life expectancy. The spleen may be palpable.
The condition is commonly not diagnosed until adolescence or adult life,
and may be detected in a routine hematological screening examination. It is
often first diagnosed in pregnancy.
Laboratory Finding
Hemoglobin is normal or mild reduced. RBCs are normal in spite of mild
anemia and may be increased. MCV and MCH are reduced. MCHC is
usually marginally reduced or normal.
Blood smear characterized by mild anisocytosis, microcytosis and
hypochromia with variable numbers of target and stippled cells.
The osmotic fragility test shows an increased resistance to hemolysis even
when anemia is absent.
The serum bilirubin is normal or slightly raised. Hb A2 is increased
HbF increased in 50% (Absence of HbF not exclude the diagnosis)
The main problem in the diagnosis is the differentiation of beta thalassemia
minor from iron deficiency anemia. Clinical features are not helpful.
In the usual case of thalassemia minor, red cell microcytosis hypochromia
and reduction in MCV are relatively marked considering the mild or absent
anemia. This is not the case in iron deficiency in which there is closer
relation between morphological abnormalities and the degree of anemia.
Estimation of iron, ferritin, transferrin, HbA2 and Hbf are helpful for
diagnosis.
Thalassemia Intermedia
Thalassemia intermedia are the clinical appellation for patients with two
|-thalassemia genes but whose phenotype is less severe than thalassemia
major. The most commonly associated genotypes are |
+
/|
+
or |
+
/|
0
,
with a relatively high |-globin producing |
+
mutation. The disease is
extremely heterogenous at the genotypic level. Coinheritance of o-
thalassemia or hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin reduces
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
60
disease severity and may transform what would have been a thalassemia
major phenotype into thalassemia intermedia. Affected persons are
typically asymptomatic, but the spectrum of disability is broad. The most
frequent complications are hypersplenism, gallstones, and ankle ulcers.
Patients with thalassemia intermedia should be given folate
supplementation and periodic red blood cell transfusions and be
monitored for iron overload.
Beta Thalassemia Major
It is the homogenous state for either the B
0
or B
+
thalassemia gene or, less
commonly, the compound heterozygous state for the two genes.
Clinical Features
The newborn infant with Beta thalassemia is not anemic.(within first year
of life and in severe cases within a few weeks of birth. Anemia (insidious)
but in severe anemia cardiac dilatation is present. Splenomegaly and
hepatomegaly are common.
Changes of skletel system (Mongoloid facies) are due to expansion of the
marrow in the malar bones, and X-ray change in skull, long bones, hands
and feet.
Severe infection (pericarditis), hypersplenism, anemia, and
thrombocytopenia are also common.
Organ dysfunction due to increase in body iron secondary to frequent
transfusions and increase intestinal absorption lead to pancreatic
hemosiderosis (DM, Cirrhosis) or/and cardiac hemosiderosis (CCF,
arrhythmiasis, Heart block).
Blood Picture
Blood picture resembles iron deficiency anemia. Hb of 3-9 g/dl.
Blood smear charcterized by presence of anisocytosis and poikilocytosis,
which are often bizarre. Microcytosis (predominant), polychromasia and
punctate basophilia are usually present. Hypochromia is a sticking feature.
Target cells are prominent. Tear drops cells often seen. Some cells are
macrocytic. Occasionally spherocytic RBCs are present. Normoblast present
in large number in postsplenectmy patients.
MCV and MCH are significantly reduced. MCHC also
reduced.Reticulocyte increased in 10% or more. WBC is increased of 15-
40,000/L or more with shift to left. Some myelocytes are commonly
present. Platlets count is normal, but may be reduced in hypersplenism.
The osmotic fragility decreased. (Increase resistance to hemolysis). There is
evidence of intravascular hemolysis. The serum bilirubin slightly increased.
Haptoglobin decreased.
Dark-brown urine is commonly observed. Serum uric acid frequently
elevated and clinical gout may occur.
The serum iron and ferritin are invariably elevated and transferrin
completely saturated.
Serum and red cells folate is often reduced.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
61
Bone Marrow Aspiration
Hyperplastic erythropoiesis is proportional to the anemia. Increase
proportion of basophilic and polychromatic normoblast (micronormoblast).
Siderotic granules are commonly scattered through the cytoplasm of the
normoblast. Ring sideroblst occasionally seen.
Hb-Electrophoresis
HbF (10-98) estimated also by acid elution and alkali denaturation tests.
HbA very little or absent and HbA2 is variable
Treatment of Thalassemia
1. Packed RBCs transfusion: 10- 15 ml/kg every 4-6 weeks to keep Hb
level above 10 gm/dl (Hypertransfusion). Recently, a more extensive
program of transfusion aims to keep Hb above 12 gm/dl (supertransfusion)
The packed RBCs should be better washed with saline and carefully cross-
matched.
Recently, neocyte transfusions (Juvenile RBCs separated by special
techniques), and single donor transfusions have been shown to be more
advantageous to the patient. These RBCs survive longer.
2. Iron chelation therapy: Is essential especially in the high transfusion
programs, to prevent "Hemosiderosis".
(a) Desferal: is given IV, IM or SC injection. Most recently IgM is given by
continuous SC infusion, using an electric infusion pump for 12h/d,
repeated 4 times/week. This permits a negative iron balance.
(b) SHAM: SHAM is a new promising oral iron-chelating agent of salicyl
Hydroxamic acid). It is given orally 20-40 mg/kg/day in divided doses, 5
days every week, which minimizes the discomfort of injections as in
desferal. It may lead to hypocalcemia, as it also chelates calcium. Therefore,
Calcium intake should be increased in the other 2 days of the week.It is less
active in iron chelation than desferal.
Both drugs cause red discoloration of the urine (passage of iron chelates).
3. Splenectomy: Is indicated only if there are manifestations of
hypersplenism. This presents by clinical and laboratory manifestations of
pancytopenia. There is an increased need for frequent transfusions. A
patient who does need more than 300 ml packed RBCs/kg/year is said to
have hypersplenism. It should be postponed after 5 years of age
4. Folic acid: 1mg/day prevent megaloblastc crises.
5. Never give iron to these patients. They already have iron over-load.
6. Thalassemia minor requires no treatment.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
62
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Barts hydrops fetals is lethal because
a. Hb Barts cannot bind oxygen
b. The excess o-globin chains form insoluble precipitates
c. Hb Barts cannot release oxygen to tissues
d. Microcytes red cells become trapped in the placenta
2. HbS that are composed of four -chain (4) and four |-chain (|4) are
respectively.
a. Hbs H and C
b. Hbs H and Barts
c. Hbs Barts and H
d. Hbs Barts and S
3. Homozygous |-thalassemia can be confused with iron deficiency
because both have.
a. Decreased serum ferritin
b. Decreased serum iron
c. Decreased % transferring saturation
d. Microcytic, Hypochromic RBC
4. Hb(s) that migrate with HbS on cellulose acetate PH (is) are
a. Hb constant spring
b. Hb Barts
c. Hb H
d. Hb Lepore
5. The abnormally increased Hb electrophoresis value(s) that would
usually exclude the possibility of o-thalassemia is (are)
a. HbA2 and HbF
b. HbA2 and HbH
c. HbF and HbH
d. Hb-Barts
6. HbH inclusion bodies may
a. Found in |-thalassemia
b. Be seen on Wright-stained blood film
c. Appear eccentrically near the red cell membrane
d. Make red cell look like pitted golf balls
7. What is the clinical manifestation of o-thalassemia with sickle cell
anemia?
a. Severe, life threatening anemia
b. Relatively asymptomatic until placed in oxygen deprived environment.
c. Less severe than sickle cell anemia alone
d. Skeletal abnormality, but milder anemia than sickle cell anemia
ANSWERS
1. C
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. A
6. D
7. C
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
63
HEREDITARY HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
HEREDITARY SPHEROCYTOSIS
7
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss the etiology of different types of hereditary anemias?
2. Differentiate between cell defects, enzymatic defects and
hemoglobinopathies
3. Be able to distinguish the morphology of different hemolytic anemias
4. Discuss clinical features of sickle cell disease and Thalassemia Major
5. Correlate clinical features with pathophysiology of the disease
HS is a relatively common hemolytic anemia due to an intrinsic defect of
the red cell membrane and abnormalities of spectrin protein of the
membrane, which results in the cell being of spherocytic shape.
Spherocyte have a decreased surface area-to volume ratio and are more
rigid and less deformable than normal cells.
The membrane abnormality is associated functionally with an increased
permeability to sodium. An increased rate of passive movement of sodium
into the cell is compensated for by an increased rate of active transport of
sodium out of the cell by the cation pump mechanism, which requires ATP
derived from red cell glycolysis.
Clinical Feature
It is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Male and female arequally
affected. Anemia or jaundice or both are common. Gallstone/or
splenomegaly (less frequent). Jaundice moderate with increase of serum
bilirubin. There is no bile in urine but may contain urobilinogen.
- Hemolytic crises
- Increase depth of jaundice
- Darkening of urine
- Increase size of spleen
- Aplastic crises
- Bilirubin decrease
- Reticulocyte count decreased (zero)
- Folate deficiency
Blood Picture
Anemia with spherocytosis (Hb 7-12 g/dl), increase reticulocyte count,
serum bilirubin level and erythrocyte osmotic fragility. The antiglobulin
test is negative.
Blood Film shows spherocytosis are usually numerous and contrast
sharply with the polychromatic macrocytes. A small number of
normoblasts may be present in high reticulocyte count. MCV is usually
normal but is occasionally slightly reduced.
MCH is normal but the MCHC is often increased ranging from 34-40%.
Reticulocytes increased 5-20%.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
64
The normal erythrocytess pale center is absent. Because of their spheroidal
shape, which is due in part to loss of membrane area, they are more
susceprible to osmotic stress as measured by the osmotic fragility test
(Figure 7.1). To perform this test, red cells are suspended in saline solutions
of various tonicities. At lower tonicities water enters and swells the red
cells, ultimately causing them to lyse. This normally occurs at a sodium
chloride concentration of 0.55 percent. In patient with HS and in patients
with other diseases in which large numbers of spherocytes are produced.
Lyse may begin at 0.70% sodium chloride concentration or even higher.
This increased susceptibility to osmotic lysis is accentuated by prior
incubation of the red cells for 24 hours at 37
0
C. Both normal subjects and
HS patients will have increased osmotic fragility after incubation, but the
effect is more marked for the patients with hereditary spherocytosis, whose
cells may begin to lyse in 0.80% sodium chloride.
Figure 7.1: Osmotic fragility test of patient with hereditary spherocytosis
Autohemolysis is the amount of spontaneous lysis, which occurs on sterile
incubation for 48 hours at 37C
0
. It is increased upto 5-7% (normally <4%).
The increased autohemolysis is substantially reduced, but usually not
completely corrected, by the addition of glucose.
The survival in the patients circulation of autologous red cells labelled with
51
C is shortened and surface counting of radioactivity reveals excessive
uptake over the spleen.
Treatment
1. Splenectomy to correct the hemolytic process and prevent crises, but it
does not correct the underlying defects. It should be followed by severe
infection complications. The most severe is overwhelming sepsis due to
pneumococci and Hemophilus influenza, in addition to salmonella
osteomyelitis. These serious infections occur frequently with early
splenectomy, or in case of sickle cell anemia due to early autosplenectomy.
Therefore splenectomy should be postponed till the patient is over 5 years
age. Vaccination by polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine, and hemophilus
influenza group B is better given before splenectomy.
2. Prophylactic long acting penicillin therapy after splenectomy is advised.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
65
3. Packed RBCs transfusions for correction of anemia and aplastic crises till
splenectomy is done.
4. Give folic acid prophylactically for severe cases
5. If cholecystectomy required, perform splenectomy also to reduce risk of
recurrent gallstone
HEREDITARY ELLIPTOCYTOSIS
- Autosomal dominant
- Abnormality in spectrin interaction with other membrane proteins
- 25-75% elliptocytes
- Hemolysis is usually mild
- Treatment, splenectomy for severe hemolysis.Immunize against
pneumococcal first.
GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE
DEFICIENCY
It is an X-linked recessive disease, affecting males and much less commonly
females.
It results from deficiency of glucose-6-phosphatase dehydrogenase
enzyme, which catalyzes the first reaction in the Hexose monophosphate
(HMP) pathway. This pathway is essential for production of reduced
NADPH2, which is necessary for conversion of oxidased to reduced
glutathione. This protects the RBCs against oxidizing agents.
If the enzyme is deficient, exposure of RBCs to oxidizing agents lead to
hemolysis as:
(1) Antipyretics (Salicylate, Aspirin) (2) Antimalarial drugs (3)
Sulfonamides
(4) PAS (5) Synthetic Vitamin K (6) Naphthalene (7) chloramphenicol,
nitrofurantoin
(8) Fava bean and its derivatives
Clinical Picture
Acute hemolysis occurs about 48-96 hours after ingestion of an oxidizing
agent or infection. It manifests by abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and
hemoglobinuria.
Anemia and jaundice occur in severe cases. Death may occur in severe
cases.
Neonatal hemolysis, jaundice and kernicterus may occur in affected males.
The disease is due to inheritance of an abnormal G-6-PD gene on X-
chromosome, which leads to production of a fragile G6PD enzyme, or an
enzyme with weak activity. More than 200 variants of the enzyme could be
recognized in different localities of the world, with variable degrees of
enzymatic activity.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
66
The Most Common Clinical Forms
1. G-6-PD A: common among American blacks: enzymatic activity is 5-15%
of normal, causes a less severe self limited hemolysis.
2. G-6-PD B: common in mediterranean area; enzymatic activity is less than
5% of normal, and leads to severe hemolytic attacks.
3. G-6-PD canton: common in Chinese
Laboratory Finding
Blood smear shows red cell with absent hemoglobin (bite and blister cells),
polychromasia, basophilic stippling, spherocytosis. Heinz bodies may be
seen in a reticulocyte preparation withsupravital staining. Heinz body test
also give positive result.
Screenibg test for red cell G6PD deficiency measures the generation of
NADPH. The enzyme may also be characterized by electrophoresis, assay
of activity and DNA analysis .
Treatment
A. Prophylactic:
It is adisable to avoid of the precipitating agents in susceptible persons.
In febrile patients; give paracetamol (avoid salicylate). Vitamin E in
pharmacologic doses (400-800 u/d) protects against hemolysis, due to its
antioxidant action.
B. Curatives:
- Any offending agent should be stopped
- Underlying infections should be treated
- In mild cases: Observation for progress of anemia
- If severe: Emergency packed RBCs transfusion of 10-20 ml/kg.
PYRUVATE KINASE DEFICIENCY
Pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency is the most frequent enzyme deficiency in
the Embden-Meyerhof (glycolytic) pathway to cause chronic non-
spherocytic hemolytic anemia (CNSHA). Inheritance is autosomal
recessive. The O2-dissociation curve is shifted to the right so symptoms are
mild in comparison to the degree of anemia. Splenectomy partly improves
the anemia.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
67
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following statements about hereditary spherocytosis is
incorrect?
a. The disease is most commonly associated with autosomal dominant
inheritance
b. The RBCs characteristically have increased osmotic fragility.
c. After splenectomy the RBCs remain spherocytic
d. Splenectomy seldom relieves the anemia
2. Which of the following would not be expected to be
associated with hereditary spherocytosis?
a. Cholelithiasis
b. Cyanosis
c. Splenomegaly
d. Jaundice
3. A possible source of error in quantitative enzyme assays for G6PD or PK
is
a. Hemolysis contamination with leukocytes that contain higher G6PD and
PK enzyme activity than red cells.
b. Recent transfusion which may obscure a G6PD or PK enzyme deficiency
c. Hemolysate contamination with platelets that have high G6PD and PK
enzyme activity.
d. All of the above.
ANSWERS
1. D
2. B
3. D
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
68
ACQUIRED HEMOLYTIC
ANEMIA
Learning Objectives:
1. To compare and contrast intravascular and extravascular
hemolysis
2. To acquire basic knowledge about the tests which are
indicative of increased red blood cell destruction, increase
red cell production
3. To emphasize on the peripheral and bone marrow
changes seen in response to excessive red cell destruction
PAROXYSMAL NOCTURNAL
HEMGLOBINURIA
8
PNH is a rare disorder characterised by attacks of acute intravascular
hemolysis during sleep (some times not associated with sleep). A red cell
defect renders one population of red cells markedly sensitive to
complement. The degree of hemolysis varies as a consequence of
population of abnormal stem cells.
PNH begins insidiously in-patients between the age of 30 and 60 years.
Irregular episodes of hemoglobinuria associated with sleep are a starting
manifestation of this disorder.
Laboratory Finding
Blood Picture
Anemia, macrocytosis, polychromasia
Reticulocytosis, moderate leukopenia, mild thrombocytopenia
HbF occasionally raised
Hyperbilirubinemia
Neutrophil alkaline phosphatase is low
Hypercoagulability
Direct coomb's test
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
69
Further Investigations
Hemoglobin, hemosiderinuria
Serological test
A) Ham's acid serum test: Patients red cell will undergo lysis in compatible
acidified serum at 37c (serum may be patient own) 10-15% lysis implies a
positive test with patient own serum.
B) Sucrose hemolysis test: Isotonic solution of low ionic strength if causes
hemolysis of more than 10% cells, indicates of PNH.
Treatment
Patients have an average life expectancy of more than 10 years. Treatment
includes blood transfusion therapy, antibiotics and anticoagulants. If an
induced marrow aplasia exists and the patient is younger than 50 years of
age, bone marrow transplantation may be a consideration.
RED CELL FRAGMENTATION SYNDROMES
Classification
1. Cardiac and large vessel abnormalities
2. Small vessel disease (microangiopathic)
a. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) hemolytic uremic syndrome
(HUS)
b. DIC c. Metastatic carcinoma d. Preeclampsia sepsis
e. Malignant hypertension f. Vasculitis
3. Infection (Malaria, Clostridium)
4. Thermal injuries
Diagnosis
Evidence of hemolysis, (schistocytes, polychromasia, thrombocytopenia),
hemosiderinuria and hemoglobinuria
Treatment
Treatment of underlying disease, replace iron if indicated.
Figure 8.1 : Numerous RBCs appears as helmet cells such as fragment
RBCs schistocytes. Blood smear of patient with microangiopathic
hemolytic anemia (MAHA).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
70
MARCH HEMOGLOBINURIA
This is due to damage to red cells between the small bones of the feet,
usually during prolonged marching of running. The blood film does not
show fragments.
AUTOIMMUNE HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
AIHA is identified by the presence of (Auto)-antibodies that react with
RBCs, this Abs are detected on the RBCs by the coomb's test.
COOMB'S TEST
Principle
Certain antibodies combine with red cells but are unable to bring about
agglutination because they are too small to link together adjacent cells,
which are repelled from one another by their negative surface charges.
There are 2 kinds of antiglobulin test:
1. Direct Coomb's Test
Rabbits are immunized with whole human serum containing gamma
globulin. This yields rabbit antiserum. When red cells coated with
incomplete antibodies are suspended in the appropriate coomb's
antiserum, agglutination of red cells results.
Direct coomb's test is useful in the diagnosis of hemolytic diseases of the
newborn and autoimmune hemolytic anemia and in the investigation of
transfusion reactions, very high reticulocyte count, lead poisoning, drug
induced hemolysis and some viral diseases have at times caused positive
direct antiglobulin reaction.
2. Indirect Coomb's Test
It is employed to detect free antibodies not fixed to red cells. In this test
normal red cells are washed repeatedly with saline to remove non-
specifically adherent gamma globulin. Next, red cells are treated with a
proteolytic enzyme such as papain, which modifies the red cells envelope
and renders them more avid to bind incomplete antibodies. Lastly, the
sensitised red cells are incubated inpatients serum and rabbit antiserum
added. In presence of free antibody agglutination occur.
The indirect antiglobulin test is that used in detecting incompatibility
during cross matching test, in detecting and identifying irregular antibodies
not identifiable by other means.
Warm-Ab Hemlytic Anemia
It is the most common form of AIHA due to presence of warm antibodies
that cause hemolysis of red cells at body temperature and coomb's test is
positive.
Antibodies are usually of the IgG type.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
71
Causes
A. Idiopathic
B. Secondary
Secondary causes
1. Lymphoma, CLL, Hodgkin's disease and sarcoidosis
2. Carcinoma, ulcerative colitis, ovarian cyst.
3. SLE and polyarteritis nodosa.
4. Drugs: Methyldopa, penicillin, stibophen, quinine and quinidine.
Clinical Features
1. Features of the underlying causes.
2. Hemolytic anemia
3. Splenomegaly is nearly always present
4. Thrombophelibitis is a frequent complication.
Investigations
1. RBC: Normocytic normochromic anemia
2. Features of hemolysis, fragility is commonly increased
3. Spherocytosis is common
4. Coomb's Test is Positive
Treatment
1. Treatment of the underlying cause
2. Corticosteroid as prednisone is usually effective
3. Immunosuppressive drugs- in resistance cases e.g cyclophosphamide, 6-
mercaptopurine and azathioprine
4. Splenectomy maybe helpful after failure of corticosteroid therapy and
when there is evidence of hypersplenism.
5. Blood transfusion when Hb falls 25%
COLD AB HEMOLYSIS AND PAROXYSMAL COLD
HEMOGLOBINURIA
Autohemolytic attack may follow local or general exposure to cold. Pain in
the back, legs or abdomen, cramps and other symptoms of acute hemolysis
such as chills, fever and malaise are associated with the passage of dark
brown urine together with jaundice. The direct coomb's test is positive only
during the attacks, and becomes negative thereafter. Antibodies are usually
of IgM type. The frequent conditions are syphilis, viral infection (primary
atypical pneumonia), infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus,
lymphoma and macroglobulinemia.
Diagnosis
- Positive cold agglutination test best at 4
0
C
- Positive direct coombs test for complement at any temperature
- Agglutination in the blood film
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
72
Treatment
- Treatment of the underlying causes
- Avoid exposure to cold
- Immunosuppressive agents
- Plasmapharesis
DRUG-INDUCED IMUNE HEMOLYTIC
ANEMIA
1. Drug may cause immune hemolytic anemias by three different
mechanisms:
Antibody directed against a drug- red cell membrane complex (e.g
penicillin or cephalothin)
2. Deposition of complement via drug-protein (antigen)-antibody complex
onto red cell surface (e.g quinidine or chlorpromid).
3. An autoimmune hemolytic anemia in which the role of the drug is
mysterious e.g methyldopa.
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN
It is due to a reaction between the Rh factor, an antigen on the surface of
red cells of the fetus (antigen D) and corresponding agglutinating
antibodies, which reach the fetal blood from the maternal circulation (anti-
D).
The fetal antigen cannot cross the intact placental barrier and does so only
shortly before and during delivery due to transplacental hemorrhage,
where it stimulates the formation of antibody against it in the mother.
Accordingly, the first child usually escapes hemolysis while the formed
maternal antibodies affect the following children if they are Rh+
(homozygous (DD) or heterozygous (Dd). If the mother has been
previously transfused by an Rh+ blood even in childhood, a dangerously
high response may occur during a first pregnancy.
Clinical Features
Three grades of severity are recognized:
1. Erythroblastosis fetalis: mild form
- Anemia, jaundice (maybe), hepatosplenomegaly
2. Icterus graves neonaturm:
- Jaundice (80% of babies) within a week of birth, liver cell failure
- Neurological lesions
3. Hydrops fetalis: Severe form, edema, ascites and sign of hypoxia
Treatment
1. Exchange transfusion of blood. Keep bilirubin below 18 mg/dl
A polythene catheter is passed along the umbilical vein into the inferior
vena cava and small quantities of the infants blood are successively
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
73
withdrawn and replaced by an equal volume of compatible Rh-negative
blood. This procedure can be repeated if serum bilirubin exceeds 18 mg/dl.
2. Prevention; To bring about destruction of Rh+ fetal red cells in maternal
blood, anti-D serum in the form of gamma globulin containing a high titre
of anti-d is given to the mother soon after delivery within 24 hours.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following would be LEAST likely to be associated with
warm antibody-mediated hemolysis?
a. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
b. Ulcerative colitis
c. SLE
d. Osteodystrophy
2. Which of the following infections have been associated with paroxysmal
cold hemoglobinuria?
a. Infectious mononucleosis
b. Syphilis
c. Cytomegalovirus
d. All of the above
3. Which of the following is not typical of
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH)?
a. Hemolytic anemia
b. Leukemia
c. Reticulocytosis
d. Thrombocytosis
4. Which list is the most complete for clinical features
of PNH?
a. Hemoglobinuria, hemosiderinuria, abnormal pain,
headache and backache
b. Weakness, fatigue, hepatosplenomegaly, backpain
c. Recurrent infection, skin ulcers, spontaneous fractures, dental problems.
d. Persistent bacterial infections, jaundice, kernictures and weight loss.
5. Which of the following is not usually a treatment for PNH?
a. Anticoagulant therapy
b. Blood transfustion/marrow transplant
c. Adrenocorticosteroids
d. Immunosuppressive therapy
6. What is deficiency causes hemoglobin to be oxidized from the ferrous
to the ferric state?
a. G6PD deficiency
b. PK deficiency
c. NADH-methemoglobin reductase deficiency
d. Lactate dehydrogenase deficiency
7. What is the most common glycolytic deficiency associated with
pentose phosphate pathway (aerobic pathway?
