Author(s): Earl Miner Reviewed work(s): Source: Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, Vol. 2, No. 3, Restoration and Eighteenth Century (Summer, 1962), pp. 309-320 Published by: Rice University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/449481 . Accessed: 23/11/2011 12:50 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Rice University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900. http://www.jstor.org Some Characteristics of Dryden's Use of Metaphor EARL MINER I used to seek and find out grand lines and stanzas; but my delight has been far greater since it has con- sisted more in tracing the leading thought thro'out the whole. (Coleridge, Lectures, 1818) IN DOING full justice for perhaps the first time to one of our major groups of poets, the revival of the Metaphysi- cal poets a generation ago also set the history of English litera- ture into better perspective. The events following this major change in our taste have made it impossible to regard English poetry as a tradition with the twin peaks of Elizabethan and Romantic accomplishment. The change in taste led to the challenging of Milton, the revaluation of Pope, and to renewed appreciation of seventeenth century poetry. We need not con- gratulate ourselves too heartily, however, for what has been primarily a Romantic rejection of Romanticism. If the change had been sounder-if it had not entailed a rejection of Roman- ticism-Wordsworth, Shelley, and Tennyson would not have had to undergo the drubbing of recent times. (As many have observed, both the "classicism" and the anti-Romanticism of T. E. Hulme and others were less classical than Romantic.) Donne and the other Metaphysicals were first given justice be- cause they shared with the Romantic poets the essential charac- teristic of poetry since 1800: the private mode. The shift in taste was easy, from a private poetry rich in emotional texture to another private poetry tough in intellectual fiber. The subsequent events lead us toward the present renewed interest in Dryden. Obeying few laws but his own, Milton was certain to be questioned; and being Milton, he was equally certain to silence his accusers. Then F. R. Leavis and others set about to march forward toward the Romantics, to follow the "line of wit," the continuation of qualities esteemed in Donne on to Pope. Since Pope if any poet is witty, and since he often echoes Donne, it was easy to make out a case which raised him once again in general esteem. As more than one person 310 D RYDEN'S USE OF METAPHOR has pointed out, however, appreciating Pope as another Donne does not take us very far. Yet when once Pope had been praised for labors not his own, it was easier to re-examine his real practice; and sooner or later Dryden was sure to benefit from the study of Pope-especially since T. S. Eliot's measured praise and Mark Van Doren's careful examination of Dryden had al- ready brought attention to him as the last of the great poets between the Elizabethans and the Romantics to have been dis- praised or ignored. Grierson wisely observed of Van Doren's book, however, that it only "writ large" Arnold's strictures against Dryden and Pope. Subtle and helpful as they are, Eliot and Van Doren leave us feeling that Dryden, if not Pope, is a classic of our prose rather than of our poetry. The notion is derived either from a lack of sympathy with, or understanding of, Dryden's values, his conception of the place of man in time and eternity, and the cast of his mind. Such large matters defy treatment in a short essay, but it is possible to analyze in brief some aspects of his style which have also been misunderstood, I feel, and which have certainly prevented appreciation. For if IDonne's private mode produced a poetry fundamentally like that of the Romantics, it has been possible to set aside the public mode Pope shares with Dryden and to turn attention rather to Pope's extraordinarily rich verse texture, which has its own resemblance to Romantic imagery: imagistically The Rape of the Lock is in some respects more like Tintern Abbey or The Wasteland than is Dryden's Anne Killigrew Ode. There is a danger, and an inherent injustice to both poets, in the expectation that Dryden's use of imagery should be the same as Pope's. There appear to be four characteristics assigned to Dryden's poetry today which are held to be detrimental. He mistakenly tries to say something; he sets too high a premium on clarity; he uses the heroic couplet too exclusively; and his Augustan rhetoric is somehow unpoetic. Now the fact is that such "faults" more nearly describe the poetry of Pope than that of Dryden; and of the last three it may be said that what Dryden made good Pope perfected. We must search for Dryden's special genius elsewhere. He is not primarily a poet of striking passages or of noble fragments, but a creator of poetic wholes articulated with great skill and beauty throughout many parts. To appre- ciate him, we must seek poetic delight-in a poet whose learn- ing is only now being appreciated-as Coleridge came to, by E A R L M I N E R "tracing the leading thought thro'out the whole." One of his characteristic metaphors for poetry is music, another architec- ture; and in his poetry no more than in these arts can we under- stand