Mini Project Report: Submitted in Partial Fulfilments of The Requirements For The Award of The Degree of
Mini Project Report: Submitted in Partial Fulfilments of The Requirements For The Award of The Degree of
Mini Project Report: Submitted in Partial Fulfilments of The Requirements For The Award of The Degree of
/ B
*
+ [D
*
/ B
*
] [4.3]
P
R
+ j Q
R
= E
R
/ B
*
- [A
*
/ B
*
] [4.4]
13
Neglecting ac resistance drop in the line and transformer, the dc power P
dr
and
P
di
of each rectifier and inverter are given by
P
dr
= V
dr
I
d
[4.5]
P
di
= V
di
I
d
[4.6]
Reactive powers required by the converters are
Q
dr
= P
dr
tan
r
[4.7]
Q
di
= P
di
tan
i
[4.8]
[ (
)]
[4.9]
[ (
)] [4.10]
Where
i
and
r
are commutation angles of inverter and rectifier, respectively,
and total active and reactive powers at the two ends are
and
[4.11]
and
[4.12]
Figure: 4.2 Equivalent Circuit
14
Transmission loss for each line is
) (
) [4.13]
I
a
being the rms ac current per conductor at any point of the line, the total rms
current per conductor becomes
[
]
Power loss for each line = P
L
.
The net current I in any conductor is offseted from zero. In case of a fault in
the transmission system, gate signals to all the SCRs are blocked and that to the bypass SCRs
are released to protect rectifier and inverter bridges. The current in any conductor is no more
offseted. Circuit breakers (CBs) are then tripped at both ends to isolate the faulty line. CBs
connected at the two ends of transmission line interrupt current at natural current zeroes, and
no special dc CB is required. Now, allowing the net current through the conductor equal to
its thermal limit I
th
.
]
[4.14]
Let
be the per-
phase voltage of ac component of composite acdc line with dc voltage
superimposed
on it. As insulators remain unchanged, the peak voltage in both cases should be equal to
[4.15]
Electric field produced by any conductor possesses a dc component
superimpose on it a sinusoidal varying ac component. However, the instantaneous electric
field polarity changes its sign twice in a cycle if (
) is insured. Therefore,
higher creepage distance requirement for insulator discs used for HVDC lines are not
required. Each conductor is to be insulated for V
max
, but the line-to-line voltage has no dc
component and
and
[4.16]
15
The total power transfer through the double circuit line before conversion is as follows
[4.17]
Where X is the transfer reactance per phase of the single circuit line, and
is the power angle between the voltages at the two ends. To keep sufficient stability margin,
may be computed
from the loadability curve by knowing the values of surge impedance loading (SIL) and
transfer reactance of the line
[4.18]
Where M is the multiplying factor and its magnitude decreases with the length
of line. The value of M can be obtained from the load ability curve.
The total power transfer through the composite line
[4.19]
The power angle
( ) [4.20]
The rectifier dc current order is adjusted online as
[4.21]
Preliminary qualitative analysis suggests that commonly used techniques
in HVDC/AC system may be adopted for the purpose of the design of protective scheme,
filter, and instrumentation network to be used with the composite line for simultaneous acdc
power flow. In case of a fault in the transmission system, gate signals to all the SCRs are
blocked and that to the bypass SCRs are released to protect rectifier and inverter bridges. CBs
are then tripped at both ends to isolate the complete system. A surge diverter connected
between the zigzag neutral and the ground protects the converter bridge against any over
voltage.
16
5.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM MODEL
A synchronous machine is feeding power to infinite bus via a double circuit,
three-phase, 400-KV, 50-Hz, 450-Km ac transmission line. The 2750-MVA (5 * 550), 24.0-
KV synchronous machine is dynamically modelled, a field coil on d-axis and a damper coil
on q-axis, by Parks equations with the frame of reference based in rotor [4]. It is equipped
with an IEEE type AC4A excitation system of which block diagram is shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 4.3 IEEE type AC 4A excitation system
Transmission lines are represented as the Bergeron model. It is based on a
distributed LC parameter travelling wave line model, with lumped resistance. It represents the
L and C elements of a PI section in a distributed manner (i.e., it does not use lumped
parameters). It is roughly equivalent to using an infinite number of PI sections, except that
the resistance is lumped (1/2 in the middle of the line, 1/4 at each end). Like PI sections, the
Bergeron model accurately represents the fundamental frequency only. It also represents
impedances at other frequencies, except that the losses do not change. This model is suitable
for studies where the fundamental frequency load flow is most important.
The converters on each end of dc link are modelled as line commutated two
six- pulse bridge (12-pulse), Their control system consist of constant current (CC) and
constant extinction angle (CEA) and voltage dependent current order limiters (VDCOL)
control. The converters are connected to ac buses via Y-Y and Y- converter transformers.