ANS
WERS
1. D
2. D
3. D
4. A
5. D
6. C
7. B
8. D
9. B
10. A
11. D
12. A
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
74
a. Pyruvate kinase
b. Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase
c. Glutathione reductase deficiency
d. Hexokinase deficiency
8. In the evaluation of a patient for G6PD deficiency, which of the
following test results would indicate a deficiency of the enzyme?
a. Increased formation of Heinz bodies
b. Lack of fluorescence in the fluoresenet spot test
c. Failure to reduce methemoglobin in the presence of methylene blue
d. All of the above
Questions: Match the following
9. The test is highly specific for PNH, but somewhat insensitive
10. A positive test may be found with autoimmune hemolytic anemia
disease
11. A positive test is associated with G6PD deficiency.
12. Generally used as the screening test for PNH because of its simplicity.
a. Sucrose lysis test (sugar water test)
b. Acidfied serum test (Ham test)
c. Both
d. Neither
Q 13: Q UIZ
A 67 year old woman spent two hours
shoveling snow from her driveway after an
unexpected blizzard left her stranded in her
home. The next morning, she was shocked
to see that her urine was the color of beet
juice. Investigations: Blood smear
The correct answer:
A. Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria
B. Cryoglobulinemia
C. Cold agglutinin disease
D. Paroxysmal Nocturnal hemoglobinuria
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
75
The macrocytic anemias can be divided into two categories (1) Those that
are not megaloblastic and (2) Those that demonstrate megaloblastic
changes in both the bone marrow and the peripheral blood. The non-
megaloblastic group includes anemias in which the red cell size in
increased but there is a normoblastic morphological appearance.
Examples include anemias secondary to alcoholism and certain
hemolytic processes.
MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA
The pathophysiology of the megaloblastic anemias is associated with two
primary abnormalities: (1) ineffective erythropoiesis and (2) a moderate
hemolysis of circulating erythrocytes.
The etiological classification can be divided into three main groups (1) those
due to vitamin B12 deficiency (2) those due to folic acid deficiency; and (3)
those that are unresponsive treatment with either of these essential
nutrients and result from a variety of causes.
Biochemistry
The defective nuclear maturation and the megaloblastic morphology are
caused by a decrease in thymidine triphosphate (TTP) synthesis from
uridine monophosphate (UMP). This deficiency interferes with nuclear
maturation, DNA replication, and cell division. When thymidine
triphosphate is not present in adequate amounts, deoxyuridine
triphosphate incorporates into the DNA instead. This misincorporation
causes fragmentation of the nucleus and ultimately immature cell
destruction.
The primary causes for lack of thymidine and consequently defective DNA
synthesis are vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiencies. These vitamins, in the
form of cofactors, play important roles in some key reactions involved in
DNA synthesis. In addition, drugs that interfer with the metabolism of
these vitamins also cause DNA impairment.
MACROCYTIC ANEMIA
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the relationship between the terms
macrocytic, megaloblastic, vitamin B12 deficiency and folate
deficiency.
2. To know the symptoms and signs of B12 deficiency and
folate deficiency
3. To understand the principles involved in making the
diagnosis of pernicious anemia from various laboratory
investigations
4. To understand the methods of differentiation of
megaloblastic anemia due to B12 deficiency from that due
to folate deficiency.
5. To know the B12- and folate independent causes of
macrocytosis
9
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
76
UDP dUDP dUTP -------------------------------------------------DNA
dUMP Thymidylate synthesis
CH2 THF dTMP > dTDP dTTP
Figure 9.1: Thymidine synthesis pathway from uridine nucleotide. Uracil is
incorporated into DNA in the absence of thymidine. UDP= uridine diphosphate,
dUDP= deoxyuridine diphosphate; dUTP= deoxyuridine triphosphate; dUMP=
deoxyuridine monophosphate; dTMP= deoxythymidine monophosphate; dTDP=
deoxythimidine diphosphate; dTTP= deoxythymidine triphosphate; CH2 THF=
methylene tetrahydrofolate.
Classification
1. Vitamin B12 Deficiency
2. Folate Deficiency
3. Megaloblastic anemia unresponsive to vitamin B12 and Folate therapy
1. Vitamin B12 Deficiency
1. Decreased in intake
A. Dietary, usually seen only in true vegetarians
B. Impaired absorption, such as in pernicious anemia
C. Malabsorption (Familial, drug induced, sprue, celiac disease,
gastrectomy)
D. Competition from parasites (Fish tapeworm and bacteria)
2. Increased requirements
A. Pregnancy
B. Increased cellular proliferation (tumors)
C. Hyperthyroidism
3. Impaired utilization
A. Red cell enzymopathy
B. Abnormal vitamin B12 binding protein (transcobalamin II)
C. Nitrous oxide administration
D. Lack of transport protein (TcII)
2. Folate Deficiency
1. Decreased in intake
A. Dietary, usually a lack of green vegetables
B. Alcoholism
C. Impaired absorption due to sprue and celiac disease
2. Increased requirements
A. Pregnancy
B. Increased cellular proliferation (tumors)
C. Miscellaneous states (Homocystinuria, hyperthyroidism)
3. Impaired utilization
A. Folic acid antagonists ( methotrexate, dilantin, trimethoprim,
pyrimethamine)
Megaloblastic anemia unresponsive to vitamin B12 and Folate therapy
1. Metabolic inhibitors
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
77
A. Drug-induced disorders: Purine antagonists (6 mercaptopurine), pyrimidine
antagonists (5-Fluorouracil) alkalating agents (cyclophosphamide).
2. Unknown causes
A. Pyridoxine-responsive megaloblastic anemia
B. Erythemic myelosis (Erythroleukemia or DiGuglielmo syndrome).
Table 9.1: Vitamin B12 and Folate metabolism
VITAMIN B 12 FOLATE
Content in food vegetables: Poor
Meat : Rich
Effect of cooking 10-30% loss
Adult daily Require 2-4 g
Adult daily intake 5-30 g
Site of absorption
Duodenum/jegnum
Body stores 2-5 mg
Vegetables:rich
Meat : Moderate
60-90% loss
200 g
100-500 g
ileum
5-20 mg
VITAMIN B12 DEFICIENCY
The human body contains between 2000 and 5000 g vitamin B12 and has a
daily requirement of about 2 g.Thus, the body requirement of a person
who develops a defect of vitamin B12 absorption can be supplied for a
considerable period of time from the tissue stores. Clinical manifestations of
deficiency develop only when the tissue stores are almost completely
exhausted.
Vitamin B12 in food is bound in the acidic envirment of the stomach to be
released. In the stomach, the food free initially binds to salivary hapocorrin
(a vitamin B12 binding protein formerly known as R-binder), only to be re-
released in the duodenum after pancreatic enzymes degrade the
hepatocrin.
In the duodenum, the free vitamin B12 combines with another B12-binder
(Intrinsic factor) secreted by the patietal cells of the stomach. Vitamin B12 is
absorbed at the terminal ileum, and then only when it is bound to intrinsic
factor. Idiopathic deficiency of intrinsic factor is called pernicious anemia.
Once absorbed, vitamin B12 is freed from the B12-intrinsic factor complex
and released into the blood, where it is transported by a specific carrier
protein, transcobalamin II. However, 80% of plasma vitamin B12 is bound
to other serum haptocorrins (transcobalamin III and I). The transcobalamin
II-B12 complex is carried to cells and is pinocytosed via transcobalamin II
receptors. Intracellularly, vitamain B12 joins forces with folate and assists in
DNA synthesis.
Clinical Manifestation
There are three cardinal manifestations of vitamin B12 deficiency of
whatever cause:
- Macrocytic megaloblastic anemia
- Glossitis
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
78
- Peripheral neuropathy and subacute combined degeneration of the spinal
cord. Optic neuropathy, depression, and impaired memory.
On examination: Sensory loss in the legs and positive Romberg sign.
Neurological abnormalities appear to occur more frequently in pernicious
anemia due to vitamin B12 deficiency.
Special Tests in Diagnosis
The main test for the detection of vitamin B12 deficiency is the serum
vitamin B12 assay. To establish the cause of the deficiency, a radioactive
vitamin B12 absorption test is performed.
Serum vitamin B12 assay:
1. Microbiological assay 2. Radio-isotop assay
Radioactive vitamin B12 absorption test (eg Schilling Test):
The ability of the body to absorb vitamin B12 can be assessed by measuring
the absorption of a small oral dose of
57
C-labelled vitamin B12 orally if
simultaneous administration of intrinsic factor, it implies lack of intrinsic
factor.
The Schilling Test
An oral dose of 1g radioactive vitamin B12 (
57
C-vit.B12) is administered to
the fasting subject followed two hours later by a large parenteral injection
of unlabelled B12 (1000g). The injection flushes out about 1/3 of the
absorbed radioactive B12 into the next 24 hours.
- Normal subjects excrete 10% or more of the 1g dose in their urine.
- Patients with pernicious anemia excrete less than 5% but occasionally
upto 7% of the dose.
- Borderline results of upto 10% may occur in atrophic gastritis.
- If the patients absorb normal amounts of vitamin B12, no further
testing is necessary.
- If absorption is subnormal, a second parenteral injection of unlabelled
B12 is given 24 hours later, followed by a further test dose of
radioactive B12 with intrinsic factor, and the B12 absorption is again
estimated. If absorption returns to normal, a diagnosis of pernicious
anemia may be made.
- If absorption is again subnormal, a lesion of the small intestine is likely.
Radiolabelled B12 PO +
Unlabelled B12 IM to replenish sores (stage I)
Measure 24 hours urine excretion of labelled B12
Normal Decreased
Radiolabelled B12 +
Intrinsic factor (stage II)
Measurement 24 hours urine excretion of labelled B12
Decreased Normal
Normalize normalize with does not Pernicious anemia
Antibiotic (stage III) pancreatic enzyme
(stage IV) ileal disease
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
79
Measurement of the unsaturated B12 binding capacity (UBBC), which in
the normal subject reflects the amount of TC II and to a lesser extent TC I
and TC II and TC III available in the serum for binding with added B12.
The normal range for serum UBBC is 500-1200 ng/l. The UBBC is usually
elevated due to an increase in TC I in CML, acute promyelocytic leukemia.
FOLATE DEFICIENCY
Folate is abundant in yeast, many leafy vegetables and organ meats such as
liver and kidneys. An ample amount of folate is present in most well
balanced diet. The human body stores little folic acid. Storage amounts of a
complete absence of dietary folates existed. However, a chronically
inadequate diet can produce folic acid deficiency. However, folic acid
antagonist, such as certain drugs used to treat leukemias, and oral contra-
ceptives appear to reduce the absorption of folic acid.
Dietary folic acid is in the polyglutamate form, which is deconjugated to
the monoglutamate form during absorption. In the mucosa, folic acid
undergoes complete reduction by dihydrofolate reductase into
tetrahydrofolate. It is then methylated and released into the blood and
transported (No specific carrier protein) into the taget cells where it
transfers its methyl group to homocysteine to form methionine and
tetrahydrofolate. This reaction is made possible by the enzyme methionine
synthetase, which requires vitamin B12 as a cofactor. Tetrahydrofolate is
used in the transfer of one-carbon fragment from donors such as a serine to
DNA bases.
Causes of Folate Deficiency
1. Inadequate intake 2. Intestinal malabsorption (e.g celiac disease,
tropical sprue)
3. Increased demand: Pregnancy, hemolytic anemia, leukemia, lymphoma,
sideroblastic anemia, carcinoma, inflammatory disorder, hyperthyroidism
and skin disease.
4. Inability to utilize folate due to the action of folate antagonist
(anticonvulsant, contraceptives).
Manifestations
The most typical manifestation of folate deficiency is megaloblastic
anemia, a hematopoietic disorder whose features have already been
discussed. The salient molecular abnormality in folate deficiency is a
marked slowing of DNA synthesis, a defect expressed not only in the
characteristic morphological abnormalities of the megaloblastic cells, but
also in a marked prolongation of the S (DNA synthesis) phase in
replicating cells and in a disruption in chromatin structure detectable as
chromosomal tangles and breaks. Despite extensive study, a biochemical
explanation for the slowing of DNA synthesis in folate deficiency is not
yet available, although it appears to be somehow related to the defect in
dTMP formation seen in folate-deficient cells.
OTHER MANIFESTATIONS: Folate deficiency affects other rapidly
dividing tissues. A stomatitis characterized by a sore mouth and a smooth,
beefy red tongue occurs frequently. It probably results from impaired
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
80
proliferation of the oral mucosa, which is worn away during eating and
must be constantly renewed.
Special Tests in Diagnosis: There are two main laboratory tests used to
detect folate deficiency
Serum Folate Assay: Microbiological (Lactobacillus) and radioisotope
method are available for measuring serum folate concentration.
Red Cell Folate Assay
Red cell contains 20-50 times as much folate as serum. The red cell folate
level is usually a more reliable indicator of tissue folate stores than the
serum folate, which fluctuates widely according to dietary intake.
Microbiological or radioisotope assay method may be used.
Low red cell folate levels are found in patients with megaloblastic anemia
due to folate deficiency.
Figlu test (Determination of formiminoglutamic acid in urine) is an
intermediary metabolic product of histidine metabolism and is normally
metabolized to glutamic acid, with the help of tetrahydrofolic acid (THFA).
In folic acid deficiency THFA is not available and FIGLU is found in the
urine in increased amounts. The sensitivity of the test can be increased by
the histidine-loading technique. This test however is not very specific.
Radioactive folic acid test is diagnostic (like schilling test in B12 deficiency).
Peripheral Blood Picture in Megaloblastic Anemia
1. Anemia with marked oval macrocytosis and elevated MCV. The higher is
the MCV, the greater the incidence of megaloblastosis. MCV values above
125 fl are almost always associated with vitamin B12 or folate deficiency
and a frankly megaloblastic bone marrow.
2. Neutropenia with hypersegmented neutrophils.
3. Mild, usually symptomless, thrombocytopenia.
The earliest change is the development of macrocytosis and an elevated
MCV without anemia. Anemia then develops weeks, months or rarely
years later and as the level of hemoglobin falls. Anisocytosis, macrocytosis
and poikilocytosis become more prominent. Finally neutropenia and
thrombocytopenia develop.
Neutrophil hypersegmented is present when more than 5% of neutrophils
have 5 lobes or the film shows at least one six-lobed cell.
Hypersegmentation is an early sign of vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, and
is useful in the diagnosis of megaloblastosis with minimal or no anemia
(other conditions with hypersegmentation are I.D.A, myeloproliferative
syndrome and chronic renal failure).
Bone Marrow Morphology in Megaloblastic Anemia
Erythropoiesis
Megaloblastic changes occur at all stages of red cell development. The
primitive cell is the promegaloblast, from which a series of maturing cell
develop, namely basophilic, polychromatic and orthochromatic
megaloblasts.
Megaloblasts differ from their normoblstic counterparts in the following
respects.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
81
Cell size: Megaloblasts are larger than erythroblasts, with an increase in
cytoplasm and nuclear size at every stage of development.
Nucleus: The chromatin network is more open, being arranged in a fine
reticular fashion to give a stippled appearance. Thus, the stippled
appearance is commonly still well marked in polychromatic cells. The
nucleus of the chromatin cell is commonly indented or lobulated, and one
or more Howell Joly bodies may be present.
Mitosis: mitosis are more common and are some times abnormal in
appearance
Maturation: Megaloblastic erythropoiesis is characterized by an increase in
the proportion of more primitive cells.
Prussian blue staining of the marrow shows an increase in the number and
size of iron granules in erythroid precursors. Iron in reticulum cells is
increased.
Leukopoiesis
The characteristic feature is the presence of large atypical granulocytes,
which occur at all stages of development but particularly at the
metamyelocyte, resulting in (giant stab) forms. The giant stab cell has a
large U-shaped nucleus, which may be irregular in outline. These cells
result from asynchronism between the development of nucleus and the
cytoplasm. They probably die within the marrow, and the hypersegmented
neutrophils of the peripheral blood do not appear to be derived from them.
The absolute number of developing granulocytes in the marrow is actually
increaed in nucleated red cells.
Megakaryocytes
Usually are normal or slight increases. Occasionally decreased with some
cells are atypical or hypersegmented nucleus.
PERNICIOUS ANEMIA
Idiopathic anemia (Addison's D, Biermer), is a disease characterized by
gastric parietal cell atrophy. This defect causes decreased secretion of IF
and other gastric juices. The lack of IF leads to defective vitamin B12
absorption and consequently megaloblastic anemia.
Pernicious anemia is more common in people after age 50. In blacks, the
disease may start earlier, with a mean of 53 years. Pernicious anemia is rare
in children, and if it occurs, it may be in the congenital form. Congenital
pernicious anemia is characterized by the total absence of IF and normal
secretion of other gastric juices.
Pathophysiology
The main cause of pernicious anemia is atrophic gastritis characterized by
atrophy of the gastric mucosa with decrease of gastric secretions and IF.
The cause of gastric atrophy however is not clearly known. It is postulated
that genetic, immunologic, and environmental factors all play a role. IF is
essential for absorption of vitamin B12. In absence of IF, only a small
amount of vitamin B12 is absorbed.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
82
The congenital form of pernicious anemias is inherited as an autosomal
recessive trait. The genetic contribution to the adult form of pernicious
anemia is supported by: (1) the concordant presence of pernicious anemia
in identical twin (2) the increased risk in relatives of patients with
pernicious anemia, (3) the presence of achlohydria with or without
malabsorption in relatives of patients with pernicious anemia may produce
antibody to gastric parietal cells.
The cause for the genetic predisposition of pernicious anemia is not yet
clear. The association of pernicious anemia and the human leukocyte
antigen (HLA) is not conclusive. Association of HLA-B7 and pernicious
anemia has been reported in whites.
Diagnosis
Clinical Features
The common features are anemia (angina effort, CCF), paraesthesia,
Glossitis, recurrent diarrhoea, anorexia, weight loss, abdominal pain,
mental disturbance, and visual disturbance.
Blood Picture
Hb decreased (7-9 g/l up to 3g/dl, occasionally is normal. MCV increased
MCH is variable and MCHC is normal or slight increase (33-38 pg)
Blood Smear: Macrocytic cells many of these are oval. A small number of
nucleated red cells and cell containing Howell-Jolly bodies are seen. A
moderate leukopenia is associated with hypersegmented neutrophils are
always present. A few myelocytes may appear in the peripheral blood. A
moderate thromocytopenia is usual with the platlet count 100000-
150000/L
Figure 9.1: Peripheral blood of megaloblastic anemia patient, showing
ovalo-macrocytosis of red blood cells and hypersegmented neutrophils
(8 lobes) .
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
83
Biochemical Finding
The serum bilirubin is usually at the upper limit of normal but may be
slightly increased.
Serum haptoglobin level is reduced. Serum ferritin and iron are elevated
but fall within 48h of adequate treatment. Plasma lactate dehydrogenase is
increased.The direct coombs test is positive in 10%. The serum folate is
usually normal but it may be elevated or rarely reduced.
Serum vitamin B12 assay is reduced. The presence of intrinsic factor
antibodies is strong evidence in favour of a diagnosis of pernicious anemia.
Parietal cell antibodies are positive.
Radioactive vitamin B12 absorption test (Schiling test).
Serum Gastric Level: A pentagastrin or histamin fast achlohydria is almost
inavailable in pernicious anemia, and 80% of patients have an elevated
serum gastrin. The test is not specfic for pernicious anemia. Reticulocytosis
is response to vitamin B12 administration.
Treatment
It is critical that an accurate diagnosis be made before therapy is started
because folate supplementation may mask underlying B12 deficiency by
improving the anemia, but not the neuralgic disease, associated with
vitamin B12 deficiency and thus allowing the neuropathy to progress.
Folate deficiency is usually treated with oral daily replacement
(1mg/day). B12 deficiency associated with pernicious anemia requires
lifelong treatment. All patients should start with intramuscularly
injection therapy at 100 to 1000 g/day, to be given every week for 1
month. Maintenance treatment may be administered intramuscularly,
subcutaneously, orally, or intranasally. In general, there is a dramatic
improvement in well being within a day of therapy with parental B12.
Reticulocytosis becomes apparent in 1 week, whereas anemia resolves in
2 months. Neurologic symptoms take longer to improve (6-12 months).
Unfortunately, in upto 10% of patients with neurologic complications,
and depending on the severity and duration of disease, the damage may
be irreversible.
Response to Therapy
The initial sign of a positive response to therapy is an increase in the
reticulocyte count. The number of circulatory reticulocytes increases 2 to
3 days after therapy with a peak at about 7 days. The reticulocyte count
may increase to 50 to 70% initially. The megaloblastic morphology of the
bone marrow disappears within the first 24 to 48 hours after therapy. The
hematocrit rises in about 5 to 7 days after therapy, reaching normal levels
in 4 to 8 weeks. Giant metamyelocytes and hypersegmented neutrophils
disappear within 2 weeks. The entire therapeutic response process may
take only 3 to 6 weeks depending on the severity of the disease.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
84
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The pathophysiology of megaloblastic anemia is:
a. Defective RNA synthesis and abnormal cytoplasm maturation
b. Defective DNA synthesis and abnormal nuclear maturation
c. Defective RNA synthesis and abnormal nuclear maturation
d. Defective DNA synthesis and abnormal cytoplasm maturation
2. All of the following laboratory findings coincide with megaloblastic
anemia except:
a. Increased serum bilirubin
b. Increase serum iron
c. Decrease muramidase
d. Increased LDH-1
3. Megaloblastic anemia is associated with:
a. Ineffective erythrpoiesis and increased reticulocytes
b. Ineffective erythropoiesis and decreased reticulocytes
c. Ineffective erythropoiesis and decreased LDH
d. Ineffective erythropoiesis and decreased erythropoiesis
4. According to the morphological classification of anemia is a:
a. Macrocytic, hypochromic anemia
b. Macrocytic hyperchromic
c. Macrcytic, normochromic
d. Normocytic, normochromic
5. Which of the following is not seen on the peripheral smear of
megaloblastic anemia?
a. Macro-ovalocytes
b. Hypersegmented neutrophils
c. Hyposegmental neutrophils
d. Howell-Jolly bodies
6. Which of the following are the characteristic findings of the bone
marrow in a patient with megaloblastic anemia?
a. Hypercellular with low M:E ratio
b. Hypercellular with high M:E ratio
c. Hypocellular with high M:E ratio
d. Hypocellular with low M:E ratio
7. The glycoprotein necessary for absorption of vitamin B12 is:
a. Albumin
b. Transcobalamin II
c. Haptocorrin
d. Intrinsic factor
8. All of the following are clinical manifestations of both B12 deficiency
and folate deficiency except:
a. Anemia and jaundice
b. Weakness and shortness of breath
c. Thrombocytopenia and bleeding
d. Hemoglobinuria
9. Which of the following schilling test results corresponds to a diagnosis
of pernicious anemia?
a. Part I abnormal, part II not corrected
b. Part I abnormal, part II corrected
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
85
c. Part I and part II are abnormal
d. Part I normal, part II corrected
10. Which of the following is not a cause of vitamin B 12 deficiencies?
a. Atrophic gastritis
b. Total gastrectomy
c. Blind loop syndrome
d. Chronic gastritis
11. Hypergemented neutrophils, a classic (nonspecific) finding in
megaloblastic anemia, generally have -------or more nuclear lobes.
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10
12. Pernicious anemia is caused by a:
a. Dietary folate deficiency
b. Dietary vitamin B12 deficiency
c. Reduced intrinsic factor secretion in the stomach.
d. Defective intrinsic factor molecule
13. The laboratory findings in megaloblastic anemia many include:
a. Decrease serum folate
b. Decrease erythrocyte, leukocyte and platelet .
c. Decrease serum vitamin B12
d. All of the above
14. Megaloblastic changes in the peripheral blood include:
a. Giant neutrophils with nuclear hypersegment
b. An MCV as high as 130 fl
c. Oval macrocytes with increased cetral pallor
d. All of the above
15. Megaloblastic changes in the bone marrow include:
a. Giant leukocyte , especially metamyelocyte
b. A hypercellular marrow with leukocyte
precursors predominantly
c. An increased ratio of erythroblasts to
myeloblasts
d. All of the above
16. Megaloblastic anemias can be due to:
a. Tapeworm infection
b. Gastric resection
c. Nutritional deficiency
d. All of the above
17. Megaloblastic anemia related to folic acid deficiency is associated
with:
a. Abnormal absorption
b. Increased utilization
c. Nutritional insufficiency
d. All of the above
ANSWERS
1. B
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. D
8. D
9. B
10. D
11. B
12. C
13. D
14. D
15. A
16. D
17. D
18. D
19. B
20. D
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
86
18. The underlying gastritis that causes pernicious anemia is
immunologically related to:
a. Autantibodies to intrinsic factor
b. A serum inhibitor of intrinsic factor
c. Autoanntibodies to parietal cells
d. All of the above
19. The suspected blood values
related to the blood film are:
a. MCV increased, MCH increased,
and MCHC normal
b. MCV increased, MCH
variable and MCHC normal
c. MCV increased, MCH
decreased, and MCHC normal
d. MCV normal, MCH
increased and MCHC normal
20. In a case of classic pernicious anemia, the patient has:
a. Leukopenia
b. Hypersegmented neutrophils
c. Anemia
d. All of the above
QUIZ:
1. The RBCs in this field contain the followings
except:
a.Howell-Jolly bodie
b. Nucleated RBCs
c. Poikilocytosis
d. Anisocytosis
e. Hypochromasia
2.The suspected cause is:
a. Postsplenectomy
b. Megaloblastic anemia
c. Iron deficiency anemia
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
87
BONE MARROW FAILURE,
PANCYOPENIA
Learning Objectives:
1. To discuss the underlying causes of
pancytopenia
2. To know the etiology of acquired aplastic
anemia, including the drugs that have been
most commolnly reported to cause this syndrome
3. To understand the difference between aplastic
anemia and pure red cell aplasia and MDS
10
Peripheral blood cytopenia ( anemia (Hb<11g/d) , leukopenia (WBC
<4000/L), or thrombocytopenia (Platelet <150000/L) can be due to
increased loss, sequestration, consumption, or destruction of mature
circulating blood elements, or to impaired production of mature cells
resulting from a process that affects the origin of these cells, the bone
marrow
Causes
1. Aplastic anemia
2. Pancytopenia due to marrow replacement.
This may be caused by:
Neuroblastoma, Myelofibrosis
Myelodysplastic syndrome, Osteopetrosis
3. Other causes:
Systemic LE
Paroxysmal N.H
Overwhelming sepsis
Hypersplenism and Megaloblastic anemia
Hairy cell leukemia, acute leukemia, multiple myeloma and lymphoma
Diagnosis
Investigations of patients with pancytopenia:
Clinical features
Blood examination
Bone marrow aspiration and trephine biopsy
When these data do not establish the diagnosis, further investigations are
necessary.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
88
Blood Examination
Presence of anisocytosis and poikilocytosis e.g acute leukemia, aplastic
anemia.