the design of the whole by seeking to admire a single phrase or column. The way to appreciative understanding is through a poet's special strengths; since one of Dryden's great strengths is metaphor, albeit of a kind different in essential respects from most other poets', I shall use it as the center of discussion, beginning with the small and going on to larger wholes. Two isolated lines of striking application to our experience today provide a useful beginning-useful in allowing us to make distinctions, since one is but ordinary, the other superior Dryden. Yet still war seems on either side to sleep. (All for Love, I.i) And peace itself is war in masquerade. (Absalom and Achitophel, 1.752) Both lines do say something about specific situations in their contexts, as also about human experience. The first is weaker, however, because its rhetoric is misleading. There is little reason for the alliteration of "seems . . . side . . . sleep" or for the assonance of "seems . . . sleeps'-no inevitability of the kind which raises rhetoric into high poetry. An actor might make something of the line by bearing down on "still" or "seems," but I doubt that the audience would much notice. There is in addition a metaphoric fuzziness to the line. War is personi- fied, but can a personification sleep "on either side"? It may indeed do so in Elizabethan and other kinds of poetry where incantation is a major resource, but in the context of Dryden's style the metaphor is less pleasing. The second line gives us Dryden's true energy, that combination of strength in unob- trusive rhetoric and syntactic motion which carries us force- fully onward. The metaphor is a perfect example of discordia concors, since peace cannot possibly be war unless one of the two is somehow changed. The logic of the line is of course that war, or warlike men, artfully take on the disguise of peace; but the predication of the line is rather that peace is war: we have not a new war but a new, fearful kind of peace. The 311 312 D RY D E N' S U SE OF ME T A P H O R metaphor is at once clear, rich, and striking-the clarity alone allowing for the exciting force. With the proper function of saying something and of clarity in mind, we must go on to longer passages and whole works. Since they are apt to present greater problems, it is advisable to avoid those we can by reminding ourselves of what we mean by "metaphor." The simplest definition to win agreement is "an assertion of likeness or identity." I. A. Richards' well- known analysis of the constituents of metaphor into the tenor and the vehicle betrays, however, certain subsidiary assumptions which must be brought into the open. In Burns's line "O my luve's like a red, red rose," the vehicle is "rose" which stands for (by assertion of likeness) "luve," or the woman loved. In practice the distinction has implied that the vehicle must be a single image or a phrase comprising an image ("war in mas- querade"). That the unspoken assumption is too limited can be understood by referring back to the definition, to a host of poems or, more to the purpose, to the opening of Absalom and Achitophel. In pious times, ere priestcraft did begin, Before polygamy was made a sin; When man on many multiplied his kind, Ere one to one was cursedly confin'd; When nature prompted, and no law denied Promiscuous use of concubine and bride; Then Israel's monarch after Ileaven's own heart, His vigorous warmth did variously impart To wives and slaves; and, wide as his command, Scatter'd his Maker's image thro' the land. All would agree that the first six lines have few if any images, that they deal with ideas rather than with sensuous details. Yet they make up a tissue of temporal states likened to each other (and therefore metaphors) in a complex develop- ment. If the lines are diagrammed, we can see how Dryden wittily equates certain conditions at a specific historical moment. Each unit becomes a metaphor for the rest, since different as many of them are, all are bound together by the shared idea of a blessed past. Just as the idea controls the passage, so the rhetoric of alliteration joins the units from point to point, now saying the alliterated w/ords are alike in meaning, now that they are EARL MINER different. (I shall capitalize important words, italicize words of temporal significance, and break the passage into its constituent units.) In Pious times ere Priestcraft did begin before Polygamy was made a sin when Man on Many MIultiplied his kind ere One to One was Cursedly Confin'd when nature Prompted and no law denied Promiscuous use of concubine and bride. Each of the units begins with a temporal preposition or adverb, each advances in units of increasing length. The alliteration of Pious/Priestcraft follows the usual connotations, but the other words ironically deny the force of such sense (the metaphor is vwitty in that it is made to deny the "stock response"); for it is really Pious/Polygamy which are equated by the initial rhyme. The succeeding couplet is built upon the antithesis re- flected in the first of its lines by the alliteration of Man/Many/ Multiplied-words of increasing length; while the next, op- posed line is rigorously balanced by One/One . . . Cursedly/ Confin'd. The third couplet makes up one unit