Each bridge is a compact power system computer-aided design (SIMULINK) representation
of a dc converter, which includes a built in six-pulse Graetz converter bridge (can be inverter
or rectifier), an internal phase locked oscillator (PLO), firing and valve blocking controls, and
firing angle () /extinction angle () measurements. It also includes built in RC snubber
circuits for each thyristor. The controls used in dc system are those of CIGRE Benchmark,
modified to suit at desired dc voltage. Ac filters at each end on ac sides of converter
17
transformers are connected to filter out 11th and 13th harmonics. These filters and shunt
capacitor supply reactive power requirements of converters.
A master current controller (MCC), shown in Fig. 4, is used to control the
current order for converters. It measures the conductor ac current, computes the permissible
dc current, and produces dc current order for inverters and rectifiers.
Figure 4: Master Current Controller
18
6. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM COMPONENTS
6.1 CONVERTERS
In our system we need conversion of electrical energy from AC to DC
(rectifier) at the transmitting end and from DC to AC (inverter) at the receiving end. There
are three ways of achieving conversion:
1. Natural commutated converters
2. Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC)
3. Forced Commutated Converters
Natural commutated converters: These are most used in the HVDC systems as of today.
The component that enables this conversion process is the thyristor, which is a controllable
semiconductor that can carry very high currents (4000 A) and is able to block very high
voltages (up to 10 kV). By means of connecting the thyristors in series it is possible to build
up a thyristor valve, which is able to operate at very high voltages (several hundred of
kV).The thyristor valve is operated at net frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) and by means of a
control angle it is possible to change the DC voltage level of the bridge. This ability is the
way by which the transmitted power is controlled rapidly and efficiently.
An improvement in the thyristor-based commutation, the CCC concept is
characterized by the use of commutation capacitors inserted in series between the converter
transformers and the thyristor valves. The commutation capacitors improve the commutation
failure performance of the converters when connected to weak networks.
Forced Commutated converters: It introduce a spectrum of advantages, e.g. feed of passive
networks (without generation), independent control of active and reactive power, power
quality. The valves of these converters are built up with semiconductors with the ability not
only to turn-on but also to turn-off. They are known as VSC (Voltage Source Converters).
Two types of semiconductors are normally used in the voltage source converters: the GTO
(Gate Turn-Off Thyristor) or the IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor). Both of them
have been in frequent use in industrial applications since early eighties. The VSC commutates
with high frequency (not with the net frequency). The operation of the converter is achieved
by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). With PWM it is possible to create any phase angle
and/or amplitude (up to a certain limit) by changing the PWM pattern, which can be done
almost instantaneously. Thus, PWM offers the possibility to control both active and reactive
power independently. This makes the PWM Voltage Source Converter a close to ideal
component in the transmission network. From a transmission network viewpoint, it acts as a
19
motor or generator without mass that can control active and reactive power almost
instantaneously.
6.2 CONVERTER STATION:
Figure: 5.1 Main elements of a HVDC converter station with one bi-pole consisting of two
12-pulse converter unit.
The main components of a converter station are:
6.2.1 Thyristor valves:
The thyristor valves can be build-up in different ways depending on the
application and manufacturer. However, the most common way of arranging the thyristor
valves is in a twelve-pulse group with three quadruple valves. Each single thyristor valve
consists of a certain amount of series connected thyristors with their auxiliary circuits. All
communication between the control equipment at earth potential and each thyristor at high
potential is done with fiber optics.
6.2.2 VSC valves:
The VSC converter consists of two level or multilevel converter, phase
reactors and AC filters. Each single valve in the converter bridge is built up with a certain
number of series connected IGBTs together with their auxiliary electronics. VSC valves,
control equipment and cooling equipment would be in enclosures (such as standard shipping
containers) which make transport and installation very easy. All modern HVDC valves are
water-cooled and air insulated.
20
6.2.3 Transformers:
The converter transformers adapt the AC voltage level to the DC voltage level
and they contribute to the commutation reactance. Usually they are of the single phase three
winding type, but depending on the transportation requirements and the rated power, they can
be arranged in other ways.
6.2.4 AC Filters and Capacitor Banks:
On the AC side of a 12-pulse HVDC converter, current harmonics of the order
of 11, 13, 23, 25 and higher are generated. Filters are installed in order to limit the amount of
harmonics to the level required by the network. In the conversion process the converter
consumes reactive power which is compensated in part by the filter banks and the rest by
capacitor banks. In the case of the CCC the reactive power is compensated by the series
capacitors installed in series between the converter valves and the converter transformer. The
elimination of switched reactive power compensation equipment simplify the AC switchyard
and minimize the number of circuit-breakers needed, which will reduce the area required for
an HVDC station built with CCC. With VSC converters there is no need to compensate any
reactive power consumed by the converter itself and the current harmonics on the AC side are
related directly to the PWM frequency. Therefore the amount of filters in this type of
converters is reduced dramatically compared with natural commutated converters.
6.2.5 DC filters:
HVDC converters create harmonics in all operational modes. Such harmonics
can create disturbances in telecommunication systems. Therefore, specially designed DC
filters are used in order to reduce the disturbances. Usually no filters are needed for pure
cable transmissions as well as for the Back-to-Back HVDC stations. However, it is necessary
to install DC filters if an OH line is used in part or all the transmission system the filters
needed to take care of the harmonics generated on the DC end, are usually considerably
smaller and less expensive than the filters on the AC side. The modern DC filters are the
Active DC filters. In these filters the passive part is reduced to a minimum and modern power
electronics is used to measure, invert and re-inject.
21
6.2.6 12-PULSE CONVERTER
Figure: 5.2 12 Pulse Converter Bridge
The basic design for practically all HVDC converters is the 12-pulse double
bridge converter which is shown in Figure below. The converter consists of two 6-pulse
bridge converters connected in series on the DC side. One of them is connected to the AC
side by an YY-transformer, the other by a YD transformer. The AC currents from each 6-
pulse converter will then be phase shifted 30. This will reduce the harmonic content in the
total current drawn from the grid, and leave only the characteristic harmonics of order 12
m1, m=1,2,3..., or the 11th, 13th, 23th, 25th etc., harmonic.
The non-characteristic harmonics will still be present, but considerably
reduced. Thus the need for filtering is substantially reduced, compared to 6-pulse converters.
The 12-pulse converter is usually built up of 12 thyristor valves. Each valve consists of the
necessary number of thyristors in series to withstand the required blocking voltage with
sufficient margin. Normally there is only one string of thyristors in each valve, no parallel
connection. Four valves are built together in series to form a quadruple valve and three
quadruple valves together with converter transformer, controls and protection equipment,
constitute a converter. The converter transformers are usually three winding transformers
with the windings in YY d N-connection. There can be one three-phase or three single phase
transformers, according to local circumstances. In order to optimize the relationship between
AC- and DC voltage the converter transformers are equipped with tap changers.
22
6.2.7 Converter bridge angles
These are the various electrical angles which define the operation of converter
bridges. These angles are measured on the three phase valve side voltages and are based upon
steady state conditions with a harmonic free and idealized three phase commutation voltage.
They apply to both inverters and rectifiers.
6.2.7.1 Delay angle :
The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the zero crossing of the
idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage to the starting instant of forward current
conduction. This angle is controlled by the gate firing pulse and if less than 90 degrees, the
converter bridge is a rectifier and if greater than 90 degrees, it is an inverter. This angle is
often referred to as the firing angle.
5.2.7.2 Advance angle :
The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the starting instant of
forward current conduction to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating
voltage. The angle of advance is related in degrees to the angle of delay by = 180
6.2.7.3 Overlap angle :
The duration of commutation between two converter valve arms expressed in
electrical angular measure.
6.2.7.4 Extinction angle :
The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the end of current
conduction to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage.
depends on the angle of advance and the angle of overlap and is determined by the
relation:
= -
6.2.8 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is possible with a delay angle of < 90degrees. Rectification is
the process of converting alternating current into unidirectional current i.e. AC to DC. The
output of the rectifier is not pure dc which was in pulsating nature this rectification may be
done by unidirectional devices like diodes and bidirectional devices like Thyristors IGBT
etc...
23
6.2.9 INVERSION:
Because the thyristors conducts only in one direction, the current in a
converter cannot be reversed. Power reversal can only be obtained by the reversal of direct
voltage V
d
. For inversion to be possible, a high value of inductance must be present, and the
delay angle >90degrees, since V
d
changes its polarity at this angle. The theoretical
maximum delay for inversion would occur at = 180 degrees. Thus it is common practice to
define a period of advance from this point rather than a delay from the previous cross-over as
defined for rectification. Thus we define = as the ignition angle for inversion or the
angle of advance. Similarly the extinction angle is also defined as = -w. The definition of
commutation angle unchanged. Thus = +. It must be noted, that unlike with rectification
which can be operated with = 0, inversion cannot be carried out with = 0, since a
minimum angle is required for deionization of the arc and regaining grid control. Thus we
have the practical relationship < < /2. Practical values of lie between 1 and 8.
6.3 ZIG - ZAG TRANSFORMERS
6.3.1 Introduction
The load unbalance and the nonlinear loads result in a significant neutral
current in the three-phase four-wire distribution power system. The Zigzag transformer has
been proposed to attenuate the neutral current of the three-phase four-wire distribution power
system. The Zigzag transformer is tested under ideal and non ideal power conditions and the
test results show that
(a) The Zigzag transformer can effectively attenuate the neutral current and zero -
sequence harmonic currents on the utility side under the balanced utility voltage,
(b) The utility side neutral current becomes larger under the unbalanced utility voltage
or the distorted utility voltage with zero sequence harmonic components after applying the
Zigzag transformer.
(c) The insertion of an inductor in the utility side of the neutral conductor can
alleviate overloading of the neutral current caused by the unbalanced utility voltages and the
distorted utility voltages with zero sequence harmonic components.
Zigzag transformer is a special connection of three single-phase transformers
windings or a three-phase transformers windings. The circuit connection is as shown in
Fig.5.3 (a).
24
Figure: 5.3 Zig Zag Transformer: (a) Circuit connection (b) Phasor diagram
25
6.3.2 FEATURES OF ZIG-ZAG TRANSFORMERS
(1) Due to its composition, a zigzag transformer is more effective for grounding purposes
because it has less internal winding impedance going to the ground than when using a
wye-type transformer.
(2) The impedance of the transformer to the balanced three-phase voltages is high so that
when there is no fault on the system, only a small magnetizing current flows in the
transformer winding.
(3) The transformer divides the ground-fault current into three equal components; these
currents are in phase with each other and flow in the three windings of the grounding
transformer.
(4) Zigzag connection is used in power system to trap triple harmonic (3
rd
, 9
th
, 15
th
etc.)
currents.
(5) Zigzag units are installed near loads that produce large triple harmonic currents. The
windings trap the harmonic currents and prevent them from traveling upstream, where
they can produce undesirable effects.
6.4 FILTERS
6.4.1 Introduction
In many practical applications of complex circuits, various combinations of
direct, low-frequency, audio-frequency, and radio-frequency currents may exist. It is
frequently necessary to have a means for separating these component currents at any desired
point. An electrical device for accomplishing this separation is called a FILTER.
A filter circuit consists of inductance, capacitance, and resistance used
singularly or in combination, depending upon the purpose. It may be designed so that it will
separate alternating current from direct current, or so that it will separate alternating current
of one frequency (or a band of frequencies) from other alternating currents of different
frequencies. The use of resistance by itself in filter circuits does not provide any filtering
action, because it opposes the flow of any current regardless of its frequency. What it does,
when connected in series or parallel with an inductor or capacitor, is to decrease the
"sharpness," or selectivity, of the filter. Hence, in some particular application, resistance
might be used in conjunction with inductance or capacitance to provide filtering action over a
wider band of frequencies
26
Filter circuits may be divided into four general types:
1. LOW-PASS filters.
2. HIGH-PASS filters.
3. BANDPASS filters.
4. BAND-REJECT filters.
Electronic circuits often have currents of different frequencies. The reason is
that a source produces current with the same frequency as the applied voltage. As an
example, the a.c. signal input to an audio amplifier can have high- and low-audio frequencies;
the input to an RF amplifier can have a wide range of radio frequencies. In such applications
where the current has different frequency components, it is usually necessary for the filter
either to accept or reject one frequency or a group of frequencies. The electronic filter that
can pass on the higher-frequency components to a load or to the next circuit is known as a
HIGH-PASS filter. A LOW-PASS filter can be used to pass on lower-frequency components
The types of filters used in this project are: 1. Tuned A.C Filters
2. High Pass Filters
6.4.2 Tuned A.C Filters
In continuous Tune AC the tuning frequency is automatically adjusted to
provide prefect tuning irrespective of network frequency excursions and filter component
variations. The high performance of the continuous Tune filter is achieved by using a filter
reactor with variable inductance. The variable inductance is achieved with an iron core,
which is placed inside the reactor. Around the iron core there is a control winding. By feeding
a corrective direct current into the control winding, the total magnetic flux in the reactor is
influenced, thereby changing the inductance, which tunes the filter to the correct frequency of
the harmonic.
On the AC side of a 12-pulse HVDC converter, current harmonics of the order
of 11, 13, 23, 25 and higher are generated. Filters are installed in order to limit the amount of
harmonics to the level required by the network. In the conversion process the converter
consumes reactive power which is compensated in part by the filter banks and the rest by
capacitor banks.
6.4.3 High Pass Filters:
A high-pass filter circuit passes all currents having a frequency higher than a
specified frequency, while opposing all currents having a frequency lower than its specified
frequency. This is illustrated in figure 3.3.2. A capacitor that is used in series with the source
27
of both high and low frequencies, as shown in view (A) of figure 3.3.3, will respond
differently to high-frequency, low-frequency, and direct currents. It will offer little opposition
to the passage of high-frequency currents, great opposition to the passage of low-frequency
currents, and completely block direct currents.
The value of the capacitor must be chosen so that it allows the passage of all
currents having frequencies above the desired value, and opposes those having frequencies
below the desired value. Then, in order to shunt the undesired low-frequency currents back to
the source, an inductor is used. This inductor must have a value that will allow it to pass
currents having frequencies below the frequency cut-off point, and reject currents having
frequencies above the frequency cut-off point, thus forcing them to pass through the
capacitor. By combining inductance and capacitance you obtain the simplest type of high-
pass filter.
6.5 SHUNT CAPACITORS
6.5.1 Introduction
Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply
and the efficient operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the
system can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive
and can be easily installed anywhere on the network.
Shunt capacitor banks (SCB) are mainly installed to provide capacitive
reactive compensation power factor correction. The use of SCBs has increased because they
are relatively inexpensive, easy and quick to install and can be deployed virtually anywhere
in the network. Its installation has other beneficial effects on the system such as:
improvement of the voltage at the load, better voltage regulation (if they were adequately
designed), reduction of losses and reduction or postponement of investments in transmission.
The main disadvantage of SCB is that its reactive power output is proportional to the square
of the voltage and consequently when the voltage is low and the system needs them most,
they are the least efficient.
6.5.2 THE CPACITOR UNIT
The capacitor unit is the building block of a shunt capacitor bank. The
capacitor unit is made up of individual capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/ series
connected groups, within a steel enclosure. The internal discharge device is a resistor that
reduces the unit residual voltage to 50V or less in 5 min. Capacitor units are available in a
variety of voltage ratings (240 V to 24940V) and sizes (2.5 kvar to about 1000 kvar).
28
7. INTRODUTION ABOUT MATLAB
Simulink is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for
dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a
customizable set of block libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety
of time-varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video
processing, and image processing.
Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as provide
tools for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks.
Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of
tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch
processing scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and
test data.
Key Features
Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks
Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams
Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design
components
Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters,
properties, and generated code associated with your model
Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other simulation
programs and incorporate hand-written code
Embedded MATLAB Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into
Simulink and embedded system implementations
Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid Accelerator) for running simulations
interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds using fixed- or variable-step solvers
Graphical debugger and profiler to examine simulation results and then diagnose
performance and unexpected behaviour in your design
Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results, customizing the modelling
environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test data Model analysis and diagnostics
tools to ensure model consistency and identify modelling errors.
29
Creating and Working with Models
With Simulink, you can quickly create, model, and maintain a detailed block diagram of
your system using a comprehensive set of predefined blocks. Simulink provides tools for
hierarchical modeling, data management, and subsystem customization, making it easy to
create concise, accurate representations, regardless of your system's complexity.
Selecting and Customizing Blocks
Simulink software includes an extensive library of functions commonly used in modeling a
system. These include:
Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay
Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table
Structural blocks, such as Mux, Switch, and Bus Selector
You can customize these built-in blocks or create new ones directly in Simulink and place
them into your own libraries.
Running a Simulation
After building your model in Simulink, you can simulate its dynamic behavior and view the
results live. Simulink software provides several features and tools to ensure the speed and
accuracy of your simulation, including fixed-step and variable-step solvers, a graphical
debugger, and a model profiler.
Using Solvers
Solvers are numerical integration algorithms that compute the system dynamics over time
using information contained in the model. Simulink provides solvers to support the
simulation of a broad range of systems, including continuous-time (analog), discrete-time
(digital), hybrid (mixed-signal), and multirate systems of any size.
These solvers can simulate stiff systems and systems with state events, such as
discontinuities, including instantaneous changes in system dynamics. You can specify
simulation options, including the type and properties of the solver, simulation start and stop
times, and whether to load or save simulation data. You can also set optimization and
30
diagnostic information for your simulation. Different combinations of options can be saved
with the model.
Analyzing Results
Simulink includes several tools for analyzing your system, visualizing results, and testing,
validating, and documenting your models.
Visualizing Results
You can visualize the system by viewing signals with the displays and scopes provided in
Simulink software. Alternatively, you can build your own custom displays using
MATLAB visualization and GUI development tools. You can also log signals for post-
processing.
To gain deeper insight into complex 3-D motion of your dynamic system, you can
incorporate virtual reality scenes into your visualization using Simulink 3D
Animation software (available separately).
Testing and Validating Your Models
Simulink includes tools to help you generate test conditions and validate your model's
performance. MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It
Integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use
Environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
Mathematical notation. Typical uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modelling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
31
Application development, including graphical user interface building MATLAB is an
interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning.
This allows you to solve many technical these include blocks for creating simulation tests.
The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like
sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.
The MATLAB Language
This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
Functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming
Features. It allows both programming in the small to rapidly create quick
And dirty throw-away programs, and programming in the large to create
Large and complex application programs.
Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as
graphs, as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level
functions for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization
Starting MATLAB
On Windows platforms, start MATLAB by double-clicking the MATLAB
Shortcut icon on your Windows desktop. On UNIX platforms, start MATLAB by typing
Mat lab at the operating system prompt.
You can customize MATLAB start-up. For example, you can change the
directory in which MATLAB starts or automatically execute MATLAB
Statements in a script file named startup.m.
32
Matrices and Magic Squares
In MATLAB, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. Special meanings sometimes
attached to 1-by-1 matrices, which are scalars, and to matrices with only one row or column,
which are vectors. MATLAB has other ways of storing both numeric and nonnumeric data,
but in the beginning, it is usually best to think of everything as a matrix. The operations in
MATLAB are designed to be as natural as possible. Where other programming languages
work with numbers one at a time, MATLAB allows you to work with entire matrices quickly
and easily. A good example matrix, used throughout this book, appears in the Renaissance
engraving Melencolia I by the German artist and amateur mathematician Albrecht Durer.
This image is filled with mathematical symbolism, and if you look carefully, you will see a
matrix in the upper right corner. This matrix is known as magic square and was believed by
many in Durers time to have genuinely magical properties. It does turn out to have some
fascinating characteristics worth exploring.
33
8. SIMULATION
8.1 SIMULINK MODEL USING AC TRANSMISSION
Figure: 6.1 Simulink model using AC Transmission
p
h
i
=
8
0
d
e
g
.
3
r
d
h
a
r
m
.
p
o
w
e
r
u
p
g
r
a
d
i
n
g
b
y
c
o
m
b
i
n
i
n
g
a
c
d
c
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
5
0
0
k
V
,
6
0
H
z
5
0
0
0
M
V
A
e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
3
4
5
k
V
,
6
0
H
z
,
1
0
,
0
0
0
M
V
A
e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
p
h
i
=
8
0
d
e
g
.
3
r
d
h
a
r
m
.
W
a
r
n
in
g
!!
,
U
n
d
e
fin
e
d
s
a
m
p
le
t
im
e
Z
ig
z
a
g
P
h
a
s
e
-
S
h
ift
in
g
T
r
a
n
s
fo
r
m
e
r
3
A
+
B
+
C
+
A
-
B
-
C
-
a
3
b
3
c
3
Z
ig
z
a
g
P
h
a
s
e
-
S
h
ift
in
g
T
r
a
n
s
fo
r
m
e
r
2
A
+
B
+
C
+
A
-
B
-
C
-
a
3
b
3
c
3
Z
ig
z
a
g
P
h
a
s
e
-
S
h
ift
in
g
T
r
a
n
s
fo
r
m
e
r
1
A
+
B
+
C
+
A
-
B
-
C
-
a
3
b
3
c
3
Z
ig
z
a
g
P
h
a
s
e
-
S
h
ift
in
g
T
r
a
n
s
fo
r
m
e
r
A
+
B
+
C
+
A
-
B
-
C
-
a
3
b
3
c
3
T
h
r
e
e
-
P
h
a
s
e
V
o
lt
a
g
e
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
V
a
b
c
Ia
b
c
ABC
abc
T
h
r
e
e
-
P
h
a
s
e
P
a
r
a
lle
l
R
L
C
L
o
a
d
A
B
C
S
c
o
p
e
2
S
c
o
p
e
1
A
B
C
A
C
filt
e
r
s
5
0
H
z
6
0
0
M
v
a
r
A
B
C
A
C
filt
e
r
s
6
0
H
z
6
0
0
M
v
a
r
D
is
t
r
ib
u
t
e
d
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
L
in
e
1
D
is
t
r
ib
u
t
e
d
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
L
in
e
D
is
c
r
e
t
e
3
-
p
h
a
s
e
P
L
L
-
D
r
iv
e
n
P
o
s
it
iv
e
-
S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
A
c
t
iv
e
&
R
e
a
c
t
iv
e
P
o
w
e
r
F
r
e
q
S
in
_
C
o
s
V
a
b
c
Ia
b
c
M
a
g
_
V
_
I
P
_
Q
D
is
c
r
e
t
e
3
-
p
h
a
s
e
P
L
L
V
a
b
c
(
p
u
)
F
r
e
q
w
t
S
in
_
C
o
s
ABC
ABC
ABC
ABC
ABC
ABC
34
8.2 SIMULINK MODEL USING AC DC TRANSMISSION
Figure: 6.2 Simulink model using combined AC DC Transmission
35
8.3 BLOCK FUNCTIONS
8.3.1 THREE-PHASE SOURCE:
The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage
source with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a
neutral connection that can be internally grounded or made accessible. You can specify the
source internal resistance and inductance either directly by entering R and L values or
indirectly by specifying the source inductive short-circuit level and X/R ratio.
8.3.2 THREE-PHASE PARALLEL RL BRANCH
The Three-Phase Parallel RLC Branch block implements three balanced
branches consisting each of a resistor, an inductor, a capacitor, or a parallel combination of
these. To eliminate the resistance, inductance, or capacitance of each branch, the R, L, and C
values must be set respectively to infinity (INF), infinity (INF), and 0. Only existing elements
are displayed in the block icon. Negative values are allowed for resistance, inductance, and
capacitance
8.3.3 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER (Three Winding)
This block implements a three-phase transformer by using three single-phase
transformers with three windings. You can simulate the saturable core or not simply by
setting the appropriate check box in the parameter menu of the block. See the Linear
Transformer and Saturable Transformer block sections for a detailed description of the
electrical model of a single-phase transformer.
The three windings of the transformer can be connected in the following
manner: Y -Y with accessible neutral (for windings 1 and 3 only) Grounded Y Delta (D1),
delta lagging Y by 30 degrees Delta (D11), delta leading Y by 30 degrees.
36
8.3.4 ZIGZAG PHASE-SHIFTING TRANSFORMER
The Zigzag Phase-Shifting Transformer block implements a three-phase
transformer with a primary winding connected in a zigzag configuration and a configurable
secondary winding. The model uses three single-phase, three- winding transformers. The
primary winding connects the windings 1 and 2 of the single-phase transformers in a zigzag
configuration. The secondary winding uses the windings 3 of the single phase transformers,
and they can be connected in one of the following ways:
1. Y
2. Y with accessible neutral
3. Grounded Y
4. Delta (D1), delta lagging Y by 30 degrees
5. Delta (D11), delta leading Y by 30 degrees
8.3.5 UNIVERSAL BRIDGE
The Universal Bridge block implements a universal three-phase power
converter that consists of up to six power switches connected in a bridge configuration.
The type of power switch and converter configuration is selectable from the
dialog box. The Universal Bridge block allows simulation of converters using both naturally
commutated (and line-commutated) power electronic devices (diodes or thyristors) and
forced-commutated devices (GTO, IGBT, and MOSFET). The Universal Bridge block is the
basic block for building two-level voltage-sourced converters (VSC).
Zigzag
Phase-Shifting Transformer
A+
B+
C+
A-
B-
C-
a3
b3
c3
37
8.3.6 CONNECTION PORT
The Connection Port block, placed inside a subsystem composed of Sim
Power Systems blocks, creates a Physical Modelling open round connector port on the
boundary of the subsystem. Once connected to a connection line, the port becomes solid.
Once you begin the simulation, the solid port becomes an electrical terminal port, an open
square.
You connect individual SimPowerSystems blocks and subsystems made of
SimPowerSystems blocks to one another with SimPowerSystems connection lines, instead of
normal Simulink signal lines. These are anchored at the open, round connector ports.
Subsystems constructed of SimPowerSystems blocks automatically have such open round
connector ports. You can add additional connector ports by adding Connection Port blocks to
your subsystem.
8.3.7 BREAKER
The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing
times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal (external control mode), or
from an internal control timer (internal control mode). The arc extinction process is simulated
by opening the breaker device when the current passes through 0 (first current zero crossing
following the transition of the Simulink control input from 1 to 0). When the breaker is
closed it behaves as a resistive circuit. It is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value
can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components
(typical value is 10 m). When the breaker is open it has an infinite resistance.
If the Breaker block is set in external control mode, a Simulink input appears
on the block icon. The control signal connected to the Simulink input must be either 0 or 1: 0
to open the breaker, 1 to close it. If the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the
switching times are specified in the dialog box of the block. If the breaker initial state is set to
1 (closed), SimPowerSystems automatically initializes all the states of the linear circuit and
the Breaker block initial current so that the simulation starts in steady state. A series Rs-Cs
snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit breaker. If the
Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a current
source, you must use a snubber.
38
8.3.8 DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER LINE
Implement an N-phase distributed parameter transmission line model with
lumped losses The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed
parameter line model with lumped losses. The model is based on the Bergeron's traveling
wave method used by the Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP).In this model, the
lossless distributed LC line is characterized by two values (for a single-phase line)
For multiphase line models, model transformation is used to convert line
quantities from phase values (line currents and voltages) into model values independent of
each other. The previous calculations are made in the model domain before being converted
back to phase values. In comparison to the PI section line model, the distributed line
represents wave propagation phenomena and line end reflections with much better accuracy.
8.3.9 FILTERS:
Three-phase harmonic filters are shunt elements that are used in power
systems for decreasing voltage distortion and for power factor correction. Nonlinear elements
such as power electronic converters generate harmonic currents or harmonic voltages, which
are injected into power system. The resulting distorted currents flowing through system
impedance produce harmonic voltage distortion. Harmonic filters reduce distortion by
diverting harmonic currents in low impedance paths. Harmonic filters are designed to be
capacitive at fundamental frequency, so that they are also used for producing reactive power
required by converters and for power factor correction.
In order to achieve an acceptable distortion, several banks of filters of
different types are usually connected in parallel. The most commonly used filter types are
Band-pass filters, which are used to filter lowest order harmonics such as 5th, 7th, 11th,
13th, etc. Band-pass filters can be tuned at a single frequency (single-tuned filter) or at
two frequencies (double-tuned filter).
High-pass filters, which are used to filter high-order harmonics and cover a wide range of
frequencies. A special type of high-pass filter, the C-type high-pass filter, is used to
provide reactive power and avoid parallel resonances. It also allows filtering low order
harmonics (such as 3rd), while keeping zero losses at fundamental frequency.
Distributed Parameter Lines
39
The Three-Phase Harmonic Filter is built of RLC elements. The resistance, inductance, and
capacitance values are determined from the filter type and from the following parameters:
Reactive power at nominal voltage
Tuning frequencies
Quality factor. The quality factor is a measure of the sharpness of the tuning
frequency. It is determined by the resistance value.
The four types of filters that can be modeled with the Three-Phase Harmonic
Filter block are shown below:
The simplest filter type is the single-tuned filter. The following figure gives
the definition of the quality factor Q and practical formulae for computing the reactive power
Q
C
and losses (active power P). The quality factor Q of the filter is the quality factor of the
reactance at the tuning frequency Q = (n.X
L
)/R. The quality factor determines the bandwidth
B, which is a measure of the sharpness of the tuning frequency.
The double-tuned filter performs the same function as two single-tuned filters
although it has certain advantages: its losses are much lower and the impedance magnitude at
the frequency of the parallel resonance that arises between the two tuning frequencies is
lower.
The double-tuned filter consists of a series LC circuit and a parallel RLC circuit. If f
1
and f
2
are the two tuning frequencies, both the series circuit and the parallel circuit are tuned to
approximately the mean geometric frequency . The quality factor Q of the double-
tuned filter is defined as the quality factor of the parallel L, R elements at the mean frequency
f
m
:
.
The high-pass filter is a single-tuned filter where the L and R elements are
connected in parallel instead of series. This connection results in a wide-band filter having
40
impedance at high frequencies limited by the resistance R. The quality factor of the high-pass
filter is the quality factor of the parallel RL circuit at the tuning frequency.
.
The C-type high-pass filter is a variation of the high-pass filter, where the
inductance L is replaced with a series LC circuit tuned at the fundamental frequency. At
fundamental frequency, the resistance is, therefore, bypassed by the resonant LC circuit and
losses are null. The quality factor of the C-type filter is still given by the ratio:
.
41
9. GRAPHS
Figure: 6.3 Output Power in AC and DC Transmission
Figure: 6.4 Output Power in AC Transmission
42
Figure: 6.5 Output V I Magnitude in AC and DC Transmission
Figure: 6.6 Output V I Magnitude in AC Transmission
43
Figure: 6.7 Input Voltage and currents for Rectifier
Figure: 6.8 Waveforms for VdL (Pu), Id Idref _lim (Pu), alpha_ord (deg), Control Mode
44
Figure: 6.9 Wave forms for Low_ac_volt_R, Forced_alpha_R
Figure: 6.10 Waveforms for uSw1 (V), iSw1 & Sw3 (A), alpha_ord (deg) In
VALVE13_RECT
45
Figure: 6.11 Waveforms for Vabc (Pu), Iabc (pu/100MVA) in inverter
Figure: 6.12 Waveforms representing VdL Vd_ref (pu), Id Idref _lim (pu), alpha_ord (deg),
Control Mode, gamma_min gamma_ref (deg) for inverter
46
Figure: 6.13 Waveforms for Low_ac_volt_I, A_min_I in Protection for inverter
Figure: 6.14 Waveforms for uSw1 (V), iSw1 Ucom1 (Pu), gamma mean (deg) in
VALVE1_INV
47
10. RESULTS
10.1 AC Configuration Only:
The load ability of Moose (commercial name), ACSR, twin bundle conductor,
400-kV, 50-Hz, 450-km single circuit line has been computed.
The parameters of the line are
Z=0.6054+j0.66172 /km/ph/ckt
Y=j6.67594*10
-6
s/km/ph/ckt
Current carrying capacity of each sub conductor =.9 kA
I
t
= 1.8 kA/ckt .SIL = 511MW/ckt.
Using (17)(20), the computed power at receiving end and conductor current is
T
o
tal
=1124.2 MW
I
poh/ckt
= 0.803 kA.
48
10.2 Simulated Results
49
11. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
11.1 CONCLUSION
The feasibility to convert ac transmission line to a composite acdc line has
been demonstrated. For the particular system studied, there is substantial increase (about
83.45%) in the load ability of the line. The line is loaded to its thermal limit with the
superimposed dc current. The dc power flow does not impose any stability problem. The
advantage of parallel acdc transmission is obtained. Dc current regulator may modulate ac
power flow. There is no need for any modification in the size of conductors, insulator strings,
and towers structure of the original line. The optimum values of ac and dc voltage
components of the converted composite line are 1/2 and 1/2 times the ac voltage before
conversion, respectively.
11.2 FUTURE SCOPE
In this thesis, it is shown that by injecting DC power in AC power
transmission lines; we can improve the transmission capacity of the line by 2 to 4 times
without altering the physical equipment. This work can be extended for analyzing the effect
of faults on this type of transmission. This work is done on double circuit AC transmission
lines but it can be extended to other types of transmission methods.
50
12. REFERENCES
1. L. K. Gyugyi, Unified power flow concept for flexible A.C. transmission system, Proc.
Inst. Elect. Eng., p. 323, Jul. 1992.
2. L. K. Gyugyi et al., The unified power flow controller; a new approach to power
transmission control, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 10851097, Apr.
1995.
3. N. G. Hingorani, FACTSflexible A.C. transmission system, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng.
5th. Int. Conf. A.C. D.C. Power Transmission, London, U.K., 1991.
4. P. S. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill, 1994.
5. K. P. Basu and B. H. Khan, Simultaneous ac-dc power transmission, Inst. Eng. (India)
J.-EL, vol. 82, pp. 3235, Jun. 2001.
6. H. Raman and B. H. Khan, Enhanced power transfer by simultaneous transmission of
AC-DC: a new FACTS concept, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Conf. Power Electronics,
Machines, Drives, Edinburgh, U.K., Mar. 31Apr. 2 2004, vol. 1, pp. 186191.
7. A. Clerici, L. Paris, and P. Danfors, HVDC conversion of HVAC line to provide
substantial power upgrading, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 324333,
Jan. 1991.
8. Padiyar, HVDC Power Transmission System. New Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern, 1993.
9. E. W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission. New York: Wiley, 1971, vol. I.
10. K. R. Padiyar, M. A. Pai, and C. Radhakrishna, Analysis of D.C.