Poikilocytosis is very marked in myelofibrosis.
White and red cell precursors: Relative small total nucleated red cells in
myelofibrosis. A leuk-erythroblastic picture is common in subleukemic
leukemic and metastatic carcinoma in bone and lymphoma.
Blast cells are common in subleukemic leukemia and acute myelofibrosis.
Immature lymphoid or plasmatic cells in lymphoma and multiple
myeloma.
Abnormal granulation in neutrophils is found as toxic granulation in
Aplastic anemia due to infection.
Hypogranular neutrophil common in Myelodysplastic syndrome and
AML.
Pelger-Huet like cells is seen in myelodysplastic syndrome and some
subleukemia.
Hypersegment neutrophil is seen in megaloblastosis and other associated
with macrocytic poikilocytosis.
Marked rouleaux formation with ESR very high (>100-150/h) are common
in multiple myeloma and macroglobulinemia.
Bone Marrow: A dry or blood tap is not uncommon in disorders causing
pancytopenia.
A bone marrow trephine biopsy should be routinely performed. It
provides cellularity of hematopoietic elements and the presence of
reticulin and other abnormal cells not found in aspiration.
A trephine biopsy is necessary to establish the presence of myelofibrosis or
involvement by Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Bone marrow hypercellularity in hypersplenism patients is due to active
erythropoiesis and leukopoiesis.
APLASTIC ANEMIA
Aplastic anemia, a term commonly used, implies a pancytopenia of the
marrow associated with leukopenia and thrombocytopenia.
Diagnostic Criteria for Severe Aplastic Anemia
Bone Marrow
Cellularity <25% of normal Or
<50% of normal cellularity with
<30% hematopoietic cells
Plus any two of the following
Peripheral blood
Granulocyte <0.5 X 10
9
/L
Platelets <20 X10
9
/L
Anemia with <1% reticulocytes
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
89
Classification
1. Idiopathic
2. Secondary: when the disorder is the result of exposure to certain drugs or
chemicals.
THE MOST IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS ARE WITH
- Drug idiosyncrasy, Chemicals
- Infections (Hepatitis, viral infections
- Pancreatic insufficiency
- Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
- Pure cell aplasia
3. Constitutional when associated with inherited defects in DNA
repair as seen in Fancon's syndrome.
Drugs Associated With Idiosyncratic Aplastic Anemia
1. Anticonvulsants e.g Hydantoin group
2. Antibacterial e.g Chloramphenicol, Sulphonamide, Isoniazid, Arsenical
3. Tranquilizers: Meprobamate, chlorodiazepoxide
4. Anti-Rheumatic drugs: Indomethacin, phenylbutazon
5. Antidiabetic drugs: Tolbutamide
Chemical Exposure
- Benzene , Insecticides (DDT), Trinitrotoluene
FANCONI'S ANEMIA (FA)
FA is a familial aplastic anemia.
Onset is most common in the first decade of life.
FA is associated with patchy brown cutaneous pigmentation, neurological,
renal or skeletal malformation.
Increase random chromosome breakage during mitosis with diminished
capacity for DNA repair. Aberration of DNA may serve as an initiating
event, the development of aplastic anemia or of leukemia.
Clinical Features of Aplastic Anemia
Although the clinical onset is usually insidious, often occurring over weeks
or months after exposure to a toxin, occasionally it is explosive. Signs vary
with the severity of the pancytopenia.
General symptoms of anemia are usually severe. Waxy pallor of skin and
mucous membrane is characteristics.
In aplastic anemia severe thrombocytopenia may occur, with bleeding into
the mucous membranes and skin. Hemorrhage into the ocular fundi is
frequent. Agranulocytosis with life threatening infections is common.
Splenomegaly is absent, unless induced by transfusion hemosiderosis.
The clinical presentation of pure RBC aplasia is generally milder.
Symptoms relate to anemia or to the underlying disorder.
Blood Picture
Hemoglobin is often as low as 7g/dl and may be considerably less. Anemia
is normochromic and normocytic, although minor or moderate degree of
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
90
macrocytosis are surprising common. MCV can be elevated. RBC
anisocytosis is common and poikilocytosis can occur.
Reticulocyte: The absolute concentration of reticulocytes is usually
depressed. The percentage of reticulocytes can be subnormal, normal or
slight increased. A relatively high reticulocyte count is a good prognostic
factor.
WBCs are leukopenic, particularly neutropenia. There is typically a relative
lymphocytosis.
- Platlets: Thrombocytopenia. ESR; is usually elevated, some times to high
values. The serum iron level is usually elevated
- The Ham's acid-serum test is occasionally positive in the absence of overt
features of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.
Bone Marrow Picture
A "dry tap in which no material at all is obtained or a "blood" tap in which
there is blood no particles can occur in this condition. In this condition bone
marrow biopsy is indicated.
Cellularity: Hypocellular (in most cases)
(A). In Aplastic Particles: The proportion of fat cells increases, with a
corresponding decrease in hematopoietic cells. Erythropoiesis and
leukopoiesis are equally reduced or that one is relatively less affected
(B). In cellular particles:
Reduced proportion of fat cells and increased proportion of hematopoietic
cells and the trails are cellular. Erythropoiesis is normoblast but often
dyserythropoietic features are present particularly in the more mature
erythroblasts. Megakaryocytes; are commonly reduced in numbers even in
cellular region.
The iron content is usually normal or increased.
MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROME (MDS)
MDS are a heterogenous group of leukemia-related conditions
characterized by various combinations of anemia, neutropenia,
thrombocytopenia usually with a normocellular or hypercellular bone
marrow. Transformation to an acute myeloid leukemia occurs in some cases.
Etiology
The etiology of primary MDS is unknown. Most cases of primary MDS
occur without a known exposure to a leukogenic agent. Secondary MDS
can sometimes be directly related to a known agent. Examples of diseases
that precede MDS include ovarian carcinoma treated with alkylating
agents (10% to 15% of MDS cases), Hodgkins disease treated with
combined therapy, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Some predisposing
factors for MDS may be genetic.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
91
Table 10.1 : Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) according to FAB
classification
TYPE BONE MARROW
1. Refractory anemia (RA)
2. Refractory anemia with
ring sideroblastic (RARS)
3. Refractory anemia with
excess of blast (RAEB)
4. Refractory anemia with
excess blast in transformation
(RAEB-t)
5. Chronic myelomoncytic
leukemia (CMMoL)
Blasts <5%
Blast <5%
Ring sideroblasts >15%
Blast 5-20%
Blast 20-30%
Peripheral blood
monocytes increased.
Table 10.2: WHO classification of MDS
Peripheral blood Bone marrow
Refractory anemia
(RA)
Anemia
No blasts
< 5% blasts
<15% ringed sideroblasts
RA with ringed
sideroblastic (RARS)
Anemia
No blasts
< 5% blasts
=15% erythroid ringed
sideroblasts
RA with excess blast-1
(RAEB-1
Cytopenia <5 % blasts
Absence of Auer rods
5-9% blasts
Absence of Auer rods
RA with excess blast-1
(RAEB-2
Cytopenia, <5% blasts
Auer rods may be present
<1000 ul monocyte
10-19% blasts
Auer rods may be present
MDS, unclassified
(MDS-U)
Cytopenia
No blasts
Absence of Auer rods
Dysplasia in granulocytes or
megakaryocytes < 5% blasts
Absence of Auer rods
MDS with isolated
(del(5q)
Anemia
<5% blasts
Absence of Auer rods
Normal or increased
megakaryocyte
Absence of Auer rods del(5q)
the only cytogenetic
abnormality
Clinical Features
MDS is more common at age more than 50 years. It is characterized by
anemia, infections which are difficult to eradicate and hemorrhagic
disorders.
Blood Picture
Anemia is severe normocytic or mild macrocytic. Dimorphic
hyponormochromic. Basophil stippling and presence of nucleated red cells.
Neutropenia is common with agranular or pelger Huet anomalies. Platelets
decreased
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
92
Bone marrow
BM is normocellular to hypocellular and dyserythropoietic and
megaloblastoid changes. Multinuclearity and nuclear fragmentation are
frequent. Other features of bone marrow are cytoplasmic vacuolation,
Howell-Jolly bodies and ring sideroblasts in RARS.
Calculation of Myeloblast Percentage in Bone Marrow:
The FAB classification of ANLL (M1 to M7) and MDS necessitates the
determination of the percentage of myeloblasts in bone marrow. This is
particularly important in distinguishing FAB M2, FAB M6, RAEB and
RAEB-T.
With formula given below, the current proposal is:
More than 30% myeloblasts and an actual percentage of erythroblasts over
50% =M6
More than 30% myeloblasts and an actual percentage of erythroblasts
under 50% =M2
Twenty to 30% myeloblasts and a real percentage of erythroblasts under
50% = RAEB-t
Five to 20% myeloblasts and a real percentage of erythroblasts under 50% =
RAEB
The accepted FAB standard for the calculation of the percentage of
myeloblasts is accomplished by subtracting all nucleated erythroid
precursors in the bone marrow from the differential count. The calculation
is performed as follows:
Example 1
1. Count all nucleated cells in the bone marrow: Total 100 cells
2. If the erythroid precursors are over 50%. Subtract the erythroid
precursors (E) from the total (100) count: 100 total cells 55 (E) = 45 cells
3. List the number of myeloblasts in the 100-cell count: Number of
myeloblasts = 25 cells
4. Calculate the percentage of myeloblasts in the nonerythroid cell count.
Twenty-five myeloblasts were included in the nonerythroid count of 45
cells. Therefore the percentage of myeloblasts in this count is (25/45) X 100
=55%
This patient has acute myelogenous leukemia, FABM6
Example 2
100 total cells 55(E) = 45 cells
Number of myeloblast = 10 cells
Calculation:
(10/45)X100=22
Note: this patient has MDS (RAED)
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
93
Table 10.3 : International Prognostic Scoring System for MDS Risk Factor
Categories
Point Bone
marrow %
Karyotype Cytopenia
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
<4
5-10
11-20
21-30
Good
Intermediate
Poor
0 or 1
2 or 3
Risk level
Low (0), Intermediate 1 (0.5-1.0), Intermediate2 (1.5-2) High =2.5
Treatment of MDS
Treatment consideration in MDS must weight the risk of therapy versus
the risk of problems associated with existing cytopenias, and the
likelihood and imminence of leukemic transformation. The risk of
progression to acute leukemia ranges from 10% to 100%.
The forms of therapy for MDS include:
1. Vitamin supplementation (folate, vitamin B6 and pyridoxine in high
doses, 150mg/day)
2. Blood transfusion is given when a patient has symptomatic anemia, and
platelet transfusions when the platlet count falls below 10,000.
3. Erythropoitin (EPO) at 40,000 U once or twice weekly is shown to
produce a response in about 15% to 20% of patients.
4. Myeloid growth factors such as granulocyte colony stimulating factor
(G-CSF) either alone or in combination with EPO
5. Immunoodolators
Thalidomide inhibits angiogenesis, alters cellular immune responses,
modulates various cytokines, and has direct antileukemic
antiproliferative effects
Lenalidomide is a derivative of thalidomide and has a similar
mechanism of action and best in patients with deletion 5 q- abnormalities
6. Demethylating agents
Azacytidine has shown an overall response rate of 60%with a complete
remission rate of 70% of patients with MDS
7. Bone marrow transplantation (Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
Allogenic HSCT is the primary curative treatment for patients with MDS
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
94
Figure 10.1: RAEB-t
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The bone marrow in aplastic anemia is characterized as
a. Normocellular
b. Having increased fibrosis in the biopsy
c. Having increased fat in the biopsy
d. All of the above
2. The peripheral blood in aplastic anemia is characterized by:
a. Neutropenia
b. Thrombocytopenia
c. Leukopenia
d. All of the above
3. Which of the following is true about Fanconi anemia?
A.The platelet count is normal
b. Patients are anemia but have a normal absolute neutrophil count
c. Hematological cell count abnormalities are present by 1 year
of age.
d. The bone marrow eventually become aplastic
4. A leukoerythroblastic reaction is characterized by the inappropriate
release
from the bone marrow of
a. Neucleated red blood cells
b. Immature granulocytes
c. All of the above
d. Non of the above
5. Anemia associated with endocrine disorders may result from:
a. An increase in erythropoietin
b. An increase in testosterone
c. Hyperadernalism
d. A decrease in thyroid function ( Hypothyroidism)
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
95
6. Which of the following terms was not used to refer to myelodysplastic
syndromes?
a. Myeloproliferative syndromes
b. Refractory anemia
c. Smoldering leukemia
d. Myelodysplasia
7. Patients with some variety of MDS are at increased risk of developing:
a. ALL
b. AML
c. CLL
d. CML
8. An increased incidence of MDS is seen in :
a. Male less than 55 years old
b. Female less than 55 years old
c. Males more than 55 years old
d. Female more than 55 years old.
9. MDS and ------ can have similar clinical and
morphological features.
a. Aplastic anemia
b. Iron deficiency anemia
c. CLL
d. ALL
10. Which of the following drugs is least frequently
associated with aplastic anemia?
a. Chloramphenicol
b. Chloral hydrate
c. Phenylbutazone
d. Tolbutamide
ANSWERS
1. C
2. D
3. D
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. A
10. B
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
96
SPLEEN
11
Functions of the Spleen
One of the primary functions of the spleen is filtration of defective cells.
Erythrocytes experience a slow passage through the hypoxic and acidotic
environment of the splenic cords and then squeeze through narrow slits
into the sinusoids. Although healthy erythrocytes readily accomplish
this, many aged and abnormal red cells remain behind to be ingested by
the macrophages lining the cords. Abnormal cells, such as spherocytes,
sickle cells, antibody-coated erythrocytes, or platelets (especially those
with light coatings of immunoglobulin G [IgG]) are cleared mainly by
the spleen.The spleen also is critical in clearing foreign cells, such as
circulating bacteria.The amorphous polysaccharide coat of encapsulated
bacteria greatly impairs their clearance in the absence of antibody; only
the spleens highly efficient phagocytic cords can effectively clear these
bacteria. The splenic white pulp then processes these intravenous
antigens and produces antibody that, during subsequent exposures,
allows for efficient clearance by the remainder of the MPS.
The splenic cords are uniquely capable of removing erythrocytic
inclusions, such as nuclear remnants (ie, Howell-Jolly bodies) or
precipitated globin (ie, Heinz bodies), without destroying the cell. The
spleen also serves as a reservoir for platelets and produces blood
components (extramedullary hematopoiesis) if the bone marrow is
unable to meet demands.
Causes of Splenomegaly
(a). Inflammatory splenomegaly
1. Bacterial infections: bacterial endocarditis, typhoid and paratyphoid
relapsing fever, brucellosis, acute miliary Tb, secondary and congenital
syphilis.
2. Viral infections: Infectious mononucleosis, viral hepatitis, primary
atypical pneumonia.
3. Parasites: Kala azar, malaria, chagas disease, amoebic abscess,
Bilharziasis, Echinococcosis.
(b) Congestive splenomegaly
- Portal hypertension
- Liver cirrhosis
- Bant's syndrome
(c) Hyperplastic splenomegaly
- Various types of hemolytic anemia
- Thrombocytopenic purpura
- Polycythemia vera, Myelosclerosis
- Leukemia, Pernicious anemia and Primary hypersplenism
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
97
(d) Reticuloendothelial disease
- Hodgkin' disease, NHL, sarcoidosis, macroglobulinemia
(e) Infiltrative splenomegaly
- Amyloidosis, Naumann-pick disease,Gaucher' disease
- Glycogen storage disease.
(f) Other causes
- Felty's syndrome, Still's disease, SLE
- Tumor of spleen and acromegaly.
(g) Infections
1. Acute septicemia, bacterial endocarditis, typhoid, infectious
mononucleosis
2. Chronic: Tb, Brucellosis, syphilis, malaria, leishmania,
schistosoma mansoni
Causes of Huge Spleen
1. Chronic myeloid leukemia 2. Myelofibrosis
3. Prolymphcytic leukemia 4. Amyloidosis
5. Gaucher's disease 6. Chronic malaria
7. Kala azar 8. Tropical splenomegaly
9. Cooley's anemia
Investigations of Splenomegaly
I. Blood Examination
(a) Red Cell Changes
Anemia is present in leukemia, hemolytic disorders, lymphoma,
thromocytopenic purpura, hypersplenism, myelofibrosis and liver
cirrhosis.
Increased red cells in Polycythemia Vera
(b) Leukocytic changes
Leukemia: leukocytosis- immature form
Infectious mononucleosis: leukocytosis, Neutropenia and abnormal
lymphocytes.
Hodgkin's disease: lymphocytopenia and eosinophilia.
(c) Platelet changes
Reduced number in thrombocytopenic purpura
Increased number in thrombocythemia and early in course of CML and
Polycythemia vera.
(d) Pancytopenia in hypersplenism.
(e) Blood smear for parasites as malaria, kala azar and borrelia recurrentis.
(f) Blood culture may reveal typhoid, brucella abortus and is also positive
in cases of septicemia.
(g) Immunoglobulin assay in case of macroglobulinnemia and heavy chain
disease.
II. Serological Test
Widal test and serological test for bilharziasis, brucellosis, relapsing fever
and toxoplasmosis are advised for causative diagnosis. Other tests are
detection of the antinuclear antibody (ANA) and rheumatoid factor (RF).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
98
III. Bone Marrow Examination
This can be diagnostic in leukemia, polycythemia vera, multiple myeloma
and myelosclerosis. Also it may be helpful in certain cases as Hodgkins
disease, NHL, and lipoid storage disease.
IV. Lymphnode Biopsy: It is helpful in
1. Hodgkin's disease and NHL
2. Tb, Toxoplasmosis
3. Sarcoidosis
V. Splenic Aspiration
VI. Measurement of Portal Pressure and Liver Function Test
VII. Splenic Angiography
VIII. Splenic Scan using
51
Cr-labelled red cells or
99
m Tc
IX.
51
Cr-labelled red cells to evaluate the degree of splenic sequestration
of red cell in-patient with anemia.
HYPERSPLENISM
Hypersplenism refers to reduction of one or more of the formed blood
elements
(Red, white, platelets), due to overactivity of the spleen.
Causes
1. Idiopathic
2. Secondary:
- Portal hypertension
- Sarcoidosis, Gaucher disease
- Felty's syndrome
- Kala azar, chronic malaria, Tropical splenomegaly
- Bacterial infection, Tb
- Thalassemia
- CLL, Myelofibrosis, Hairy cell leukemia, lymphoma
Clinical Features
1. Progressive anemia, which is a resistant to treatment.
2. Increased susceptibility to infection due to reduction of leukocytes such
as sore throat, chest infection and vulvo-vaginitis.
3. Bleeding tendency due to thrombocytopenia
4. Splenomegaly
5. Features of underlying cause in secondary cases.
Diagnosis
1. To establish that hypersplenism exist
2. To establish the cause of the splenomegaly
Diagnostic Criteria
The four criteria important for the diagnosis of hypersplenism:
1. Peripheral blood picture of anemia, neutropenia and thrombocytopenia,
either singly or in combination.
2. A normally cellular or hypercellular bone marrow
3. Splenomegaly
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
99
4. Significant improvement in the peripheral blood picture following
splenectomy.
The absence of a clinically palpable spleen does not absolutely exclude the
diagnosis in a patient in whom the other features are suggestive.
Investigations
1. Blood: cytopenia, anemia is normocytic normochromic with
reticulocytosis, granulocytic count is markedly reduced but lymphocyte are
normal or increased and platelet count is reduced.
2. Bone marrow: hyperplasia of all elements.
3.
51
Cr labelled red cells and platelets are useful in evaluating the degree of
splenic overactivity and in predicting the outcome of splenectomy.
Treatment
1. of underlying cause or associated disease
2. Splenectomy-the likely benefits and possible hazards must be weighed
carefully. Decisions depend on: (i) The severity of the cytopenia (2) The
associated disease stae (iii) The general state of the patient
3. Consequences of the splenectomy
i. Reduction in plasma volume to normal or near normal
ii. Red cells (Blood film) : Appearance of target cells, H-J bodies and
anisocytes
iii. White cells: Early increase in neutrophils, within hours and
subsequent falls towards normal with increase in lymphocytes
iv. Platelets- early increase, within hours and subsequent falls
toward normal
v. Increas susceptibility to infection, notably in children.
4. Failed splenectomy-the persistent or recurrence of hypersplenism
suggests an incorrect diagnosis or the presence of accessory spleens.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following would not be expected to be associated with
hypersplenism in adult patients?
a. Gaucher disease
b. Sickle cell anemia
c. Thalassemia
d. Chronic malaria
2. Which of the following would not be characteristic
of hypersplenism?
a. Hypocellular bone marrow
b. Leukopenia
c. Anemia
d. Thrombocytopenia
e. Splenomegaly
Answers
1. B
2. A
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100
ACUTE LEUKEMIA
12
Acute leukemias are stem cell disorders characterized by a neoplastic
proliferation and accumulation of immature hematopoiesis cells in the bone
marrow.
Classification
1. Acute Myelomonocytic or Myeloblastic (Non-Lymphoid)
2. Acute Lymphocytic or Lymphoblastic
In AML, the myeloblast are peroxidase and Sudan black B positive,
whereas in the entire lymphoblastic are negative. The finding of Auer rods
or granules in blast cells on Romanowsky stained smear will also help
identify blasts of the myeloid lineage.
Figure 12.1: Differentiation between AML and ALL.
AML ALL
Big people (Adult)
Big blasts
Lots of cytoplasm
Lots of nucleoli (3-5)
Lots of granules
and Auer rods
Big toxicity of treatment
Big mortality rate
Myeloperoxidase
Small people (children)
Small blasts
Little cytoplasm
Few nucleoli (1-3)
No granules
Little toxicity of treatment
Small mortality rate
PAS (periodic acid schiff)
FAB-Classification: French-American-British cooperative group has
classified the acute leukemia into subcategories according to the
morphologic and cytochemical characteristics.
Table 12.2 FAB-Acute leukemia classification
M0 Myeloblastic leukemia minimally differentiated
M1 Myeloblastic leukemia without maturation
M2 Myeloblastic leukemia with maturation
M2 baso Myeloblastic with basophil blasts
M3 Hypergranular promyelocytic leukemia
M3 variant micro or hypogranular bilobed promyelocyte
M4 Myelomonocytic leukemia (M4 and M4 Eos)
M5 Monocytic leukemia (M5a poorly diff and M5b Well diff)
M6 Erythroleukemia
M7 Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia
ALL-L1 Small homogenous
ALL-L2 Large heterogenous
ALL-L3 Burkitts cell type
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ACUTE MYELOBLASTIC ( NON-LYMPHOCYTIC)
LEUKEMIAS (AML)
AML occur primarily in adults and in infants less than a year old, and
accounts 15% of the leukemias in children.
AML is sharp increase in adults over 50 years old.
Pathophysiology
It is not known how a hemopoietic progenitor becomes leukemia but
damage to the cells genetic programme is though to accumulate as a result
of multiple separate events.
1. Radiation: The association between radiation induced genetic damage to
the hematopoietic progenitors and the development of myelodysplasia and
acute leukemia is seen following nuclear disasters (e.g Hiroshima,
Nagasaki, and Chernobyl)
2. Chemical drugs: Drugs and chemicals that cause bone marrow
depression or aplasia are capable of producing leukemia and thus are
referred to as leukemogens; some of those are chloramphenicol,
phenylbutazone, arsenic-containing compounds, sulfonamides and some
insecticides. Certain cytotoxic agents used in the treatment of neoplasm are
likewise potentially
3. Oncogenes: Molecular studies of viruses associated with certain animal
malignancies have revealed a family of viral genes known as oncogenes.
4. Proto-oncogenes: Similar viral oncogenes.
This proto-oncogene concerned with the regulation of cell growth. e.g
retinoic acid receptor.
5. Genetic factors: Chromosome aberration, including aneuploidy and
breakage, are demonstrated in several diseases associated with an
increased incidence of ANLL. These diseases include Downs syndrome
(Trisomy 21), fanconis anemia (excessive chromosome breakage), Bloom
syndrome (marked chromosomal breakage and rearrangement) and D-
trisomy. Congenital leukemias are usually non-lymphocytic. Studies of
cases of familial leukemia are also highly supportive of the genetic etiology
of acute leukemia
6. Viruses: There is no conclusive evidence that viruses are causative
agents of human leukemia. However, type CRNA viruses are recognized as
being the most common class of tumor viruses associated with animal
leukemia and lymphoma e.g HTLV-1 may cause T-cell
leukemia/Lymphoma syndrome.