with Prompted/ Promiscuous joining halves of a brilliant subdued parallelism of ideas: nature concubine law bride The succeeding lines explore the logic of the initial temporal metaphors ("Then Israel's monarch . . . ") and are, if less schematic, even more complex. In their lack of images, the metaphors of the opening six lines are not characteristic of Dryden; they are an extreme case and must be presented as such, but their handling is in every other respect typical of the poet. I need not demonstrate the intellectual clarity of the lines: Dryden has something to say and says it. If he is at fault for saying something, then poetry has no business in em- ploying language. It cannot be that his poetry lacks complexity, or we should have understood him long ago. The truth of the matter is that he is in the highest (if also in a special) degree rich, complex and, in a word, difficult. The difficulty can be understood by considering what our austere, relatively simple 313 314 DRYDEN'S USE OF METAPHOR passage Absalom does in addition to what has been described. At the outset we must understand that the witty opening is not founded on that erotic daydreaming with which our hypo- critically prurient age likes to dismiss the Restoration. Dryden's lines embody a concept taken from a long tradition of Biblical scholarship (the poem, after all, speaks of David, Absalom, and Achitophel: II Samuel) in which the figure of David was central. The concept-one related to "Christian liberty"-is that progressively since the Fall of Man mankind has lost a measure of its freedom. A crucial issue in this tradition was polygamy, for how else might scholars who read the Bible for its historical accuracy explain that the great patriarchs were allowed several wives and concubines although men of later ages were "cursedly confin'd" to one? The matter is very com- plex, but the debate over polygamy (as well as the many mis- tresses of Charles) inspired writers to renew the issue, and David-the second king of Israel, long after the age of the patriarchs-was carefully discussed. Dryden could count on his age to recognize the subject at once. It is not so much the subject which is significant, however, as its treatment. The rhetoricians from ancient to modern times were agreed that the function of metaphor is amplification (in- cluding diminution). Metaphor consequently raises questions of tone-of elevation or lowering, of praise or blame. The opening of Absalom raises the question of the metaphors' tonal function: what attitude toward Charles are we meant to take? Are we to take them as amplifying figures redounding to his credit? If so, he is strangely damned with very sly praise. Are we to take them as diminishing figures critical of his immorality? If so, then matters are even stranger in a poem designed, among other things, to support him and which repeatedly, as implicit- ly here, imputes Godlike qualities to him. Dryden has clearly produced a tonal masterpiece in which irony is the solvent of opposed attitudes. He blames Charles by pretending to praise his/David's promiscuity. But the ironic praise-become-blame turns once more to praise amidst the laughter: for David/ Charles is creative, imitative of God, as the contrast with Achi- tophel/Shaftesbury's near sterility shows (170-172). The pas- sage provides a well-nigh miraculous solution of the problem Dryden faced:-of allowing for Charles's faults in such a way that they almost seem virtues. Almost-because anything fur- ther would have been evasion or bombast. He finds his solution EARL MINER by translating the historical issues of polygamy into metaphors of temporal states with particular focus upon David.l To mention David again is to suggest the final function of the initial metaphors, as also to give Drydenic point to Cole- ridge's statement that poetic wholes give more pleasure than poetic parts. Certainly we are meant to take pleasure in the witty opening lines, yet for every such passage or brilliant line in Dryden one could find several in Pope. What one seldom finds in Pope is Dryden's ability to create wholes in which structure, ideas, values, tone, and metaphors are but aspects of each other. This is what constitutes his distinctive genius,. what accounts for his difficulty and, the difficulty dealt with, what conveys his characteristic pleasure. For the passage with which Absalom begins takes us step by step into the allegory of the poem. The allegory is historical, in particular a Biblical metaphor handled with astonishing ease through a maze of details. I have observed that the figure of David is at the center of metaphors of temporal states (the blessed past of liberty) at the outset of the poem, but the point works in reverse as well. The metaphors are employed to shape the structure of the poem as they fuse the Biblical details: the metaphorical details combine into a grand metaphor of the whole (Biblical history reveals the meaning of modern events). Values as well as structure are involved. Charles is lent David's anointed king- ship and divine qualities: David was long identified as one of the Old Testament prototypes of Christ. And the metaphor gives meaning to the experience represented by the tenor: the con- fusion following the Popish Plot. The richness