It is believed that the leukemic clone originates from a single mutant
progenitor cell. The mutant cell retains the ability to proliferate, but has the
capacity to differentiate and mature. The target cell in the malignant
transformation may be the myeloid stem cell (CFU-S) or a more mature
committed stem cell.
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102
Common Finding
1. Pallor, fatigue and weakness from the anemia are found in almost all
patients.
2. Bleeding, bruising and petechial hemorrhage caused by
thrombocytopenia are also constant features of the disease.
3. Fever due to infection that fails to respond to appropriate therapy may be
the first sign of leukemia.
4. Splenomegaly, hepatomegaly and lymphadenopathy occur in about 1/2
of patients at the time of diagnosis.
5. Bone tenderness in 2/3 of patients.
Hematological Findings
Anemia is normocytic normochromic, at the time of diagnosis.
Occasionally, a macrocytic anemia with hypersegmented PMNs is found
but the anemia does not respond to vitamin B12 or folic acid treatment.
Nucleated RBC, anisocytosis, poikilocytosis are found on the blood smear.
The platelet count is moderately depressed.
Hypogranular and giant forms are commonly.
The WBC count is variable, ranging from less than 1000 to >100000/L,
about 50% of the patients have a normal or decreased leukocyte count at
the time of diagnosis; regardless of the WBC, diagnosis of AL is suggested
by the presence of blasts on the blood smear.
Blasts usually compose from 15-95% of all nucleated WBC.
When Auer rods can be found in myeloblasts, monoblasts, and occasionally
in more differentiated monocytic cells.
The monocytosis frequently precedes overleukemia.
The few mature neutrophils present frequently demonstrate signs of
dysplasia; pseudopelger-Huet anomaly, hypogranulation and small nuclei
with hypercondensed chromatin. Eosinophils and basophils may be mildly
to markedly increase.
ESR moderately or markedly increased.
Bone marrow always indicated. Morphologic typing is according to French-
American-British (FAB) classification. Bone marrow is hypercellular with
sheets of blasts and normal cells. In leukemia with severe peripheral
leukopenia, blasts are difficult to find in the blood but are always present in
abnormal amounts in the bone marrow.
Blasts most compose 30% or more of all nonerythroid-nucleated cells in the
marrow to distinguish leukemia from the myelodysplastic syndromes.
Auer rods present in blasts of 50% of AML and are never found in ALL.
When Auer bodies are absent, blast morphology alone does not permit
distinction of myeloblasts from lymphoblasts. Cytochemistry is necessary
to define the myeloid nature of the blast cell population.
Cytochemistry, including Sudan black, and or myeloperoxidase, NASDA,
NASDA-F, Acid phosphatase, Acid esterase and PAS ( see table 12.2).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
103
Table 12.3: Cytochemical differentiation of acute leukemia
Peroxidase Sudan B B PAS ANAE
AML-M0 (+) (+) - -
AML (M1,M2) + to +++ +++ - -
AMMoL (M4) - to ++ + to ++ - +
AMoL (M5) -/+ -/+ - +++
AML (M6) - - ++ -
AML (M7) - - - -
ALL - - ++ -
Figure 12.2: Very large immature myeloblasts with many nucleoli . A distinctive
rod "AUER ROD"( ) composed of crystallized granules . These findings
are typical for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
104
Immunophenotyping
It is done on bone marrow or peripheral blood samples. The antibodies
used include for ALL B lineage: CD19, CD10, CD20 and CD22. For T-
lineage: CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7 and CD8. For myeloid lineage: CD13,
CD33, M5 CD14 and for M6: antiglycophorin and for M7: CD 41 and CD42
and antifactor VIII.
Other Findings
Hyperurecemia and an increase in LDH
Hypercalcemia with increase bone resorption, associated with leukemia
proliferation in the bone marrow.
Increase serum and urine muramidase (lysozyme) are typical finding in
those leukemias with a monocytic component (M4 and M5).
Other Specific Studies
Karyotyping; gene rearrangement for some cases.
Electronmicroscopic studies for some cases
Table 12.4: World Health Organization Classification
of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (2008)
AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities
AML with t(8;21)(q22;q22); RUNX1-RUNX1T1
AML with inv(16)(p13.1q22) or t(16;16)(p13.1;q22); CBFB-MYH11
Acute promyelocytic leukemia with t(15;17)(q22;q12); PML-RARA
AML with t(9 ;11)(p22;q23); MLLT3-MLL
AML with t(6;9)(p23;q34); DEK-NUP214
AML with inv(3)(q21q26.2) or t(3;3)(q21;q26.2); RPN1-EVI1
AML with mutated NPM1
AML with mutated CEBPA
AML with myelodysplasia-related changes
Therapy-related myeloid neoplasms
Myeloid sarcoma
Myeloid proliferations related to Down syndrome
Transient abnormal myelopoiesis
Myeloid leukemia associated with Down syndrome
Blastic plasmacytoid denderitic cell neoplasm
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AML-M0: MYELOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA MINIMALLY
DIFFERENTIATED
M0 is the most common in adult patients. Accounts for approximately 5-
10% of all AML patients. WBCs show Leukocytosis in 40% and > 50% with
leukocytopenia.
The diagnosis is made if less than 3% of the blasts are positive for
peroxidase or the Sudan black B reaction and if the Blasts are positive for
the myeloid-associated markers CD13, 14, CD15 or CD33, CD34 and
negative for B or T lineage marker (CD3, CD10, CD19 and CD5). Bone
marrow aspirate was hypercellular in all patients and contained a large
number of leukemic blasts. Almost no mature myeloid cells were seen. The
blasts were small to medium-sized round cells with an eccentric nucleus.
The nucleus often had a flattened shape and was sometimes lobulated or
cleaved and contained fine chromatin with several distinct nucleoli. The
cytoplasm was lightly basophilic without granules. Auer rods are not
found.
AML-M1 MYELOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA WITHOUT MATURATION
It is found in all aged groups with highest incidence seen in adult and in
infants less than a year old.
Leukocytosis in about 50% of patients at the time of diagnosis. The
predominant cell in the peripheral blood is usually a poorly differentiated
myeloblast with finely reticulated chromatin and prominent nucleoli.
Auer rods are found in the blast of 50% of the M1. If no evidence of
granules or Auer rods is present, the blasts may resemble L2 lymphoblast.
The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black B stains are positive in more than 3%
of the blasts indicating granulocytes differentiation.
PAS negative. Alpha-naphthyl acetate esterase and naphthol AS-D-Esterase
are negative. About 50% of the patients will have acquired clonal
chromosome aberrations in the leukemic cells. CD13, 14, 15, 33 and CD34
myeloid antigens are frequently positive in M1 leukemia. The most
common cytogenetic abnormalities are: t (9; 22) (q34; q11)
AML- M2 MYELOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA WITH MATURATION
The presenting symptoms for M2 AML are similar to those of the M1 type.
Leukocytes increased in 50% of patients. Myeloblast can usually be found in the
blood smears and may be the predominant cell type. PseudopelgerHuet and
hypogranular neutrophils being most common cells are seen in M2.
The bone marrow is hypercellular and types I and II myeloblasts make up from 30-
83% of the promyelocytes to mature segmented cells. The monocytic component is
less than 20%, differentiating M2 from M4. Increased basophil in some patient (M2
baso).Eosinophil may be increased.
Cytochemistry
Peroxidase and Sudan black B is positive. NaF does not inhibit esterase. PAS is
negative.
Nonspecific esterase is negative.
Positive reaction with CD13 and CD15 antigens are frequently seen in cases of M2
Some of M2 have a translocation between chromosome 8 and 21 and (q22; q22)
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
106
AML M3: PROMYELOCYTIC LEUKEMIA
Occur in younger adult. Median age and survival average about 18 months. M3 is
of particular interest because it results in the fusion of a truncated retinoic acid
receptor alpha (RAR-alpha) gene on chromosome 17 to a transcription unit called
PML (for promyelocytic leukemia) on chromosome 15. It is interesting to note that
high doses of the vitamin A derivative all-trans-retinoic acid are able to overcome
thus block in differentiation both in vitro and in vivo and this agent has been
successfully used to induce remission in patients with AML.
The most clinical finding in initial diagnosis is bleeding.
It is believed that the release of large numbers of promyelocytic granules containing
a procoagulant initiate disseminated intravascular clotting (DIC). This is the most
serious complication of M3 AML. Two forms of M3 have been described the
typical hypergranular type, and the hypogranular or microgranular variant.
Cytochemistry: Peroxidase and Sudan black B are positive
The PAS is negative. Nonspecific esterase is negative.
Immunological studies demonstrate positivity with CD13, CD15, CD1 and CD33
myeloid antigens.
Cytogenetic studies have revealed a high prevalence (almost 50%) of the
chromosomal translocation t (15; 17 associated with both AML M3 and M3m
variant
AML- M4 MYELOMONOCYTIC LEUKEMIA (Naegel, monocytic
leukemia)
It is distiguished from M1, M2, and M3 by an increased proportion of leukemia
monocytic cells in the bone marrow or blood or both. Gingival hyperplasia with
gingival bleeding is present.
Serum and urine levels of muramidase (lysozyme) are usually elevated
because of the monocytic proliferation.
The leukocyte count is usually increased monocytic cells (monoblast,
promoncytes monocytes) are increased to 5000/L or more.
Anemia and thrombocytopenia are present in almost all cases.
The marrow differs from M1, M2 and M3 in those monocytic cells exceed
20% of the nonerythroid nucleated cells.
The sum of the myelocytic cells including myeloblasts, promyelocytes and
later granulocytes is >20% and <80% of nonerythroid cells. This bone
marrow picture together with a peripheral blood monocyte count of
5000/L or more is compatible with a diagnosis of M4.
Confirmation of the monocytic component of this subgroup requires
cytochemistry. The profile includes positive reactions for sudden black B or
peroxidase and both specific and non-specific esterase. A few cases of M4
AML are characterized by increased marrow eosinophils and classified as
M4e.
Immunological studies demonstrate positivity with CD13, CD33, CD11b
and CD14
Cytogenetic: inv (16) (p13; q22) and del (16)(q22)
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107
AML-M5 MONOCYTIC LEUKEMIA (Schilling leukemia)
Common findings: weakness, bleeding and a diffuse erythematous skin
rash. There is a high frequency of extramedulary infiltration of the lungs,
colon, meninges, lymphnodes, bladder and larynx.
Gingival hyperplasia
Serum and urinary muramidase levels are often extremely high.
The one criterion for a diagnosis of M5 is that 80% or more of all
nonerythroid cells in the BM are monocytic cells.
There are two distinct forms 5a (maturation index <4%) and 5b
(maturation index > 4%).
M5a: Granulocyte <20% and Monocyte >80% >80% monoblast
M5b: Granulocyte <20% and Monocyte >80% <80% monoblast
(Characterized by the presence of all developmental stages of monocytes;
monoblast, promonocyte, monocyte)
Non-specific esterase stains and alpha-naphthyl esterase is positive. PAS is
negative.
Myeloperoxidase and Sudan black are weak diffuse activity in the
monoblast.
Immunological studies demonstrate positivity with CD11b and CD14
Abnormalities of the long arm of chromosome 11 associated with either
chromosome 9 or 19.
AML-M6 ACUTE ERYTHROLEUKEMIA (DiGuglielmo)
M6 is a rare form of leukemia that primarily affects the peripheral cells. It is
nonsexist in children. Clinical manifestations are similar other types of
AML.
The most frequent presentation is bleeding.
The most dominant changes in the peripheral blood are anemia with
sticking poikilocytosis and anisocytosis. Nucleated red cells demonstrate
abnormal nuclear configuration. The leukocyte and platelets are usually
decreased.
The diagnosis of erythroleukemia can be made when more than 50% of all
nucleated bone marrow cells are erythroid and 30% or more of all
remaining nonerythroid cells are type I or type II blast cells. The
erythroblast is abnormal with bizarre morphologic features. Giant
multilobular or multinucleated forms are common. Other features are;
fragmentation, Howell-Jolly bodies, ring sideroblast, and megaloblastic
changes. Dyserythropoiesis is common.
Cytochemistry: Erythroblasts are normally PAS negative. In M6,
erythroblasts especially pronormoblast demonstrates coarse positivity of
PAS.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
108
AML-M7 ACUTE MEGAKARYOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA
M7 is rare. It occurs as a leukemia transformation of CGL and MDS.
Anemia and pancytopenia is characteristic at initial diagnosis.
Peripheral blood shows micromegakaryocytes and undifferentiated blasts.
Bone marrow dry tap is common.
Bone marrow biopsy show increased fibroblasts and/or increased reticulin
and presence of greater than 30% blast cells
Cytochemistry: Peroxidase is negative, PAS +/-, Esterase +/-and positive
acid phospatase. Cytochemical positivity for o-naphthyl acetate esterase
reaction and negative reaction with o-naphthyl butyrate esterase is unique
to megakaryoblast. (Monocytes react positively with both esterase
substrates).
The monoclonal antibodies that reacts with platelet glycoprotein Ib, IIb/IIIa
and IIIb, using immunologic technique as well as CD41, CD42 and CD61
positivity.
Cytogenetic: Abnormalities of chromosome 21
Other Types
Hyprid leukemias: Are leukemias with both myeloid characteristics. They
may be bilineal (a mixed population of cells expressing either myeloid or
lymphoid features) or biphenotypic .The bilineal hybrid leukemia may
occur synchronously (at same time) or metachronously (one leukemia
followed by a relapse with a different type.
Molecular genetics
In cytogenetically normal AMLs somatic mutations of the genes FLT3,
NPM1 or CEBP2 have have been identified as important prognostic factors.
Patients with abnormalities of the chromosomal region 11q23 representing
the MLL ( mixed lineage leukemia gene ) fare poorly.
Treatment of Acute Non-Lymphoblastic Leukemia
The ultimate goal in treating ANLL is to return the bone marrow to its
normal state of health and function and to achieve disease-free survival for
the patient. Certain factors play an important role in determining how
successful therapy will be, specifically the age and pre-treatment status. The
younger the patient, and the less symptomatic he or she is before treatment,
the greater the chance of a significant response.
The standard treatment of acute non-lymphoblastic leukemia is a regimen
consisting of cytarabin in conjunction with an anthracycline compound (e.g
daunorubicin and thioguanine (TAD9 regimen). Alternatively, idarubicin
or mitaxantrone may be used instead of daunorubicin, and the drug
etoposide may be added. Post remission therapy involves repetition of the
remission induction regimen at least twice daily, one month a part or until
recovery of bone marrow function. The duration of treatment is about 3-6
months.
Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is the best therapeutic option for
patients who have achieved remission on chemotherapy. Results of BMT
are generally better in the first than in later remission.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
109
Induction Therapy: (for 2 courses
The first aim of treatment in acute leukemias is to induce a complete
remission. The standard induction protocol is the combination of
anthracycline with cytosine-arabinoside. In patients who do not reach
complete remission, the induction should be repeated. The criteria for a
complete remission are defined as <5% blasts in the bone marrow, no
blasts in the peripheral blood, adequate granulocyte (>1500/l) and
platelet (>100,000/l)
Ara-C IV 100 mg/m
2
/24 h day 1 and 2
continuous infusion
100 mg/m
2
every 12 h day 3 - 8 30 minutes infusion
Daunorubicin iv 60 mg/m
2
day 3 - 5
Consolidation: (1 -2 course2)
A consolidation treatment is administered to patients who have reached
complete remission. Two courses of consolidation are considered as
standard.
Depending on the risk factors for AML, 20-25% of the patients will survive
for more than 4 years. The fraction of patients who become long-term
survivors increases with intensive consolidation treatment.
Consoloidation chemotherapy same as in induction
Maintenance Therapy: (monthly for 3 years)
M 1 AD
Ara-c sc 100 mg/m
2
/12 h day 1-5
Daunorubicin iv 45mg/m
2
/d day 3+4
M 2 AT
Ara-C day 1-5
Thioguanine oral 100mg/m
2
continuous infus. day 1-5
M3 AC
Ara-c day 1-5
Cyclophosphamide 100 mg/m
2
iv day 3
N.B in complete remission consider Standard-dose cytarabine (100
mg/m /day x 5-7 d x 1-2
cycles) anthracycline or Consider cytarabine 1-1.5 g/m /day x 4-6
doses x
1-2 cycles for patients with good performance status, normal renal
function, normal or good karyotype but in induction failure Matched
sibling HSCT or alternative donor HSCT or high dose cytarabine
anthracycline (daunorubicin or idarubicin), if clinical trial not
available while awaiting identification of a donor or best Supportive
Care
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
110
Treatment of relapse AML
Age < 60 years
Early relapse (<6 months)
Clinical trial or matched sibling HSCT or alternative
donor HSCT, if donor previously identified
Late relapse
Clinical trial or matched sibling HSCT or alternative donor
HSCT, if donor previously identified or repeat initial successful
induction regimen
Age > 60 years
In early relapse : Clinical trial (strongly preferred) or best supportive care
or gemtuzumab ozogamicin
In late relapse: Clinical trial or treatment with initial successful regimen
or gemtuzumab ozogamicin or best supportive care.
Evaluation and treatment of CNS leukemia:
If LP positive and symptomatic at diagnosis and no focal neurologic
deficits: ntrathecal chemotherapy 2x/week until clear, then weekly x 4-6
weeks
If focal neurologic deficitsand/or radiographic findings of chloroma
causing neurologic disease: Strongly consider Intrathecal chemotherapy
2x/week until clear, then weekly x 4-6 wk
Supportive Therapy
1. Prophylactic antibiotics, including antifungals, are left to the discretion
of the individual institutions.
2. Growth factors may be considered in the elderly after chemotherapy is
complete under certain circumstances. Note that such use may confound
interpretation of the bone marrow. Patient should be off G-CSF for a
minimum of 7 days before obtaining bone marrow to document
remission.
3. Blood products:
Leukocyte-depleted products used for transfusion
Irradiated blood products for patients receiving immunosuppressive
therapy (fludarabine, HSCT).
Transfusion thresholds-- RBCs for Hgb 8 g/dL or symptoms of anemia;
platelets for patients with platelets < 10,000/mcL or with
any signs of bleeding.
CMV screening for potential HSCT candidates may be considered.
4. Tumor lysis prophylaxis: hydration with diuresis, and urine
alkalinization and allopurinol.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
111
5. Clinical evidence of tumor lysis syndrome and problematic or inability
to tolerate oral medication: consider rasburicase.
6. Saline or steroid eye drops to both eyes daily for all patients
undergoing high-dose cytarabine therapy until 24 h post completion
of cytarabine.
7. Patients in remission may be screened by LP, if initial WBC >
100,000/mcL or monocytic histology.
8. Patients receiving high dose cytarabine therapy (particularly those
with impaired renal function or patients > 60 years), are at risk
for cerebellar toxicity. Neurologic assessments including tests for
nystagmus, slurred speech, and dysmetria should be performed
before each dose of cytarabine.
In patients exhibiting rapidly rising creatinine due to tumor lysis or who
develop cerebellar toxicity, high-dose cytarabine should
be discontinued.
Patients with abnormal assessments must have a cytarabine dose
reduction and should not receive high-dose cytarabine as
part of any subsequent therapy. (Smith GA, Damon LE, Rugo HS, et al.
High-dose cytarabine dose modification reduces the incidence of
neurotoxicity in patients with renal insufficiency.
In APL, If there is a high index of suspicion of APL differentiation
syndrome (fever, increasing WBC > 10,000/mcL, shortness of breath,
hypoxemia, pleural or pericardial effusions), close monitoring of
pulmonary status is indicated, as is monitoring for fluid overload. If the
patient develops pulmonary infiltrates or hypoxemia, initiate
dexamethasone for 15 days (10 mg BID for 3-5 days with a taper) and
consider interrupting ATRA therapy until hypoxemia resolves.
Patients with relapsed APL or with hyperleukocytosis after ATRA may
be at increased risk of CNS disease.
Prophylactic intrathecal therapy (IT) is being evaluated in this group.
Management of clinical coagulopathy and overt bleeding: Aggressive
platelet transfusion support to maintain platelets 50,000/mcL, and fresh
frozen plasma to replace clotting factors.
Leukapheresis is not recommended in the routine management of
patients with a high WBC count in APL because of the difference in
leukemia biology; however, in life threatening cases with leukostasis that
is not responsive to other modalities, leukapheresis can be considered
with caution.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
112
Complication of Treatment
After the induction treatment, the patients remain granulocytopenic for
at least 15-20 days and are susceptible to bacterial and fungal infections.
The disturbance of coagulation and the thrombocytopenia predispose the
patient to bleeding and need support with platelet concentrates and
other blood products. It was shown that myeloid growth factors
(granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) or granulocyte-
macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) given after
chemotherapy shorten the period of neutropenia, especially in older
patients, without decreasing the rate of complete remissions. Because
the use of myeloid growth factors in AML does not improve the overall
prognosis, however a selective approach should be taken, giving growth
factors to older patients with a high risk of neutropenia-related infection.
Table 12.3: Empiric treatment of fever of unknown origin in
a neutropenic patient
A.Combination treatment
Broad-spectrum penicillin+aminoglycoside
Broad-spectrum cephalosporine + aminoglycoside
Broad-spectrum penicillin + broad spectrum cephalosporine
B.Single-agent treatment
Carbamapenem
Cefapim
Ceftazidium
Piperacillin/tazobactam
C.Modification if fever does not resolve within 72-96 h
Addition of aminoglycoside, glycopeptide, fluconazole,
amphotericin
For example, according to the clinical and microbial situation
D.Early antimycotic treatment if pulmonary infiltrate is present
Amphotrecin B
Table 12.4: Antiemetic regimen for chemotherapy in leukemias
and lymphomas
Regimen Dose
A.Ondansertron +
Dexamethasone
B.Ondansertron
C.Metoclopramide +-
Dexamethasone
2X8 mg i.v-
10 mg i.v
2X mg i.v-
3X8 mg/kg#
10 mg i.v
- First dose 1 h before chemotherapy, second and third dose after 4 and
8 h, intravenously or oral.
# First dose 1 h before chemotherapy, second and third dose after 2 and
4 h i.v
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Treatment of Relapsed or Refractory AML
In relapsed AML, a reduction treatment with the original protocol can be
considered if the duration of the first remission is more than 6 moths. In
other cases and in primary refractory AML, second line protocols that
incorporate high-dose cytosine-arabinoside, anthracycline, and other
drugs are recommended. A second complete remission can be achieved
in 30-50% of patients with these protocols. If an allogenic donor has been
found, the patients should be referred for BMT without delay.
Treatment of APL (M3)
Earlier studies showed that even refractory cases of APL obtained
complete remission with oral all-trans-retinoic acid. The treatment of
APL is the first example for a differentiation treatment of a human
cancer. At present the optimal treatment for patients with APL is to
combine retinoids with induction chemotherapy.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a technique in which antibodies are used to treat cancer.
It has been used both in an attempt to increase the patients own immunity
to the leukemic cells sepecifically and to increase the patients immunity
non-specifically to provide an antileukemic effect
Bone Marrow Transplantation
The mechanism which marrow transplantation provides an effective
defence against leukemic is not well understood. To provide for
transplantation, total body irradiation of 1000 rad and intensive
cyclophosphamide therapy are given to destroy any residual leukemic
cells.
Candidates for transplanation must be in good clinical condition and in the
first clinical remission for the greatest chance of success.
Treatment of Secondary Leukemias
Patients with secondary leukemias have a low chance of obtainig a
complete remission with current chemotherapy protocols. Therefore,
these patients should undergo allogeneic BMT early if they have a
histocompatibile donor. The transplantation may be done without
further chemotherapy or after one cycle of chemotherapy for
cytoreduction to decrease the risk of relapse after transplantation.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
114
AML M1
AML M2
PLL M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M0
Figure 12.3: Subtype of acute myeloblastic leukemia
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
115
ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC
LEUKEMIA (ALL)
ALL is malignant disease of the lymphopoietic system that is manifested by
the slow but uncontrolled growth of abnormal, poorly differentiated
lymphoid cells whose DNA synthesis time is significantly longer than in
normal tissue.
ALL is a primary disease of young children (peak 2-5 years). The malignant
lymphocytes replace normal hematopoietic tissue in the bone marrow,
spleen, liver and other organs.
The predominant cell in the bone marrow and peripheral blood can be
identified as a lymphoblast.
Etiology
Unknown, but more common in patients with:
Immuno-deficiency
Genetic factor: Chromosomal anomalies (Down syndrome), Turner,
Klinflter
Ataxia telangiectasia, Schwachmann syndrome, Trisome9, 13, 21 and
monosome 7.
Leukemia in congenital disease is characterise by increased proliferation of
blast cells, hyperleukocytosis and extramedullary infiltration (skin, lung)
Ionizing radiation
Exposure to electromagnetic field
Chemicals: alkaliting agents
Infections: EBV
Pathophysiology
The mutation of a single lymphoid stem cell is giving rise to a clone of
malignant lymphocytes. These lymphoid cells retain the ability to
proliferate in an unregulated manner but appear to be frozen in their
maturation sequence.
Classification
Morphological Classification (FAB)
ALL is divided in FAB L1 (children), L2 (older children and adult), and L3
(patients with leukemia secondary to Burkitt's lymphoma.These types are
defined according to two criteria (1) the occurrence of individual cytologic
features and (2) the degree of heterogeneity among the leukemic cells.
These features considered are cell size, chromatin, nuclear shape, nucleoli,
and degree of basophilia in the cytoplasm and the presence of cytoplasmic
vacuolation.
L1: HOMOGENOUS (Small cell): One population of cells within the case.
Small cells predominant, nuclear shape is regular with occasional cleft.
Nuclear contents are rarely visible. Cytoplasm is moderately basophilic.
Best prognosis. L1 is accounts 70% of patients. The L1 type is the acute
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
116
leukemia that is common in childhood, with 74% of these cases occurring in
children 15 years of age or younger.
L2: HETEROGENOUS (Large cell): Large cells with an irregular nuclear
shape, cleft in the nucleus are common. One or more large nucleoli are
visible. Cytoplasm varies in colour and nuclear membrane irregularities. L2
accounts 27% of ALL patients. The FAB-L2 blast may be confused with the
blasts of acute myeloid leukemia. Approximately 66% of these cases of ALL
in patients older than 15 years are of type 2
L3: BURKITT'S LYMPHOMA TYPE: Cells are large and homogenous in
size, nuclear shape is round or oval. One to three prominent nucleoli and
some times to 5 nuleoli are visible. Cytoplasm is deeply basophilic with
vacuoles often prominent.
Patients with L3 leukemia generally have a poor prognosis because their
disease responds poorly to chemotherapy.
By immunologic markers, these are B-cell malignancies. A high mitotic
index is characteristic patients with L3 leukemias generally have a poor
prognosis because their disease responds poorly to chemotherapy.
Immunological Classification
This classificationbased on cell membrane markers:
1. T-ALL: Cells reacts with monoclonal antibodies against T-cell antigen
(CD3, CD5 and CD2. About 50% of these patients have a mediastinal
(thimic) mass
2. B cell: Cell reacts with anti-Ig reagent. And TdT is negative.
B-ALL usually corresponds to the morphological L3 type whereas the
CD10+, null, pre-B or T types may all be L1 or L2 and are morphologically
indistinguishable.
Burkitts cell leukemia is positive for HLA-DR, CD9, CD22 and CD24
3. Pre-B cells ALL: These cells are characterized by the presence of HLA-
DR, TdT, CD19, CD20 and CD24. CD10 (CALA) may be present.
4. Common-ALL (Pro-B precursor): The leukemic cells in this group are
characterized by the presence of HLA-DR, CD10, CD19, CD24 and some
time CD20. A polyclonal antibody to what is known as common acute
lymphoblastic antigen (CALA), CD10 was produced by immunization or
rabbits with sIg and erythrocyte-rosette-negative ALL cells. CD10 is present
on the leukemic cells of 70% of patients with ALL. This type accounts for
approximately 85% of childhood and 75% of adult ALL. Common ALL has
the highest remission rate and the longest initial remission with
chemotherapy.
Clinical Features
Symptoms: Fatigue, fever (infection), headache, nausea, vomiting.
Bone and joint pain related to the replacement of normal hematopoietic
elements.
Pain in the extremities is produced by an infiltration of leukemic cells into
the tissues.
Physical Examination
Pallor
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117
Evidence of hemorrhage, petechiae and also GI bleeding and hematuria.
Lymphadenopathy and hepatomegaly in 75% of patients.
Leukemic meningitis and cranial nerve palsies, headache and blurred of
vision (due to nerve infiltration by leukemic blasts are quite common).
Nephropathy may be present (Lysis leukocytes after therapy).
Laboratory Findings
Leukocytosis is common in 75% of patients and leukocytopenia in 25%
Peripheral blood smear: Blast cells in 50% of patients. The peripheral blood
composed of 100% Lymphoblasts, Lymphocytes, and smudge cells.
Anemia is common due to:
- Decreased RBC production
- Blood loss
- Severe thrombocytopenia
Bone Marrow
BM is almost always hypercellular and heavily infiltrated with or even
replaced by lymphoid cells. Fibrosis is present in 10-15%. More than 30%
are lymphoblast. Auer rods are not present in lymphoblasts.
Cytochemistry
Peroxidase and Sudan black B stains are negative. PAS is Positive (coarse
granular)
Acid phosphatase is positive in T-cell ALL
Chest x-ray to demonstrate mediastinal masses if present.
Bone X-ray (Skletel survey) to detect involvement of bones
CSF examination is used for the detection of early CNS invasion.
Renal function and serum uric acid should be estimated before start of
treatment.
A serous complication in ALL is infection and it is the primary cause of
death in ALL. The incidence of infection is directly related to the degree of
granulocytopenia.
Table 12.5: Markers useful for subclassification of ALL
Surface marker, protein on the cell membrane that can be detected with
immunologic methods:
Type TdT CALLA CD7 CD19 HLA-DR sIg Morphology
Common ALL + + 0 + + 0 L1/L2
Pre B- ALL + + 0 + + 0 L1/L2
B cell ALL 0 0 0 + + + L3
T cell ALL + 0 + 0 0 0 L1/L2
TdT - Terminal deoxynuceotidyl transferase
CALLA - common ALL antigen
sIg - surface immunoglobulin
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
118
Figure 12. 4: Immature lymphoblast cells with larger nuclei that contain
nucleoli . such lymphoblasts are indicative of acute lymphocytic leukemia
(ALL)
Molecular Biology of ALL
The earliest event in ALL is the transformation and clonal proliferation of a
lymphoid stem cell.
With sensitive cytogenetic analysis, most cases of ALL have cytogenetic
aberrevation (e.g translocations, deletions, inversions), some of which are
prognostically relevant.
Among B-lineage AL t(14;18) is pathognomonic for the surface
immunoglobulin positive B-ALL with L3 morphology (This is considered
to be the leukemic form of Burkitts lymphoma).
In B-ALL, the c-myc proto-oncogene is juxtaposed with immunoglobulin
loci (IgH, IgK, or IgL), thereby expressing a dysregulated c-myc protein. In
B-precursor ALL, several cytogenetic lesions are known. The t(1;19) fuses
the E2A and PBX-I genes and produces a fusion protein that activates
transcriptation through the e2a transactivation domain.
About 2-5% of children and up to 20% of adult causes with ALL have the
Philadelphia chromosome (ph
1
, t9; 22). Some B-precursor ALL, have
abnormalities of the long arm of chromosome 11 (11q23). In these cases the
MLL gene is rearranged. In some cases of ALL, the tumor suppressor genes
p15 and p16 are homogenously detected. In T-lineage ALL, a number of
chromosomeal aberrations are also found. Examples are t (1;14), t (11;14)
and t(7;9)
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119
Detection of Minimal Residual Disease in Acute Leukemia
Relapse of leukemia following successful remission-induction therapy
remains a major obstacle in the treatment of patients with acute
leukemia.
Leukemia recurs most frequently in patients with acute myeloblastic
leukemia (AML) and high risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
following chemotherapy and less often in patients with low risk ALL
and particularly in patient groups submitted to allogenic marrow
transplantation. It is likely that the great majority of these recurrences
originate from residual leukemic cells that survive initial remission
chemotherapy.
Today, several research groups throughout the world place emphasis on
studies concerned with the detection and treatment of minimal residual
disease MRD. These investigations are conducted with the common
objective to tackle the remaining cells.
The potential application of MRD studies in the clinical management of
acute leukemia include early identification of patients at higher risk of
relapse and detection of impending clinical relapse which include: (1)
Measurement of early response to treatment during remission-induction
(2) Identification of patients at a higher risk of relapse at the end of
remission-induction early continuation (3) Detection of impending
relapse and identification of leukemic cells in extramedullary sites
throughout treatment. (4) Detection of contaminating leukemic cells
before autologous stem cell (5) evaluation of the efficacy of purging
techniques before autologous stem cell graft (6) Provide a powerful tool
for assessing bone marrow or peripheral blood that has been harvested
for autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and (7) May serve
to unequivocally demonstrate leukemic involvement of the central
nervous system.
Monitoring of MRD in patients could provide useful information on the
biology of acute leukemia and its responsiveness to treatment. MRD
measurements could be used as endpoints to rapidly compare the
effectiveness of different chemotherapeutic regimens.
Numerous methods of monitoring MRD in acute leukemia have been
developed. Leukemic cells can be distinguished from normal
hematopietic cells on the basis of chromosomal or molecular
abnormalities, antigen receptor gene rearrangements and
immunophenotype.
To monitor residual disease, it is essential to have detailed information
about the immunophenotypic features of the patients leukemic cells at
the time of dignosis. These dictate the selection of the appropriate
markers. If the, immunophenotype were no known. One would have to
apply the full range of potantially useful markers, an expensive and time
consuming option that might still fail to identify residual disease.
The proportion of cases that can currently be monitored for MRD by
flow cytometry varies from laboratory to laboratory. Factors that
influence this variability include the number of markers tested; the
inclusion of bone marrow sample, regenerating after chemotherapy to
define the normal range, and the stringency with which the laboratory
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
120
defines leukemic associated immunophenotypes. Studies with PCRnow
also attempt to quantify the number of leukemic cells expressing
leukemia-associated transcripts.
Criteria of Complete Remission
Complete remission in clinicopathologic term includes an absolute
neutrophil count of at least >1000/L, a platelet count >100,000/L,
absence of circulating blasts, and bone marrow cellularity >20%, with
evidence of progressive maturation of all lineages and <5% blast. The
recommended criteria for the absolute neutrophil count varies from
>1000/L in different institutions. Detection of early relapse, like the
detection of residual leukemia, is sometimes problematic. All the criteria
and techniques will be described for the detection of residual disease
could be used for the diagnosis of early relapse. In general, characteristic
of the leukemic blast cells. However, in a small proportion of cases,
changes in FAB subtype may occur. Morphologic switches between M0,
M1 and M2 and between M4 and M5 are more frequent than other types
of AML in relapse. Morphological changes in ALL in relapse are usually
between L1 and L2, though rare cases of L1 have been reported
switching to L3 in relapse. Relapse may also be associated with a change
in the pattern of antigenic expression or cytogenitic findings. For
example, loss or gain of CD10, TdT or HLA-DR has been described in the
blast cells of relapse leukemia patients. Changes in karyotype may occur
in a significant proportion of the relapsed acute leukemias.
High Risk Factors in ALL
1. Age (L2 and L3 in children) >35 years in adults
2. TLC > 30000 /l
3. Medistinal mass or lymphadenopathy
4. Immunophenotyping:
Unclassified non-B non T
Mixed lineage leukemia
5. Cytogenetic:
Translocation
Hypodiploidy
6. More than 4 weeks to complete remission.
Treatment of Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Before the initiation of therapy, any physiologic imbalance is usually
corrected. For example, correction of anemia and thrombocytopenia is
accomplished by transfusion of packed red cells and platelets, antibiotic
treatment is instituted for infection and intravenous supplements may be
given to restore adequate hydration. Any of these measures may cause
changes in cell amounts and cellular morphology.
The treatment is based on risk factors and is conducted through the
following phases
In table 12. 6:
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
121
Table 12.6: ALL Chemotherapy
1. Remission induction including
A). Prephase: With one or two weeks of vincristine (1.4 mg/m
2
BSA) and
prednisone 60 mg/m
2
po depending on the general condition of the
patient.
This is followed by induction phase
B). Induction Phase: 4 Weeks
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv days 1, 8, 15, 22
Daunorubicin 30 mg/m
2
iv day 1, 8, and 22
Prednisone 60 mg/m
2
po on day 1-28
L-asparagenase 6000 m/m
2
sc starting on day 1 of induction phase.
CNS-prophylaxis: Cranial irradiation (24Gy)
Methotrexate intrathecal, 15 mg twice weekly for a total of 5 injections.
And Hydrocortisone, cytosine arabinoside (Table 12.7)
During the cranial irradiation, the following drugs are to be given:
Cyclophosphamide (750 mg/m
2
iv on day 1 and 15.
6-mercaptopurine 50 mg/m
2
po on days 15-22
2. Early Intensification
This is given to patients of high-risk group. It includes 4 drugs given over a
period of 4 weeks.
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv on day 1, 8, 15, 22
Daunorubicin 30 mg/m
2
iv on day 1, 8, 22
Prednisone 60 mg/m
2
po on day 1-28
L-asparaginase 6000 m/m
2
s.c every other day for a total of 10 injections.
3. Consolidation: It consists of two cycles:
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv on day 1
AraC 75 mg/m
2
s.c /12hurs on days 1, 2, 3
Cyclophosphamide 750 mg/m
2
iv on day 1
6-mercaptopurine 50 mg/m
2
po on days 1-7
Maintenance Therapy
1. Low Risk Group
6-mercaptopurine 100 mg/m
2
po daily
methotrexate 20 mg/m
2
im weekly
The maintenance therapy is interrupted every 3 months for week to give:
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Daunorubicin 30 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Maintenance therapy continued for at least 30 months.
2. High Risk Group
Allogenic or autologous Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) or
maintenance therapy with the same regimen of low risk for patients who
are not candidate for BMT.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
122
Table 12.7: Intrathecal chemotherapy
Drugs Dose mg/m
2
Methotrexate
Hydrocortisone
Cytosine arabinoside
15
15
30
SCHEDULE:
Induction: q.wkX4; Maintenance: q.8wk
1.One year in low-risk patients and to completion of systemic therapy
in high risk patients
2.Includes cranio-spinal irradiation in patients with CNS disease at
onset or relapse
Bone Marrow Transplantation
The role of bone marrow transplantation in the treatment of ALL in
refractory or in high-risk categories is still not established. Bone marrow
transplantation should be considered in all patients who relapse and
achieve a second remission, because response rate are high in ALL.
Recently, stem cells harvested from peripheral blood have been used in
place of marrow.
(A) Acute lymphoblastic
leukemia (ALL-L2)
(B) ALL-L3
Figure 12.5: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (A) ALL-L2 and (B) ALL-L3
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
123
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The total blast cell count in the bone marrow is important when
characterizing the acute non-lymphocytic leukemia, and must be at least.
a. 40% of the total nucleated cells in the marrow
b. 40% of the total white cell in the marrow
c. 30% of the total nucleated cells in the marrow
d. 30% of the erythroid cells in the marrow
2. The technique(s) used to classify the acute nonlymphocytic leukemia
is/are?
a. Immunologic
b. Morphologic
c. Cytochemical
d. All of the above
3. All of the following stains are used to identify the acute
nonlymphocytic leukemias except:
a. Peroxidase
b. o-naphthyl butrate
c. Sudan black stain
d. TDT
4. Auer rods may be found in all of the following classification of acute
nonlymphocytic leukemia except:
a. M0
b. M1
c. M2
d. M3
5. A cytogenetic abnormality is found in almost 50% of patients with which
of the following classification of acute nonlymphocytic leukemia?
a. M2
b. M3
c. M5
d. M6
6. Which of the following laboratory findings would be least expected in
a patient with acute leukemia at the time of presentation.
a. Anemia
b. Neutropenia
c. Eosinophilia
d. Leukocytosis
e. Thrombocytosis
7. Which of the following factors would adversely affect the ability to
achieve a complete remission in an adult patient with ALL?
a. High white cell count at diagnosis
b. Presence of meningeal leukemia at diagnosis
c. Presence of infection at diagnosis
d. Presence of T-cell marker on lymphocyte
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
124
8. Which of the following FAB subgroups of AML would be expected to
be characterized by intense nonspecific esterase activity in the
cytoplasm?
a. M1
b. M2 and M6
c. M4 and M5
d. All of the above
9. Which of the following would be expected in acute monocytic
leukemia (AmoL), but would occur infrequently in AML?
a. Splenomegaly
b. Hepatomegaly
c. Gangival hypertrophy
d. Sternal tenderness
10. Which of the following statements about the FAB classification of
ALL is uncorrect?
a. It is divided into four subgroups, L1, L2, L3, L4
b. The L1 form is the common type of childhood leukemia
c. The L3 form is morphologically identical to Burkitts leukemia
d. The L2 blasts may be confused with the blasts of acute myeloid leukemia
11. The primary cause of death in patients with ALL is :
a. Strokes
b. Infection
c. Bleeding
d. Liver failure
12. The major morphologic distinction between ALL and a reactive
lymphocytosis such as infections mononucleosis (IM) is the:
a. Difference in size of the blasts
b. Difference in nuclear: Cytoplasmic ratio of the abnormal cells.
c. Pleomorphic morphology among reactive lymphocytes in IM
d. Morphologic evidence that red cells are being destroyed in IM
13. In the FAB classification of leukemias based on morphology, what
percentage of cells may appear different from the proposed cell type of a
specific classification?
a. 1%
b. 5%
c. 10%
d. 20%
14. The diagnosis of ALL in the adult must rule out:
a. Leukemic lymphoma
b. Blast transformation of CLL
c. Acute myeloid leukemia
d. All of the above
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
125
15. The FAB classification type of acute lymphoblastic leukemia seen
most commonly in children:
a. L0
b. L1
c. L2
d. L3
16. TdT activity is present in
a. Mature B cells
b. Macrophages
c. Myeloid cells
d. Pimitive lymphoid cells
17. The lymphoblastic leukemia antigen found in 70% of patients with
ALL is designated as CD:
a. 2
b. 10
c. 19
d. 22
18. The karyotype abnormality that carries a relatively
good prognosis:
a. t(8;14)
b. t(9;22)
c. Philadelphia ch
d. Hyperploidy
19. Accuracy to the FAB classification of acute
myelocytic leukemia, which of the following
would correspond to erythroleukemia or
DiGuglielmo syndrome?
a. M1
b. M3
c. M6
d. M6
20. Which of the following would be least
suggestive of meningeal leukemia?
a. Unexplained tachycardia
b. Isolated cranial nerve palsy
c. Severe persistent headache
d. Blurred vision
Answers
1. C
2. D
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. E
7. C
8. C
9. C
10. A
11. B
12. C
13. C
14. D
15. B
16. D
17. B
18. D
19. C
20. A
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
126
CHRONIC
MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS
13
Chronic myeloproliferative disorders are neoplastic diseases of bone
marrow, which affect one or more of hemopoietic elements. CMPDs
usually are found in patients in their fifth and sixth decades.
Cells involved in the CMPDs include mature and immature granulocytes
and platelets.
1. Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
2. Polycythemia Vera
3. Idiopathic myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia
4. Essential thrombocythemia
Pathophysiology:
- Increased proliferation and myelofibrosis
- Panhyperplasia of hemopoietic cells in the BM
- Extramedullary hematopoiesis (myeloid metaplasia of liver and spleen)
This inturn lead to transformation of this syndrome to acute leukemia,
myelofibrosis and myeloid metaplasia.
Table 13.1 Differential diagnosis of myeloproliferative disorders
CML PV IMF ET
Age
Sex
Cell affected
Peripheral blood:
RBC (X10
12
/l)
WBC (X10
9
/l
Platlets(X10
9
/l
>30
M>F
Granulocyt
<5.5
>30
N-Increase
>50
M>F
Erythrocyte
6.5
<50
N-Increase
>50
M>F
Fibroblast
<5.6
<50
N-Increase
>50
M>F
Platelets
<5.5 N
<50 N
>600
Bone marrow
Myelopoiesis
Erythropoiesis
Megakaryopoies
is
Splenomegally
Myelofibrosis
Philadelphia
ANP
Increase
+++
N-Decrease
N-Increase
++
+/-
+
Decrease
Increase++
Increase+++
Increase++
+/-
+/-
-
Increase
I-N-D
I-N-D
I-N-D
+++
+++
-
N-I
Increase++
I-N
Increase ++
+/-
+/-
-
N-I
I= increase, D= decrease and N= normal
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
127
CHRONIC GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA
(Chronic myelocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, and chronic
myelogenous leukemia are synonyms for chronic granulocytic leukemia)
CML is a disease predominantly of middle life. In more than 90% of
patients there are bone marrow abnormalities of the chromosome
(Philadelphia chromosome-Ph
1
). It is a reciprocal translocation between
parts of the long arms (q) of chromosome 22-G-group and C-group-
chromosome 9 in nearly all instances. The resulting fusion gene (BCR-ABC)
produces an altered protein believed to plat a key role in the development
of CML (figure 13.1).
Etiology
Remain obscure
Epidemiological factors
1. Exposure to ionizing e.g radiologist, and in atomic bomb explosion
2. Chronic exposure to benzene
Clinical Feature
Age 50-60 years and is possible in children.
Onset insidious
Hypermetabolic alteration: loss of weight, night sweats, loss of appetite.
Splenomegaly in most patients is gross (Huge) with pain in abdomen and
under left costal margin. Splenic infarction with severe pain is common.
Anemia symptoms: Pallor, dyspnoea and tachycardia.
Hemorrahage manifestations: Easy bruising, nose bleeding, menorrhagia
and hematomas.
Others: Gout, visual disturbance, neurological abnormalities e.g priapism
(due to obstruction to blood flow in the corpus cavernosum.
Blood Picture
Anemia is moderate with Hb 8-10 g/dl. As disease progress, the anemia
becomes more severe. RBC is usually normocytic and normochromic and
a small proportion of erythroblasts are occasionally present.
Leukocytes: Leukocytosis up to 500,000/L or more. Segmented neutrophil
and myelocyte constitutes the majority of cells. Neutrophil varies in size,
giant and dwarf forms being common. Myelocytes are the characteristic
cells and comprise 10-50% of the white cells. The vast majority are
neutrophilic, although a few are eosinophilic and basophilic.
Myeloblast comprises up to 10%, but can rapidly increase in proportion
when Blast cells occur. An increase in the proportion of basophils (2-10%) is
a characteristic feature and can increase further as the disorder progresses
towards transformation to acute leukemia.
The serum vitamin B12 and unsaturated vitamin B12 binding capacity are
frequently increased. Uric acid is elevated. The level of serum LDH is
considerably elevated in CGL
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
128
Cytochemistry
Alkaline Neutrophilic phosphatase
The absence or diminution of alkaline phosphatase in the granulocytes is
characteristic but not diagnostic in CML.
Normal activity is about 10-90 %
Decreased or absent in CML (0-6%), congenital hypophosphatase,
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, sideranemia and rheumatic disease.
Increased activity in: Osteomyelosclerosis, Polycythemia Vera, acute
leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, pernicious anemia, multiple myeloma,
sepsis and carcinoma. Essential thrombocythemia, leukomoid reaction,
sarcoidosis, and fever secondary to infection.
Table 13. 2. Stages of chronic myeloid leukemia
A. Chronic phase
Blood
GP: Pathological shift to left
Pseudopelger
Eosinophil increased
Basophil increased
EP: Normoblast occur and
anisocytosis
Thp;Platelet mostly increased
anisocytosis.mmature platelets
present
Bone marrow
GP: Hyperplasia
shift to left
Eosinophil increased
Basophil increased
EP: Decreased (absolute or relative)
Thp: Megakaryocytes most
increased,
with abnormal form
B. Accelerated phase
Gp: Pathological shift to left
with blast <20%
Basophils increased <30%
Ep: Normoblasts
anisocytosis, polychromasia
Thp: Platelets normal or decreased
with anisocytosis
Gp:P pathological shift to
left with blast 15-29%
Basophils increased
Ep: Decreased
Thp: Normal or decreased
C. Acute phase (Blast crises)
Gp: Blast cells increased
Ep: Anisocytos. polychromasia
Normoblast
Thp Decreased or absent
with anisocytosis
Gp:Blast cells increased >30%
Ep: Decreased
Thp: Decreased
NB: in most cases, the blast cells are myeloid in type, but in 20-30% the blast cells
are lymphoblastic cells.
WHO criteria of accelerated phase CML include at least on of the following:
10%-19 % blasts in peripheral blood or bone marrow, 20% peripheral basophils,
thrombocytopenia < 100,000ul, lack response to therapy, increase spleen size and
increasing WBC unresponsive to therapy, and evidence of clonal evolution.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
129
Figure 13.1: (right ) chronic Myeloid leukemia ,
(left) philadelphia chromosome (ph)
Bone Marrow
Marrow aspiration yields hypercellularity fragments. The cell trails are
hypercellular. The cells are mainly of the myeloid series, the myelocyte
being the predominant cell, although promyelocytes and myeloblasts are
also increased. There is shift to left
Erythropoiesis: is normoblastic, but sometimes dyserythrocytic.
Myeloid: Erythroid ratio (M:E) is increased due to white cell hyperplasia
and in the later stages there may be an actual reduction in erythropoietic
tissue.
Megakaryocytes: Are often prominent and are usually smaller than normal.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
130
Chromosome Finding
Cytogenetic studies of bone marrow and peripheral blood cells showed
that, the Philadelphia chromosome is characteristically associated with the
neoplastic cells in CML.
The Philadelphia chromosome usually cannot be detected in the peripheral
blood when the immature cells have disappeared, but it persist in the bone
marrow cells. 92% of ph
1
-positive patients have the typical t(9;22), the
remainder have variant translocations. Ph
1
-negative CML represents a
heterogenous group of myeloproliferative or MDS and perhaps should not
be called CML.
75%-80% of patients in a blast crisis of CML develop other chromosome
aberrations in addition to the ph
1
chromosome. The most common
abnormalities are a duplication of the ph
1
chromosome and trisomy 8.
Treatment of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia
Special additional work up is required in CML including; cytogenetic for
Philadelphia chromosome and other abnormalities, serum vitamin B12 and
serum calcium. It is also important to determine the type of crisis
(lymphoid or myeloid) by peroxidase and PAS .
Classical Treatment of CML
A) Hydroxyuria: it is the drug available in poor world it is inhibiting the
DNA synthesis. Start therapy with 2 g/day (40 mg/kg) and continue
therapy for 1-4 weeks. Stop the drug when the TLC is in normal level.
B) Gleevec : Imatinib is a targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which
antagonizes the activity of the ABL tyrosine kinase, as well as c-kit and
platelet derived growth factor alpha and beta.
Increased risk of progression to accelerated and blast phase has been
demonstrated if imatinib does not help patients achieve specific clinical
goals. These include :
1) 3 months complete haematological response with normal peripheral
counts and >1 log reduction in BCR-ABL
(2) 6 months: cytogenetic response with <35% ph chromosome positive
bone marrow cell.
(3). 12 months: complete cytogenetic response with undetectable ph
chromosome
(4) 18 months: major molecular remission with a log reduction by a qPCR
of peripheral BCR-ABL.
Follow-up during initial treatment requires CBC monthly, peripheral BCR-
ABL qPCR every 3 months, and bone marrow biopsy every 6 months until
major molecular remission is achieved. Once molecular remission is
documented , BCR-ABL transcripts shuld still be followed every 3 months,
with an annual bone marrow exam for cytogenetics.
Resistance to imatinib has been noted in 2%-4% of patients annually for the
first 3 years of imatinib therapy and may decrease thereafter.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
131
Imatinib resistance can be overcome with either increasing doses or a
second-line tyrosine kinase inhibitor such as dasitinib.
Imatinib has been shown to improve survival in accelerated phase at higher
doses (600 to 800 mg), but response are often short-lived.
(c). Allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplant from either related or
unrelated donors remain the only known curative therapy for CML.
Transplantation from a matched sibling donor during chronic phase is
associated with a 10-year survival of 50% to 70%
Allopurinol is usually given before therapy, coupled with adequate
hydration to ameliorate the hyperurecemia caused by the rapid turnover
and destruction of granulocytes by chemotherapy.
The patient in the accelerated phase during hydroxyurea treatment is given
busulfan 2 mg po daily, 6-mercaptopurine 300 mg po daily and allopurinol
300 mg po daily.
The treatment of patient (non-gleevec) in acute blastic crisis varies accord-
ingly to the type of crisis
(a) LYMPHOBLASTIC TYPE: Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
/day
Prednisone 40 mg/m
2
po daily 1-4
(b) MYELOID TYPE: Low dose Ara-C 10 mg/m
2
12hours sc day 1-14
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
132
POLYCYTHEMIA RUBRA VERA
Polycythemia rubra vera is a myeloproliferative disease in which there is
autonomously increased activity of erythropoiesis with varying degrees of
granulopoietic and megakariopoietic proliferation.
Clinical Features
1. Plethoric appearance affecting the face, neck, hands and feet.
The skin shows characteristic bluish red flush-ruber. A common
complaint is intense itching specially after hot water baths.
2. Symptoms of low circulation
(a) Neurological: Headache, dizziness, vertigo, visual disturbance,
paraesthesia.
(b) Gastrointestinal: Constipation, symptoms of peptic ulcer and may be
bleeding.
(c) Cardiac: Dyspnea, palpitation, angina and even heart failure. The
systolic pressure is elevated.
3. Symptoms of increased metabolism: sweating, weight loss.
4. Bleeding tendency due to thrombocytosis; epistaxis, bleeding gums and
ecchymosis.
5. Spleen is enlarged in 75% of cases.
6. Liver is enlarged in 50%
7. Complications: Thrombosis, Gout, and Peptic ulcer, CML,
Myelosclerosis.
Laboratory Findings
1. Increased of RBC, Hemoglobin Hematocrit and blood viscosity. RBCs
show microcytic, hypochromic with anisoctosis and poikilocytosis,
reflecting exhaustion of iron stores due to increased haemoglobin synthesis.
2. Leukocyte counts can go as high as 40 to 50X10
9
/L. Occasionally, a slight
shift with a few metamyelocytes is seen. Basophil numbers frequently are
elevated.
3. Increased platelet count above 500000/L. A moderate number of
abnormal platelet forms may be present. Abnormal platelet aggregation
and adhesiveness, as well as decreased level of platelet forms (PF3) are
frequently seen.
4. Reduced ESR is usual.
5. Bone marrow hypercellular with panhyperplasia particularly erythroid
series. Reduced iron stores and increased reticulin. It is not diagnostic, but
biopsy is frequently performed to evaluate fibrosis and cytogenetics even
when when the diagnosis is not in question .
6. Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score (LAP) is high.
7. Biochemistry: Vitamin B12 and B12 binding proteins are elevated. Serum
erythropoietin, ferritin and folate are commonly low. Hyperurecemia is
common and LDH may be elevated due to ineffective erythropoiesis.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
133
Table 13.3 Diagnostic criteria for diagnosis of Polycythemia
JAK2 positive
Hct >52% in male
Hct > 48% in female
JAK2 negative
Major
4 major or 3 major + 2 minor
Hct > 60% (male) or >56% (female
No secondary erythrocytosis
Palbable splenomegaly
Acquired genetic abnormalities
(excluding JAK2 and BCR-ABL)
Minor
Platelets > 450X10
6
/ml
Neutrophils >10x10
6
/ml
Radiographic splenomegaly
Low serum erythrpoietin
Treatment
The aim of treatment is to keep the PCV below 55% and to reduce the
thrombocytosis to prevent thrombosis and hemorrhage.
A. Low-risk patients are < 60 years old and have no history of thrombosis,
no cardiovascular risk factors, and platelet counts<1500X10
9
/L. These
patients are managed with phelebotomy to a Hct of <45% and low-dose
aspirin . Iron deficiency via phelebotomy is a goal of treatment.
B. High-risk patients are +60 years old or have a history of a thrombotic
event, or cardiovascular risk factors, or platelet counts >1500x10
9
/L . These
patients typically require cytoreductive agents in addition to phelebotomy
and aspirin is usually held off until platelet counts are <1500x10
9
/L.
C. Treatment for intermediate risk patients must be individualized , as data
are sufficient to clearly support either a conservative (low risk) or an
aggressive (hig risk)treatment plan.
1. Venesection (phlebotomy). About 0.5 - 1 litre blood is removed weekly
until the PCV (hematocrit) reaches 45% and venesection is repeated
whenever it approaches 55%. The average maintenance is 500 ml every 2-3
months. Also restrict iron rich diet.
2. Radioactive phosphorous is effective and has the advantage of prolonged
control.
3-5 millicuries I.V and can repeated after 10 - 12 weeks if response is not
satisfactory.
3. Interferon alpha decreases both the red cell number and the frequency of
thrombo-hemorrhagic events.
4. A popular drug for the treatment of PV is hydroxyurea. Normal red
blood counts were found in more than 80% of patients studied within 12
weeks of starting hydroxyurea treatment. Hydroxyurea also appear to be
less leukomogenic; therefore, it is the therapy of choice.
5. The treatment of complications as gout, thrombosis, and hemorrhage.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
134
IDIOPATHIC MYELOFIBROSIS
Idiopathic myelofibrosis is referred to as Agnogenic Myeloid Metaplasia. It
is a chronic MPD of unknown cause, characterized by systemic bone
marrow fibrosis and extramedullary hematopoiesis.
Secondary myelofibrosis is caused by infiltrative disorders including
malignancies and infections, or exposure to chemical toxins, or irradiation.
Idiopathic myelofibrosis is uncommon.
The process of fibrosis ensues from the proliferation of fibroblasts and
increased collagen production in reaction to the abnormal clone of
hematopoietic cells. Dysmegakaryocytopoiesis leading to an
overproduction of defective platelets is the most constant features of
myelofibrosis.
IM is not associated with a specific or unique chromosomal anomaly.
Clinical Feature
It is characterized by progressive anemia; splenomegaly and fibrosis.The
hepatosplenomegaly is due to extramedullry hematopoiesis. Easy bruising,
resulting from thrombocytopenia or abnormal platelet function or both.
More than 40% of patients suffer from osteosclerosis with accompanying
bone pain and malaise.
Hematological Finding
Leukocytosis with leukoerythroblastic picture of teardropshaped
erythrocyte, an occasional nucleated erythrocytes and immature myeloid
cells is classic for myelofibrosis.
The bone marrow is hypocellular and becomes fibrotic with an associated
decrease in hematopoiesis.
Treatment
No therapy will affect the basic disease process. Asymptomatic patient
requires no treatment. Treatment for myelofibrosis can consist of periodic
transfusions of packed red blood cells, androgens, cytotoxic agents and
platelet reduction by plateletpheresis.
Administration of prophylactic antibiotics may also be considered.
Recombinant interferon alpha may be officious when used in the cellular
phase (proliferative) than when the marrow is fibrotic or osteosclerotic.
Splenectomy in some cases (e.g huge splenomegaly) . Slenic irradiation
usually controls pain and other symptoms related to splenomegaly.
Radiation is generally used for patients who are not surgical candidates.
Other drugs: thalidomide and lenilamide.
Allogenic stem cell transplantation is the only therapy that offers the chance
to eliminate marrow fibrosisand potentially cure patients.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
135
ESSENTIAL THROMBOCYTHEMIA
Essential or primary thrombocythemia (thrombocytosis) is characterized by
a marked increase in circulating platelets, usually in excess of 1000000/L.
The diagnosis of ET is difficult and relies in the exclusion of other
myeloproliferative states and non-hematological illness associated with an
increased concentration of platelets. ET affects male and female equally,
frequently among persons in the fifth and sixth decades.
Thrombotic or bleeding problems are the most commonly seen disorders in
patients with thrombocythemia.
Patients typically manifest easy bruising, nose bleeding, or gastrointestinal
bleeding.
Laboratory Finding
The classic laboratory finding in E.T is a markedly elevated peripheral
blood platelet count. The number of platelets in the circulation blood is
usually in excess of 1000000/L with a minimum of 6000000/L.
Hb decreased with hypochromic microcytic anemia. If splenic atrophy is
present, abnormal erythrocyte morphology includes target cells, H-J bodies,
nucleated erythrocytes and acanthocytes. The total concentration of WBC is
elevated in about 50% of patients. The ALP value is normal or increased,
concentration of vitamin B12 and uric acid are usually increased.
Platelet Function
In patients with thrombocythemia, the mean extent of aggregation induced
by epinephrine, collagen, or ADP is significantly lower than in normal
controls.
Bone Marrow
Morphology is similar to the architecture seen in polycythemia vera and
CML with associated extreme thrombocytosis. Increased marrow
cellularity, megakaryocytic hyperplasia is strikingly. This conspicuous
megakaryocytic proliferation is also manifest polypoid of the nuclei, giant
forms and clusters.
Treatment
The goal of treatment patients focus on maintaining platelet count
<600X10
9
/L and limiting thrombohemorrhagic risk. Thrombotic risk has
been linked to age >60 year old, prior thrombosis, and platelet count
>400x10
9
/L to 600x10
9
/L. Other risk factors that are still emerging and
being validated include elevated leukocytes, positive JAK2 V617F
mutation, and cardiovascular risk factors.
Plateletpharesis can dramatically and swiftly reduce the platelet count.
Plateletpharesis alone is not sufficient because it may stimulate
thrombopoiesis and formation of blood clot. Alkalating agents and
radioactive phosphorus (
32
P) are effective treatment.
Hydroxyuria is effective. If hydroxyuria is ineffective, Busulfan can be used
with caution.
Symptomatic like ASA, Allopurinol, cimetidine, cyprohepatidine
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
136
UESTIONS
REVIEW QUESTION
1. The best description of polycythemia vera is that it is characterized by:
a. Increased red cell mass
b. Leukopenia
c. Thrombocytopenia
d. Increased myeloblasts
2. An RBC poikilocytes that is considered to be the first sign of spent phase
of polycythemia is the
a. Dacrocyte
b. Spherocyte
c. Target cell
d. Schistcyte
3.--------are the cells most responsible for the appearance of the marrow in
agnogenic myeloid metaphase
a. Neutrophils
b. Erythrocytes
c. Lymphocytes
d. Fibrocytes
4. Hydoxyurea treatment may result in megaloblastic morphology
because hydroxyurea is an:
a. Alkylating agent that damages DNA
b. Inhibitor of DNA replication
c. Inhibitor of platelet function
d. Inhibitor of maturation
5. Which of the following laboratory abnormalities would be least likely
in a patient with PV at the time of diagnosis?
a. Leukocytosis with absolute granulocytosis
b. Normoblasts in the peripheral blood
c. Thrombocytopenia
d. Abnormal platelet function studies
6. Which criteria must be present for a diagnosis of PV that will meet the
criteria of the polycythemia vera study group?
a. Any two from category A combined with any two from category
B
b. One from category a and three from category B
c. Elevated red cell mass and normal arterial oxygen saturation
combined with any two category B criteria
d. Non of the above
7. Which of the following is induced among the category B criteria of the
polycythemia vera study group for the diagnosis of PV?
a. Thrombocytopenia
b. Leukopenia
c. Elevated serum B12 or unbound B12 binding capacity
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
137
d. Decreased leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score.
8. Which of the following would be least likely in a patient with
idiopathic myelofibrosis:
a. Tear-drop RBCs on peripheral smear
b. Erythrocytosis
c. Splelenomegaly
d. Nucleated RBCs on peripheral smear.
9. Which of the following is most helpful in differentiating
idiopathic myelofibrosis from myelofibrosis secondary to
some other process?
a. Serum protein electrophoresis
b. Serum uric acid
c. Bone marrow biopsy
d. Urinary muramidase
10. Which of the following has been most closely
associated with the development of chronic myeloid
leukemia?
a. Exposure to ionizing radiation
b. Recurrent herpes virus infection
c. Chronic active hepatitis
d. Lead toxicity
11. The following statement are correct about chronic myeloid leukemia
except
a. It is the commonest form of leukemia worldwide
b. it is associated with a median survival of <2 years
c. Often presents asymptomatically
d. It is more commonly derived from B cells than T cells
12. The following statements are correct about Polycythemia vera
except:
a. Occur more frequently in smokers
b. May present as gout
c. May transform to acute leukemia
d. Is associated with an enlarged spleen
Answ
ers
1. A
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. A
12. A
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
138
CHRONIC
LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS
CHRONIC
LYMPHOCYTIC
LEUKEMIA (CLL)
14
CLL is the proliferation and accumulation of lymphocytes (usually B
cells) that are relatively unresponsive to antigenic stimuli. CLL is a
disease predominantly of the middle and older age group with 90% of
the patients being older than 50 years of age and nearly 65% older than
60. Male are affects twice as frequently as females.
The lymphocytes in CLL are immunologically incompetent.
Clinical Features
Common Features
1. Symmetrical lymph node enlargement in most of the patients
2. Symptoms and signs of anemia
An important complication in approximately 10% of cases is acquired
hemolytic anemia. This is sometimes the first manifestation of chronic
lymphatic leukemia. It should be suspected when the degree of anemia is
in appropriately severe for the degree of lymph node and splenic
enlargement, the degree of lymphocytosis, or when spherocytes or
agglutination are present in the blood Film.
Occasional Features
3. Spleen and liver enlargement.
4. Hemorrhagic manifestation in patients with thrombocytopenia.
The causes of thrombocytopenia are like ITP. This type of
thrombocytopenia is respond to corticosteroid or splenectomy.
Impaired platelet production due to hemopoietic tissue replacement by the
diseases or from myelosuppressive effects of agents used for therapy of the
disorder. 5. Respiratory and other infections
Causesd by:
- Impaired Ig production
- Neutropenia
- Corticosteroid administration.
6. Skin infiltration
7. Tonsillar enlargement.
8. Nervous system manifestations are due to N.S. infiltration
9. Bone or Joint pain.
10. Disturbance of vision or hearing.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
139
Figure 14.1:
Chronic lymphatic leukemia
Blood Picture
Hb is normal in early stages to moderate or severely depressed values in
advanced CLL.
Anemia is usually normochromic and normocytic. When anemia is due to
hemolysis, it usually has the typical features of autoantibody-mediated red
cell destruction, with spherocytosis, a positive Coombs test, and a
reticulocytosis.
Typical Feature of CLL
Leukocytosis, with lymphocytes count is ranged from 50,000 to 200,000/L
following statement is correct about although it is occasionally greater.
Sometimes leukcytes are less than 10,000. 90% or more of the leukocytes are
mature lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are usually seen as:
(i) Small cells with densely clumped nuclear chromatin and a narrow
rim of cytoplasm (predominant)
(ii) Larger cells with lighter cytoplasm
(iii) Smear or basket cells bare lymphocyte nuclei
Neutrophils: Normal in early stage. When it become depressed as a
consequence of:
1. Replacement of normal hemopoietic by disorder.
2. Hypersplenic effects.
3. Myelosuppression by cytotoxic therapy.
Thrombocytopenia, with counts less than 50,000/L is common. ?It is a
feature of advanced stage. Serum Immunogbulin decreased in most CLL in
late stages. It may fall to 0.3 to 0.4 g/dl and patient become more
susceptible to all types of infection.
Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Usually are not necessary for making the diagnosis of CLL except in
those aleukemic or subleukemic cases with no nodal or splenic
involvement and few or no abnormal cells in the peripheral blood.
In marrow there is increase of lymphocytes and a corresponding reduction
of megakaryocytes, myeloid precursors, and erythroid precursors.
Chromosomal abnormalities are detected in more than 50% of patients with
CLL and indicate a worse prognosis. The most frequently encountered is
trisomy 12 (+ 12). Other cytogenetic abnormalities are 14q translocation.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
140
In more than 90% of the cases, CLL lymphocytes express the CD5 antigen,
which was formerly thought to be a T-cell antigen. Cells from most cases of
B-CLL also expresses CD19, CD24, CD37 and CD21 antigen. About 60% of
CLL are positive for CD23 but infrequently demonstrate positivity for
CD22
Important molecular markers include ZAP70 and IgVH gene
rearrangements
Table 14.1: The RAI staging for chronic lymphatic leukemia
Stages
Characteristics
Survival
0
I
II
III
IV
Peripheral blood lymphocytosis
>15000/L
Lymphocytosis and lymphadenopathy
Hepatomegaly or splenomegaly or both
Anemia (<11g/dl or Hct <33%)
Thrombocytopenia (platelets < 100,000/L
>150 months
100 months
71 months
19 months
19 months
Adapted from Rai KR, et al, Clinical staging of chronic Lymphocytic leukemia.
Blood 1975; 46:219
PROLYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA
This is a rare form of lymphocytic leukemia in which the circulating
lymphoid cells are larger and less mature in appearance than lymphocytes
in chronic lymphatic leukemia.
Occur more often in elderly males and associated with splenomegaly
(splenic tumour), but not particularly with lymphadenopathy.
The lymphocyte count in the peripheral blood can be greatly increased, as
high as 200,000/l and the abnormal cell population in most cases has a
surface phenotype of B cell.
The prognosis for PLL is considerably poorer than for either CLL or
HCL. The mean survival is reported to be less than 1 year.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
141
HAIRY CELL LEUKEMIA
HCL is a lymphoproliferative syndrome characterised by the presence in
the bone marrow, spleen and the peripheral blood of mononuclear with
hairy cytoplasmic projection, which can be detected by phase contrast
microscope.
Epidemiology
Incidence is 2 to 5% of leukemias. 2-3/1000000 per year
Sex: M/F 4:1, Age 40-60 years
Etiological Factors
Unknown
Ionizing, radiation and chemicals are considered as etiological factors
Clinical Pictures
Men are more often affected (4:1 to 5:1) with the median age at diagnosis
being 55 years. Virtually none younger than 20 is affected. General signs are
asthenia and general weakness
Tumoral syndromeincludes hepatosplenomegaly, bone infiltration and
peripheral adenopathy.
Complications
1.Infections: Severe respiratory tract infections, Tb, Mycosis, Toxoplasmosis
and Histoplasmosis
2. Hemorrhagic manifestation
3. Splenic rupture
Blood Picture
Pancytopenia is the most consistent laboratory observation. Anemia is
normocytic normochromic. Granulocytpenia and monocytopenia are the
most common cause of the leukopenia seen in HCL. Cytopenia result from
infiltration of the marrow with malignant cells and fibrous tissue, and the
effect is augmented by sequestration of blood cells by an enlarged spleen.
Platelet is moderately decreased.
The proportion of hairy cells varies widely, but is usually in the order of 10-
50%
Diagnosis by bone marrow aspiration is some time difficul (Dry Tap), but
trephine biopsies of bone marrow shows characteristic appearance mild
fibrous and diffuse cellular infiltrate of the hairy cells varies, but most cases
belong to the B-lymphocyte lineage.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
142
Cytochemistry
Tartrate resistance and acid phosphatase are
positive
Immunophenotyping is characteristics;
CD 25, CD 11c , CD 19, CD20 and CD103 are
positive in most cases.
Further diagnostic method is by electronic
microscope.
Treatment of Chronic Lymphoproliferative Disorders
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is classified in to 5 immunologic
subtypes, namely
1. B-cell CLL
2. B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (PLL)
3. T-cell CLL
4. T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia
5. Hairy cell leukemia
The CLL patients are staged according to Rai staging system. Most patients
are managed supportively. Asymptomatic patient and those with early
stages (0,I, II) may not be treated. 2/3 of patients respond to therapy with a
single alkylating agent such as chlorambucil which may be used (20-30
mg/m
2
orally every 2-4 weeks; or in a daily dose of 2-5 mg/m
2
until WBCs
stabilized. Patients with stage III and IV are treated with chlorambucil
combined with prednisone (20-40mg/m
2
/d) for one week every 2-3 weeks.
Prednisolone is effective in the treatment of autoimmune hemolysis or
thrombocytopenia.
Purine Nucleoside Analogus: (E.g deoxycoformycin, 2-chlorodeoxy-
adenosine, fludarabin) based on analogues of adenosine have recently
become available for the treatment of CLL and low grade lymphomas.
Fludarabine may be more effective as a single agent than
chlorambucil.Fludarabine also useful in patients resist to chlorambucil (25-
30 mg/m
2
/day i.v for 45 days) repeated each month for 3-6 months.
Alternatively, they may be given VCP regimen every 3 weeks:
Vincristine 1.4mg/m
2
iv day 1
Prednisone 600mg/m
2
orally day 1-5
Current therapies of CLL include purine analogues (fludarabine and
cladribine), monoclonal antibodies against CD20 (rituximab) and CD52
(alemtuzumab), radiation, and alkylating agents (chlorambucil and
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
143
cyclophosphamide). FCR (Rituximab 375 mg/m IV day 1, Fludarabine
25 mg/m IV days 24, Cyclophosphamide 250 mg/m IV over 1 hour
days 24 ) have shown response rate of 30% to 60% in fludarabin-
pretreated populations. Alemtuzumab is showing increasing promise as
a single or combined agent in refractory disease.
Autologous and allogenic bone marrow transplantations are being
explored as treatment options.
Other Measures
Cyclosporin: may be useful in red cell aplasia.
Immunoglobulin replacement: e.g. 250-mg/kg month by intravenous
infusion is useful for patients who have hypogammaglobulinemia and/ or
recurrent infections and a poor IgG immune response to pneumococcal
polysaccharide vaccination.
Prophylaxis against pneumocystis, hepes simplex virus, and varizella
zoster virus, as well as a monitoring for CMV reactivation should be
considered when treating CLL patients with these agents.
Prolymphocytic keukemia
Therapy: Polychemotherap (e.g CHOP)
Splenectomy is usually of benefit and Purine nucleoside may help.
Hairy cell leukemia
If the patient is asymptomatic, no therapy is needed. In the symptomatic
patients, chemotherapy has not been very effective. Aggressive therapy
with splenectomy is one method of treatment, especially in those
patients with severe cytopenias which are attributable to splenic
sequestration of cells. Hairy cell leukemia is especially problematic in
those patients who do not improve after splenectomy. Successful
treatment with interferons (IFNo) has been reported other drugs are
pentostatin and cladribine.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
144
Differential Diagnosis with Leukemia
Leukemoid Reaction
The term leukemoid reaction is used to describe the occurrence of a
peripheral blood picture resembling that of leukemia, because of marked
elevation of the total white cells count, or the presence of immature white
cells, or both. Leukemoid reactions may be either myeloid or lymphoid.
Myeloid Leukemoid Reaction
Increased of total leukocytes count > 50000/L and myelocytes and/or
myeloblasts appear in the peripheral blood.
Causes
1. Severe infections
2. Secondary to nonhematological malignancy
3. Acute hemolysis.
Clinical Feature
Features related to the causative disorder.
Laboratory Finding
Leukocytes are usually moderately increased but not exceeds 100000/l
Myelocyte 5-15% and blasts < 5%. Toxic granulation and Doehle-bodies
may be seen
Anemia may occur. Plateles are normal to increase, but reduced in leuko-
erythroblastic anemia and intravascular coagulation.
Bone marrow: White cell hyperplasia may be present with normal
immature cells.
ALP increased (in CML is decreased).
Absence of Philadelphia chromosome
Lymphatic Leukemoid Reaction
Causes
1. Infectious mononucleosis
2. Cytomegalovirus
3. Pertussis, measles, chickenpox
4. Tuberculosis
5. Carcinoma
Leukoerythroblastic Reaction
Presence of immature myeloid cells and nucleated RBC in the peripheral
blood.
Causes
1. Secondary carcinoma of bone
2. Myelofibrosis, Thalassemia major, Hemolytic anemia, Multiple myeloma,
Lymphoma, Gaucher's and Niemann-pick disease, Marble bone disease.
Blood Film
Anisocytosis, Poikilocytosis (Tearshaped), nucleated RBC (10% of WBC)
Reticulocytes > 3%-10%) is usual.
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145
Leukocyte cells show shift to left (Total N-increase but some times
decreased). Platelet count is normal or reduced.
Table 14.1 Features of leukemoid reaction and leukemia
Features Leukemoid reaction Leukemia
Clinical Evidence of infection Hepatosplenomegaly
Lymphadenopathy
Hematology No anemia Anemia present
No thrombocytopenia Thrombocytopenia present
Bone marrow Normal, hypercellular Presence of leukemic blasts
Decreased megakaryocytes
Decreased erythroid
precursors
Leukocyte
alkaline
phosphatase
High Absent
*Philip Lanzkowsk: Pediatric Hematology and Oncology
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
a.Often gives positive results with TRAP stain
b. Commonly demonstrates CD5 positivity and trisomy 12
c. May only be diagnosed by bone marrow examination
d. All of the above.
2. Prolymphocytic leukemia
a. It is characterized by massive lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly
b. It is characterized by almost total bone marrow replacement by
prolymphocytes.
c. Has a comparable prognosis to CLL and HCL.
d. All of the above
3. Hairy cell leukemia is a disease in which the
abnormal cells
a. All have a scanty amount of cytoplasm
b. Demonstrate positivity with tatarate-resistant acid
phosphatase stain
c. Excess the CD5 surface marker
d. All of the above
4. Which of the following could cause a patient to
be stage VI in the Rai system?
a. Bone marrow with greater than 40% lymphocytes
b. Platelet count less than 100,000
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
146
c. Hemoglobin less than 11g/dl
d. Presence of splenomegaly
e. All of the above
5. Which of the following would least likely be associated with
lymphocytosis?
a. Cytomegalovirus infection
b. Pneumococal pneumonia
c. Infectious mononucleosis
d. Tuberculosis
6. Which of the following would be most useful in
differentiating
CLL from infectious mononucleosis?
a. Presence of immune hemolytic anemia
b. Splenomegaly
c. Cervical lymphoadenopathy
d. Lymphocyte morphology
7. Which of the following would be an indication for
splenectomy in a patient with CLL?
a. Immune thrombocytopenia controlled only with large steroid.
b. Pancytopenia with increased hematopoietic marrow elements and
splenomegaly.
c. Immune hemolytic anemia controlled only with high dose steroid.
d. All of the above
8. Which of the following could be expected in a patient with Hairy cell
leukemia?
a. Occur primarily in infants and children
b. Splenic enlargement is uncommon
c. Fever without infections is frequently encountered
d. Granulocytosis is the most frequent WBC abnormality.
9. Which of the following statements about the cytotoxicity drug therapy of
CLL is true?
a. Busulfan (Myeleran) is considered the drug of choice.
b. Vincristine (oncovin) is best ovoided because it produces
thrombocytopenia.
c. Cyclophosphamide is effective only when used in combination with
prednisolone
d. About 2/3 of patients respond to therapy with a single alkylating agent.
10. Which of the following is the best description of chronic lymphocytic
leukemia?
a. A disease which often transforms into ALL
b. A disease in which immunologically incompetent B-cell accumulate
c. A disease which is treated with Busulfan for symptoms control
d. A disease etiologically linked to radiation exposure.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
147
11. All are true about CLL except:
a. Is a cause of hypogammaglobulinemia?
b. Is commonly treated with intensive combination chemotherapy
c. Often presents asymptomatically
d. Is more commonly derived from B cells than T cells
12. The following statement are related to chronic lymphatic
leukemia except
a. CLL is slowly progressive, with good short-term but poor
long term survival
b. CLL may be complicated by autoimmune hemolytic anemia
c. The Philadelphia chromosome is the sine qua non of CLL
d. Most patients are managed supportively
13. QUIZ
What do you think that leukocyte in
this smear is related to :
a.Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
b. Prolymphocytic leukemia
c. Hairy cell leukemia
d. Sezary syndrome
ANSWERS
1. B
2. B
3. B
4. E
5. B
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. D
10. B
11. B
12. C
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148
MALIGNANT LYMPHOMA
15
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand yhe term lymphoma and the difference between
Hodgkins and non-Hodgkins lymphoma
2. To know the diffenece between high and low-grade lymphoma
3. To be familiar with diagnostic investigations , techniques and staging
Lymphomas are a group of malignant neoplasms characterized by the
proliferation of cell native to the lymphoid tissues, i.e. lymphocytes,
histiocytes and their precursors and derivatives.
Classification
1. Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
2. Hodgkins lymphoma
NON-HODGKIN'S LYMPHOMAS (NHL)
A heterogenous group of malignant diseases arising from different immune
cell types principally T and B-lymphocytes.
It is a localized or generalized lymphadenopathy. In about 1/3 of cases, it
may be primary in other sites where lymphoid tissue is found, e.g. in
oropharyngeal region, gut, bone marrow and skin.Lymph node
enlargement due to lymphomatous disease must be differentiated from
that caused by the more frequent infectious and inflammatory disorders.
Lymphomatous involvement often produces marked nodal enlargement,
which is almost always nontender. Although variable, all forms of
lymphoma have the potential to spread from their origin in a single node
or chain of nodes to other nodes, and eventually to disseminate to the
spleen, liver and bone marrow. Some, often becoming widespread, spill
over into the blood, creating leukemia like picture in the peripheral
blood.
Etiology and Risk Factors
Chromosomal translocations and molecular rearrangements nonrandom
chromosomal and molecular rearrangements play an important role in
the pathogenesis of many lymphomas and correlate with histology and
immunophenotype.The most commonly associated chromosomal
abnormality in NHL is the t(14;18)(q32;q21) translocation, which is found
in 85% of follicular lymphomas and 28% of higher-grade NHLs. This
translocation results in the juxtaposition of the bcl-2 apoptotic inhibitor
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
149
oncogene at chromosome band 18q21 to the heavy-chain region of the
immunoglobulin locus within chromosome band 14q32.
The t(11;14)(q13;q32) translocation results in overexpression of bcl-1
(cyclin D1/PRAD 1), a cell-cyclecontrol gene on chromosome 11q13,
and has a diagnostic, nonrandom association with mantle cell
lymphoma.
Environmental factors also may play a role in the development of NHL.
Occupations Certain workers have a slightly increased risk of developing
NHL, including farmers, pesticide applicators (Khat and vegetables),
grain (flour) millers, meat workers, wood and forestry workers,
chemists, painters, mechanics, machinists, printers, and workers in the
petroleum, rubber, plastics, and synthetics industries.
Chemicals that have been linked to the development of NHL include a
variety of pesticides and herbicides (2,4-D-organophosphates,
chlorophenols), solvents and organic chemicals (benzene, carbon
tetrachloride), wood preservatives, dusts (wood, cotton), and some
components in hair dye.
Chemotherapy and radiotherapy Patients who receive cancer
chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy are also at increased risk of
developing NHL.
Viruses Several viruses have been implicated in the pathogenesis of
NHL, including EBV, HTLV-1, Kaposis sarcomaassociated herpesvirus
(KSHV; also known as human herpesvirus 8, or HHV-8), and hepatitis C
virus (HCV).
EBV is a DNA virus that has been associated with Burkitts lymphoma,
particularly in endemic areas of Africa; Hodgkins disease; lymphomas
in immunocompromised patients (ie, organ transplantation and HIV
infection); sinonasal lymphoma (Asia and South America); and
sporadically in other B- and T-cell lymphomas. EBV can transform
lymphocytes in culture. B-lymphocytes from normal EBV-positive
subjects grow as tumors in mice with severe combined
immunodeficiency.
HTLV-1 is a human retrovirus that is endemic in certain areas of Japan
and the A minority (5%) of carriers develop adult T-cell
leukemia/lymphoma. An HTLV-1like deleted provirus has been
detected in some patients with mycosis fungoides, although conflicting
findings have been reported.
KSHV KSHV-like DNA sequences are frequently detected in body
cavitybased lymphomas in patients with HIV infection and in those
with multicentric Castlemans disease.
HCV infection is associated with the development of clonal B-cell
expansions and certain subtypes of NHL, particularly in the setting of
essential (type II) mixed cryoglobulinemia. HCV may predispose B-cells
to malignant transformation by enhancing signal transduction upon
binding to the CD81 molecule.
Immunodeficiency Patients with congenital and acquired states of
immunosuppression are at increased risk for NHL.
Congenital immunodeficiency states that are associated with an increased
risk include ataxia-telangiectasia, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, common
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
150
variable hypogammaglobulinemia, X-linked lymphoproliferative
syndrome, and severe combined immunodeficiency.
Acquired immunodeficiency states, such as HIV infection, iatrogenic
immunosuppression (ie, organ or bone marrow transplant [BMT]
recipients, long-term survivors of Hodgkins disease), and a variety of
collagen vascular and autoimmune diseases (eg, Sjgrens syndrome,
rheumatoid vasculitis and Feltys syndrome, systemic lupus
erythematosus, chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, and
angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy) also pose an increased risk of
developing NHL.
GI lymphomas An increased incidence of GI lymphomas is seen in
patients with celiac (nontropical) sprue and inflammatory bowel disease,
particularly Crohns disease. Gastric mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue
(MALT) lymphoma is seen most frequently, but not exclusively, in
association with Helicobacter pylori infection.
Recognition and Classification
Six major pathological classification systems exist for NHL and these can be
translated by using the National Cancer Institute Working Formulation
developed in 1982 and the Revised European American Lymphoma
classification in 1994.
1. British national lymphoma classification
2. Rappaport classification. 1966
3. Lukes and Collins classification 1972
4. Dorfman classification 1975
5. Kiel classification 1978
6. WHO classification
Table 15.1: Classification of malignant lymphomas
WORKING FORMULATION RAPPAPORT CLASSIFICATION IMMUNOPHENOTYPE
Low-Grade
A. Small lymphocyte Lymphocytic,well differentiated mainly B
lymphocytic
B. Follicular,predominantly small Nodular,poorly differentiated B
cleaved lymphocytic
C. Follicular,mixed small cleaved Nodular,mixed lymphocytic B
and large cell histiocytic
INTERMEDIATE-GRADE
D. Follicular predominantly large Nodular, histiocytic Mature B
cell noncleaved
E. Diffuse,small cleaved cell Diffuse,poorly differtiated Mature B or T
lymphocytic
F. Diffuse, mixed small and Diffuse mixed lymphocytic Mature B or T
large cell and histiocytic
G. Diffuse,large cell Diffuse histiocytic B or T
HIGH-GRADE
H. Large cell, immunoblastic Diffuse histiocytic B or T
I. Lymphoblasic Lymphoblastic lymphoma T
J. Small noncleaved cell Undifferentiated, Burkitt's B
and non-Burkitt's
The Rappaport is based on the pattern of tumor growth with the affected
lymph node and the morphology of the predominant cell. The advantages
of the Rappaport system are its simplicity and the fact that the different
classes show some correlation with prognosis.
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151
The Lukes Collines System attempted to combine immunological and
morphological observation. Thus, the malignant cells are classed as B
lymphoid, T lymphoid or histiocytic and related on morphological grounds
to the stage of differentiation of their supposed normal counterparts.
The Kiel system also relies on a combined immunological and
morphological approach and attempts to relate the malignant cell in each
class of NHL to a normal counterpart.
Working Formulation for Clinical Use
NHLs are divided into three major prognostic groupings: low,
intermediate, and high grades based on survival statistics. The five-year
survival rate for tumors classified as low grade from 50-70% and for tumors
of intermediate and high grade from 35-45% and 23 to 32% respectively.
The working formulation also contains a miscellaneous group that includes
the rare histologic tumors
- The HTLV-1 induced T-cell leukemia/lymphoma
- T-Lymphomatous of skin
Low-Grade Lymphomas
The low-grade lymphomas typically affect patients between the ages of
45 and 60 years. These are slow-growing lymphomas, and lymphnode
enlargement can be present for years before diagnosis. Often patients can
do well without treatment for 2 to 3 years.
This category includes the following tumors:
1. Small lymphocytic lymphoma
2. Follicular, predominantly small-cleaved cell lymphoma
3. Follicular mixed (small cleaved and large cell) lymphoma.
4. Marginal zone lymphoma
5. MALT lymphoma (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)
6. Nodular monocytoid lymphoma
7. Primary splenic lymphoma
Intermediate Grade Lymphomas
This type affects individuals in late middle age. Patients present with a
much rapid lymphnode enlagement, and extranodal disease is more
common. The tumors under this category of the Working Formulation are:
1. Follicular, Predominantly Large Cell Lymphoma
2. Diffuse Small Cleaved Cell Lymphoma
3. Diffuse Mixed Small and Large Cell Lymphoma
4. Diffuse Large Cell Lymphoma
5. Lympho-Epitheliod Lymphoma
6. Angiocentric Lymphoma
7. Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma
High Grade Lymphomas
The high-grade lymphomas cause the most rapid enlargement of the
lymphonodes and the fastest developing malignancies. Thus, if left
untreated, these lymphomas are rapidly fatal. This category includes the
following tumors:
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152
1. Large Cell Immunoblastic Lymphomas
2. Lymphoblastic Lymphomas
3. Small Noncleaved Lymphoma, which include
Burkitt's lymphoma
Burkitt's like lymphoma
1. Large Cell Immunoblastic Lymphoma
These lymphomas display a wide range of morphologic features.
In some cases; the tumor cells have plasmacytoid features and are therefore
considered to be B Immunoblasts. These cells are 4-5 times larger than
small lymphocytes have a round or oval large nucleus with 1 or 2 centrally
placed nucleoli. In other cases; the tumor cells may contain large
multilobated nuclei or the nucleus may be round with a clear cytoplasm.
It is of interest to note that approximately 50% of B-Immunoblastic
lymphomas are associated with a previous history of an immunologic
disorder such as Sjogren's syndrome, Hashimotos's and AIDS. These
tumors may arise from T or B cells, but numerically most are of B-cell
origin.These can be demonstrated by Immunophenotyping or analyzing Ig
gene rearrangements.
2. Lymphoblastic Lymphoma (LL)
This is a distinct clinicopathologic entity closely related to T-cell acute
lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). The tumor cell resembles the
lymphoblasts of ALL. They are fairly uniform in size, with scanty
cytoplasm and nuclei that are somewhat larger than those of small
lymphocytes. Nucleoli are either absent or inconspicuous.
In keeping with its aggressive growth, the tumor shows a high rate of
mitosis. A very characteristic clinical feature is the presence of a prominent
mediastinal mass in 50-70% of patients at the time of diagnosis, suggesting
a thymic origin. Indeed, the phenotype of the tumour cells resembles
intrathymic T cells. (TdT) Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase an
enzyme associated with primitive lymphoid cells is expressed in all cases.
In some patients the cells are CD2+, CD5+ and CD7 as are early
thymocytes, where as in others CD4 and CD8 are coexpressed on tumor
cells.
3. Small Noncleaved Cell Lymphomas
Within this category fall Burkitt's lymphoma and related tumors seen
outside Africa.
Burkitt's lymphoma was described initially in Africa, where it is endemic in
some parts, but it also occurs sporadically in nonendemic areas.
Histologically: The African and nonendemic cases of Burkitt's lymphoma
are identical, although there are some clinical and virologic differences.
There is relation of these disorders to the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV).
These tumors consist of a sea of strikingly monotonous cells, 10-15m in
diameter with round or oval nuclei containing 2-5 prominent nucleoli. A
mitotic index is very characteristic.
In African cases, involvement of the maxilla or mandible is the common
mode of presentation, whereas abdominal tumors are more common in
cases seen in America.
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153
Leukemic transformation of Burkitt's lymphoma is uncommon especially
Africa cases.
These tumors respond well to aggressive chemotherapy and long
remissions have been reported. Burkitts lymphoma is of mature B cell
derivation and expresses B cell surface antigen such as CD19, CD20, and
CD22. Monoclonal surface IgM-k or IgM- is also present and CD10 may be
positive but TdT is weak or absent.
Miscellaneous
1. Mycosis Fungoides and Se'zary Syndrome
Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma
A. Mycosis Fungoides
Mycosis fungoides presents with inflammatory premycotic phase and
progress through a plaque phase to a tumor phase.
Histologically: There is infiltration of the epidermis and upper dermis by
neoplastic T cells, which have an extremely unusual cerebriform nucleus.
In most patients with progressive disease, extracutaneous manifestations,
characterized by nodal and visceral dissemination appear.
B. Se'sary Syndrome
SS is related condition in which skin involvement is manifested clinically
as a generalized exfoliative erythroderma. There is an associated leukemia
of Se'sary cells that have the same cerebriform appearance noted in the
tissue infiltrates of mycosis fungoides.
Fundamentally, both these disorders result from clonal proliferation of
postthymic CD4 T lymphocyte.
C. Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma
This uncommon T-cell neoplasm has gained much prominence owing to its
association with Human T-cell leukemia virus-I (HTLV-I).
Clinically: Skin lesion, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, Calcium
increased, leukocytosis with multilobed lymphocytes. Neurological
disorder is common. The tumor cells are CD4 (helper) and the lymphocytes
express IL-2 receptor.
Both viruses can be transmitted by sex intercourse, blood products,
contaminated needles, and from mother to her offspring.
REAL Classification A revised European-American classification of
lymphoid neoplasms (REAL classification) has been proposed by the
International Lymphoma Study Group (ILSG). This approach to
lymphoma categorization attempts to define the diseases recognized
with currently available morphologic, immunologic, and genetic
techniques. This system incorporates new lymphoproliferative disorders
that were not recognized by the Working Formulation and omits the
general grading of lymphomas into low-, intermediate-, and high-grade
categories.
The 13 most frequently occurring clinical entities that are recognized by
the REAL classification are diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (31%),
follicular lymphoma (22%), small lymphocytic lymphoma (6%), mantle
cell lymphoma (6%), peripheral T-cell lymphoma (6%), lymphoma of
mucosa associated tissue (MALT) type (5%), primary mediastinal large
B-cell lymphoma (2%), anaplastic large (T-/null-cell lymphoma (2%),
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
154
lymphoblastic lymphoma of T- or B-cell lineage, Burkitts-like lymphoma
(2%), marginal zone (monocytoid) B-cell lymphoma (< 1%),
lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (1%), and Burkitts lymphoma (<1%).
When immunotyping is used, the diagnostic accuracy of the REAL
classification exceeds 85% for most subtypes, with the exception of
Burkitts-like and lymphoplasmacytic lymphomas, for which the
classification has diagnostic accuracy rates of 53% and 56%, respectively.
Table 15.2: The revised European American classification REAL
B-cell Neoplasm T-cell Neoplasm
Indolent Disseminated Lymphoma/Leukemia
B-cell small lymphocytic /CLL/PLL
Lymphoplasmatic lymphoma
Hairy cell leukemia
Plasmacytoma/myeloma
Splenic marginal zone lymphoma
T-cell lymphocytic /CLL/PLL
Large granular lymphocytic
leulemia
Indolent Nodal Lymphomas
Nodal marginal zone lymphoma
+/- monocytoid B-cell lymphoma
follicular center cell lymphoma
(follicular lymphoma) grades 1,2,3
Mantle cell lymphoma
Indolent Extranodal Lymphomas
Extranodal marginal zone MALT
+/- monocytoid B-cell lymphoma
Mycosis fungoids
Aggressive lymphoma
Diffuse large Anaplastic large cell Ki-1+
Peripheral T cell lymphoma
Angioimmunoblastic
Angiocentric
Intestinal T
Highly Aggressive Lymphoma/Leukemia
Precursor B-lymphoblastic
leukemia/lymphoma
Burkitts lymphoma, Burkitts like
Precursor T-lymphoblastic
leukemia/lymphoma
Adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia
(HTLV-1-ve)
Hodgkin,s Disease
Lymphocytic predominance +/- diffuse
Classical HD:NS, MC, LD and lymphocyte-rich classical HD
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma, Hodgkins Related
Diagnosis
No effective methods are available for screening or identifying
populations at high risk for the development of NHL.
A definitive diagnosis can be made only by biopsy of pathologic lymph
nodes or tumor tissue. A formal review by an expert hematopathologist
for additional studies, such as immunophenotyping and genotyping,
should be considered.
Initial diagnostic evaluation of patients with lymphoproliferative
malignancy should include:
1. Careful history (night sweats, weight loss, fever; neurologic,
musculoskeletal, or GI symptoms)
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155
2.Physical examination (lymph nodes, including submental,
infraclavicular, epitrochlear, iliac, femoral, and popliteal nodes;
pericardial rub, pleural effusion, distended neck and/or upper extremity
veins in superior vena cava syndrome; breast masses;
hepatosplenomegaly, bowel obstruction, renal mass, and testicular or
ovarian mass; focal neurologic signs, such as plexopathy, spinal cord
compression, nerve root infiltration, and meningeal involvement; skin
lesions)
3. Biopsy of peripheral lymphadenopathy
4. Chest x-ray (mediastinal or hilar adenopathy, pleural effusions,
parenchymal lesions)
5. CT scan of the chest (mediastinal, hilar, or parenchymal pulmonary
disease)
6. CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis (enlarged lymph nodes,
splenomegaly, filling defects in liver and spleen)
7. Bilateral bone marrow biopsy
8. Gallium scans (optional/selected cases)
9. Bone scan (selected cases) if musculoskeletal symptoms are present or
alkaline phosphatase is elevated
10. CBC with differential and platelet count (peripheral blood
lymphocytosis with circulating malignant cells is common in low-grade
lymphomas). Bone marrow and peripheral blood involvement may be
present, and the distinction between leukemia and lymphoma is difficult
to make in some cases.
2-microglobulin are recommended
12. IV serology in patients with diffuse large cell, immunoblastic, and
small noncleaved histologies; HTLV-1 serology in patients with
cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, especially if they have hypercalcemia
13. Cytogenetic and molecular analyses of lymph node, bone marrow,
and peripheral blood (selected cases)
14. Perform examination of CSF and strongly consider CNS prophylaxis
in patients with (a) diffuse aggressive NHL with bone marrow, epidural,
testicular, paranasal sinus, or nasopharyngeal involvement; (b) high-
grade lymphoblastic lymphoma and small noncleaved cell lymphomas
(Burkitts and non-Burkitts types); (c) HIV-related lymphoma; and (d)
primary CNS lymphoma
15. Upper GI series with small bowel follow-through in patients with
head and neck involvement (tonsil, base of tongue, nasopharynx) and
those with a GI primary
16. Ultrasound of opposite testis in patients with a testicular primary
17. Spinal MRI scan for epidural disease when clinically indicated (useful
in the evaluation of suspected spinal cord compression)
18. PET (FDG-glucose) scanning is gaining wider acceptance as a
potential diagnostic approach for staging at diagnosis and relapse.
PCR and Southern blot studies Circulating monoclonal lymphoid cells
can be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or Southern blot
techniques, but the clinical utility of these studies is not well defined.
Several studies have demonstrated the presence of circulating t(14;18)
positive cells in patients with durable remissions of follicular lymphoma,
but whether this is a harbinger of relapse remains controversial.
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156
HODGKIN'S LYMPHOMA
Hodgkins lymphoma is a malignant tumor closely related to other
malignant lymphomas. It affects the lymphoid tissue primarily. It is
characterized by progressive painless enlargement of lymphoid tissue
through the body.
It is distinguished from NHL by the presence of Reed-Sternberg (RS) cells.
HL has an overall incidence in Yemen and has a bimodal age distribution
with peaks of incidence in the third decade of life and over the age of 55
years. There is a slight excess incidence of HL in males.
Etiology and Pathogenesis of HL
The origin of the malignant cell in Hodgkins lymphoma is not firmly
established.
RS cells and the associated abnormal and smaller mononuclear cells are
neoplastic and that associated inflammatory cells represent a
hypersensitivity response to the host. The RS cells regularly express major
histocompatibility compound class II antigens and IgG fc receptors but are
not phagocytic.
They express CD15, CD25 (IL2 receptor) and CD 30 and negative in most
cases for CD 45 and for CD20. The reactivity with antibodies against CD30
is typical of Hodgkins disease, but not specific, as activated lymphoid cells
and anaplastic lymphomas are also positive.
Hodgkins disease histogenetically is heterogenous from activated B cells
and in others from T cells. EBV (Epstein Barr Virus) has been suspected as
an etiologic agent on the basis of epidemiological and serological studies.
The EBV genom has been detected in about 20-50% of cases in Hodgkins
tissue. It also has been found that Hodgkins disease is frequent in
individual with higher social status, less density of housing and smaller
number of siblings. Recently, transforming growth factor |(TGF) has been
characterized as the major immunsuppresive cytokine in Hodgkins
disease.
Pathology
A distinctive neoplastic giant cell known as Reed-Sternberg (RS), is
considered to be the essential neoplastic element in all forms of Hodgkins
disease, and its identification is essential for the histologic diagnosis.
Classically it is a large cell (15-45um in diameter). Most often it is binucleate
or bilobed with two halves often appearing as mirror images of each other.
At other times there are multiple nuclei, or the single nucleus is multilobate
and polypoid. The nucleus is enclosed within an abundant amphophilic
cytoplasm. Prominent within the nuclei are large, inclusion-like "OWL-
EYED" nucleoli generally surrounded by a clear halo. One variant of RS
cells is called Lacunar cells is diagnosed and seen in nodular sclerosis.R.S
cells must be present in a bulk ground of non-neoplastic inflamatory cells,
lymphocytes, plasma cells and eosinophils.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
157
Histological Classification: (Rye Classification) Four subtypes of
Hodgkins disease can be distinguished according to histopathological
criteria:
1. Lymphocyte predominance HD 2. Mixed cellularity HD
3. Lymphocyte depletion HD 4. Nodular sclerosis
1. Lymphocyte Predominant Hodgkins lymphoma (LPHL) : LPHL is
characterized by a diffuse or some times vaguely nodular infiltrate of
mature lymphocyte admixed with variable numbers of benign histiocytes.
Scattered among these cells are the distinctive RS cells. A majority of
patients are males, usually under 35 years of age, and they present with
limited disease. The prognosis is excellent. Without the identification of RS
cells the lymphocyte predominance pattern could be readily mistaken for
one of the lymphocytic form of NHL
2. Mixed Cellularity Hodgkin's Lymphoma (MCHL): MCHL is an
intermediate clinical position between the lymphocyte predominance and
the lymphocyte depletion. Typical RS cells are plentiful, but these are fewer
lymphocytes than in lymphocyte predominance disease. The involvement
of the lymph nodes is almost always diffuse.
3. Lymphocyte Depletion Hodgkin's Lmphoma (LDHL): LDHL is
characterized by a paucity of lymphocytes and relative abundance of RS
cells of their pleomorphic variants. It presents in two morphology forms,
the so-called diffuse fibrosis and the reticular variants.
Diffuse fibrosis: The node is hypocellular and is replaced largely by a
proteinaceous fibrillar material that represents a disorderly non-
birefringent connective tissue. Pleomorphic histiocytes, a few typical and
atypical RS cells and some lymphocytes.
Reticular variant: Is more cellular and is composed of highly anaplastic,
large, pleomorphic cells that resemble RS cells.
4. Nodular Sclerosis Hodgkin's Lyphoma (NSHL): NSHL is characterized
morphologically by two features including:
(a) The presence of a particular variant of the RS cells the Lacunar cells.
This cell is large and has a single hyperlobated nucleus with multiple
small nucleoli and an abundant, pale staining cytoplasm. The phenotype
f the lacunar cells resembles that of a B-lymphocyte (CD15-, CD20, 30,
45+).
(B) The other features seen in most cases are the collagen bands that divide
the lymphoid tissue into circumscribed nodules.
Classic RS cells are infrequent. Most of the patients are adolescents or
young adults and they have an excellent prognosis especially when seen in
clinical stages I and II.
The diagnosis of Hodgkin's disease rests solely on the unmistakable
identification of the Reed-Sternberg cells in most variant and of the Lacunar
cells in the nodular sclerosis pattern.
The REAL classification recognizes two main types of HL: classical types
and nodular lymphocyte predominance type (NLPHL). The
immunophenotype and genetic features of both classical HL and NLPHL
have been defined.
The classical HL is defined by the presence of classic, diagnostic RS cells in
a background of nodular sclerosis, mixed cellularity, lymphocyte rich, or
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
158
lymphocyte depletion, with the immunophenotype of classical HL (CD15+
CD30+, T and B associated antigens usually negative.
Figure 15.1 : Hodgkins Lymphoma - Reed-Sternberg cells (RS)
Clinical Features of Hodgkins disease
1. Systemic Features
Pel-Ebstein feveris a paroxysms of fever remaining for 10-14 days, followed
by afebrile state for nearly equal period and so on, however, fever is
commonly irregular. Lately there are anemia, anorexia, fatigue, weight loss,
generalised pruritus and excessive sweating specially in cases complicated
by secondary tuberculosis infection.
Alcohol ingestion may cause severe aching pain at sites of Hodgkin's
involvement lasting for half to one hour.
2. Lymphnode enlargement is commonly the first manifestation and
usually starts on one group and later involves other groups.
3. Abdominal manifestation includes splenomegaly in 50-60 %, liver
enlargement and jaundice may occur in some cases. Ascites may follow
peritoneal invasion or hepatic dysfunction. The enlargement of the
retroperitoneal lymphnodes is commmon and may obstruct the ureters and
inferior vena cava.
4. Chest manifestations in 50% of cases are dyspnea, cough, and stridor and
chest pain due to enlargement of the mediastinal lymph nodes.
5. Neurological manifestation: Roots pain, herpes zoosters and Horner's
syndrome, cranial nerve palsy, spinal cord compression and peripheral
neuropathy
6. Cutaneous manifestations: The common cutaneous manifestations are
pruritus, hyperpigmentation, intracutaneous nodules, alopecia and
exfoliative erythroderma.
7. Skeletal manifestations are bone pain and pathological fractures.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
159
Hematological Findings
Blood findings may vary from completely normal to markedly abnormal.
Moderate normochromic normocytic anemia occurs, occasionally of the
hemolytic type; may become severe.With marrow infiltrations BM failure
may occur with a leukoerythroblastic anemia.
Peripheral blood changes in Hodgkin's disease are common (25% of cases
at time of diagnosis) but not specific.
Leukocytes: may be normal, decreased or slightly or markedly increased
(25000/l). Leukopenia, marked leukocytosis, anemia are bad prognostic
signs. Eosinophilia occurs in 20% of patients. If lymphocytosis is present,
look for another disease. Neutrophilia and monocytosis may be found.
These changes may all be absent or may even be present simultaneously or
in various combinations. Rarely, Reed-Sternberg cells are found in marrow
or peripheral blood smears in advanced disease.
Small lymphocytic and follicular lymphomas often have malignant
lymphocytes in peripheral blood; in leukemic phase.
Cytopenia occur commonly due to hypersplenism, immune effect, or
lymphoma effect on marrow.
ESR is increased and is useful for monitoring disease progress.
Bone marrow involvement at time of diagnosis in <10% of patients with
Hodgkin's disease; 50% of patients with diffuse, small-cleaved lymphoma
and mixed cell type: 70-80% of patients with follicular, small-cleaved cell
lymphoma, less frequent in large cell lymphomas.
Biochemical Findings
Increased serum LDH, in 30-40% of cases and indicates poor prognosis.
Patients with bone disease may show hypercalcemia, hypophosphatemia
and increased alkaline phosphatase.
Serum protein electrophoresis: Albumin is frequently decreased. Increased
alpha1 and alpha2 globulins suggest disease activity. Decreased gamma
globulins is less frequent in HD than in NHL. Gamma globulin may be
increased, with macroglobulins present and evidence of autoimmune
process (e.g., hemolytic anemia, cold agglutinins, and positive LE cells).
Elevated levels of transaminase may indicate liver involvement while
increased serum bilirubin may be due to biliary obstruction caused by large
lymph nodes
Immunological Findings
Hodgkin's lymphoma patients commonly have deficiencies of cell-
mediated immunity with increased susceptibility to bacterial, fungal, and
viral (herpes zoster's and varicella) infections; these persist even after cure.
Tuberculin test is usually negative due to loss of ability to show delayed
hypersensitivity.
Immunocytochemistry
Immunoenzymatic staining of RS cells on fresh lymphnodes has revealed
staining with antigens specific for T cells (CD3, CD5 and CD2) or in some
cases specific for B cells (CD19 and CD22).
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
160
Reed-Sternberg cells of Hodgkin's lymphoma are positive for CD15, CD25,
the IL-2 receptor and CD30 and these considered as tumor marker for
diagnosis.
Karyotyping
It is clear that the involvement of specific chromosomes in numerical and
structural abnormalities is non-random. Aneuploidy, or a deviation from
the diploid number of chromosomes, resulting from the gain or loss of
chromosomes or from polypoids, is a characteristic feature of Hodgkins
disease tumors that have an abnormal karyotype.
A gain of chromosome 1, 2, 5 and 21 is a recurring numerical
abnormality; structural rearrangement involving chromosomal 1 is
frequently observed.
Staging
Accurate staging is extremely important. The natural history of the diasease
suggests that it arises in a single site and than spreads from one lymph
(usually nodal) site to contigious lymphoid sites and from lymphoid sites to
contagious nonlymphoid sites. It is difficult to prove that this is always the
case, and in some cases it clearly is not but it is a useful concept that has led
to a very successful strategy of staging and treatment. Thus, the primary
objective of staging is to determine the current location of all the disease in
the patient in order to plan a treatment that will address each of the
involved area and all contagious sites of possible spread
Clinical Stages of Hodgkin's and NHL
The treatment depends on clinical stage and Ann Arbor classification is
generally used:
Stage I: Single lymph node region or extralymphatic site. Example, nodes
are on one side of the neck only.
Stage II: Two or more node regions on same side of diaphragm. Example, ,
nodes in the neck and chest.
Stage III: Lymph nodes on both sides of diaphragm; this may include
spleen or localized extranodal site. Example, nodes are in the neck and
retroperitoneum or the spleen.
Stage IV: Diffuse involvement of one or more extralymphatic organs.
Example, nodes are in the chest and infiltration of the marrow and lung.
A: No constitutional symptoms
B: Presence of fever, night sweats/and/or weight loss over 6 months
of 10% or more.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
161
Treatment of Lymphoma
Table 15.3: International prognostic index (IPI) for NHL
Risk factors
1. Age > 60 years
2. LDH > normal
3. ECOG PS 2-4
4. stage III-IV
5. =2 extranodal sites
Standard IPI score
0-1
2
3
4-5
Risk
Low
Low- intermediate
High-intermediate
High
CR%
87
67
55
44
OS at 5 y (%)
73
51
43
26
Table 15.4: Follicular lymphoma International prognostic index (FLIPI)
Risk factors
1. Age > 60 years
2. LDH > normal
3. Stage III-IV
4. >4 nodal areas
5. =Hemoglobin <12 g/dl
Risk
Low
Intermediate
High
Factors
0-1
2
=3
OS at 5 y (%)
91
78
53
OS at 10 y (%)
71
51
36
Table 15.5: International prognostic score (IPS) for classical Hodgkins
lymphoma
IPS factors
1. Serum albumin <4g/dl
2. Hemoglobin < 10.5 g/dl
3. Male gender
4. Stage IV
5. Age > 45 years
6. WBC = 15000/ul
7. Lymphocytes <8% or < 600/ul
Risk factors
0
1
2
3
4
>5
FPP at 5 y
84
77
67
60
51
42
OS at 5 y (%)
89
90
81
78
61
56
Patient %
7
22
29
23
12
7
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
162
Treatment of Hodgkin's Lymphoma
At present time the three treatment options for patients with newly
diagnosed Hodgkins disease are radiation, chemotherapy and the
combination of both (combined modality)
Stage IA and IIA- Favorable: 4 cycles of ABVD followed by 3060 cGy IF
XRT.
Stage IA and II A Unfavorable: 6 cycles of ABVD followed by 3060 cGy
IF XRT.
Stage IB: 6 cycles of ABVD plus IF XRT if not in CR
Stage II B: 6 cycles of ABVD followed by 3060 cGy IF XRT.
Stage IIIA- IVB: 6-8 cycles of ABVD.
Consolidation Radiation: with 3060cGy will be given for areas of bulky
disease on presentation except in stage IV.
Treatment of recurrence:
Patients progressing on first line therapy or achieving less than CR
(documented histologically) will receive HDC+PBSCT
Recurrence following radiation only: 6-8 cycles of ABVD
Recurrence following ABVD or MOPP/ABV:
- If less than 12 month DF interval: ESAP then PBSCT
- If more than 12 month DF interval:
- 6-8 cycles of MOPP/ABV or BEACOPP or
- ESHAP +/- HDC plus PBSCT or
- MOPP if initial chemo is ABVD
Palliative chemotherapy regimens:
Novantrone, chlorambucil and prednisone
Single agent vinblastin
Single agent Etoposide.
MOPP
Nitrogen Mustard
Vincristine
Procarbazin
Prednison
Repeat on day 29
6 mg/m
2
iv day 1+8
1.4 mg/m
2
iv day 1+8
100 mg/m
2
p.o day 1-14
40 mg/m
2
p.o day 1-14
ABVD
Doxorubicin
(Adriamycin)
Bleomycin
Vinblastin
DTIC
Repeat on day 29
Other:
BEACOPP
25 mg/m
2
iv day 1+15
10 mg/m
2
iv day 1+15
6 mg/m
2
iv day 1+15
375 mg/m
2
iv day 1+15
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
163
Guideline treatment of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Bulky tumor: any tumor diameter = 10 cm, Non Bulky tumor diameter <
10 cm.
Limited Stage
Stage I or Stage II confined to 3 or fewer adjacent lymphnode regions
with no B symptoms and non bulky.
Advance Stage
Stage II with disease beyond 3 adjacent lymphnode regions or stage 3 or
4 or B symptoms or bulky tumor.
TREATMENT OF NHL
INDOLENT LYMPHOMA
Indolent, Stage I and Contiguous stage II NHL (Limited Stage)
Involved field radiation, 3500-4000 cGY, the exact dose depending upon
the bulk of the disease and its response during treatment.
In the circumstance when radiotherapy is contraindicated or not
available chemotherapy can be applied for symptomatic patient or
watchful waiting can be considered for asymptomatic patients.
Chemotherapy for Symptomatic patients: Single agent Chemotherapy:
Chlorombucil.
Combination: CVP.
Non Contiguous stage II, III, IV (Advanced Stage)
Observation for asymptomatic patients.
Oral alkylating agents (Chlorombucil, Cyclophosphmide orally). For
nonresponder, progressive or relapsing patients other Choices include.
Combination Chemotherapy: CVP
Purine nucleoside analog: fludarabine
Fludarabine has now been shown to be more effective than CVP for both
newly diagnosed or relapsed indolent lymphoma. It is reasonable
alternative to CVP or chlorombucil, but we restrict its use to relapsed
cases only due to availability and length of the treatment.
AGGRESSIVE NHL
Aggressive Stage I, and Contiguous stage II adult NHL: (Limited
Stage) Non-bulky disease (<10cm)
CHOP X 3 and followed by radiotherapy, 4000 - 5000 cGY; the daily
dose from 180 200 cGY. The radiotherapy ports include all visible sites
of disease determined before biopsy and treatment with CHOP.
Patient who obtained CR with chemotherapy will be treated with IFXRT
(3600 cGY/4w/20fr) and those who achieved less than CR will be
treateed with IFXRT (4000-5000 cGY/4-5 w/20-25 fr).
CHOP X 6-8 for those who refuse radiotherapy after 3 cycles.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
164
Bulky disease (=10cm)
CHOP X 68 (2 cycles after documentation of CR) plus involved field
radiotherapy, 3600 5000 cGY.
CR: IFXRT (3600 cGY/4w/20fr)
Less than CR IFXRT 4000-5000 cGY/4-5 W/20-25 fr)
Patients with progressive disease (PD) should be considered for
radiation therapy or to be involved in study protocol or treated
according to discretion of his physician.
Aggressive Non Contiguous stage II, III, IV NHL (Advance Stage)
CHOP X 6 8
Patients with high risk for relapse (IPI 3-5) are candidate for
Consolidation with high dose chemo and peripheral stem cell transplant
and should be considered for that when resources become available.
CNS prophylaxis with Intrathecal methetrexate 6 Injections is
recommend for patients with:
Para Nasal Sinus Lymphoma
Testicular lymphoma
Lymphoblastic and Burkits Lymphoma
Relapsed NHL
Indolent lymphoma
Observation for asymptomatic patient
Single agent chemotherapy or Combination chemotherapy CVP, CHOP
Involved field radiation
Fludarabine
Rituximab
Aggressive, Relapsed NHL
HDCT, PBSCT for chemo sensitive, 60 years with no bone marrow or
CNS involvement, after 2 cycles of salvage chemotherapy e.g. ESAP
Other Choice
Enroll in Study Protocol or
ESAP X 6 and in case of progression, or no response to ESAP or unable
IMVP-16 X 6, preferably treatment given as out patients.
Management for Special sites of lymphoma
Eye Lymphoma
Orbital/Peri orbital soft tissue lymphoma Radiation using a lens
sparing technique.
Chemotherapy with agents suitable for low-grade lymphoma can
induced prolonged remission and it is the best choice if disease is wide
spread at diagnosis or recurs after radiation.
Intra ocular lymphoma and Optic nerve lymphoma irradiation to
include both eyes using a lens sparing technique (if possible), with
corticosteriod . HD MTX. In case of relapse treatment include HD MTX
or Ara-C.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
165
Conjuctival Lymphoma usually of low grade and should be treated
with irradiation.
Primary CNS lymphoma
The diagnosis should be based on biopsy of the lesion if possible. All
patients should have HIV antibody testing.
Old Patients > 60 ys, patients with poor performance status, with (non
HIV) PCNS lymphoma: Whole brain irradiation to 4,000 cGY in 20
fractions, followed by a boost to the tumor site to 5,000-5,400 cGY in 6-
8 fraction + Dexamethasone till end of irradiation or improvement of
symptoms
Young patients or Old pateints with good performance status: Chemo
(HDMTX with leucovorin rescue or HD Arac) for 3 cycle followed by
Irradiation to whole brain as above.
Lymphoma of the Para nasal Sinuses
Phased treatment approach:
Systematic treatment
Localized disease - CHOP X 3
Advanced, B symptoms, Bulky: CHOP X 6-8 cycle
Local Rx: Irradiation at least 3,600 CGY. In 20 fractions if the patient is
in CR, otherwise boost to a higher dose, for all patients treated with short
chemo or any advanced stage with residual disease. After a full course of
chemotherapy.
T-cell/NK cell paranasal
lymphoma should have radiotherapy upfront followed by
chemotherapy.
CNS Prophylactic; Intrathecal Methotrexate 12 mg six doses over 3
weeks.
Testicular Lymphoma
Usually DL B-cell Lymphoma and usually aggressive even at early
stage.
Phased Management approach
Diagnosis should be established by orchidectomy, and standard staging
tests for lymphoma.
Stage I AE, I BE CHOP X 6-8 + Whole scrotum Radiation (entire scrotal
contents). 3,600 cGY in 20 fraction if in CR. Otherwise add boost.
Stage 2 AE, 2BE CHOP X 6-8 + Whole scrotum Radiaiton + IFNRT.
Stage III, IV, A or B symptoms, Bulky or Non Bulky: CHOP X 6-8 +
radiation of the whole scrotum and remaining testis as above.
For Stage III, IV: Intrathecal chemotherapy 6 doses over 3 weeks. At the
end of planned chemo treatment.
Gastric Lymphoma
All patients with GI lymphoma should have a careful ENT Examination.
Indolent Lymphoma (Other than MALT)
Early stage Irradiation
Advance stage as appropriate
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
166
Diffuse large cell lymphoma of Stomach (DLCL) - B-cell type
Stage I AE or II AE: Could be treated with CHOPX3 + upper abdominal
irradiation or CHOPX6 for those Pt. Who refused irradiation.
Stage III, IV, B symptoms, bulky disease (> 10 cm): CHOP 6-8 cycles
with irradiation reserved for any residual disease after chemo completed.
Resection of gastric lymphoma is no longer recommended and reserved
for cases with perforation or bleeding only.
Old Patients with aggressive lymphoma (= 65 years).
The optimal approach to an older patient with aggressive lymphoma
may be similar to that of young patients e.g. CHOP, unless there is
contra indication of usage of anthracycline. CNOP is less preferable.
Dose reduction not indicated from first cycle especially if patient has
good performance status and normal hepatic profile and now data
indicating a superior survival for elderly patients when Rituximab used
with chemotherapy, and this policy will be adapted when the drug
become available.
For elderly patients with poor performance status and those expected not
tolerate conventional induction therapy a number of modified regimens
have been developed for their use, usually there regimens incorporate
reduced dosage of known active drugs for weekly therapy
Post transplantation lympho proliferative disorder (PTLD)
Occurs in about 1-3% of recipients of organs transplant almost always
associated with Epstein Barr virus.
Treatment according to types
Polyclonal forms withdrawal of immuno suppressive drug if not
successful or not feasible Combinaion acyclovir + -Interferon. If failed
CHOP X 6 for disseminated disease and local RT for localized
presentation. Rituximab (Anti CD 20) is effective immunotherapy for
these patients and should be considered if progression reoccur
after reduction of immunosuppressive drugs and before using
combination chemotherapy.
Monoclonal forms
Multifocal and rapidly aggressive
Modification of immuno suppressive
Interferon
And Combination chemotherapy CHOP X 6.
For failure after chemotherapy immunotoxin (anti CD 20 B cell surface
antigen antibody).
AIDS related lymphoma
HIV infection + CDL4 count lymphocytes < 200
Low dose: CHOP (50%) GCSF
HIV Patients with CDL4 counts > 200
Full dose: CHOP GCSF
Primary CNS lymphoma in AID Patients
Radiation to brain + Decadron.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
167
COP (CVP)
Cyclophosphamide 400 mg/m
2
iv or oral day 1-5
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Prednison 100 mg/m
2
p.o or iv day 1-5
Continue on day 22
CHOP / R-CHOP)
Cyclophosphamide 750mg/m
2
iv day 1
Adriamycin 50mg/m
2
iv day 1
Vincristine 1.4mg/m
2
iv day 1
Prednisolon 60mg p.o day 1-5
Rituximab 375 mg/m2 iv day 1
Continue on day 22.
Drug dosages are depends from WBC and platelet count/l on the day of
administration.
Courses are indicated every 3 weeks for 6-8 courses.
CHOP
WBC Platlets Dose
>4000 >130000 100% all drugs
3900-2500 129-80000 50%CPA+ADR, 100%VCR
2500-1500 7200-50000 50%VCR only
<1500 <50000 No drugs, except prednisone
R-CHOP: Rituximab-CHOP
F-R: Fludarabine-rituximab
NHL- High Grade
Centroblastic Lymphomas
Stage II/IIE ---------Radiotherapy + Chemotherapy
Stage III-IV --------Chemotherapy (CHOP)
For recidive ------ (COP-BLAM)
COP-BLAM
C: Cyclophosphamid 400 mg/m
2
iv day 1
O: Vincristin 1 mg/m
2
iv day 1
P: Prednison 40 mg/m
2
p.o day 1-10
BL: Bleomycin 15 mg iv day 14
A: Adriamycin 40 mg/m
2
iv day 1
M: Procarbazin 100 mg/m
2
p.o day 1-10
Continue on day 22 ---- for 6 cycles.
If there is no response then use IMEP for only 2 courses.
Immunoblastic Lymphomas
Stage I/IE-II -------Radiotherapy then Chemotherapy (CHOP)
Stage III-IV -------Chemotherapy (COP-BLAM)(6 cycles)
Alternative (CHOEP) (4 cycles)
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
168
CHOEP
Cyclophosphamid 750 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Adriamycin 50 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Vincristin 2 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Etoposid 100 mg/m
2
iv day 1-3
Prednison 100 mg p.o day 1-5
Relapse after CHOP:
1.local relapse ------> RADIOTHERAPY
2. Systemic relapse ------> CHEMOTHERAPY (IMEP)
IMEP
IFOSFAMID 1000 mg/m
2
iv day 1,2,3,4,5
METHOTRXAT 30 mg/m
2
iv day 3 and 10
ETOPOSID 100 mg/m
2
iv inf. day 1-3
PREDNISON 40 mg/m
2
p.o day 1-5
CONTINUE ON DAY 22
Burkitt's lymphoma
Staging:
A: single extraabdominal tumor
B: multiple extraabdominal tumors
C: intraabdominal tumor including kidneys or gonads
D: intraabdominal tumor with one or more extraabdominal manifes-
tation (BM, CNS)
AR: Stage C but 90% of the tumor operated
Prognosis is improved when bulky abdominal tumor can be resected. Then
chemotherapy with:
COMP
Cyclophosphamide 1000 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Vincristine 1.4 mg/m
2
iv day 1
Methotrexate 12.5 mg/m
2
i.th day 2+5
Methotrexate 12.5 mg/m
2
iv day 1-5
Prednison 100 mg/m
2
iv day 1-5
Repeat the cycle on day 15-22
MALT-Lymphomas
Like other low-grade lymphomas, MALT lymphomas are probably
incurable with standard chemotherapy approaches. The treatment
approach to MALT lymphomas is similar to that used for other low-
grade NHLs. MALT lymphoma affecting the stomach is associated with
previous H pylori infection, but a causative role for this organism is
unproven. Complete eradication of H pylori after treatment with
bismuth and/or omeprazole (Prilosec), amoxicillin, and metronidazole
frequently leads to disappearance of symptoms and histologic complete
remission. In most cases, some evidence of histologic response to
treatment of the H pylori infection is evident 2-3 months following
eradication of the organism.
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
169
H Pylori associated MALT:- Multiagent antibiotic, follow-up endoscopy,
if H. Pylori not eradicated second course of antibiotic is indicated. MALT
may take long time to regress.
Persistence MALT:- Six months after eradiation: Single agent
chemotherapy e.g.: Chlorambucil or upper abdominal radiation.
Patient with H. Pylori and MALT lymphoma need long term follow up
these patients may relapsed years or decades later
Eradication therapy for H. Pylori in MALT lymphoma
Omperzole 20 mg PO BID
Clarithromycin 500 mg PO BID
Amoxicillin 1gm PO BID or Metronidazole 500 mg PO BID
Duration 2 weeks.
Surgical and chemotherapy intervention
In low-grade malignant lymphomas (stage I-II) after surgical intervention,
the radiotherapy is indicated. Chemotherapy is according to the condition
of the patient.
Radiotherapy
It is indicated in the following cases:
1. Lymphoma of Waldeyer's ring
2. Thyroid gland lymphoma
3. Mycosis fungoides
4. Primary CNS lymphoma.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When Reed-Sternberg cells are found in a lymph node biopsy, they are
indicative of
a. Hodgkins disease
b. Intermediate grade
c. Se
zary syndrome
d. High Grade lymphoma
2. The Reed-Sternberge cell is characterized as having
a. A thin nuclear membrane
b. Only one nucleus
c. Large nucleoli with a distinct halo
d. A smaller size than normal lymphocyte.
3. The definitive diagnostic test for Hodgkins disease is a
a. Complete blood count
b. Serum iron quantitation
c. Bone marrow biopsy
d. Lymph node biopsy
4. Lymph node biopsies in NHL show mostly
CLINICAL HEMATOLOGY
170
a. Many normal cells mixed with a small number of neoplastic cells
b. Many uniform, similar appearing neoplastic cells
c. Many Reed-Sternberg cells
d. Malignant T lymphocytes
5. During treatment for lymphoma, one common effect of a single course of
combination chemotherapy includes a significant.
a. Decrease in granulocytes
b. Increase in platelets
c. Decrease in erythrocytes
d. Increase in leukocytes
6. Mycosis Fungoides and se