of the metaplhor can be most readily illustrated by a pair of later passag,es. From time to time within his allegory of Biblical history he has his characters themselves use Biblical history metaphorically, as when David/Charles says of himself and Absalom/Monmouth: Kings are the public pillars of the State, Born to sustain and prop the nation's weight; 'The opening lines of the poem have long been appreciated and glosscd -in numerous ways. In his extensive study of the poem-Dryden and the Conserva- tive Myth (New Haven, 1961)-Bernard N. Schilling emphasizes two functions of the opening passage other than those discussed in this essay: the insistence uponr Absalom's illegitimacy (and therefore his ineligibility to succeed to the throne),. pp. 147-148: and an initial focus upon Charles as a fallible human being, en- abling Dryden gradually to build up to Charles as "a majestic ruler . . . bring+- inm order to the world," p. 281. 315 316 DRYDEN'S USE OF METAPHOR If my young Samson will pretend a call To shake the column, let him share the fall, (953-956) It appears that David can create Biblical metaphors as easily as John Dryden. There are many such instances, but nothing testifies to Dryden's complete assurance in his control over the allegory so much as his willingness to take such a witty risk with it as he does for a moment to become deliberately ana- chronistic in speaking of the Catholic plotters: "Some thought they God's anointed meant to slay/By guns, invented since full many a day" (130-131). Dryden's use of larger metaphors, which are only rarely (Absalom, Hind and the Panther) allegories, represents a tech- nique which has not been given a satisfactory name. The com- mon phrase, "the Augustan metaphor," cannot properly be made to apply to the Biblical, pastoral, musical, and other metaphors he employs. Mlaynard Mack's phrase for the tech- nique in Pope's poetry, "the metaphor of tone" ("'Wit and Poetry and Pope': Some Observations on his Imagery" in Pope and his Contemporaries [London, 1949], p. 36) comes closer, but he binds it too narrowly to the mock-heroic. Moreover, we have seen that such larger metaphors involve structure, subject mat- ter, and thematic values as well. Perhaps "controlling meta- phor" will do as a term, since in poem after poem his individual metaphors fall into place as part of a vast design which is it- self metaphorical.2 How such a technique functions may readily be seen by inspecting MacFlec.knoe, which is especially useful in that it is familiar as also because it shows that we must often recognize in Dryden's poems that several controlling metaphors fuse into one. MacFlecknoe is usually called a mock-heroic poem, which in a very loose sense it is. Its satire functions by pretending to be praise. But if we compare it with Pope's Dunciad, where all the heroic, which is to say epic, devices are in full mock-action, then we must conclude that Dryden's poem is not mock-heroic in any strict or throughgoing sense. Its slight plot concerns, not 2Insofar as the controlling metaphors express and lend coherence to a body of thought, they are clearly related to the "conservative myth" discussed in great detail by Schilling, op. cit. Yet such an intellectual myth can function without controlling metaphors, as The Medal shows; and Dryden often creates "myths" of another sort: e.g., the descent of the angel in the two St. Cecilia Day poems or the Venus-Mars meeting of Cleopatra and Anthony in All for Love, the be- ginning of Act III. E A R L M I N E R heroic action, but a coronation; and Shadwell is hilariously praised as MacFlecknoe for being a dull writer. (Dryden's as- surance in his satire was to become Pope's sorrow in The Dun- ciad.) The basic subject of the poem is, then, literature, which is somehow bound up with pervasive imagery of coronation. In fact, we see that monarchy becomes a controlling metaphor for literature: Thro' all the realms of Nonsense, absolute . . . (6) That in this pile should reign a mighty prince, Born for a scourge of wit, and flail of sense, To whom true dulness should some Psyches [a Shad- well play] owe . .. (88-90) Leave writing plays, and choose for thy command Some peaceful province in acrostic land. (205-206) Such passages might be greatly multiplied, but in reading for them one ought also to discover another element: religion. The religious thread sometimes shows clearly when entwined with such another as monarchy-"As king by office, and as priest by trade"-but more often it is buried in allusion, another characteristic form of metaphor with Dryden. There are, then, three elements in the poem: monarchy, religion, and art (to take literature into its broader class). Each element grows from innumerable details, images, and specific metaphors into a controlling metaphor; each represents a major subject in the poem. The metaphor of monarchy is most im- portant to the structure of the poem, whose situation is a coronation. Art-architecture, music, and especially literature- is most important as the subject of the poem and touches Shadwell where it most hurts-his musical and literary pre- tentions. Religion, both classical and Christian, is most impor- tant in controlling the tone. But the really significant thing is that all three are constantly relevant in the poem and to each other; it is indeed no exaggeration to say that the three meta- phors function as metaphors for each other as well as for other tenors. Two examples will make this unusual technique clear. 317 318 D R r D EN'S USE OF METAPHOR The hoary prince in majesty appear'd, High on a throne of his own labors rear'd. (106-107) (High on a Throne of Royal State, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind . . . Satan exalted sat .. [Paradise Lost, 11.1-5]) Heywood and Shirley were but types of thee, Thou last great prophet of tautology: Even I, a dunce of more renown than they, Was sent before but to prepare thy way. (29-32) The echo of Milton combines the three metaphors: monarchy (Satan; "Prince. . . Majesty . . . throne"); art (the epic; "His own labors," i.e., Flecknoe's poetry published at his own ex- pense); and religion (the subject of the work alluded to, Paradise Lost). The second passage is more typical in com- bining but two of the metaphors: art (Heywood and Shirley, the earlier dramatists, "dunce") and religion ("prophet"). The religious metaphor dominates here, although it is largely sub- merged, the four lines suggesting obliquely that the early dra- matists are to Shadwell as the Old Testament prototypes of Christ were to Christ, "the last great prophet," for whom Fleck- noe is the John the Baptist preparing the way. Throughout the poem the controlling metaphors shift in such fashion from their own to each other's roles. (The fact was well recognized by the publisher or whoever gave the poem its subtitle: "A Satire upon the True-Blue/Protestant Poet T. S.," with its sure sense of the poem's intent.) Nowhere in the poem does their interrelatedness function more brilliantly than at the ending, which is appropriately an- ticlimactic. Since the long-winded King Flecknoe seems unwill- ing to finish his abdication speech with its praise of his successor, his newly anointed son, MacFlecknoe, sends "the yet declaiming bard" down what is clearly a stage trapdoor: just as two charac- ters in one of Shadwell's plays had treated another. The king's cloak is blown upwards as he falls: "The mantle fell to the young prophet's part/With double portion of his father's art" (216-217). The allusion to Elisha, who received the mantle of E A RL MIN E R Elijah (from above) with but half the older prophet's "art," shows how much luckier Shadwell is: in other words he is twice as dull as Flecknoe, four times curst to Elisha's blessing. Dry- den's control is perfect. Shadwell's progress is regress, and every- thing he represents is sterile or perverted. The controlling metaphors of Absalom and MacEFlecknoe are alike in certain crucial respects. In both poems the most minute particulars rise to form a vast design for the whole. In both the metaphors control the structure, tone, and values of the poem. They differ, however, in other important respects. The metaphor in Absalom is primarily Biblical-the complex of historical and heroic metaphor is subdued. MacFlecknoe, on the other hand, has three controlling metaphors functioning, each sufficiently important to act as a metaphor of another at any moment. More importantly, the metaphor of Absalom func- tions affirmatively, while those of MacFlecknoe are ironic. The whole point of the latter poem depends upon a recognition of the fact that fat, bibulous, dull Shadwell is not a prince, a prophet, or a real artist; the metaphors simply fail at each crucial juncture to work in the terms ironically presented. Shadwell is judged by the standards they represent and found wanting. To this point another of like significance must be added. In the ironic failure of the metaphors to hold (the tenor is never what the vehicle would have it be), it is not the values represented by the metaphors, but Shadwell, that is questioned. They are affirmed; he is mocked. Some people may yet assume that a "mock-heroic" mocks the heroic, as it obviously does not. In Absalom, on the other hand, however complex the irony becomes, both the characters of the poem and the values re- presented by the metaphor are amplified. Shadwell ends looking ridiculously foolish, but Shaftesbury/Achitophel is dangerous precisely because he is so great. Much more needs to be said upon the score of Dryden's imagery, if only because other poems show it used in other ways; and for a full understanding we shall need to relate it to other aspects of his style and to other fundamental qualities of his thought and practice. The application of the obvious if too seldom honored principle that each poet must be under- stood in terms of his own practice should show at least that although his imagery may give pleasure apart from the total structure of his poems and plays, the true pleasure, as also the true understanding, must be sought by a grasp of the whole. Yet 319 320 DRY D E N ' S USE OF METAPHOR if in so doing we come to give Dryden his full justice as one of the greatest "classics" of our poetry, it would betray the spirit of this writer, who is also a classic of our prose, if we were to fail to follow its example and bring to our own criticism an equally catholic appreciation and understanding of our other great English poets. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES