Journals of Expeditions of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
Journals of Expeditions of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
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Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
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Volume II
PREFACE.
In offering to the public an account of Expeditions of Discovery in Australia, undertaken in the years 1840-1,
and completed in July of the latter year, some apology may be deemed necessary for this narrative not having
sooner appeared, or perhaps even for its being now published at all.
With respect to the first, the author would remark that soon after his return to South Australia upon the close
of the Expeditions, and when contemplating an immediate return to England, he was invited by the Governor
of the Colony to remain, and undertake the task of re-establishing peace and amicable relations with the
numerous native tribes of the Murray River, and its neighbourhood, whose daring and successful outrages in
1841, had caused very great losses to, and created serious apprehensions among the Colonists.
Hoping that his personal knowledge of and extensive practical experience among the Aborigines might prove
serviceable in an employment of this nature, the author consented to undertake it; and from the close of
September 1841, until December 1844, was unremittingly occupied with the duties it entailed. It was
consequently not in his power to attend to the publication of his travels earlier, nor indeed can he regret a
delay, which by the facilities it afforded him of acquiring a more intimate knowledge of the character and
habits of the Aborigines, has enabled him to render that portion of his work which relates to them more
comprehensive and satisfactory than it otherwise would have been.
With respect to the second point, or the reasons which have led to this work being published at all, the author
would observe that he has been led to engage in it rather from a sense of duty, and at the instance of many of
his friends, than from any wish of his own. The greater portion of the country he explored was of so sterile
and worthless a description, and the circumstances which an attempt to cross such a desert region led to, were
of so distressing a character, that he would not willingly have revived associations, so unsatisfactory and so
painful.
It has been his fate, however, to cross, during the course of his explorations, a far greater extent of country
than any Australian traveller had ever done previously, and as a very large portion of this had never before
been trodden by the foot of civilized man, and from its nature is never likely to be so invaded again, it became
a duty to record the knowledge which was thus obtained, for the information of future travellers and as a guide
to the scientific world in their inquiries into the character and formation of so singular and interesting a
country.
To enable the reader to judge of the author's capabilities for the task he undertook, and of the degree of
confidence that may be due to his impressions or opinions, it may not be out of place to state, that the
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Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
Expeditions of 1840--1 were not entered upon without a sufficient previous and practical experience in
exploring.
For eight years the author had been resident in Australia, during which he had visited many of the located
parts of New South Wales, Port Phillip, South Australia, Western Australia, and Van Diemen's Land. In the
years 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, and 1840 he had conducted expeditions across from Liverpool Plains in New
South Wales to the county of Murray, from Sydney to Port Phillip, from Port Phillip to Adelaide, and from
King George's Sound to Swan River, besides undertaking several explorations towards the interior, both from
Port Lincoln and from Adelaide.
To the knowledge and experience which were thus acquired, the author must ascribe the confidence and good
opinion of his fellow-colonists, which led them in 1840 to place under his command an undertaking of such
importance, interest, and responsibility; and to these advantages he feels that he is in a great measure indebted,
under God's blessing, for having been enabled successfully to struggle through the difficulties and dangers
which beset him, in crossing from Adelaide to King George's Sound.
With this explanation for obtruding upon the public, the author would also solicit their indulgence, for the
manner in which the task has been performed. The only merit to which he can lay claim, is that of having
faithfully described what he saw, and the impressions which were produced upon him at the time. In other
respects it is feared that a work, which was entirely (and consequently very hastily) prepared for the press
from the original notes, whilst voyaging from Australia to England, must necessarily be crude and imperfect.
Where the principal object, however, was rather to record with accuracy than indulge in theory or conjecture,
and where a simple statement of occurrences has been more attended to than the language in which they are
narrated, plainness and fidelity will, it is hoped, be considered as some compensation for the absence of the
embellishments of a more finished style, or a studied composition, and especially as the uncertainty attending
the duration of the author's visit to England made it a matter of anxious consideration to hurry these volumes
through the press as rapidly as possible. There is one circumstance to which he wishes particularly to allude,
as accounting for the very scanty notices he is now able to give of the geology or botany of the country
through which he travelled; it is the loss of all the specimens that were collected during the earlier part of the
Expedition, which occurred after they had been sent to Adelaide; this loss has been irreparable, and has not
only prevented him from ascertaining points about which he was dubious, but has entirely precluded him from
having the subjects considered, or the specimens classified and arranged by gentlemen of scientific
acquirements in those departments of knowledge, in which the author is conscious he is himself defective. In
the latter part of the Expedition, or from Fowler's Bay to King George's Sound, the dreadful nature of the
country, and the difficulties and disasters to which this led, made it quite impossible either to make collections
of any kind, or to examine the country beyond the immediate line of route; still it is hoped that the passing
notices which are made in the journal, and the knowledge of the similarity of appearance and uniform
character, prevalent throughout the greater portion of the country passed through, will be quite sufficient to
give a general and correct impression of the whole.
To Mr. Gray of the British Museum, the author is particularly indebted for his valuable contribution on the
Natural History of the Southern coast of Australia, and to Mr. Gould, the celebrated Ornithologist, his thanks
are equally due, for a classified and most interesting list of the birds belonging to the same portion of the
continent.
To Mr. Adam White, of the British Museum, he is also indebted for an account of some new insects, and to
Dr. Richardson, for a scientific and classified arrangement of fish caught on the Southern coast, near King
George's Sound. The plates to which the numbers refer in the last-mentioned paper, are the admirable
drawings made from life, by J. Neill, Esq. of King George's Sound, and now lodged at the British Museum.
They are, however, both too numerous and too large to give in a work of this description, and will probably be
published at some future time by their talented author.
PREFACE. 4
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
For the account given of the Aborigines the author deems it unnecessary to offer any apology; a long
experience among them, and an intimate knowledge of their character, habits, and position with regard to
Europeans, have induced in him a deep interest on behalf of a people, who are fast fading away before the
progress of a civilization, which ought only to have added to their improvement and prosperity. Gladly would
the author wish to see attention awakened on their behalf, and an effort at least made to stay the torrent which
is overwhelming them.
It is most lamentable to think that the progress and prosperity of one race should conduce to the downfal and
decay of another; it is still more so to observe the apathy and indifference with which this result is
contemplated by mankind in general, and which either leads to no investigation being made as to the cause of
this desolating influence, or if it is, terminates, to use the language of the Count Strzelecki, "in the inquiry,
like an inquest of the one race upon the corpse of the other, ending for the most part with the verdict of 'died
by the visitation of God.'"
In his attempt to delineate the actual circumstances and position of the natives, and the just claims they have
upon public sympathy and benevolence, he has been necessitated to refer largely to the testimony of others,
but in doing this he has endeavoured as far as practicable, to support the views he has taken by the writings or
opinions of those who are, or who have been resident in the Colonies, and who might therefore be supposed
from a practical acquaintance with the subject, to be most competent to arrive at just conclusions.
In suggesting the only remedy which appears at all calculated to mitigate the evil complained of, it has
studiously been kept in view that there are the interests of two classes to be provided for, those of the Settlers,
and those of the Aborigines, it is thought that these interests cannot with advantage be separated, and it is
hoped that it may be found practicable to blend them together.
The Aborigines of New Holland are not on the whole a numerous people; they are generally of a very
inoffensive and tractable character, and it is believed that they may, under ordinary circumstances, almost
always be rendered peaceable and well-disposed by kind and consistent treatment. Should this, in reality,
prove to be the case, it may be found perhaps, that they could be more easily managed, and in the long run at a
less expense, by some such system as is recommended, than by any other requiring means of a more
retaliatory or coercive character. The system proposed is at least one which by removing in a great measure
temptation from the native, and thereby affording comparative security to the settlers, will have a powerful
effect in inducing the latter to unite with the Government in any efforts made to ameliorate the condition of
the Aborigines; a union which under present or past systems has not ever taken place, but one which it is very
essential should be effected, if any permanent good is hoped for.
To Mr. Moorhouse the author returns his best thanks for his valuable notes on the Aborigines, to which he is
indebted for the opportunity of giving an account of many of the customs and habits of the Adelaide tribes.
To Anthony Forster, Esq. he offers his warmest acknowledgments for his assistance in overlooking the
manuscripts during the voyage from Australia, and correcting many errors which necessarily resulted from the
hurried manner in which they were prepared; it is to this kind supervision must be ascribed the merit--negative
though it may be--of there not being more errors than there are.
PREFACE. 5
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER III
HEAVY ROAD
A YOUNG KANGAROO SHOT
GRASSY COUNTRY
POINT MALCOLM
TRACES OF ITS HAVING BEEN VISITED BY EUROPEANS
GRASS-TREES MET WITH
A KANGAROO KILLED
CATCH FISH
GET ANOTHER KANGAROO
CRAB HUNTING
RENEW THE JOURNEY
CASUARINAE MET WITH
CROSS THE LEVEL BANK
LOW COUNTRY BEHIND IT
CAPE ARID
SALT WATER CREEK
XAMIA SEEN
CABBAGE TREE OF THE SOUND
FRESH WATER LAKE
MORE SALT STREAMS
OPOSSUMS CAUGHT
FLAG REEDS FOUND
FRESH WATER STREAMS
BOATS SEEN
MEET WITH A WHALER
CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER V
LARGE WATERCOURSE
LAKE OF FRESH WATER
HEAVY RAINS
REACH MOUNT BARREN
SALT LAKES AND STREAMS
BARREN SCRUBBY COUNTRY
RANGES BEHIND KING GEORGE'S SOUND ARE SEEN
BRACKISH PONDS
PASS CAPE RICHE
A LARGE SALT RIVER
CHAINS OF PONDS
GOOD LAND
HEAVILY TIMBERED COUNTRY
COLD WEATHER
FRESH LAKE
THE CANDIUP RIVER
KING'S RIVER
EXCESSIVE RAINS
ARRIVAL AT KING GEORGE'S SOUND, AND TERMINATION OF THE EXPEDITION
RECEPTION OF WYLIE BY THE NATIVES
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
UNJUST OPINIONS GENERALLY ENTERTAINED OF THE CHARACTER OF THE NATIVE
DIFFICULTIES AND DISADVANTAGES HE LABOURS UNDER IN HIS RELATIONS WITH
EUROPEANS
AGGRESSIONS AND INJURIES ON THE PART OF THE LATTER IN GREAT DEGREE EXTENUATE
HIS CRIMES
CHAPTER II
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
DRESS
CHARACTER
HABITS OF LIFE
MEETINGS OF TRIBES
WARS
DANCES
SONGS
CHAPTER III
FOOD
HOW PROCURED
HOW PREPARED
LIMITATION AS TO AGE, etc.
CHAPTER IV
PROPERTY IN LAND
DWELLINGS
WEAPONS
IMPLEMENTS
GOVERNMENT
CUSTOMS
SOCIAL RELATIONS
MARRIAGE
NOMENCLATURE
CHAPTER V
CHAPTER VI
NUMBERS
DISEASES
CAUSE OF LIMITED POPULATION
CRIMES AGAINST EUROPEANS
AMONGST THEMSELVES
TREATMENT OF EACH OTHER IN DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD, etc.
CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER VIII
CHAPTER IX
VOLUME II
Chapter I.
THE CAMP PLUNDERED
NIGHT OF HORRORS
PROCEED ON TO THE WESTWARD
THE BOYS FOLLOW US
THEY ARE LEFT BEHIND
FORCED MARCHES
DESERT COUNTRY
BANKSIAS MET WITH
TRACES OF NATIVES
TERMINATION OF THE CLIFFS
FIND WATER
Glancing hastily around the camp I found it deserted by the two younger native boys, whilst the scattered
fragments of our baggage, which I left carefully piled under the oilskin, lay thrown about in wild disorder, and
at once revealed the cause of the harrowing scene before me.
Upon raising the body of my faithful, but illfated follower, I found that he was beyond all human aid; he had
been shot through the left breast with a ball, the last convulsions of death were upon him, and he expired
almost immediately after our arrival. The frightful, the appalling truth now burst upon me, that I was alone in
the desert. He who had faithfully served me for many years, who had followed my fortunes in adversity and in
prosperity, who had accompanied me in all my wanderings, and whose attachment to me had been his sole
inducement to remain with me in this last, and to him alas, fatal journey, was now no more. For an instant, I
was almost tempted to wish that it had been my own fate instead of his. The horrors of my situation glared
upon me in such startling reality, as for an instant almost to paralyse the mind. At the dead hour of night, in
the wildest and most inhospitable wastes of Australia, with the fierce wind raging in unison with the scene of
violence before me, I was left, with a single native, whose fidelity I could not rely upon, and who for aught I
knew might be in league with the other two, who perhaps were even now, lurking about with the view of
taking away my life as they had done that of the overseer. Three days had passed away since we left the last
water, and it was very doubtful when we might find any more. Six hundred miles of country had to be
traversed, before I could hope to obtain the slightest aid or assistance of any kind, whilst I knew not that a
single drop of water or an ounce of flour had been left by these murderers, from a stock that had previously
been so small.
With such thoughts rapidly passing through my mind, I turned to search for my double-barelled gun, which I
had left covered with an oilskin at the head of my own break wind. It was gone, as was also the
double-barelled gun that had belonged to the overseer. These were the only weapons at the time that were in
serviceable condition, for though there were a brace of pistols they had been packed away, as there were no
cartridges for them, and my rifle was useless, from having a ball sticking fast in the breech, and which we had
in vain endeavoured to extract. A few days' previous to our leaving the last water, the overseer had attempted
to wash out the rifle not knowing it was loaded, and the consequence was, that the powder became wetted and
partly washed away, so that we could neither fire it off, nor get out the ball; I was, therefore, temporarily
defenceless, and quite at the mercy of the natives, had they at this time come upon me. Having hastily ripped
open the bag in which the pistols had been sewn up, I got them out, together with my powder flask, and a bag
containing a little shot and some large balls. The rifle I found where it had been left, but the ramrod had been
taken out by the boys to load my double-barelled gun with, its own ramrod being too short for that purpose; I
found it, however, together with several loose cartridges, lying about near the place where the boys had slept,
so that it was evident they had deliberately loaded the fire-arms before they tried to move away with the
things they had stolen; one barrel only of my gun had been previously loaded, and I believe neither barrels in
that of the overseer.
After obtaining possession of all the remaining arms, useless as they were at the moment, with some
ammunition, I made no further examination then, but hurried away from the fearful scene, accompanied by
the King George's Sound native, to search for the horses, knowing that if they got away now, no chance
whatever would remain of saving our lives. Already the wretched animals had wandered to a considerable
distance; and although the night was moonlight, yet the belts of scrub, intersecting the plains, were so
numerous and dense, that for a long time we could not find them; having succeeded in doing so at last, Wylie
and I remained with them, watching them during the remainder of the night; but they were very restless, and
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Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
gave us a great deal of trouble. With an aching heart, and in most painful reflections, I passed this dreadful
night. Every moment appeared to be protracted to an hour, and it seemed as if the daylight would never
appear. About midnight the wind ceased, and the weather became bitterly cold and frosty. I had nothing on
but a shirt and a pair of trowsers, and suffered most acutely from the cold; to mental anguish was now added
intense bodily pain. Suffering and distress had well nigh overwhelmed me, and life seemed hardly worth the
effort necessary to prolong it. Ages can never efface the horrors of this single night, nor would the wealth of
the world ever tempt me to go through similar ones again.
April 30.--At last, by God's blessing, daylight dawned once more, but sad and heart-rending was the scene it
presented to my view, upon driving the horses to what had been our last night's camp. The corpse of my poor
companion lay extended on the ground, with the eyes open, but cold and glazed in death. The same stern
resolution, and fearless open look, which had characterized him when living, stamped the expression of his
countenance even now. He had fallen upon his breast four or five yards from where he had been sleeping, and
was dressed only in his shirt. In all probability, the noise made by the natives, in plundering the camp, had
awoke him; and upon his jumping up, with a view of stopping them, they had fired upon and killed him.
Around the camp lay scattered the harness of the horses, and the remains of the stores that had been the
temptation to this fatal deed.
As soon as the horses were caught, and secured, I left Wylie to make a fire, whilst I proceeded to examine into
the state of our baggage, that I might decide upon our future proceedings. Among the principal things carried
off by the natives, were, the whole of our baked bread, amounting to twenty pounds weight, some mutton, tea
and sugar, the overseer's tobacco and pipes, a one gallon keg full of water, some clothes, two double-barrelled
guns, some ammunition, and a few other small articles.
There were still left forty pounds of flour, a little tea and sugar, and four gallons of water, besides the arms
and ammunition I had secured last night.
From the state of our horses, and the dreadful circumstances we were placed in, I was now obliged to abandon
every thing but the bare necessaries of life. The few books and instruments I had still left, with many of the
specimens I had collected, a saddle, and some other things, were thrown aside to lighten somewhat more the
trifling loads our animals had to carry. A little bread was then baked, and I endeavoured once more to put the
rifle in serviceable condition, as it was the only weapon we should have to depend upon in any dangers that
might beset us. Unable in any way to take out the breech, or to extract the ball, I determined to melt it out, and
for that purpose took the barrel off the stock, and put the breech in the fire, holding the muzzle in my hand.
Whilst thus engaged, the rifle went off, the ball whizzing close past my head; the fire, it seems, had dried the
powder, which had been wetted, not washed out; and when the barrel was sufficiently heated, the piece had
gone off, to the imminent danger of my life, from the incautious way in which I held it. The gun, however,
was again serviceable; and after carefully loading it, I felt a degree of confidence and security I had before
been a stranger to.
At eight o'clock we were ready to proceed; there remained but to perform the last sad offices of humanity
towards him, whose career had been cut short in so untimely a manner. This duty was rendered even more
than ordinarily painful, by the nature of the country, where we happened to have been encamped. One vast
unbroken surface of sheet rock extended for miles in every direction, and rendered it impossible to make a
grave. We were some miles away from the sea-shore, and even had we been nearer, could not have got down
the cliffs to bury the corpse in the sand. I could only, therefore, wrap a blanket around the body of the
overseer, and leaving it enshrouded where he fell, escape from the melancholy scene, accompanied by Wylie,
under the influence of feelings which neither time nor circumstances will ever obliterate. Though years have
now passed away since the enactment of this tragedy, the dreadful horrors of that time and scene, are recalled
before me with frightful vividness, and make me shudder even now, when I think of them. A life time was
Chapter I. 12
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
crowded into those few short hours, and death alone may blot out the impressions they produced.
For some time we travelled slowly and silently onwards. Wylie preceding, leading one of the horses, myself
following behind and driving the others after him, through a country consisting still of the same alternations
of scrub and open intervals as before. The day became very warm, and at eleven, after travelling ten miles to
the west, I determined to halt until the cool of the evening. After baking some bread and getting our dinners, I
questioned Wylie as to what he knew of the sad occurrence of yesterday. He positively denied all knowledge
of it--said he had been asleep, and was awoke by the report of the gun, and that upon seeing the overseer lying
on the ground he ran off to meet me. He admitted, however, that, after the unsuccessful attempt to leave us,
and proceed alone to King George's Sound, the elder of the other two natives had proposed to him again to
quit the party, and try to go back to Fowler's Bay, to the provisions buried there. But he had heard or knew
nothing, he said, of either robbery or murder being first contemplated.
My own impression was, that Wylie had agreed with the other two to rob the camp and leave us;--that he had
been cognisant of all their proceedings and preparations, but that when, upon the eve of their departure, the
overseer had unexpectedly awoke and been murdered, he was shocked and frightened at the deed, and instead
of accompanying them, had run down to meet me. My opinion upon this point received additional
confirmation from the subsequent events of this day; but I never could get Wylie to admit even the slightest
knowledge of the fatal occurrence, or that he had even intended to have united with them in plundering the
camp and deserting. He had now become truly alarmed; and independently of the fear of the consequences
which would attach to the crime, should we ever reach a civilized community again, he had become very
apprehensive that the other natives, who belonged to quite a different part of Australia to himself, and who
spoke a totally different language, would murder him as unhesitatingly as they had done the white man.
We remained in camp until four o'clock, and were again preparing to advance, when my attention was called
by Wylie to two white objects among the scrub, at no great distance from us, and I at once recognized the
native boys, covered with their blankets only, and advancing towards us. From Wylie's account of their
proposal to go back towards Fowler's Bay, I fully hoped that they had taken that direction, and left us to
pursue our way to the Sound unmolested. I was therefore surprised, and somewhat alarmed, at finding them so
near us. With my rifle and pistols I felt myself sufficiently a match for them in an open country, or by
daylight. Yet I knew that as long as they followed like bloodhounds on our tracks our lives would be in their
power at any moment that they chose to take them, whilst we were passing through a scrubby country, or by
night. Whatever their intention might be, I knew, that if we travelled in the same direction with them, our lives
could only be safe by their destruction. Although they had taken fully one-third of the whole stock of our
provisions, their appetites were so ravenous, and their habits so improvident, that this would soon be
consumed, and then they must either starve or plunder us; for they had already tried to subsist themselves in
the bush, and had failed.
As these impressions rapidly passed through my mind, there appeared to me but one resource left, to save my
own life and that of the native with me: that was, to shoot the elder of the two. Painful as this would be, I saw
no other alternative, if they still persisted in following us. After packing up our few things, and putting them
upon the horses, I gave the bridles to Wylie to hold, whilst I advanced alone with my rifle towards the two
natives. They were now tolerably near, each carrying a double-barrelled gun, which was pointed towards me,
elevated across the left arm and held by the right hand. As I attempted to approach nearer they gradually
retreated.
Finding that I was not likely to gain ground upon them in this way, I threw down my weapons, and advanced
unarmed, hoping that if they let me near them I might suddenly close with the eldest and wrest his gun from
him. After advancing about sixty or seventy yards towards them, I found that they again began to retreat,
evidently determined not to let me approach any nearer, either armed or unarmed. Upon this I halted, and
endeavoured to enter into parley with them, with a view to persuading them to return towards Fowler's Bay,
Chapter I. 13
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
and thus obviate the painful necessity I should have been under of endeavouring, for my own security, to take
away the life of the eldest whenever I met with him, should they still persist in going the same road as myself.
The distance we were apart was almost too great for parley, and I know not whether they heard me or not;
though they halted, and appeared to listen, they did not reply to what I said, and plainly wished to avoid all
closer contact. They now began to call incessantly to Wylie, and in answer to my repeated efforts to get them
to speak to me, only would say, "Oh massa, we don't want you, we want Wylie." Thus fully confirming me in
the opinion I had formed, that Wylie had agreed to go with them before the deed of violence was committed.
It was now apparent to me that their only present object in following us had been to look for Wylie, and get
him to join them. In this they were unsuccessful; for he still remained quietly where I left him holding the
horses, and evidently afraid to go near them. There was no use wasting further time, as I could not get them to
listen to me. The sun, too, was fast sinking in the horizon, we had been four days without finding water, and
the probability was we had very far still to go before we could hope to procure any; every moment, therefore,
was precious.
Having returned to Wylie, I made him lead one of the horses in advance, and I followed behind, driving the
rest after him, according to the system of march I had adopted in the morning. As soon as the two natives saw
us moving on, and found Wylie did not join them, they set up a wild and plaintive cry, still following along
the brush parallel to our line of route, and never ceasing in their importunities to Wylie, until the denseness of
the scrub, and the closing in of night, concealed us from each other.
I was now resolved to make the most of the opportunity afforded me, and by travelling steadily onwards, to
gain so much distance in advance of the two natives as to preclude the possibility of their again overtaking us
until we had reached the water, if indeed we were ever destined to reach water again. I knew that they would
never travel more than a few miles before lying down, especially if carrying all the bread they had taken, the
keg of water, guns, and other articles. We had, however, seen none of these things with them, except the
fire-arms.
Our road was over scrubby and stony undulations, with patches of dry grass here and there; in other parts, we
passed over a very sandy soil of a red colour, and overrun by immense tufts of prickly grass (spinifex), many
of which were three and four yards in diameter. After pushing on for eighteen miles, I felt satisfied we had left
the natives far behind, and finding a patch of grass for the horses, halted for the remainder of the night. It was
quite impossible, after all we had gone through, to think of watching the horses, and my only means of
preventing from them straying, was to close the chains of their hobbles so tight, that they could not go far;
having thus secured them, we lay down, and for a few hours enjoyed uninterrupted and refreshing sleep.
Moving on again on the 1st of May, as the sun was above the horizon, we passed through a continuation of the
same kind of country, for sixteen miles, and then halted for a few hours during the heat of the day. We had
passed many recent traces of natives both yesterday and to-day, who appeared to be travelling to the
westward. After dividing a pot of tea between us, we again pushed on for twelve miles, completing a stage of
twenty-eight miles, and halting, with a little dry grass for the horses.
It was impossible they could endure this much longer, they had already been five days without water, and I
did not expect to meet with any for two days more, a period which I did not think they could survive. As yet
no very great change had taken place in the country; it was still scrubby and rocky, but the surface stone now
consisted of a cream-coloured limestone of a fine compact character, and full of shells. The cliffs, parallel
with which we were travelling, were still of about the same height, appearance, and formation as before,
whilst the inland country increased in elevation, forming scrubby ridges to the back, with a few open grassy
patches here and there. One circumstance in our route to-day cheered me greatly, and led me shortly to expect
some important and decisive change in the character and formation of the country. It was the appearance for
the first time of the Banksia, a shrub which I had never before found to the westward of Spencer's Gulf, but
which I knew to abound in the vicinity of King George's Sound, and that description of country generally.
Chapter I. 14
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
Those only who have looked out with the eagerness and anxiety of a person in my situation, to note any
change in the vegetation or physical appearance of a country, can appreciate the degree of satisfaction with
which I recognised and welcomed the first appearance of the Banksia. Isolated as it was amidst the scrub, and
insignificant as the stunted specimens were that I first met with, they led to an inference that I could not be
mistaken in, and added, in a tenfold degree, to the interest and expectation with which every mile of our route
had now become invested. During the day the weather had been again cloudy, with the appearance of rain; but
the night turned out cold and frosty, and both I and the native suffered extremely. We had little to protect us
from the severity of the season, never being able to procure firewood of a description that would keep burning
long at once, so that between cold and fatigue, we were rarely able to get more than a few moments rest at a
time; and were always glad when daylight dawned to cheer us, although it only aroused us to the renewal of
our unceasing toil.
May 2.--We again moved away at dawn, through a country which gradually become more scrubby, hilly, and
sandy. The horses crawled on for twenty-one miles, when I halted for an hour to rest, and to have a little tea
from our now scanty stock of water. The change which I had noticed yesterday in the vegetation of the
country, was greater and more cheering every mile we went, although as yet the country itself was as desolate
and inhospitable as ever. The smaller Banksias now abounded, whilst the Banksia grandis, and many other
shrubs common at King George's Sound, were frequently met with. The natives, whose tracks we had so
frequently met with, taking the same course as ourselves to the westward, seemed now to be behind us; during
the morning we had passed many freshly lit fires, but the people themselves remained concealed; we had now
lost all traces of them, and the country seemed untrodden and untenanted. In the course of our journey this
morning, we met with many holes in the sheets of limestone, which occasionally coated the surface of the
ground; in these holes the natives appeared to procure an abundance of water after rains, but it was so long
since any had fallen, that all were dry and empty now. In one deep hole only, did we find the least trace of
moisture; this had at the bottom of it, perhaps a couple of wine glasses full of mud and water, and was most
carefully blocked up from the birds with huge stones: it had evidently been visited by natives, not an hour
before we arrived at it, but I suspect they were as much disappointed as we were, upon rolling away all the
stones to find nothing in it.
After our scanty meal, we again moved onwards, but the road became so scrubby and rocky, or so sandy and
hilly, that we could make no progress at all by night, and at eight miles from where we dined, we were
compelled to halt, after a day's journey of twenty-nine miles; but without a blade even of withered grass for
our horses, which was the more grievous, because for the first time since we left the last water, a very heavy
dew fell, and would have enabled them to feed a little, had there been grass. We had now traversed 138 miles
of country from the last water, and according to my estimate of the distance we had to go, ought to be within a
few miles of the termination of the cliffs of the Great Bight.
May 3.--The seventh day's dawn found us early commencing our journey. The poor horses still crawled on,
though slowly. I was surprised that they were still alive, after the continued sufferings and privations they had
been subject to. As for ourselves, we were both getting very weak and worn out, as well as lame, and it was
with the greatest difficulty I could get Wylie to move, if he once sat down. I had myself the same kind of
apathetic feeling, and would gladly have laid down and slept for ever. Nothing but a strong sense of duty
prevented me from giving way to this pleasing but fatal indulgence.
The road to-day became worse than ever, being one continued succession of sandy, scrubby and rocky ridges,
and hollows formed on the top of the cliffs along which our course lay. After travelling two and a half miles,
however, we were cheered and encouraged by the sight of sandy hills, and a low coast stretching beyond the
cliffs to the south-west, though they were still some distance from us. At ten miles from where we had slept, a
native road led us down a very steep part of the cliffs, and we descended to the beach. The wretched horses
could scarcely move, it was with the greatest difficulty we got them down the hill, and now, although within
sight of our goal, I feared two of them would never reach it. By perseverance we still got them slowly along,
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for two miles from the base of the cliffs, and then turning in among the sand-drifts, to our great joy and relief,
found a place where the natives had dug for water; thus at twelve o'clock on the seventh day since leaving the
last depot, we were again encamped at water, after having crossed 150 miles of a rocky, barren, and scrubby
table land.
Chapter II.
REFLECTIONS UPON SITUATION
WATCH FOR THE ARRIVAL OF THE NATIVE BOYS
THEIR PROBABLE FATE
PROCEED ON THE JOURNEY
FACILITY OF OBTAINING WATER
KILL A HORSE FOR FOOD
SILVER-BARK TEA-TREE
INTENSE COLD
FIRST HILLS SEEN
GOOD GRASS
APPETITE OF A NATIVE
INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF UNWHOLESOME DIET
CHANGE IN THE CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY
GRANITE FORMS
THE LOW WATER LEVEL
TREE WASHED ON SHORE
INDISPOSITION
Having at last got fairly beyond all the cliffs bounding the Great Bight, I fully trusted that we had now
overcome the greatest difficulties of the undertaking, and confidently hoped that there would be no more of
those fearful long journeys through the desert without water, but that the character of the country would be
changed, and so far improved as to enable us to procure it, once at least every thirty or forty miles, if not more
frequently.
Relieved from the pressure of immediate toil, and from the anxiety and suspense I had been in on the subject
of water, my mind wandered to the gap created in my little party since we had last been at water; more than
ever, almost, did I feel the loss of my overseer, now that the last and most difficult of our forced marches had
been successfully accomplished, and that there was every hope of our progress for the future, being both less
difficult and more expeditious. How delighted he would have been had he been with us to participate in the
successful termination of a stage, which he had ever dreaded more than any other during the whole of our
journey, and with what confidence and cheerfulness he would have gone on for the future. Out of five two
only were now present; our little band had been severed never to be reunited; and I could not but blame
myself for yielding to the overseer's solicitation to halt on the evening of the 29th April, instead of travelling
on all night as I had originally intended: had I adhered to my own judgment all might yet have been well.
Vain and bootless, however, now were all regrets for the irrecoverable past; but the present was so fraught
with circumstances calculated to recal and to make me feel more bitterly the loss I had sustained, that painful
as the subject was, the mind could not help reverting to and dwelling upon it.
Having given each of the horses a bucket of water, Wylie watched them whilst I cooked our dinner and made
some tea, after getting which we again gave the horses another bucket of water a-piece, hobbled them out for
the night, and then lay down ourselves, feeling perfectly secure from being overtaken by the native boys. We
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were obliged to place ourselves close to the hole of water to keep the horses from getting into it, as they were
thirsty and restless, and kept walking round the well nearly the whole night, and feeding very little. We
ourselves, too, although dreadfully tired and weak, were so cold and restless, that we slept but little. I had also
a large swelling on two of the joints of the second finger of the right hand, which gave me very great pain.
May 4.--After an early breakfast we gave the horses as much water as they chose to drink, and removing their
hobbles gave them full liberty to range where they liked. I then left Wylie to continue his slumbers, and taking
my rifle, walked about three miles among the sand-drifts to search for grass, but could find none, except the
coarse vegetation that grew amongst the sand-drifts. I found two other places where the natives got water by
digging, and have no doubt that it may be procured almost anywhere in these drifts, which extend for some
miles, along the coast. Some black cockatoos made their appearance near the sand-hills, indicating, in
connection with the change I had noticed in the vegetation, that we were now about entering a different and
less difficult country than any we had yet traversed. These birds I knew never inhabited that description of
country we had been so long travelling through. We had not seen one before, during our whole journey, and
poor Wylie was quite delighted at the idea of our vicinity to a better region.
During the day a strict look out was kept for the other two natives, and at night, after watering the horses and
concealing the saddles, we took our provisions and arms up among the sand-hills, and slept there at some
distance from the water: that if they travelled onwards by moon-light, they might not come upon us unawares
whilst sleeping. If they had continued their route to the westward, they would, I knew, both have a severe task
to reach the water, and be unable to go to it without our knowledge; the youngest boy I did not think would
prove equal to so arduous a task, but the elder one I thought might, if his courage and perseverance did not fail
him in travelling so far, without any indications to lead him to hope for final success, save the fact of our
having gone on before. Upon the whole, however, I thought it more than probable that on finding they could
not get Wylie to join them, and that they could not keep pace with us, they would turn back, and endeavour to
put in practice their original intention of trying to reach Fowler's Bay. Still it was necessary to be cautious and
vigilant. A few days at most would decide whether they were advancing this way or not, and until satisfied
upon this point, I determined to take every precaution in my power to guard against a surprise. My hand was
dreadfully painful at night, and quite deprived me of all rest.
May 5.--Up before day-break, and moved down to the water to breakfast, then examined carefully round the
wells, and between the sand-drifts and the sea, to see if any foot-prints had been made during the night, but
none had. There were many pigeons about, and as I had still some ammunition left, I felt the loss of my gun
severely. During the morning a very large eagle came and settled near us, and I sent Wylie with the rifle to try
to shoot it; he crept within a very few yards of it, and being a good shot, I felt sure of a hearty meal, but
unfortunately the rifle missed fire, having got damp during the heavy fall of dew a few evenings before. We
lost our dinner, but I received a useful lesson on the necessity of taking better care of the only gun I had left,
and being always certain that it was in a fit and serviceable state; I immediately set to work, cleaned and oiled
it, and in the afternoon made some oil-skin covers for the lock and muzzle to keep the damp from it at nights.
For the last day or two I had been far from well, whilst my inflamed hand, which was daily getting worse,
caused me most excruciating pain, and quite destroyed my rest at nights. In the evening we again retired
among the sand-hills to sleep.
May 6.--After breakfast we carefully examined the sand-drifts and the sea-shore, to see if the two boys had
passed, but there were no traces of them to be found, and I now felt that we were secure from all further
interruption from them. Three days we had been in camp at the water, making altogether a period of six since
we last saw them. Had they continued their course to the westward, they must have arrived long before this,
and I now felt satisfied that they had turned back to Fowler's Bay for the sake of the provisions buried there,
or else they had fallen in with the natives, whose traces we had so repeatedly seen, and either joined them, or
been killed by them.
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It was now apparent to me beyond all doubt, that in following us on the 30th of April, so far out of the
direction they ought to have taken if they intended to go to the eastward, their only object had been to get
Wylie to accompany them. As he was the eldest of the three, and a strong full grown man, they would have
found him a protection to them from his superior age, strength and skill. As it was they had but little chance of
making their way safely either to the east or west. At the time I last saw them they were sixty-three miles from
the nearest water in the former direction, and eighty-seven miles from that in the latter. They were tired and
exhausted from previous walking, and in this state would have to carry the guns, the provisions, and other
things they had taken. This would necessarily retard their progress, and lengthen out the period which must
elapse before they could obtain water in any direction. On the night of the 29th April they must have had one
gallon of water with them, but when we saw them on the 30th, I have no doubt, that with their usual
improvidence, they had consumed the whole, and would thus have to undergo the fatigue of carrying heavy
weights, as well as walking for a protracted period, without any thing to relieve their thirst. Their difficulties
and distress would gradually but certainly increase upon them, and they would then, in all likelihood, throw
away their guns or their provisions, and be left in the desert unarmed, without food or water, and without skill
or energy to direct them successfully to search for either. A dreadful and lingering death would in all
probability terminate the scene, aggravated in all its horrors by the consciousness that they had brought it
entirely upon themselves. Painfully as I had felt the loss of my unfortunate overseer, and shocked as I was at
the ruthless deed having been committed by these two boys, yet I could not help feeling for their sad
condition, the miseries and sufferings they would have to encounter, and the probable fate that awaited them.
The youngest of the two had been with me for four years, the eldest for two years and a half, and both had
accompanied me in all my travels during these respective periods. Now that the first and strong impressions
naturally resulting from a shock so sudden and violent as that produced by the occurrences of the 29th April,
had yielded, in some measure, to calmer reflections, I was able maturely to weigh the whole of what had taken
place, and to indulge in some considerations in extenuation of their offence. The two boys knew themselves to
be as far from King George's Sound, as they had already travelled from Fowler's Bay. They were hungry,
thirsty, and tired, and without the prospect of satisfying fully their appetites, or obtaining rest for a long period
of time, they probably thought, that bad and inhospitable as had been the country we had already traversed,
we were daily advancing into one still more so, and that we never could succeed in forcing a passage through
it; and they might have been strengthened in this belief by the unlucky and incautiously-expressed opinions of
the overseer. It was natural enough, under such circumstances, that they should wish to leave the party.
Having come to that determination, and knowing from previous experience, that they could not subsist upon
what they could procure for themselves in the bush, they had resolved to take with them a portion of the
provisions we had remaining, and which they might look upon, perhaps, as their share by right. Nor would
Europeans, perhaps, have acted better. In desperate circumstances men are ever apt to become discontented
and impatient of restraint, each throwing off the discipline and control he had been subject to before, and each
conceiving himself to have a right to act independently when the question becomes one of life and death.
Having decided upon leaving the party, and stealing a portion of the provisions, their object would be to
accomplish this as effectually and as safely as they could; and in doing this, they might, without having had
the slightest intention originally, of injuring either myself or the overseer, have taken such precautions, and
made such previous arrangements as led to the fatal tragedy which occurred. All three of the natives were well
aware, that as long as they were willing to accompany us, they would share with us whatever we had left; or
that, if resolutely bent upon leaving us, no restriction, save that of friendly advice, would be imposed to
prevent their doing so; but at the same time they were aware that we would not have consented to divide our
little stock of food for the purpose of enabling any one portion of the party to separate from the other, but
rather that we would forcibly resist any attempts to effect such a division, either openly or by stealth. They
knew that they never could succeed in their plans openly, and that to do so by stealth effectually and safely, it
would first be necessary to secure all the fire-arms, that they might incur no risk from our being alarmed
before their purpose was completed. No opportunity had occurred to bring their intentions into operation until
the evening in question, when the scrubby nature of the country, the wildness of the night, the overseer's
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sound sleeping, and my own protracted absence, at a distance with the horses, had all conspired to favour
them. I have no doubt, that they first extinguished the fires, and then possessing themselves of the fire-arms,
proceeded to plunder the baggage and select such things as they required. In doing this they must have come
across the ammunition, and loaded the guns preparatory to their departure, but this might have been without
any premeditated intention of making use of them in the way they did. At this unhappy juncture it would seem
that the overseer must have awoke, and advanced towards them to see what was the matter, or to put a stop to
their proceedings, when they fired on him, to save themselves from being caught in their act of plunder. That
either of the two should have contemplated the committal of a wilful, barbarous, cold-blooded murder, I
cannot bring myself to believe--no object was to be attained by it; and the fact of the overseer having been
pierced through the breast, and many yards in advance of where he had been sleeping, in a direction towards
the sleeping-place of the natives, clearly indicated that it was not until he had arisen from his sleep, and had
been closely pressing upon them, that they had fired the fatal shot. Such appeared to me to be the most
plausible and rational explanation of this melancholy affair--I would willingly believe it to be the true one.
Wylie and I moved on in the evening, with the horses for two miles, and again pitched our camp among the
sand-drifts, at a place where the natives were in the habit of digging wells for water, and where we procured it
at a very moderate depth below the surface. Pigeons were here in great numbers, and Wylie tried several times
with the rifle to shoot them, but only killed one, the grooved barrel not being adapted for throwing shot with
effect.
At midnight we arose and moved onwards, following along the beach. I intended to have made a long stage,
as I no longer had any fears about not finding water; but at nine miles one of the horses knocked up, and could
proceed no farther, I was compelled, therefore, to turn in among the sand-drifts, and halt at five in the morning
of the 7th. We were again fortunate in procuring water by digging only two feet under the sand-hills, which
were here very high, and were a continuation of those in which we had first found water on the 3rd. In the
afternoon, I again tried to advance upon our journey, but after proceeding only four miles, the jaded horse was
again unable to move further, and there was no alternative but to halt and search for water. This was found
among the sand-hills, but we could procure nothing but the coarse grass growing upon the drifts for the
animals to eat.
May 8.--About two hours before daylight, rain began to fall, and continued steadily though lightly for three
hours, so that enough had fallen to deposit water in the ledges or holes of the rocks. The day was wild and
stormy, and we did not start until late. Even then we could only get the tired horse along for three miles, and
were again compelled to halt. Water was still procured, by digging under the sand-hills, but we had to sink
much deeper than we had lately found occasion to do. It was now plain, that the tired horse would never be
able to keep pace with the others, and that we must either abandon him, or proceed at a rate too slow for the
present state of our commissariat. Taking all things into consideration, it appeared to me that it would be
better to kill him at once for food, and then remain here in camp for a time, living upon the flesh, whilst the
other horses were recruiting, after which I hoped we might again be able to advance more expeditiously. Upon
making this proposal to Wylie, he was quite delighted at the idea, and told me emphatically that he would sit
up and eat the whole night. Our decision arrived at, the sentence was soon executed. The poor animal was
shot, and Wylie and myself were soon busily employed in skinning him. Leaving me to continue this
operation, Wylie made a fire close to the carcase, and as soon as he could get at a piece of the flesh he
commenced roasting some, and continued alternately, eating, working and cooking. After cutting off about
100 pounds of the best of the meat, and hanging it in strips upon the trees until our departure, I handed over to
Wylie the residue of the carcase, feet, entrails, flesh, skeleton, and all, to cook and consume as he pleased,
whilst we were in the neighbourhood. Before dark he had made an oven, and roasted about twenty pounds, to
feast upon during the night. The evening set in stormy, and threatened heavy rain, but a few drops only fell.
The wind then rose very high, and raged fiercely from the south-west. At midnight it lulled, and the night
became intensely cold and frosty, and both Wylie and myself suffered severely, we could only get small sticks
for our fire, which burned out in a few minutes, and required so frequently renewing, that we were obliged to
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give it up in despair, and bear the cold in the best way we could. Wylie, during the night, made a sad and
dismal groaning, and complained of being very ill, from pain in his throat, the effect he said of having to work
too hard. I did not find that his indisposition interfered very greatly with his appetite, for nearly every time I
awoke during the night, I found him up and gnawing away at his meat, he was literally fulfilling the promise
he had made me in the evening, "By and bye, you see, Massa, me 'pta' (eat) all night."
May 9.--The day was cold and cloudy, and we remained in camp to rest the horses, and diminish the weight of
meat, which was greater than our horses could well carry in their present state. On getting up the horses to
water them at noon, I was grieved to find the foal of my favourite mare (which died on the 28th March)
missing; how we had lost it I could not make out, but as its tracks were not any where visible near the camp, it
was evident that it had never come there at all. In leaving our last halting place my time and attention had
been so taken up with getting the weak horse along, that I had left it entirely to Wylie to bring up the others,
and had neglected my usual precaution of counting to see if all were there before we moved away. The little
creature must have been lying down behind the sand-hills asleep, when we left, or otherwise it would never
have remained behind the others. Being very desirous not to lose this foal, which had now accompanied me so
far and got through all the worst difficulties, I saddled the strongest of the horses, and mounting Wylie, I set
off myself on foot with him to search for it. We had not gone far from the camp, when Wylie wished me to go
back, offering to go on by himself; and as I was loth to leave our provisions and ammunition to the mercy of
any native that might chance to go that way, I acceded to his request, and delivering to him the rifle, returned
to the encampment. Wylie had pledged himself to the due execution of this errand, and I had some confidence
that he would not deceive me. Hour after hour passed away without his return, and I began to be uneasy at his
long delay, and half repented that I had been so foolish as to trust the rifle in his hands. At last, a little after
dark, I was delighted to see him return, followed by the foal, which he had found six miles away and still
travelling backwards in search of the horses. Having given him an extra allowance of bread as a reward for his
good conduct, we took our tea and lay down for the night.
During the day, whilst Wylie was absent, I had employed my time in collecting firewood from the back of the
sand-hills. In this occupation I was pleased to meet with the silver-bark tea-tree, another change in the
vegetation, which still further convinced me that we were rapidly advancing into a more practicable country.
May 10.--The morning was spent in washing my clothes, cooking meat, and preparing to move on in the
afternoon. Wylie, who knew that this was his last opportunity, was busy with the skeleton of the horse, and
never ceased eating until we moved on in the afternoon. As we took away with us nearly a hundred pounds of
the flesh, the poor horses were heavily laden for the condition they were in. The scrubby and swampy nature
of the country behind the shore compelled us too to keep the beach, where the sands were loose and heavy.
Our progress was slow, and at eight miles I halted. Here we found a little dry grass not far from the sea, and as
the horses did not require water, they fared tolerably well. This was the first grass we had met with since we
descended the cliffs on the 3rd instant. The horses having entirely subsisted since then on the wiry vegetation
which binds the sand-drifts together. Although we had water in the canteens for ourselves, and the horses did
not require any, I was curious to know whether fresh water could be procured where we were encamped--a
long, low and narrow tongue of sandy land, lying between the sea on one side and extensive salt swamps on
the other, and in no part elevated more than a few feet above the level of the sea itself. After tea I took the
spade and commenced digging, and to my great surprise at six feet I obtained water, which though brackish
was very palatable. This was very extraordinary, considering the nature of the position we were in, and that
there were not any hills from which the fresh water could drain.
The night was again bitterly cold and frosty, and we suffered severely. Now the winter had set in, and we
were sadly unprepared to meet its inclemency, the cold at nights became so intense as to occasion me agonies
of pain; and the poor native was in the same predicament.
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May 11.--Upon moving away this morning, I kept behind the sea shore along the borders of the salt swamp,
steering for some sand-hills which were seen a-head of us. A hill was now visible in the distance, a little south
of west, rising above the level bank behind the shore,--this was the first hill, properly so called, that we had
met with for many hundreds of miles, and it tended not a little to cheer us and confirm all previous
impressions relative to the change and improvement in the character of the country. Our horses were
dreadfully fatigued and moved along with difficulty, and it was as much as we could do to reach the sand-hills
we had seen, though only seven miles away. In our approach to them we passed through a fine plain full of
grass, and of a much better description than we had met with since leaving Fowler's Bay. Not only was it long
and in the greatest abundance, but there were also mixed with the old grass many stalks of new and green, the
whole forming a rich and luxurious feast for our horses, such as they had not enjoyed for many a long day.
Nearer to the sand-hills we obtained excellent water by digging, at a depth of five feet, and only half a mile
away from the grass. This place was too favourable not to be made the most of, and I determined to halt for a
day or two to give our horses the benefit of it, and to enable us to diminish the weight of meat they had to
carry. Whilst here I gave Wylie free permission to eat as much as he could,--a privilege which he was not long
in turning to account. Between last night's supper and this morning's breakfast he had got through
six-and-a-half pounds of solid cooked flesh, weighed out and free from bone, and he then complained, that as
he had so little water (the well had fallen in and he did not like the trouble of cleaning it out again), he could
hardly eat at all. On an average he would consume nine pounds of meat per day. I used myself from two to
three when undergoing very great exertions. After dinner I ascended one of the sand-hills, and set the hill I
had seen in the morning at W. 17 degrees S.
May 12.--I intended this morning to have walked down to the beach, but was suddenly taken ill with similar
symptoms to those I had experienced on the 19th, and 21st of April; and, as formerly, I attributed the illness
entirely to the unwholesome nature of the meat diet. Wylie was ill too, but not to so great a degree; nor was I
surprised at his complaining; indeed, it would have been wonderful if he had not, considering the enormous
quantity of horse flesh that he daily devoured. After his feasts, he would lie down, and roll and groan, and say
he was "mendyt" (ill) and nothing would induce him to get up, or to do any thing. There were now plenty of
sting-ray fish along the beach again, and I was desirous, if possible, to get one for a change of diet; my friend,
however, had so much to eat, that though he said he should like fish too, I could not get him to go about a mile
to the back of the sand-hills, to cut a stick from the scrub, to make a spear for catching them.
May 13.--After breakfast, Wylie said he thought he could catch some bandicoots, by firing the scrub near the
sand-hills, and went out for an hour or two to try, but came back as he went. During his absence, I was
employed in repairing my only two pair of socks now left, which were sadly dilapidated, but of which I was
obliged to be very careful, as they were the only security I had against getting lame. In the afternoon I walked
down to the beach, to try to spear sting-ray, but the sea was rough, and I saw none. In my ramble, I found
plenty of the beautiful white clematis, so common both to the north and south of Sydney.
May 14.--I was again seized with illness, though I had been particularly careful in the quantity of flesh which
I had used. For many hours I suffered most excruciating pains; and after the violence of the attack was over, I
was left very weak, and incapable of exertion. Wylie was also affected. It was evident that the food we were
now living upon, was not wholesome or nutritious. Day after day we felt ourselves getting weaker and more
relaxed, whilst the least change of weather, or the slightest degree of cold, was most painfully felt by both of
us. What we were to do in the wet weather, which might daily be expected, I knew not, suffering as we did
from the frosts and dews only. In the state we now were in, I do not think that we could have survived many
days' exposure to wet.
May 15.--I intended to have proceeded early on our journey this morning, but was so ill again, that for some
hours I could not stir. The boy was similarly situated. About ten we got a little better, and packing up our
things, moved away, but had scarcely gone more than a couple of miles along the beach, when I discovered
that the horse-hobbles had been left behind. It was Wylie's duty always to take these off, and strap them round
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the horses necks, whilst I was arranging the saddles, and fixing on them our arms, provisions, etc.; he had
forgotten to do this, and had left them lying on the ground. As we could not possibly do without the hobbles, I
sent Wylie back for them, telling him I would drive on the horses slowly for a few miles, and then halt to wait
for him.
After proceeding eleven miles along the coast, I halted, and Wylie came up a little before dark, bringing the
hobbles with him. We were both very hungry; and as we had suffered so much lately from eating the horse
flesh, we indulged to-night in a piece of bread, and a spoonful of flour boiled into a paste, an extravagance
which I knew we should have to make up for by and bye. I had dug for water, and procured it at a depth of
five feet; but it was too brackish either to drink, or give to our horses; we used it, however, in boiling up our
flour into paste. The afternoon was exceedingly dark and stormy looking, but only a few light showers fell.
The night then set in cold, with a heavy dew.
May 16.--We commenced our journey at daylight, travelling along the beach, which was very heavy for nine
miles, and then halting, at a very low part of the coast, to rest the horses. Whilst here, I dug for water, and
getting it of very fair quality, though with an effluvia very like Harrowgate water, I decided upon remaining
for the day. We were very much fatigued, being weak and languid, and like our horses, scarcely able to put
one foot before the other. From our present encampment, some islands were visible at a bearing of S. 18
degrees E. The tops of the hills, also, to the back, were visible above the level bank, which formed the
continuation of the singular table land extending round the Bight, but which was now gradually declining in
elevation, and appeared as if it would very shortly cease altogether, so that we might hope to have an
unobstructed view of the country inland.
A jagged peak, which I named Mount Ragged, bore W. 10 degrees N., and a round topped one W. 30 degrees
N. We were now actually beyond those hills; but the level bank, under which we had been travelling,
prevented our seeing more of them than the bare outline of their lofty summits. The whole of the intervening
country, between the level bank and the hills, consisted of heavy sandy ridges, a good deal covered with
scrub; but we now found more grass than we had seen during the whole journey before. In the night I was
taken ill again, with violent pains, accompanied by cold clammy sweats; and as the air was cold and raw, and
a heavy dew falling, I suffered a great deal.
May 17.--This morning I felt rather better, but very weak, and wishing to give the horses an opportunity of
drinking, which they would not do very early on a cold morning, I did not break up the camp until late. Upon
laying down last night Wylie had left the meat on the ground at some distance from our fire, instead of putting
it up on a bush as I had directed him, the consequence was that a wild dog had stolen about fourteen pounds of
it whilst we slept, and we were now again reduced to a very limited allowance.
After travelling about five miles we found a great and important change in the basis rock of the country; it was
now a coarse imperfect kind of grey granite, and in many places the low-water line was occupied by immense
sheets of it. Other symptoms of improvement also gradually developed themselves. Mountain ducks were
now, for the first time, seen upon the shore, and the trunk of a very large tree was found washed up on the
beach: it was the only one we had met with during the whole course of our journey to the westward, and I
hailed it with a pleasure which was only equalled by finding, not far beyond, a few drops of water trickling
down a huge graniterock abutting on the sea-shore. This was the only approximation to running water which
we had found since leaving Streaky Bay, and though it hardly deserved that name, yet it imparted to me as
much hope, and almost as much satisfaction, as if I had found a river. Continuing our course around a small
bay for about five miles, we turned into some sand-drifts behind a rocky point of the coast, from which the
islands we had seen yesterday bore E. 47 degrees S., Cape Pasley, S. W., Point Malcolm, S. 33 degrees W.,
and Mount Ragged W. 32 degrees N. Several reefs and breakers were also seen at no great distance from the
shore.
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Our stage to-day was only twelve miles, yet some of our horses were nearly knocked up, and we ourselves in
but little better condition. The incessant walking we were subject to, the low and unwholesome diet we had
lived upon, the severe and weakening attacks of illness caused by that diet, having daily, and sometimes twice
a day, to dig for water, to carry all our fire-wood from a distance upon our backs, to harness, unharness, water,
and attend to the horses, besides other trifling occupations, making up our daily routine, usually so completely
exhausted us, that we had neither spirit nor energy left. Added to all other evils, the nature of the country
behind the sea-coast was as yet so sandy and scrubby that we were still compelled to follow the beach,
frequently travelling on loose heavy sands, that rendered our stages doubly fatiguing: whilst at nights, after the
labours of the day were over, and we stood so much in need of repose, the intense cold, and the little
protection we had against it, more frequently made it a season of most painful suffering than of rest, and we
were glad when the daylight relieved us once more. On our march we felt generally weak and languid--it was
an effort to put one foot before the other, and there was an indisposition to exertion that it was often very
difficult to overcome. After sitting for a few moments to rest--and we often had to do this--it was always with
the greatest unwillingness we ever moved on again. I felt, on such occasions, that I could have sat quietly and
contentedly, and let the glass of life glide away to its last sand. There was a dreamy kind of pleasure, which
made me forgetful or careless of the circumstances and difficulties by which I was surrounded, and which I
was always indisposed to break in upon. Wylie was even worse than myself, I had often much difficulty in
getting him to move at all, and not unfrequently was compelled almost forcibly to get him up. Fortunately he
was very good tempered, and on the whole had behaved extremely well under all our troubles since we had
been travelling together alone.
Chapter III.
HEAVY ROAD
A YOUNG KANGAROO SHOT
GRASSY COUNTRY
POINT MALCOLM
TRACES OF ITS HAVING BEEN VISITED BY EUROPEANS
GRASS-TREES MET WITH
A KANGAROO KILLED
CATCH FISH
GET ANOTHER KANGAROO
CRAB HUNTING
RENEW THE JOURNEY
CASUARINAE MET WITH
CROSS THE LEVEL BANK
LOW COUNTRY BEHIND IT
CAPE ARID
SALT WATER CREEK
XAMIA SEEN
CABBAGE TREE OF THE SOUND
FRESH WATER LAKE
MORE SALT STREAMS
OPOSSUMS CAUGHT
FLAG REEDS FOUND
FRESH WATER STREAMS
BOATS SEEN
MEET WITH A WHALER
Chapter III. 23
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May 18.--This morning we had to travel upon a soft heavy beach, and moved slowly and with difficulty along,
and three of the horses were continually attempting to lie down on the road. At twelve miles, we found some
nice green grass, and although we could not procure water here, I determined to halt for the sake of the horses.
The weather was cool and pleasant. From our camp Mount Ragged bore N. 35 degrees W., and the island we
had seen for the last two days, E. 18 degrees S. Having seen some large kangaroos near our camp, I sent
Wylie with the rifle to try and get one. At dark he returned bringing home a young one, large enough for two
good meals; upon this we feasted at night, and for once Wylie admitted that his belly was full. He commenced
by eating a pound and a half of horse-flesh, and a little bread, he then ate the entrails, paunch, liver, lights, tail,
and two hind legs of the young kangaroo, next followed a penguin, that he had found dead upon the beach,
upon this he forced down the whole of the hide of the kangaroo after singeing the hair off, and wound up this
meal by swallowing the tough skin of the penguin; he then made a little fire, and laid down to sleep, and
dream of the pleasures of eating, nor do I think he was ever happier in his life than at that moment.
May 19.--The morning set in very cold and showery, with the wind from the southward, making us shiver
terribly as we went along; luckily the country behind the sea-shore was at this place tolerably open, and we
were for once enabled to leave the beach, and keep a little inland. The soil was light and sandy, but tolerably
fertile. In places we found low brush, in others very handsome clumps of tea-tree scattered at intervals over
some grassy tracts of country, giving a pleasing and park-like appearance we had long been strangers to. The
grass was green, and afforded a most grateful relief to the eye, accustomed heretofore to rest only upon the
naked sands or the gloomy scrubs we had so long been travelling amongst. Anxious if possible to give our
horses a day or two's rest, at such a grassy place, and especially as the many kangaroos we saw, gave us hope
of obtaining food for ourselves also, I twice dug for water, but did not find any of such quality as we could
use. I was compelled therefore to turn in among the sand-hills of Point Malcolm, where I found excellent
water at three and a half feet, and halted for the day, after a stage of five miles. Unfortunately we were now
beyond all grass, and had to send the horses by a long and difficult road to it, over steep sandy ridges, densely
covered by scrub. Upon halting, one of our horses lay down, appearing to be very ill, for two hours I could not
get him to rise, and was sadly afraid he would die, which would have been a serious loss to us, for he was the
strongest one we had left. A little inside Point Malcolm, I found traces of Europeans who had slept on shore
near the beach, and upon one of the tea-trees, I found cut "Ship Julian, 1840," "Haws, 1840," "C. W." and
some few other letters, which I did not copy. The forenoon continued very wild and stormy, with occasional
showers of rain, and as we could get neither firewood nor shelter at our camp, and the sand eddied around us
in showers, we were very miserable. After dinner, I sent Wylie out with the rifle, to try to shoot a kangaroo,
whilst I took a walk round, to look for grass, and to ascertain whether water could not be procured in some
place nearer the horses, and better provided with firewood and shelter. My efforts were without success, nor
did I meet with better fortune, in examining Point Malcolm, to see if there was any place where we could fish
from the shore, the point itself was of granite, but on the sheltered side the water was very shoal, close to the
shore, whilst on the outer side the waves were breaking with frightful violence, and the spray curling and
rising from the rocks in one perpetual and lofty jet. In the evening Wylie returned without a kangaroo.
The night turned out showery, wild, and cold, making us keenly alive to the bleak, shelterless position we
were encamped in.
May 20.--The sick horse was better to-day, and as they had all found their way back to the best grass, I
determined to remain in camp. Wylie took the rifle, and again went out kangarooing, whilst I took a long walk
to examine the country, and look out for a line of road to proceed by, when we left our present position. I was
anxious, if possible, to give over travelling along the beach where the sands were so loose and heavy, not only
causing great extra fatigue to the horses, but adding also considerably to the distance we should otherwise
have to travel. For some distance I passed over steep ridges, densely covered with large tea-trees or with other
scrub, after which I emerged upon open sandy downs, covered with low shrubs or bushes, and frequently
having patches of good grass interspersed; the grass-tree was here met with for the first time, but not very
abundantly. This description of country continued between the coast and the low level bank which still shut
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out all view of the interior, though it had greatly decreased in elevation as we advanced to the west, and
appeared as if it would soon merge in the level of the country around. The day was tolerably fine, but windy,
and a few slight showers fell at intervals. At dusk I got up the horses, watered them, and was preparing to
remove the baggage to a more sheltered place, when Wylie made his appearance, with the gratifying
intelligence that he had shot one kangaroo, and wounded another; the dead one he said was too far away for us
to get it to-night, and we, therefore, (very unwillingly,) left it until the morning, and at present only removed
our baggage nearer to the grass, and among thick clumps of tea-trees where we had shelter and firewood in
abundance. The only inconvenience being that we were obliged to be economical of water, having to bring it
all from the sand-drifts, and our kegs only carrying a few quarts at a time. In the prospect of a supply of
kangaroo, we finished the last of our horse-flesh to-night. It had lasted us tolerably well, and though we had
not gained above sixty-five miles of distance, since we commenced it, yet we had accomplished this so
gradually, that the horses had not suffered so much as might have been expected, and were improving
somewhat in strength and appearance every day. It was much to have got them to advance at all, considering
the dreadful sufferings they had endured previous to our arrival at water on the 3rd of May.
Getting up one of the horses early on the 21st, we took some water with us and proceeded to where Wylie had
left the kangaroo, to breakfast. Fortunately it had not been molested by the wild dogs during the night. Though
not of a large species, it was a full grown animal, and furnished us with a grateful supply of wholesome food.
Once more Wylie enjoyed as much as he could eat, and after breakfast, I took the horse back to the camp,
carrying with me about thirty-two pounds weight of the best and most fleshy parts of the kangaroo. Wylie
remained behind with the rifle, to return leisurely and try to shoot another; but early in the afternoon he
returned, not having seen one. The truth, I suspect was, that he had eaten too much to breakfast, and laid down
to sleep when I was gone, coming back to the camp as soon as he felt hungry again. The rest of the day was
taken up in attending to the horses and bringing a supply of water up for ourselves. The weather was mild and
pleasant, and a few slight showers fell at night, but we were now so well protected among the tea-trees, and
had so much firewood, that we were not inconvenienced by the rain.
As I still intended to remain in camp to recruit the horses, I wished Wylie to go out again on the 22nd, to try
for another kangaroo; but the other not being yet all used, he was very unwilling to do so, and it was only
upon my threatening to move on if he did not, that I could get him out. As soon as he was gone, I went down
to Point Malcolm to try to fish, as the weather was now so much more moderate. Unfortunately, my tackling
was not strong, and after catching three rock-fish, weighing together three pounds and a half; a large fish got
hooked, and took great part of my line, hook and all, away.
It was very vexing to lose a line when I had not many, but still more so to miss a fine fish that would have
weighed fifteen or sixteen pounds. Being obliged to come back, I spent the remainder of the afternoon in
preparing lines for the morrow.
Towards evening Wylie returned gloomy and sulky, and without having fired a shot; neither had he brought
the horses up with him to water as I had requested him to do, and now it was too late to go for them, and they
would have to be without water for the night. I was vexed at this, and gave him a good scolding for his
negligence, after which I endeavoured to ascertain what had so thoroughly put him out of humour, for
ordinarily he was one of the best tempered natives I had met with: a single sentence revealed the
whole--"The----dogs had eaten the skin."
This observation came from the very bottom of his soul, and at once gave me an idea of the magnitude of the
disappointment he had sustained; the fact was, upon leaving the camp in the morning he had taken a firestick
in his hand, and gone straight back to where we skinned the kangaroo on the 21st, with the intention of
singeing off the hair and eating the skin, which had been left hanging over a bush. Upon his arrival he found it
gone: the wild dogs had been beforehand with him and deprived him of the meal he expected; hence his
gloomy, discontented look upon his return. As yet I had not told him that I had been fishing; but upon
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showing him what I had brought home, and giving him the two largest for supper, his brow again cleared, and
he voluntarily offered to go out again to try to get a kangaroo to-morrow.
May 23.--Leaving Wylie asleep at the camp, I set off early to fish at Point Malcolm. After catching four
rock-fish, weighing five pounds, and losing several hooks, I commenced hunting about among the rocks for
crabs, of which I procured about a dozen They were quite different from the English crab, being very small,
not more than three or four inches in diameter, and without any meat in the inside of the shell; but the chine
and claws afforded very fair pickings. Upon returning to the camp, I learnt from Wylie with great satisfaction
that he had shot another kangaroo as he went to bring up the horses. The latter were now at the camp; so
sending him to water them, I remained behind to dry my clothes, which had got thoroughly wetted in catching
the crabs.
Upon Wylie's return I mounted him on one of the horses, and accompanying him on foot, proceeded to where
he had left the kangaroo; as it was only one mile and a half away we brought it back upon the horse, entire,
that we might skin it more leisurely at the camp. It was a larger one than the last, and promised an abundant
supply of food for some days; added to this we had five pounds of fish and a dozen crabs, so that our larder
was well and variously stocked. Upon skinning the kangaroo, Wylie carefully singed, folded up, and put away
the skin for another day, fully determined that this time he would lose no part of the precious prize. Having
taken the paunch and emptied it, he proceeded to make a kind of haggis (rather a dirty one to be sure), by
putting into it the liver, lights, heart, and small intestines, and then tying it up, thrust it into the fire to be
roasted whole. This seemed to be a favourite dish with him, and he was now as happy as a king, sleeping and
eating alternately the whole night long; his only complaint now being that the water was so far off, and that as
we had to carry it all up from the sand-hills to our camp, he could not drink so much as he should like, and in
consequence, could not eat so much either, for it required no small quantity of liquid to wash down the
enormous masses of meat that he consumed whenever he had an opportunity.
May 24.--Leaving Wylie to continue his feast and attend to the horses, I went down to the beach to hunt again
for crabs, of which I procured about three dozen, but still of the same small size as before; a few larger ones
were seen in the deeper clefts of the rocks, but I could not get at them; indeed, as it was, I was very nearly
terminating my crab hunting and expedition at the same time. The places where these animals were obtained,
were the clefts and holes among large masses and sheets of rock close to the sea, and which were covered by
it at high water; many of these were like platforms, shelving to the sea, and terminating abruptly in deep
water. Whilst busily engaged upon one of them, in trying to get some crabs out from its clefts, I did not notice
that the surf sometimes washed over where I stood, until whilst stooping, and in the act of fishing out a crab, a
roller came further than usual and dashing over me, threw me down and took both me and my crabs to some
distance, nearly carrying us down the steep into the sea, from which nothing could have rescued me, as I
should soon have been dashed to pieces by the breakers against the rocks. Having gathered up the crabs I had
collected, I set off homewards in a sad cold uncomfortable plight, with the skin scraped off my hands and one
of my heels, and with my shoes in such a state from scrambling about among the rocks and in the wet, as
strongly to indicate to me the propriety of never attempting to go crab hunting again with my shoes on, unless
I wished to be placed altogether "hors du combat" for walking. Wylie I found had got up the horses and
watered them, and had brought up a supply of water for the camp, so that we had nothing to do in the
afternoon but boil crabs and eat them, at which occupation I found him wonderfully more skilful than I was,
readily getting through two to my one.
On the 25th we still remained in camp to take advantage of the abundant supply of food we had for ourselves,
and by giving the horses a long rest, enable them also to recruit a little upon the excellent grass which grew in
this neighbourhood. Wylie took the rifle out to try to get another kangaroo, but did not succeed. I remained at
home to mend my boots, and prepare for advancing again to-morrow. In the afternoon we filled our kegs, and
brought away the bucket and spade from the sand-hills, that we might be ready to move without going again
to the water. For the first time since we left Fowler's Bay we were troubled with musquitoes.
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May 26.--Up early, and Wylie, who had been eating the whole night, was so thirsty, that he actually walked
all the way through the dew and cold of the morning to the water to drink, as I could only afford him one pint
out of the kegs. We had now been in camp six clear days, at this most favourable position; we had got an
abundant and wholesome supply of provisions for ourselves, and had been enabled to allow our horses to
enjoy a long unbroken interval of rest, amidst the best of pasturage, and where there was excellent water. Now
that we were again going to continue our route, I found that the horses were so much improved in appearance
and in strength, that I thought we might once again venture, without oppression to the animals, occasionally to
ride; I selected therefore, the strongest from among them for this purpose, and Wylie and myself walked and
rode alternately; after passing the scrubby sand-ridges, and descending to the open downs behind them, I
steered direct for Cape Arid, cutting off Cape Pasley, and encamping after a stage of eighteen miles, where it
bore south-east of us. We halted for the night upon a ridge timbered with casuarinae, and abounding in grass.
Once more we were in a country where trees were found, and again we were able at night to make our fires of
large logs, which did not incessantly require renewing to prevent their going out. We had now crossed the
level bank which had so long shut out the interior from us; gradually it had declined in elevation, until at last
it had merged in the surrounding country, and we hardly knew where it commenced, or how it ended. The
high bluff and craggy hills, whose tops we had formerly seen, stood out now in bold relief, with a low level
tract of country stretching to their base, covered with dwarf brush, heathy plants and grass-tree, with many
intervals of open grassy land, and abounding in kangaroos. I named these lofty and abrupt mountain masses
the "Russell Range," after the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the Colonies--Lord John Russell.
They constitute the first great break in the character and appearance of the country for many hundreds of
miles, and they offer a point of great interest, from which future researches may hereafter be made towards the
interior. Nearer to the coast, and on either side of Cape Pasley were sand-drifts, in which I have no doubt that
water might have been procured. We found none where we were encamped, but had sufficient in the kegs for
our own use, and the horses were not thirsty; many and recent tracks of natives were observed, but the people
themselves were not seen.
The morning of the 27th was exceedingly cold; and as we left our encampments early, neither I nor Wylie
were inclined to ride for the first few miles; it was as much as we could do to keep ourselves from shivering
whilst walking; the dews were so heavy, that we were soon wet through by the spangles from the shrubs and
grass, whilst the pace at which we travelled was not sufficiently rapid to promote a quick circulation, and
enable us to keep ourselves warm.
At six miles we passed some sand hills, where there was every indication of water, but I did not think it worth
while delaying to try the experiment in digging, and pushed on for four miles further, round a bight of the
coast, encamping on the east side of Cape Arid, where a small salt water creek entered the bight. The mouth
of this was closed by a bar of sand, quite dry; nor did the salt water continue for any great distance inland.
Following it up, in the hope of finding fresh water near its source, I found that there was none now, but that
after rains considerable streams must be poured into it from the gorges of Cape Arid. The rocks here were all
of granite; and in some of the ledges we were fortunate enough to find abundance of water deposited by the
rains, at which we watered our horses. This being the first time we had ever been able to do so on our whole
journey without making use of the spade and bucket. After putting the horses out upon the best grass we could
find, Wylie and I went to try our luck at fishing; the sea was boisterous, and we caught none; but in returning,
got about eight or nine crabs a-piece, which, with some of the kangaroo that was still left, enabled us to make
our fare out tolerably.
May 26.--In the latter part of the night the rain set in moderately, but steadily, and both Wylie and myself
were very wet and miserable. The morning still continued showery, and I was anxious to have remained in
camp for the sake of the horses; but as we had consumed at breakfast the last of our kangaroo, it became
necessary to find some means of renewing our resources, or else lose no time in making the best of our way
onwards. Having sent Wylie to try and get crabs, I went out with the rifle, but could see nothing to shoot; and
upon returning to the camp, I found Wylie had been equally unsuccessful among the rocks, the sea being too
Chapter III. 27
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rough; there was no alternative, therefore, but to move on, and having got up the horses, we proceeded behind
Cape Arid for ten miles, at a course of W. 15 degrees N., and encamped at night amid a clump of tea-trees,
and bastard gums, where we got good grass for our horses, but no water. The day had been intensely cold, and
I could not persuade Wylie to ride at all. At night we had abundance of firewood, and a few of the long
narrow yams were also found at this encampment, the first vegetable food we had yet procured. Grass trees
had been abundant on our line of route to-day, and for the first time we met with the Xamia. In the evening,
the kangaroo fly (a small brown fly) became very troublesome, annoying us in great numbers, and warning us
that rain was about to fall. At night it came in frequent though moderate showers. We got very much wetted,
but our fire was good, and we did not suffer so much from the cold as the damp, which affected me with
cramp in the limbs, and rheumatism.
May 29.--After breakfasting upon a spoonful of flour a-piece, mixed with a little water and boiled into a paste,
we again proceeded. At ten miles we came to a small salt water stream, running seawards; in passing up it to
look for a crossing place, Wylie caught two opossums, in the tops of some tea-trees, which grew on the banks.
As I hoped more might be procured, and perhaps fresh water, by tracing it higher up, I took the first
opportunity of crossing to the opposite side, and there encamped; Wylie now went out to search for opossums,
and I traced the stream upwards. In my route I passed several very rich patches of land in the valleys, and on
the slopes of the hills enclosing the watercourse. These were very grassy and verdant, but I could find no fresh
water, nor did I observe any timber except the tea-tree. After tracing the stream until it had ceased running,
and merely became a chain of ponds of salt water, I returned to the camp a good deal fatigued; Wylie came in
soon after, but had got nothing but a few yams. The general character of the country on either side the
watercourse, was undulating, of moderate elevation, and affording a considerable extent of sheep pasturage.
The cockatoos of King George's Sound, (without the yellow crest) were here in great numbers. Kangaroos
also abounded; but the country had not brush enough to enable us to get sufficiently near to shoot them.
During the day Wylie had caught two opossums, and as these were entirely the fruit of his own labour and
skill, I did not interfere in their disposal; I was curious, moreover, to see how far I could rely upon his
kindness and generosity, should circumstances ever compel me to depend upon him for a share of what he
might procure. At night, therefore, I sat philosophically watching him whilst he proceeded to get supper ready,
as yet ignorant whether I was to partake of it or not. After selecting the largest of the two animals, he prepared
and cooked it, and then put away the other where he intended to sleep. I now saw that he had not the remotest
intention of giving any to me, and asked him what he intended to do with the other one. He replied that he
should be hungry in the morning, and meant to keep it until then. Upon hearing this I told him that his
arrangements were very good, and that for the future I would follow the same system also; and that each
should depend upon his own exertions in procuring food; hinting to him that as he was so much more skilful
than I was, and as we had so very little flour left, I should be obliged to reserve this entirely for myself, but
that I hoped he would have no difficulty in procuring as much food as he required. I was then about to open
the flour-bag and take a little out for my supper, when he became alarmed at the idea of getting no more, and
stopped me, offering the other opossum, and volunteering to cook it properly for me. Trifling as this little
occurrence was, it read me a lesson of caution, and taught me what value was to be placed upon the assistance
or kindness of my companion, should circumstances ever place me in a situation to be dependent upon him; I
felt a little hurt too, at experiencing so little consideration from one whom I had treated with the greatest
kindness, and who had been clothed and fed upon my bounty, for the last fifteen months.
May 30.--In commencing our journey this morning, our route took us over undulating hills, devoid of timber,
but having occasionally small patches of very rich land in the valleys and upon some of the slopes. This
continued to a salt-water river, broad, and apparently deep near the sea. As I was doubtful whether it would
have a bar-mouth to seawards, I thought it more prudent to trace it upwards, for the purpose of crossing. At no
very great distance it contracted sufficiently to enable me to get over to the other side. But in doing so the
ground proved soft and boggy, and I nearly lost one of the horses. Four miles beyond this river we came to
another channel of salt water, but not so large as the last. In valleys sloping down to this watercourse we met,
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for the first time, clumps of a tree called by the residents of King George's Sound the cabbage-tree, and not far
from which were native wells of fresh water; there were also several patches of rich land bordering upon the
watercourse.
Travelling for two miles further, we came to a very pretty fresh-water lake, of moderate size, and surrounded
by clumps of tea-tree. It was the first permanent fresh water we had found on the surface since we commenced
our journey from Fowler's Bay--a distance of nearly seven hundred miles. I would gladly have encamped here
for the night, but the country surrounding the lake was sandy and barren, and destitute of grass. We had only
made good a distance of eleven miles from our last camp, and I felt anxious to get on to Lucky Bay as quickly
as I could, in order that I might again give our horses a rest for a few days, which they now began to require.
From Captain Flinders' account of Lucky Bay I knew we should find fresh water and wood in abundance. I
hoped there would also be grass, and in this case I had made up my mind to remain a week or ten days, during
which I intended to have killed the foal we had with us, now about nine months old, could we procure food in
no other way. After leaving Lucky Bay, as we should only be about three hundred miles from the Sound, and
our horses would be in comparatively fresh condition, I anticipated we should be able to progress more
rapidly. Indeed I fully expected it would be absolutely necessary for us to do so, through a region which, from
Flinders' description as seen from sea, and from his having named three different hills in it Mount Barrens, we
should find neither very practicable nor fertile.
Six miles beyond the fresh-water lake we came to another salt-water stream, and finding, upon following up a
little way, that it was only brackish, we crossed and halted for the night. Wylie went out to search for food,
but got nothing, whilst I unharnessed and attended to the horses, which were a good deal fagged, and then
prepared the camp and made the fires for the night: I could get nothing but grass-tree for this purpose, but it
was both abundant and dry. Owing to its very resinous nature, this tree burns with great heat and brilliancy,
emitting a grateful aromatic odour. It is easily lit up, makes a most cheerful fire, and notwithstanding the
fervency with which it burns, does not often require renewing, if the tree be large. Our whole journey to-day
had been over undulations of about three hundred feet in elevation; the country rose a little inland, and a few
occasional bluffs of granite were observed in the distance, but no timber was seen any where. At night the
flies and mosquitoes were very troublesome to us.
May 31.--The morning showery, and bitterly cold, so that, for the first two hours after starting, we suffered
considerably, After travelling for seven miles and a half, through an undulating and bare country, we came to
a salt-water river, with some patches of good land about it. Having crossed the river a little way up where it
became narrower, we again proceeded for five miles farther, through the same character of country, and were
then stopped by another salt stream, which gave us a great deal of trouble to effect a crossing. We had traced
it up to where the channel was narrow, but the bed was very deep, and the water running strongly between
banks of rich black soil. Our horses would not face this at first, and in forcing them over we were nearly
losing two of them. After travelling only a quarter of a mile beyond this stream I was chagrined to find we had
crossed it just above the junction of two branches, and that we had still one of them to get over; the second
was even more difficult to pass than the first, and whilst I was on the far side, holding one of the horses by a
rope, with Wylie behind driving him on, the animal made a sudden and violent leap, and coming full upon me,
knocked me down and bruised me considerably. One of his fore legs struck me on the thigh, and I narrowly
escaped having it broken, whilst a hind leg caught me on the shin, and cut me severely.
As soon as we were fairly over I halted for the night, to rest myself and give Wylie an opportunity of looking
for food. The water in both branches of this river was only brackish where we crossed, and at that which we
encamped upon but slightly so.
There were many grass-trees in the vicinity, and as several of these had been broken down and were dead they
were full of the white grubs of which the natives are so fond. From these Wylie enjoyed a plentiful, and to
him, luxurious supper. I could not bring myself to try them, preferring the root of the broad flag-reed, which,
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for the first time, we met with at this stream, and which is an excellent and nutritious article of food. This root
being dug up, and roasted in hot ashes, yields a great quantity of a mealy farinaceous powder interspersed
among the fibres; it is of an agreeable flavour, wholesome, and satisfying to the appetite. In all parts of
Australia, even where other food abounds, the root of this reed is a favourite and staple article of diet among
the aborigines. The proper season of the year for procuring it in full perfection, is after the floods have
receded, and the leaves have died away and been burnt off. It is that species of reed of which the leaves are
used by coopers for closing up crevices between the staves of their casks.
June 1.--Upon getting up this morning I found myself very stiff and sore from the bruises I had received
yesterday, yet I felt thankful that I had escaped so well; had any of my limbs been broken, I should have been
in a dreadful position, and in all probability must have perished. After Wylie had dug up some of the
flag-roots for breakfast, and a few to take with us, we proceeded on our journey. I was anxious to have made a
long stage, and if possible, to have reached Thistle Cove by night; but the country we had to pass over was
heavy and sandy, and after travelling fifteen miles, the horses became so jaded, that I was obliged to turn in
among some sand-drifts near the coast, and halt for the night. The course we had been steering for the last few
days towards Lucky Bay, had gradually brought us close to the coast again, and during a part of our journey
this afternoon we were travelling upon the sea-shore. At ten miles after starting, we crossed a strong stream of
fresh water running through some sandy flats into the sea; a mile and a half beyond this we crossed a second
stream; and half a mile further a third, all running strongly, with narrow channels, into the sea, and quite fresh.
Fresh water was also laying about every where on our road in large pools; a proof of the very heavy rains that
had lately fallen. We were, therefore, enjoying the advantages of a wet season without having been subject to
its inclemency, and which, in our present weak, unprotected state, we could hardly have endured. The country
to the back was sandy and undulating, covered principally with low shrubs, and rising inland; there were also
several granite bluffs at intervals, from among which, the streams I had crossed, probably took their rise; but
there were no trees to be seen any where, except a few of the tea of cabbage-trees. I do not think that any of
the three fresh-water streams we had crossed would be permanent, their present current being owing entirely
to the recent rains; but when they are running, and the weather is moderately fair, they afford an admirable
opportunity of watering a vessel with very little trouble, the water being clear and pure to its very junction
with the sea.
At night we made our supper of the flag-roots we had brought with us, and a spoonful of flour a-piece, boiled
into a paste. The night was very cold and windy, and having neither shelter nor fire-wood at the sand-drifts
where we were, we spent it miserably.
June 2.--As we had made a shorter stage yesterday than I intended to have done, and the quantity of flour we
had now remaining was very small, I did not dare to make use of any this morning, and we commenced our
journey without breakfast. Being now near Thistle Cove, where I intended to halt for some time, and kill the
little foal for food, whilst the other horses were recruiting, and as I hoped to get there early this afternoon, I
was anxious to husband our little stock of flour in the hope, that at the little fresh-water lake described by
Flinders, as existing there, we should find abundance of the flag-reed for our support. Keeping a little behind
the shore for the first hour, we crossed over the sandy ridge bounding it, and upon looking towards the sea, I
thought I discovered a boat sailing in the bay. Upon pointing this object out to Wylie, he was of the same
opinion with myself, and we at once descended towards the shore, but on our arrival were greatly
disappointed at not being able again to see the object of our search. In the course of half an hour, however,
whilst resting ourselves and watching the surface of the ocean, it again became visible, and soon after a
second appeared. It was now evident that both these were boats, and that we had noticed them only when
standing off shore, and the light shone upon their sails, and had lost them when upon the opposite tack. It was
equally apparent they were standing out from the main land for the islands. I imagined them to be sealers, who
having entered the bay to procure water or firewood, were again steering towards the islands to fish. Having
hastily made a fire upon one of the sand-hills, we fired shots, shouted, waved handkerchiefs, and made every
signal we could to attract attention, but in vain. They were too far away to see, or too busy to look towards us.
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The hopes we had entertained were as suddenly disappointed as they had been excited, and we stood silently
and sullenly gazing after the boats as they gradually receded from our view.
Whilst thus occupied and brooding over our disappointment, we were surprised to see both boats suddenly
lower their sails, and apparently commence fishing. Watching them steadily we now perceived that they were
whale boats, and once more our hearts beat with hope, for I felt sure that they must belong to some vessel
whaling in the neighbourhood. We now anxiously scanned the horizon in every direction, and at last were
delighted beyond measure to perceive to the westward the masts of a large ship, peeping above a rocky island
which had heretofore concealed her from our view. She was apparently about six miles from us, and as far as
we could judge from so great a distance, seemed to be at anchor near the shore.
Poor Wylie's joy now knew no bounds, and he leapt and skipped about with delight as he congratulated me
once more upon the prospect of getting plenty to eat. I was not less pleased than he was, and almost as absurd,
for although the vessel was quietly at anchor so near us, with no sails loose and her boats away, I could not
help fearing that she might disappear before we could get to her, or attract the notice of those on board. To
prevent such a calamity, I mounted one of the strongest horses and pushed on by myself as rapidly as the
heavy nature of the sands would allow, leaving Wylie at his own especial request to bring on the other horses.
In a short time I arrived upon the summit of a rocky cliff, opposite to a fine large barque lying at anchor in a
well sheltered bay, (which I subsequently named Rossiter Bay, after the captain of the whaler,) immediately
east of Lucky Bay, and at less than a quarter of a mile distant from the shore. The people on board appeared to
be busily engaged in clearing their cables which were foul, and did not observe me at all. I tied up my horse,
therefore, to a bush, and waited for Wylie, who was not long in coming after me, having driven the poor
horses at a pace they had not been accustomed to for many a long day. I now made a smoke on the rock where
I was, and hailed the vessel, upon which a boat instantly put off, and in a few moments I had the inexpressible
pleasure of being again among civilized beings, and of shaking hands with a fellow-countryman in the person
of Captain Rossiter, commanding the French Whaler "Mississippi."
Our story was soon told, and we were received with the greatest kindness and hospitality by the captain.
Chapter IV.
GO ON BOARD THE MISSISSIPPI
WET WEATHER
VISIT LUCKY BAY
INTERVIEW WITH NATIVES
WYLIE UNDERSTANDS THEIR LANGUAGE
GET THE HORSES SHOD
PREPARE TO LEAVE THE VESSEL
KINDNESS AND LIBERALITY OF CAPTAIN ROSSITER
RENEW JOURNEY TO THE WESTWARD
FOSSIL FORMATION STILL CONTINUES
SALT WATER
STREAMS AND LAKES
A LARGE SALT RIVER
CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY
June 2.--AFTER watering the horses at a deposit left by the rains, in the sheets of granite near us, and turning
them loose, we piled up our little baggage, and in less than an hour we were comfortably domiciled on board
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the hospitable Mississippi,--a change in our circumstances so great, so sudden, and so unexpected, that it
seemed more like a dream than a reality; from the solitary loneliness of the wilderness, and its attendant
privations, we were at once removed to all the comforts of a civilised community.
After we had done ample justice to the good cheer set before us, by our worthy host, he kindly invited us to
remain on board as long as we pleased, to recruit our horses, and told us, that when we felt refreshed
sufficiently to renew the journey, he would supply us with such stores and other articles as we might require. I
learnt that the Mississippi had but recently arrived from France, and that she had only been three weeks upon
the ground she had taken up for the season's whaling. As yet no whales had been seen, and the season was
said not to commence before the end of June or beginning of July. The boats I saw in the morning belonged to
her, and had been out chasing what they thought to be a whale, but which proved to be only a fin-back, a
species which was not thought to repay the trouble of trying out.
Early in the evening the whalers retired to rest, and I had a comfortable berth provided for me in the cabin, but
could not sleep; my thoughts were too much occupied in reflecting upon the great change which the last few
hours had wrought in the position of myself and my attendant. Sincerely grateful to the Almighty for having
guided us through so many difficulties, and for the inexpressible relief afforded us when so much needed, but
so little expected, I felt doubly thankful for the mercy we experienced, when, as I lay awake, I heard the wind
roar, and the rain drive with unusual wildness, and reflected that by God's blessing, we were now in safety,
and under shelter from the violence of the storm, and the inclemency of the west season, which appeared to be
setting in, but which, under the circumstances we were in but a few short hours ago, we should have been so
little able to cope with, or to endure.
June 3.--I arose at day-break, as I found the whalers breakfasted betimes, to enable them to send their boats
away to look out, at an early hour. In fact, during the season, I was informed, that it was not unusual to send
them to their posts before the break of day, and especially so, if other vessels were in company, or there was
any competition. After breakfast I landed with the Captain, to get up and inspect the horses; poor animals they
had not gone far and were doubtless glad at not being required to march away to-day. I was only sorry that the
country did not abound more in grass. Plenty of water left by the rains was procurable, in the ledges of the
granite rocks, but the vegetation was scanty, the soil being very sandy, and covered principally with small
shrubs, heathy plants, etc.
Leaving the horses to enjoy their respite from labour, I accompanied the Captain to see a garden made by the
sailors, in which peas and potatoes had already been planted, and appeared to be growing well. A rich piece of
land had been selected on a slope, bordering upon a salt water creek, which here wound through the level
country towards the sea. The water in this creek, was brackish in the upper part, but seaward it was quite salt,
it had a bar mouth of sand, which was quite dry. Unfortunately, the Captain had no garden seeds but the peas
and potatoes, so that their labours were confined to cultivating these; otherwise during the many months spent
by them in bay whaling, they might have abundantly supplied themselves with a variety of vegetables, at once
an agreeable and wholesome addition to the ordinary diet on board ship. After dinner I went with the Captain
to visit an island near, upon which he kept his live stock, such as pigs, sheep, and tortoises; the two latter had
been procured from the west side of the island of Madagascar; the sheep were strange looking animals, more
like goats than sheep, of all colours, and with fat tails, like the Cape sheep. Their cost at Madagascar had been
a tumbler full of powder a piece; a bullock would have cost ten bottles full, and other things could have been
procured at proportionable prices. The principal articles in request among the Madagases, were said to be
powder, brass headed trunk nails, muskets, gun-flints, clear claret bottles, looking-glasses, and cutlery.
The greater part of the day was very cold and showery, and I remained quietly on board, reading some old
English papers. Wylie was as happy as he could be. It was true he did not understand a word spoken by those
around him (for not a soul on board spoke English but the Captain), but he had as much to eat as he desired;
and to do him justice, I believe he made the most of the opportunity. On the other hand, his capacity for eating
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entertained the Frenchmen, with the exception, perhaps, of his first meal on board, and then, I believe, that the
immense number of biscuits he devoured, and the amazing rapidity with which they disappeared, not only
astounded, but absolutely alarmed them. Fish were caught in great numbers from the ship's side, mackarel and
baracoota being obtained every day. Other varieties might have been procured off the rocks near the shore,
from which there were many places well adapted for fishing. Periwinkles abounded, and crabs were numerous
among the crevices of the rocks. Altogether, this seemed to be a most favourable place; and had we not met
with the vessel, it would have held out to us the prospect of obtaining as abundant a supply of food for
ourselves as we had got at Point Malcolm, without the necessity of destroying the poor foal. The night again
set in very wild, cold, and wet.
June 4.--This morning the weather appeared tolerably fine, and I landed with the French doctor for the
purpose of walking across to Thistle Cove. After travelling four miles over a sandy heathy country, we arrived
at the pretty little fresh water lake, so accurately described by Captain Flinders, and which I had so anxiously
looked forward to attaining, that we might halt to rest, and recruit the horses. There is no timber around the
lake, beyond a few xamias, grass trees, and some stunted tea-trees; neither was there much grass. In other
respects, I could not have pitched upon a more favourable place to have halted at: for near the lake abounded
the flag reed, of which the root was so valuable for food. This one article would have supported us well during
our stay here, whilst the many bluff rocks, with deep calm water close to them, extending all around the
promontory which projected into the sea, and round the bay, held out great promise that fish could readily
have been caught. Ducks were also numerous in the lake, and kangaroos on shore. The day turned out very
bleak and wet, and we both got thoroughly soaked through before we got back to the vessel, which was not
until about two in the afternoon; I was then obliged to borrow a dry suit from the Captain, whilst my own
clothes were drying.
June 5.--From this time until the fourteenth of June I remained on board the Mississippi, enjoying the
hospitality of Captain Rossiter. Wylie went out once or twice to try to shoot a kangaroo for the ship, but he
never succeeded; he had so much to eat on board that he had no stimulus to exertion, and did not take the
trouble necessary to insure success. During almost the whole of the time that I remained on board the
Mississippi, the weather was exceedingly boisterous, cold, and wet, and I could not but feel truly thankful that
I had not been exposed to it on shore; even on board the ship, with shelter and extra clothing, I felt very
sensibly the great change which had taken place in the temperature.
I regretted greatly that during my stay I had not the opportunity of seeing a whale caught. There was only
once an attempt at a chase. In this instance three boats were sent out, commanded by the Captain and the two
mates, but after a considerable lapse of time, and a long interval of suspense and anxiety, the fish chased
turned out to be a hump-back, and as this was not deemed worth catching, the boats returned to the ship. The
life led by the whalers, as far as I was able to judge, from the short time I was with them, seemed to be one of
regularity, but of considerable hardship. At half-past six or seven in the evening they invariably went to bed,
but were up at the first dawn of day, and sometimes even before it, the boats were then usually sent to a
distance from the ship to look out for whales, and whether fortunate or otherwise, they would always have a
pretty hard day's work before they returned. They were, however, well fed, being apparently even better
dieted than the generality of merchant-ships; the bread was of a better quality, and the allowance of butter,
cheese, beans, and other little luxuries much more liberal. In the Mississippi the crew were generally young
men, and with few exceptions all were complete novices at sea; this I was told was in consequence of an
expected war between England and France, and the prohibition of able seamen from leaving their country.
Captain Rossiter assured me that he had not been allowed for a considerable length of time to sail at all from
France, as the war was daily expected to break out. He was still ignorant as to what had been done in this
respect, and naturally felt very anxious at being, as he might imagine, on an enemy's coast.
During the time I remained on board the vessel, a party of natives once or twice came down to the beach, and
as I was anxious to enter into commucation with them, two were induced to get into the boat and come on
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board; as I expected, my boy Wylie fully understood the language spoken in this part of the country, and
could converse with them fluently. Through him I learnt that they had never seen white people before the
Mississippi anchored here, which was somewhat singular, considering the frankness with which they visited
us, and the degree of confidence they appeared to repose in us. Of the interior I could gain no satisfactory
account, they said that as far inland as they were acquainted with the country, it was similar to what we saw,
that there was an abundance of water in the valleys in small wells, that there was a lake and fresh water river,
but that there was little or no wood anywhere. In turn they were curious to know where we had come from, or
where we were going; but Wylie, who in this respect, at least, was prudent and cautious, told them that we had
come from the eastward to join the ship, and were now going to remain. Finding I could gain no further useful
information, presents of fish and biscuits were made to them, and they were put on shore, highly pleased with
their visit. During the remainder of my stay, I had no further opportunity of entering into conversation with
these people, as the weather was generally wild, and they could not procure much shelter or fire-wood on the
coast, had they come down to see us.
A few days before I contemplated commencing the renewal of my journey, I requested the Captain to allow a
blacksmith he had on board to shoe my horses, and to this he kindly consented, but as a scarcity of iron
prevailed, some old harpoons and lances had to be worked up for this purpose. The blacksmith who was a
Frenchman, made his shoes and nails in so different, and apparently in so much more clumsy manner than I
was accustomed to, that I was almost afraid of letting him put them on, and tried hard, but in vain, to get him
to imitate the English shoe and nail in ordinary use.
Finding that I was likely to derive no advantage from my officious interference, I determined to let him have
his own way, and was surprised and delighted to find that he performed his work well and skilfully, the only
unusual part of the operation to me, being the necessity he appeared to be under, of always having a man to
hold up the leg of the horse whilst he put the shoe on, instead of holding the foot up himself, as an English
blacksmith does; such however, he assured me was the practice always in France, and he appeared to think it
the best too. Having had my horses shod, I got some canvass from the Captain, to make bags for carrying my
provisions, and then giving him a list of stores that I wished to take with me, I commenced preparations for
leaving my hospitable entertainer. Every thing that I wished for, was given to me with a kindness and
liberality beyond what I could have expected; and it gives me unfeigned pleasure, to have it now in my power
to record thus publicly the obligations I was under to Captain Rossiter.
On the 14th, I landed the stores, to arrange and pack them ready for the journey. They consisted of forty
pounds of flour, six pounds of biscuit, twelve pounds of rice, twenty pounds of beef, twenty pounds of pork,
twelve pounds of sugar, one pound of tea, a Dutch cheese, five pounds of salt butter, a little salt, two bottles of
brandy, and two tin saucepans for cooking; besides some tobacco and pipes for Wylie, who was a great
smoker, and the canteens filled with treacle for him to eat with rice. The great difficulty was now, how to
arrange for the payment of the various supplies I had been furnished with, as I had no money with me, and it
was a matter of uncertainty, whether the ship would touch at any of the Australian colonies. Captain Rossiter
however, said that he had some intention of calling at King George's Sound, when the Bay whaling was over,
and as that was the place to which I was myself going, I gave him an order upon Mr. Sherratt, who had
previously acted as my agent there in the transaction of some business matters in 1840. To this day, however,
I have never learnt whether Captain Rossiter visited King George's Sound or not.
In arranging the payment, I could not induce the Captain to receive any thing for the twelve days' that we had
been resident in the ship, nor would he allow me to pay for some very comfortable warm clothing, which he
supplied me with, both for myself and Wylie. Independently too of the things which I had drawn from the
ship's stores, Captain Rossiter generously and earnestly pressed me to take any thing that I thought would be
serviceable to me from his own private stock of clothes. The attention and hospitality shewn me, during my
stay on board the vessel, and the kindness and liberality which I experienced at my departure, will long be
remembered by me with feelings of gratitude. In the evening I slept on shore, and got every thing ready for
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June 15.--Early this morning the boat came on shore for me, and I went on board to take a farewell breakfast,
in the Mississippi, and to wish good bye to her kind-hearted people. At eight I landed with the Captain, got up
my horses and loaded them, a matter of some little time and trouble, now my stock of provisions and other
things was so greatly augmented; in addition too to all I had accumulated before, the Captain insisted now
upon my taking six bottles of wine, and a tin of sardines.
Having received a few letters to be posted at Albany for France, I asked the Captain if there was anything else
I could do for him, but he said there was not. The only subject upon which he was at all anxious, was to
ascertain whether a war had broken out between France and England or not. In the event of this being the
case, he wished me not to mention having seen a French vessel upon the coast, and I promised to comply with
his request.
After wishing my kind host good bye, and directing Wylie to lead one of the horses in advance, I brought up
the rear, driving the others before me. Once again we had a long and arduous journey before us, and were
wending our lonely way through the unknown and untrodden wilds. We were, however, in very different
circumstances now, to what we had been in previous to our meeting with the French ship. The respite we had
had from our labours, and the generous living we had enjoyed, had rendered us comparatively fresh and
strong. We had now with us an abundance, not only of the necessaries, but of the luxuries of life; were better
clothed, and provided against the inclemency of the weather than we had been; and entered upon the
continuation of our undertaking with a spirit, an energy, and a confidence, that we had long been strangers to.
From the great additional weight we had now to carry upon the horses, we were again obliged to give up
riding even in turn, and had both to walk. This was comparatively of little consequence, however, now we
were so well provided with every thing we could require, and the country appeared to be so well watered, that
we could arrange our stages almost according to our own wishes.
Steering to the north-west we passed over a sandy country, covered with low heathy plants, and grasstrees,
and having granite elevations scattered over its surface at intervals. Under these hills fresh water swamps and
native wells were constantly met with, and at one of them we encamped for the night, after a stage of about
four miles.
During the day, we passed a variety of beautiful shrubs, and among them were many different kind of
Banksias, one was quite new to me, and had a scarlet flower, which was very handsome. The fossil formation
still constituted the geological character of the country, most of the lower ridges of rock intervening between
the various hills of granite, exhibiting shells in great abundance. In the more level parts, the surface was so
coated over with sand, that nothing else could be seen. I have no doubt, however, that the whole of the
substrata would have been found an uninterrupted continuation of the tertiary deposit.
At night I observed native fires about a mile from us, in a direction towards the sea; but the natives did not
come near us, nor was I myself anxious to come into communication with them whilst my party was so small.
The evening had set in with steady rain, which continuing with little intermission during the night, wet us
considerably.
June 16.--This morning, I found I had caught cold, and was very unwell. Upon leaving the encampment, we
steered N. 30 degrees W. to clear a rocky hill, passing which, on our left at six miles, we changed the course
to W. 10 degrees N. Three miles from the hill, we crossed a small stream of brackish water running very
strongly towards the sea, and then halted for the day upon it, after a short stage. The country we had traversed
in our route, still consisted of the same sandy plains and undulations, covered with low shrubs, heathy plants,
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grass and cabbage-trees, with here and there elevations of granite, and fresh water swamps: in and around
which, the soil was black and very rich; very little wood was to be met with anywhere, and nothing that
deserved the appellation of trees.
The country, inland, appeared to rise gradually, but did not seem to differ in character and features from that
we were traversing.
June 17.--A little before daylight it commenced raining, and continued showery all day, and though we got
wet several times, we experienced great comfort from the warm clothing we had obtained from Captain
Rossiter. Upon ascending the hills, above our camp, which confined the waters of the little stream we were
upon, we could trace its course south-west by south, to a small lake lying in the same direction, and which it
appeared to empty into. A second small lake was observable to the north-west of the first. Two and a half
miles from our camp, we passed a granite elevation, near which, were many fresh swamps, permanently, I
think, abounding in water and having much rich and grassy land around, of which the soil was a deep black,
and but little mixed with sand. For the next three miles and a half, our route lay over a rich swampy grassy
land, and we were literally walking all the way in water left by the rains; besides crossing in that distance two
fresh water streams, running strongly towards the sea, and both emptying into small lakes seen under the coast
ridges. The largest of these two was one yard and a half wide and a foot deep, and appeared of a permanent
character. We now ascended an undulating and rather more elevated tract of country of an oolitic limestone
formation, most luxuriantly clothed with the richest grass, and having several lakes interspersed among the
hollows between the ridges. Near this we halted for the night under some of the coast sand-hills, after a day's
stage of twelve miles. We had splendid feed for our horses, but were without any water for ourselves, being
unable to carry any with us, as the canteens were full of treacle. From our camp, a peak, near Cape le Grand,
bore E. 33 degrees S.
June 18.--During the night heavy showers had fallen, and in the oilskins we caught as much water as sufficed
for our tea. After breakfast we proceeded onwards, and at a little more than three miles came to the borders of
a large salt lake, lying southwest and north-east, and being one of two noted by Captain Flinders as having
been copied into his map from a French chart. Following the borders of the lake for a mile we found
abundance of fresh water under the banks by which it was inclosed, and which, judging from the rushes and
grasses about it, and the many traces of native encampments, I imagine to be permanent. The lake itself was in
a hollow sunk in the fossil formation, which was now very clearly recognisable in the high banks surrounding
the lake, and which varied from sixty to a hundred and fifty feet in elevation, and were generally pretty steep
towards the shore. The day being fine I halted at this place to re-arrange the loads of the horses and take
bearings.
A year had now elapsed since I first entered upon the Northern Expedition. This day twelve months ago I had
left Adelaide to commence the undertaking, cheered by the presence and good wishes of many friends, and
proudly commanding a small but gallant party--alas, where were they now? Painful and bitter were the
thoughts that occupied my mind as I contrasted the circumstances of my departure then with my position now,
and when I reflected that of all whose spirit and enterprise had led them to engage in the undertaking, two
lone wanderers only remained to attempt its conclusion.
June 19.--The dew was very heavy this morning, and we did not start until rather late, travelling through a
very grassy country, abounding in fresh swamps of a soft peaty soil, and often with the broad flag-reed
growing in them. All these places were boggy and impassable for horses. In attempting to cross one a horse
sunk up to his haunches, and we had much difficulty in extricating him. At five miles from our camp we
ascended some high ridges of an oolitic limestone formation, which were partially covered by drift-sand, and
in the distance looked like the ridge of a sea shore. From their summit Cape le Grand bore E. 27 degrees S.,
the peak called by the French the "Chapeau," E. 23 degrees S., and the head of the salt-water lake E. 10
degrees S. We had now a succession of barren, sandy and stony ridges for more than three miles, and as there
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was but little prospect of our finding permanent water in such a miserable region, I took the opportunity of
halting at a little rain water deposited in a hole of the rocks; here we procured enough for ourselves, but could
not obtain any for the horses. Our camp not being far from the coast, I walked after dinner to the sand-hills to
take bearings. Several islands were visible, of which the centres were set at S. 10 degrees W., S. 26 degrees
W., E. 41 degrees S., E. 44 degrees S. and S. 33 degrees E. respectively; the west point of a bay bore S. 51
degrees W. the eastern point E. 36 degrees S. Upon digging for water under the sand-hills it was found to be
salt.
June 20.--Rain fell lightly but steadily until one P.M., making it very disagreeable travelling through the
rugged and stony ridges we had to encounter, and which were a good deal covered with scrub and brush.
About four miles from our camp of last night we crossed high stony ridges, and immediately beyond came to
some steep sand-drifts, among the hollows of which I dug for water, but at five feet was stopped by rock. The
scrubby, hilly, and rugged nature of the back country, generally about three hundred feet above the level of
the sea, now compelled me to keep the beach for five miles, from which I was then again driven by the hills
terminating abruptly towards the sea, and forcing me to scale a steep stony range, which for four miles and a
half kept us incessantly toiling up one rugged ascent after another. We then came to an extensive hollow,
being a partial break in the fossil formation, and having two large lakes and many smaller ones interspersed
over its surface. Around the margins of the lakes we again found timber--the tea-tree and the bastard gum. The
water in the lakes was salt, but some slight elevations of granite afforded us in their hollows an abundance of
water for ourselves and horses. The traces of natives were numerous and recent, but yet we saw none. Swans,
ducks, and wild fowl of various kinds were in great numbers, and kept up an unceasing noise at night whilst
passing from one lake to the other. Our stage had been twelve miles and a half, but the hilly and rugged nature
of the road had made it severe upon the horses, whilst the wet overhead and the wet grass under our feet made
it equally harassing to ourselves. From our encampment some white drifts in the coast line bore S. 35 degrees
E., and probably were the "white streak in the sand-hills" of Flinders.
June 21.--We did not get away until late, but the dew had been so heavy during the night that even then the
shrubs and bushes wet us completely through, and made our journey cold and miserable. After travelling a
short distance we lost all symptoms of grass, and the country was again sandy and barren, and covered with
shrubs and heathy plants. In this region we passed two native women and a boy, within gun-shot of us; but as
they were so intent upon their occupation of digging roots, and did not notice us, I was unwilling to alarm
them, and we passed silently by. At six miles we came to a fine deep hole of excellent water about thirty yards
in circumference. It was situated in a narrow, short, but steep and rocky gorge, and is, I think, permanent. Four
miles beyond this we crossed a chain of salt ponds, trending seawards, towards an apparent gap in the
coast-line; and six miles further another. Upon the latter we halted for the night, as there was good grass for
the horses, and brackish water was procurable a little way up the stream, where it divided into branches. The
constant travelling in the wet for the last few days began now to affect our limbs considerably, and upon
halting at nights we found our feet always much swollen, and our legs generally stiff and cramped.
June 22.--A very heavy dew fell in the night, and we were again condemned to wade for three hours up to our
middle among the wet brush; after which the day became fine, and we got our clothes dried. Travelling for
two and a half miles, we crossed another small brackish chain of ponds, and then ascending rather higher
ground, obtained a view of a large lake under the sand-hills, into which the channel we encamped upon last
night emptied itself. The lake appeared as if it were deep, and its dark blue colour led me to imagine there
might be a junction with the sea towards the south-west, where the low appearance of the coast ridge indicated
a gap or opening of some kind. At four miles from our last night's encampment we were stopped by a large
salt-water river, fully a hundred yards wide, and increasing to three or four times that size as it trended to its
junction with the large lake, and which was visible from the hills above the river. This river was deep where
we first struck upon it, but appeared to be much more so towards the lake, where the water was of a dark blue
colour, as was that also of the lake itself. This confirmed me in my opinion that there must be a junction with
the sea; but unfortunately I was obliged to trace its course upwards, for the purpose of crossing, and the
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circumstances under which I was travelling precluded me from delaying, or going so far back out of my way
to examine its mouth. I dared not leave Wylie in charge of the camp for the time necessary for me to have
gone alone; and to take the horses such a distance, and through a rough or heavy country, on the uncertainty of
procuring for them either grass or water, would have been a risk which, in their condition, I did not think
myself justified in incurring.
After tracing the river northerly for two miles and a half, I found it divided into two branches, and though
these were still of considerable size, yet a ledge of rocks extending across the channels enabled us to effect a
passage to the other side. At the place where we crossed, the stream running over the rocks was only slightly
brackish, and we watered our horses there; had we traced it a little further it might possibly have been quite
fresh, but we had no time for this, for Wylie having taken charge of the horses but for a few moments, whilst I
had been examining the river for a crossing place, contrived to frighten them all in some way or other, and set
them off at a gallop; the result was, that our baggage was greatly disturbed, and many things knocked off and
damaged, whilst it took us some time again to get our horses and re-arrange the loads.
The valley through which the river took its course, was rocky, with sheets of granite extending in many places
to the water's edge. There was abundance of good grass, however, and in its upper branches, probably, there
might have been some considerable extent of pasturage. The trees growing upon the margin, were the
paper-barked tea-tree, and the bastard gum.
Leaving the river, and proceeding over an undulating sandy country, without timber, but covered with shrubs,
we passed at six miles between two small lakes, and in three more descended to a deep valley among granite
rocks; here we encamped after a stage of sixteen miles, with plenty of fresh water in pools, and very fair grass
for the horses, about a mile and a half before we halted, we had obtained a view to seawards, and I set the
"Rocky Islets" at a bearing of S. 25 degrees W.
The character of the country generally, through which we travelled to-day, was very similar to that we had so
long been traversing. Its general elevation above the level of the sea, was about three hundred feet, and to a
distant observer, it seemed to be a perfect table land, unbroken to the horizon, and destitute of all timber or
trees, except occasionally a few cabbage-trees, grass-trees, or minor shrubs; it was also without grass. Upon
crossing this region deep gorges or valleys are met with, through which flow brackish or salt-water streams,
and shading these are found the tea-tree and the bastard gum. The steep banks which inclose the valleys,
through which the streams take their course, and which until lately we had found of an oolitic limestone, now
exhibited granite, quartz, sandstone or iron-stone.
June 23.--Our horses having rambled some distance back upon our yesterday's tracks, it was late when they
were recovered, and we did not get away until eleven. After travelling a mile and a half, we crossed a stream
of most excellent water running over a bed of granite, in which were some large deep pools with reeds
growing around their margins. A branch of this watercourse was crossed a little further on, but was quite dry
where we passed it.
Nine miles from our last night's camp a view of the "Rocky Islets" was obtained from a hill, and set at due
south. Immediately on descending from the hill we crossed a salt chain of ponds in a bed of sandstone and
ironstone, and nine miles beyond this we came to another, also of salt water; here we halted for the night as
there was tolerable grass for the horses, and we were fortunate enough to discover fresh water in a granite
rock.
In the course of the afternoon I obtained a view of a very distant hill bearing from us W.8 degrees S. This I
took to be the east Mount Barren of Flinders; but it was still very far away, and the intervening country looked
barren and unpromising. During the day our route had still been over the same character of country as before,
with this exception, that it was more stony and barren, with breccia or iron-stone grit covering the surface.
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The streams were less frequently met with, and were of a greatly inferior character, consisting now principally
of only chains of small stagnant ponds of salt water, destitute of grass, and without any good soil in the
hollows through which they took their course. Many of these, and especially those we crossed in the latter part
of the day, were quite dry, and appeared to be nothing more than deep gutters washed by heavy rains between
the undulations of the country.
The rock formation, where it was developed, was exclusively sandstone or ironstone, with inferior granite;
and even the higher levels, which had heretofore been of a sandy nature, were now rugged and stony, and
more sterile than before; the grasstrees, which generally accommodate themselves to any soil, were stunted
and diminutive, and by no means so abundant as before. The general elevation of the country still appeared to
be the same. I estimated it at about three hundred feet.
One circumstance, which struck me as rather singular, with regard to the last forty miles of country we had
traversed, was, that it did not appear to have experienced the same weather as there had been to the eastward.
The little water we found deposited in the rocks, plainly indicated that the late rains had either not fallen here
at all, or in a much less degree than they had, in the direction we had come from; whilst the dry and withered
state of any little grass that we found, convinced me that the earlier rains had still been more partial, so great
was the contrast between the rich luxuriance of the long green grass we had met with before, and the few dry
withered bunches of last year's growth, which we fell in with now.
Chapter V.
LARGE WATERCOURSE
LAKE OF FRESH WATER
HEAVY RAINS
REACH MOUNT BARREN
SALT LAKES AND STREAMS
BARREN SCRUBBY COUNTRY
RANGES BEHIND KING GEORGE'S SOUND ARE SEEN
BRACKISH PONDS
PASS CAPE RICHE
A LARGE SALT RIVER
CHAINS OF PONDS
GOOD LAND
HEAVILY TIMBERED COUNTRY
COLD WEATHER
FRESH LAKE
THE CANDIUP RIVER
KING'S RIVER
EXCESSIVE RAINS
ARRIVAL AT KING GEORGE'S SOUND, AND TERMINATION OF THE EXPEDITION
RECEPTION OF WYLIE BY THE NATIVES
June 24.--UPON moving on early this morning, we crossed the bed of a considerable watercourse, containing
large deep pools of brackish water, but unconnected at present by any stream. The late hour at which we
halted last night had prevented us from noticing this larger chain of ponds, and of which, that we were
encamped upon formed only a branch. The country we now passed through, varied but little in character,
except that the shrubs became higher, with a good deal of the Eucalyptus dumosa intermingled with them, and
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were entangled together by matted creepers or vines, which made it extremely difficult and fatiguing to force
a way through. The whole was very sterile, and without grass.
After travelling nine miles, we passed on our right a small lake of fresh water; and two miles beyond this
another, about a mile in circumference, but deep, and evidently of a permanent character. Close to this fresh
water lake was another, divided from it by only a narrow neck of land, and yet the latter was as salt as the sea.
We had only made a short stage as yet; but as there was a little food for the horses near the lake, I thought it
more prudent to halt there than run the risk of being left without in the wretched looking country before us,
The Mount Barren ranges were observed again, but the weather was cloudy, so that I could make nothing out
distinctly. In the afternoon, Wylie shot three teal, of which there were numbers on the lake. At night, our
baggage and clothes had nearly all been destroyed by fire, a spark having been carried by the wind to the
tarpaulin which covered them, and which, as it had been but newly tarred, was soon in a blaze. I was fortunate
enough, however, to observe the accident in time to save our other effects.
June 25.--We commenced our journey early, but had not gone far before the rain began to fall, and continued
until ten o'clock. Occasionally the showers came down in perfect torrents, rendering us very cold and
miserable, and giving the whole country the appearance of a large puddle. We were literally walking in water;
and by stooping down, almost any where as we went along, could have dipped a pint pot half full. It was
dreadful work to travel thus in the water, and with the wet from the long brush soaking our clothes for so
many hours; but there was no help for it, as we could not find a blade of grass for our horses, to enable us to
halt sooner. The surface of the whole country was stony and barren in the extreme. A mile from our camp, we
passed a small salt lake on our left; and at fifteen miles more, came to a valley with some wiry grass in it. At
this I halted, as there was no prospect of getting better grass, and the water left by the rains was abundant. The
latter, though it had only fallen an hour or two, was in many places quite salt, and the best of it brackish, so
thoroughly saline was the nature of the soil upon which it had been deposited.
As the afternoon proved fine, I traced down the valley we were upon to its junction with a stream flowing
over a granite bed, about a mile from our camp. In this the pools of water were large, deep, and brackish, but
there was plenty of fresh water left by the rains in holes of the rocks upon its banks. As, however, there did
not appear to be better grass upon the larger channel, than in the valley where we were, I did not think it worth
while to remove our camp.
June 26.--I determined to remain in camp today to rest the horses, and to enable me to arrange their loads, so
that Wylie and I might again ride occasionally. We had both walked for the last eleven days, during which we
had made good a distance of 134 miles from Rossiter Bay, and as I calculated we ought under ordinary
circumstances to reach the Sound in ten days more, I thought that we might occasionally indulge in riding,
and relieve ourselves from the great fatigue we had hitherto been subject to, especially as the horses were
daily improving in strength and condition.
Whilst I was engaged in making the necessary preparations, and throwing away some things which I thought
we could dispense with, such as our bucket, some harness, ammunition, cooking utensils, and sundry other
things, Wylie took the rifle, and went down to the watercourse to shoot. On his return in the afternoon he
produced four teal and a black swan, as the produce of his day's sport; he had, however, shot away every
charge of shot from the belt, which had been filled on board the Mississippi, and held three pounds and a half,
besides three ball cartridges; how often he fired at the swan before he got it I could never discover, but I heard
shot after shot as fast as he could load and fire for some time, and he himself acknowledged to firing at it
seven times, but I suspect it to have been nearer twice seven.
To-day we were obliged to fetch up what water we required for our own use, from the holes in the granite
rocks near the river, that lying on the ground near our camp being too salt for use.
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June 27.--Upon moving on this morning we passed towards the Mount Barren ranges for ten miles through the
same sterile country, and then observing a watercourse coming from the hills, I became apprehensive I should
experience some difficulty in crossing it near the ranges, from their rocky and precipitous character, and at
once turned more southerly to keep between the sea and a salt lake, into which the stream emptied itself. After
getting nearly half round the lake, our progress was impeded by a dense and most difficult scrub of the
Eucalyptus dumosa. Upon entering it we found the scrub large and strong, and growing very close together,
whilst the fallen trees, dead wood, and sticks lying about in every direction, to the height of a man's breast,
rendered our passage difficult and dangerous to the horses in the extreme. Indeed, when we were in the midst
of it, the poor animals suffered so much, and progressed so little, that I feared we should hardly get them
either through it or back again. By dint of great labour and perseverance we passed through a mile of it, and
then emerging upon the beach followed it for a short distance, until steep rocky hills coming nearly bluff into
the sea, obliged us to turn up under them, and encamp for the night not far from the lake. Here our horses
procured tolerable grass, whilst we obtained a little fresh water for ourselves among the hollows of the rocks.
Our stage had been about thirteen miles, and our position was S. 30 degrees E. from East Mount Barren, the
hills under which we were encamped being connected with that range. Most properly had it been called Mount
Barren, for a more wretched aridlooking country never existed than that around it. The Mount Barren ranges
are of quartz or reddish micaceous slate, the rocks project in sharp rugged masses, and the strata are all
perpendicular.
June 28.--Upon getting up this morning we saw the smoke of native fires along the margin of the lake, at less
than a mile from us. They had already noticed our fire, and called out repeatedly to us, but as I did not wish to
come into communication with them at all, I did not reply. Soon afterwards we saw them in the midst of the
lake carrying boughs, and apparently fishing. Three miles from the lake we crossed a small salt stream, and a
mile further another. Four miles beyond the latter we came to a very deep narrow salt lake, swarming with
swans, pelicans, and ducks. As the passage between the lake and the sea appeared to be scrubby, and very
similar to that we had found so much difficulty in passing yesterday, I turned to the north-west to head it
inland; but had not proceeded far before I found our progress stopped by a large salt-water stream, which
joined the lake, and whose course was through steep precipitous ravines. By following the river upwards I
came to a place where we could descend into its basin, and as the water there, though brackish, was still
drinkable, I halted for the night after a stage of fourteen miles. The horses were a good deal tired with the
rough hilly road they had passed over, and having been without water last night, stood greatly in need of rest.
In the afternoon Wylie took the rifle to shoot some of the swans and ducks around us, but was not successful.
I remained at the camp, breaking down and clearing a passage amongst the shrubs and trees which grew in the
rocky bed of the watercourse, to enable us to get our horses readily across to-morrow. Our position bore S. W.
from East Mount Barren, E. from a bluff range three miles from us, and N. 55 degrees E. from some high hills
in the direction of Middle Mount Barren. The course of the stream we were encamped upon being nearly
north and south.
June 29.--Having found so much difficulty in keeping between the hills and the sea, I determined now to keep
more inland, and steering W. 20 degrees N., headed all ranges in four miles. From this point East Mount
Barren bore E. 20 degrees N., and as I was now clear of hills in front, I changed my course to W. 20 degrees
S., passing through a barren worthless country for eleven miles, and encamping upon a deep ravine, in which
we procured brackish water. Our horses were greatly fagged. From our camp West Mount Barren bore S. 41
degrees W.
June 30.--For the first ten miles to-day we had a very bad road, over steep stony ridges and valleys, covered
for the most part with dense gum scrub. The surface was strewed over with rough pebbles or ironstone grit,
and was broken a good deal into steep-faced ridges and deep hollows, as if formed so by the action of water.
The formation of these precipitous banks appeared to be an ochre of various colours--red and yellow, and of a
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soft friable description. At ten miles we crossed a watercourse with many pools of brackish water in it,
trending to a lake visible under the coast ridge. There was good grass near this, and many kangaroos were
seen, but as no fresh water could be obtained, we passed on, and at three miles further came to a hole of
rain-water in a rocky gorge, but here there was not a blade of grass. Hoping to meet with more success further
on, we still advanced for twelve miles, until night compelled us at last to encamp without either grass or
water, both ourselves and our horses being greatly fatigued.
In the evening we obtained a view of some high rugged and distant ranges, which I at once recognised as
being the mountains immediately behind King George's Sound. At last we could almost say we were in sight
of the termination of our long, harassing, and disastrous journey. Early in the morning I had told Wylie that I
thought we should see the King George's Sound hills before night, but he at the time appeared rather sceptical;
when, however, they did break upon our view, in picturesque though distant outline, his joy knew no bounds.
For the first time on our journey he believed we should really reach the Sound at last. The cheering and
not-to-be-mistaken view before him had dissipated all his doubts. Once more he gazed upon objects that were
familiar to him; the home of his childhood was before him, and already almost in fancy he was there, and
amongst his friends; he could think, or talk of nothing else, and actually complimented me upon the successful
way in which I had conducted him to the end of his journey. From our camp the distant ranges bore W. 5
degrees S., and West Mount Barren E. 5 degrees S.
July 1.--After travelling three miles we came to a chain of large ponds of brackish water, but with excellent
grass around them, and as the horses had nothing to eat or drink last night we halted for three hours. The water
was bad, but they drank it, and we were obliged to do so too, after an ineffectual search for better. At noon we
again moved on, and after proceeding about five miles, came to a large watercourse where the water was
excellent, and the feed abundant. Here we halted for the night, to make our horses amends for the bad fare and
hard work of yesterday. From the hill above our camp West Mount Barren bore E. 8 degrees N., Middle
Mount Barren E. 21 degrees N., and Rugged Mountains behind the Sound, W. 4 degrees S. The watercourse
we were upon, like all those we had lately crossed, had perpendicular cliffs abutting upon it, either on one side
or the other, and the channel through which it wound looked almost like a cut made through the level country
above it. A few casuarinae were observed in parts of the valley, being the first met with since those seen near
Cape Arid.
July 2.--Our route to-day lay through a country much covered with gum-scrub, banksias, and other shrubs,
besides occasionally a few patches of stunted gum-trees growing in clumps in small hollows, where water
appeared to lodge after rains. At two miles we crossed a small watercourse, and at fifteen further, came to a
deep valley with fine fresh-water pools in it, and tolerable feed around; here we halted for the night. The
valley we were upon (and one or two others near) led to a much larger one below, through which appeared to
take its course the channel of a considerable watercourse trending towards a bight in the coast at S. 17 degrees
W.
Some high land, seen to the southward and westward of us, I took to be Cape Riche, a point I should like
greatly to have visited, but did not think it prudent to go so far out of my direct course, in the circumstances I
was travelling under.
July 3.--Upon commencing our journey to-day I found our route was much intersected by deep ravines and
gorges, all trending to the larger valley below, and where I had no doubt a large chain of ponds, and probably
much good land, would have been found. After proceeding four miles and a half, we were stopped by a large
salt-water river, which seemed to be very deep below where we struck it, and trended towards a bight of the
coast where it appeared to form a junction with the sea.
Many oyster and cockle shells were on its shore. This was the largest river we had yet come to, and it gave us
much trouble to cross it, for, wherever it appeared fordable, the bed was so soft and muddy, that we dared not
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venture to take our horses into it. By tracing it upwards for eight miles, we at last found a rocky shelf
extending across, by which we were enabled to get to the other side. At the point where we crossed, it had
become only a narrow rocky channel; but there was a strong stream running, and I have no doubt, higher up,
the water might probably have been quite fresh. Its waters flowed from a direction nearly of west-north-west,
and appeared to emanate from the high rugged ranges behind King George's Sound. The country about the
lower or broad part of this river, as far as I traced it, was rocky and bad; but higher up, there was a good deal
of grass, and the land appeared improving. In the distance, the hills seemed less rocky and more grassy, and
might probably afford fair runs for sheep. Upon the banks of the river were a few casuarinae and more of the
tea-tree, and bastard gum, than we had seen before upon any other watercourse.
Upon crossing the river, we found the country getting more wooded, with a stunted-looking tree, apparently of
the same species as the stringy bark, with bastard gums, and large banksias, the intervals being filled up with
grass-trees and brush, or shrubs, common at King George's Sound. At dark we could find no water, and I
therefore pushed on by moonlight, making Wylie lead one of the horses whilst I drove the rest after him. At
nine o'clock, we came to a deep valley with plenty of water and grass in it, and here we halted for the night,
after a stage of full thirty miles. The early part of the morning had been very wet, and it continued to rain
partially for the greatest part of the day, rendering us very cold and uncomfortable. At night it was a severe
frost.
July 4.--Our horses having been a good deal fagged yesterday, I did not disturb them early, and it was nearly
noon when we moved away from our encampment, crossing the main watercourse, of which the ponds we
were upon last night were only a branch. In the larger channel, there were many fine pools of water, connected
by a strongly running stream in a deep narrow bed, and which wound at a course of E. 25 degrees S. through a
valley of soft, spongy, peaty formation, and over which we had much trouble in getting our horses, one having
sunk very deep, and being with difficulty extricated. After travelling two miles and a half, we obtained a view
of Bald Island, bearing S. 15 degrees W.; and in two miles and a half more, we crossed a fine chain of ponds,
taking its course through narrow valleys between hills of granite; these valleys and the slopes of the hills were
heavily timbered; the soil was very rich, either a reddish loam, or a light black mixed with sand, and the grass
interspersed among the trees was abundant and luxuriant. After ascending the range, we passed principally
over stony hills, and valleys heavily timbered, and with brush or underwood, filling up the interstices of the
trees.
Ten miles from our last night's camp we crossed the tracks of horses, apparently of no very old date, this
being the first symptom we had yet observed of our approach towards the haunts of civilised man. The day
was cold with heavy squalls of rain, and as the night appeared likely to be worse, I halted early, after a stage
of thirteen miles. After dark the rain ceased, and the night cleared up, but was very cold.
July 5.--Another rainy day, and so excessively cold that we were obliged to walk to keep ourselves at all
warm; we spent a miserable time, splashing through the wet underwood, and at fifteen miles we passed a fresh
water lake, in a valley between some hills. This Wylie recognised as a place he had once been at before, and
told me that he now knew the road well, and would act as guide, upon which I resigned the post of honour to
him, on his promising always to take us to grass and water at night. Two miles and a half beyond the lake, we
came to a fresh water swamp, and a mile beyond that to another, at which we halted for the night, with plenty
of water, but very little grass. During the day, we had been travelling generally through a very heavily
timbered country.
At night the rain set in again, and continued to fall in torrents at intervals; we got dreadfully drenched, and
suffered greatly from cold and want of rest, being obliged to stand or walk before the fire, nearly the whole
night.
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July 6.--The morning still very wet and miserably cold. With Wylie acting as guide, we reached in eight miles,
the Candiup river, a large chain of ponds, connected by a running stream, and emptying into a wide and deep
arm of the sea, with much rich and fertile land upon its banks. The whole district was heavily timbered, and
had good grass growing amongst the trees. From the very heavy rains that had fallen, we had great trouble in
crossing many of the streams, which were swollen by the floods into perfect torrents. In the Candiup river I
had to wade, cold and chill as I was, seven times through, with the water breast high, and a current that I with
difficulty could keep my feet against, in order to get the horses over in safety; the only fordable place was at a
narrow ledge of rocks, and with so strong a stream, and such deep water below the ledge, I dared not trust
Wylie to lead any of them, but went back, and took each horse across myself. The day was bitterly cold and
rainy, and I began to suffer severely from the incessant wettings I had been subject to for many days past.
Four miles beyond the Candiup river, we came to King's river, a large salt arm of Oyster Harbour, here my
friend Wylie, who insisted upon it that he knew the proper crossing place, took me into a large swampy
morass, and in endeavouring to take the horses through, three of them got bogged and were nearly lost, and
both myself and Wylie were detained in the water and mud for a couple of hours, endeavouring to extricate
them. At last we succeeded, but the poor animals were sadly weakened and strained, and we were compelled
to return back to the same side of the river, and encamp for the night, instead of going on to King George's
Sound as I had intended!
Fortunately there was tolerable grass, and fresh water lay every where about in great abundance, so that the
horses would fare well, but for ourselves there was a cheerless prospect. For three days and nights, we had
never had our clothes dry, and for the greater part of this time, we had been enduring in full violence the
pitiless storm--whilst wading so constantly through the cold torrents in the depth of the winter season, and
latterly being detained in the water so long a time at the King's river, had rendered us rheumatic, and painfully
sensitive to either cold or wet. I hoped to have reached Albany this evening, and should have done so, as it
was only six miles distant, if it had not been for the unlucky attempt to cross King's river. Now we had
another night's misery before us, for we had hardly lain down before the rain began to fall again in torrents.
Wearied and worn-out as we were, with the sufferings and fatigues of the last few days, we could neither sit
nor lie down to rest; our only consolation under the circumstances being, that however bad or inclement the
weather might be, it was the last night we should be exposed to its fury.
July 7.--Getting up the horses early, we proceeded up the King's river, with a view of attempting to cross, but
upon sounding the depths in one or two places, I found the tide, which was rising, was too high; I had only the
alternative, therefore, of waiting for several hours until the water ebbed, or else of leaving the horses, and
proceeding on without them. Under all the circumstances, I decided upon the latter; the rain was still falling
very heavily, and the river before us was so wide and so dangerous for horses, from its very boggy character,
that I did not think it prudent to attempt to force a passage, or worth while to delay to search for a proper
crossing place. There was good feed for the horses where they were, and plenty of water, so that I knew they
would fare better by remaining than if they were taken on to the Sound; whilst it appeared to me more than
probable that I should have no difficulty, whenever I wished to get them, to procure a guide to go for and
conduct them safely across, at the proper crossing place.
Having turned our horses loose, and piled up our baggage, now again greatly reduced, I took my journals and
charts, and with Wylie forded the river about breast high. We were soon on the other side, and rapidly
advancing towards the termination of our journey; the rain was falling in torrents, and we had not a dry shred
about us, whilst the whole country through which we passed, had, from the long-continued and excessive
rains, become almost an uninterrupted chain of puddles. For a great part of the way we walked up to our
ankles in water. This made our progress slow, and rendered our last day's march a very cold and disagreeable
one. Before reaching the Sound, we met a native, who at once recognised Wylie, and greeted him most
cordially. From him we learnt that we had been expected at the Sound some months ago, but had long been
given up for lost, whilst Wylie had been mourned for and lamented as dead by his friends and his tribe. The
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rain still continued falling heavily as we ascended to the brow of the hill immediately overlooking the town of
Albany--not a soul was to be seen--not an animal of any kind--the place looked deserted and uninhabited, so
completely had the inclemency of the weather driven both man and beast to seek shelter from the storm.
For a moment I stood gazing at the town below me--that goal I had so long looked forward to, had so
laboriously toiled to attain, was at last before me. A thousand confused images and reflections crowded
through my mind, and the events of the past year were recalled in rapid succession. The contrast between the
circumstances under which I had commenced and terminated my labours stood in strong relief before me. The
gay and gallant cavalcade that accompanied me on my way at starting--the small but enterprising band that I
then commanded, the goodly array of horses and drays, with all their well-ordered appointments and
equipment were conjured up in all their circumstances of pride and pleasure; and I could not restrain a tear, as
I called to mind the embarrassing difficulties and sad disasters that had broken up my party, and left myself
and Wylie the two sole wanderers remaining at the close of an undertaking entered upon under such hopeful
auspices.
Whilst standing thus upon the brow overlooking the town, and buried in reflection, I was startled by the loud
shrill cry of the native we had met on the road, and who still kept with us: clearly and powerfully that voice
rang through the recesses of the settlement beneath, whilst the blended name of Wylie told me of the
information it conveyed. For an instant there was a silence still almost as death--then a single repetition of that
wild joyous cry, a confused hum of many voices, a hurrying to and fro of human feet, and the streets which
had appeared so shortly before gloomy and untenanted, were now alive with natives--men, women and
children, old and young, rushing rapidly up the hill, to welcome the wanderer on his return, and to receive
their lost one almost from the grave.
It was an interesting and touching sight to witness the meeting between Wylie and his friends. Affection's
strongest ties could not have produced a more affecting and melting scene--the wordless weeping pleasure,
too deep for utterance, with which he was embraced by his relatives, the cordial and hearty reception given
him by his friends, and the joyous greeting bestowed upon him by all, might well have put to the blush those
heartless calumniators, who, branding the savage as the creature only of unbridled passions, deny to him any
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of those better feelings and affections which are implanted in the breast of all mankind, and which nature has
not denied to any colour or to any race.
Upon entering the town I proceeded direct to Mr. Sherrats', where I had lodged when in King George's Sound,
in 1840. By him and his family I was most hospitably received, and every attention shewn to me; and in the
course of a short time, after taking a glass of hot brandy and water, performing my ablutions and putting on a
clean suit of borrowed clothes, I was enabled once more to feel comparatively comfortable, and to receive the
many kind friends who called upon me.
I feel great pleasure in the opportunity now afforded me of recording the grateful feelings I entertain towards
the residents at Albany for the kindness I experienced upon this occasion. Wet as the day was, I had hardly
been two hours at Mr. Sherrats before I was honoured by a visit from Lady Spencer, from the
Government-resident, Mr. Phillips, and from almost all the other residents and visitors at the settlement,--all
vying with each other in their kind attentions and congratulations, and in every offer of assistance or
accommodation which it was in their power to render.
Finding that a vessel would shortly sail for Adelaide, I at once engaged my passage, and proceeded to make
arrangements for leaving King George's Sound.
To the Governor of the Colony, Mr. Hutt, I wrote a brief report of my journey, which was forwarded, with a
copy both of my own and Wylie's depositions, relative to the melancholy loss of my overseer on the 29th
April. I then had my horses got up from the King's river, and left them in the care of Mr. Phillips, who had in
the most friendly manner offered to take charge of them until they recovered their condition and could be
sold.
Wylie was to remain at the Sound with his friends, and to receive from the Government a weekly allowance of
provisions, [Note 29: This was confirmed by Governor Hutt.] by order of Mr. Phillips; who promised to
recommend that it should be permanently continued, as a reward for the fidelity and good conduct he had
displayed whilst accompanying me in the desert.
On the 13th July I wished my friends good bye, and in the afternoon went on board the Truelove to sail for
Adelaide; whilst working out of harbour we were accompanied as long as any of the shore boats remained, by
some of the natives of the place, who were most anxious to have gone with me to Adelaide. Wylie had given
them so flattering an account of South Australia and its pleasures, that he had excited the envy and curiosity of
the whole tribe; dozens applied to me to take them, and I really think I could have filled the ship had I been
disposed; one or two, more persevering than the rest, would not be denied, and stuck close to the vessel to the
last, in the hope that I might relent and take them with me before the pilot boat left, but upon this occurring, to
their great discomforture, they were compelled to return disappointed.
On the afternoon of the 26th of July I arrived in Adelaide, after an absence of one year and twenty-six days.
Chapter VI.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Having now brought to a close the narrative of my explorations in 1840-1, it may not be out of place to take a
brief and cursory review of the whole, and to state generally what have been the results effected. In making
this summary, I have no important rivers to enumerate, no fertile regions to point out for the future spread of
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colonization and civilization, or no noble ranges to describe from which are washed the debris that might form
a rich and fertile district beneath them; on the contrary, all has been arid and barren in the extreme.
Such, indeed, has been the sterile and desolate character of the wilderness I have traversed, and so great have
been the difficulties thereby entailed upon me, that throughout by far the greater portion of it, I have never
been able to delay a moment in my route, or to deviate in any way from the line I was pursuing, to reconnoitre
or examine what may haply be beyond. Even in the latter part of my travels, when within the colony of
Western Australia, and when the occasionally meeting with tracts of a better soil, or with watercourses
appearing to have an outlet to the ocean, rendered the country one of much greater interest, I was quite unable,
from the circumstances under which I was placed, the reduced and worn-out state of my horses, and the
solitary manner in which I was travelling, ever to deviate from my direct line of route, either to examine more
satisfactorily the character of the country, or to determine whether the watercourses, some of which
occasionally bore the character of rivers (though of only short course), had embouchures opening to the sea or
not.
In a geographical point of view, I would hope the result of my labours has not been either uninteresting, or
incommensurate with the nature of the expedition placed under my command, and the character of the country
I had to explore. By including in the summary I am now making, the journeys I undertook in 1839, as well as
those of 1840-1 (for a considerable portion of the country then examined was recrossed by the Northern
Expedition), it will be seen that I have discovered and examined a tract of country to the north of Adelaide,
which was previously unknown, of about 270 miles in length, extending between the parallels of 33 degrees
40 minutes and 29 degrees S. latitude. In longitude, that part of my route which was before unknown, extends
between the parallels of 138 degrees E., and 118 degrees 40 minutes E., or about 1060 miles of direct
distance. These being connected with the previously known portions of South-western, South-eastern, and part
of Southern Australia, complete the examination of the whole of the south line of the coast of this continent.
Indeed, I have myself (at various times) crossed over the whole of this distance from east to west, from
Sydney to Swan River. In the early part of the Expedition, 1840, the continuation of Flinders range, from
Mount Arden, was traced and laid down to its termination, near the parallel of 29 degrees S. It was ascertained
to be hemmed in by an impassable barrier, consisting of the basin of an immense lake, which I named Lake
Torrens, and which, commencing from the head of Spencer's Gulf, increased in width as it swept to the
north-west, but subsequently bent round again to the north-east, east and south-east, in correspondence with
the trend of Flinders range, the northern extremity of which it completely surrounded in the form of a
horse-shoe. The shores of this lake I visited to the westward of Flinders range, at three different points, from
eighty to ninety miles apart from each other, and on all these occasions I found the basin to consist, as far as I
could penetrate, of a mass of mud and sand, coated on the surface with a crust of salt, but having water mixed
with it beneath. At the most north-westerly point attained by me, water was found in an arm of the main lake,
about two feet deep, clear, and salt as the sea; it did not extend, however, more than two or three hundred
yards, nor did it continue to the bed of the main lake, which appeared, from a rise that I ascended near the
arm, to be of the same character and consistency as before. The whole course of the lake, to the farthest point
visited by me, was bounded by a steep, continuous, sandy ridge, exactly like a sea-shore ridge; those parts of
its course to the north, and to the east of Flinders range, which I did not go down to, were seen and laid down
from various heights in that mountain chain. Altogether, the outline of this extraordinary feature, as thus
observed and traced, could not have extended over a circuit of less than 400 miles.
It is singular enough that all the springs found near the termination of Flinders range should have been salt,
and that these were very nearly in the same latitude in which Captain Sturt had found brine springs in the bed
of the Darling in 1829, although our two positions were so far separated in longitude. My furthest position to
the north-west was also in about the same latitude, as the most inland point gained by any previous exploring
party, viz. that of Sir Thomas Mitchell's in 1832, about the parallel of 149 degrees E. longitude; but by my
being about 600 miles more to the westward, I was consequently much nearer to the centre of New Holland. It
is, to say the least, remarkable that from both our positions, so far apart as they are, the country should present
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the same low and sterile aspect to the west and north-west. Since my return from the expedition, a party has
been sent out under Captain Frome, the Surveyor-General, in South Australia, to examine the south-east
extremity of Lake Torrens; the following is the report made by that officer upon his return.
"The most northern point at which I found water last year, was near the top of a deep ravine of the Black Rock
Hills, in lat. 32 degrees 45 minutes 25 seconds, where I left the dray and the larger portion of my party on the
20th July, taking on only a light spring cart, the bottom filled entirely with kegs containing sufficient water for
our horses for nearly three days, and provisions for one month, which was as much as the cart would contain.
"My object being to ascertain the boundaries of the southern termination of the eastern branch of Lake
Torrens, as laid down by Mr. Eyre, and also the nature of the country between Flinders range, as high as the
parallel of Mount Hopeless, and the meridian of 141 degrees, (the eastern limits of the province), I kept at first
a course as near N.N.E. as the nature of the ground would admit, to ensure my not passing to the east of this
extremity of the lake; from whence I intended, if possible, to pursue a line nearly north-east, as far as my time
and the means at my disposal would allow me, hoping to reach the high land laid down by Sir Thomas
Mitchell, on the right banks of the Darling, to the north of Mount Lyell, and thus ascertain if any reasonable
hope existed of penetrating at some future time towards the interior from thence. The continued heavy rains
which had fallen for more than three weeks before my departure from Adelaide, on the 8th July, and for
nearly a fortnight afterwards, had left the surface water in pools on the scrubby plains, and in some of the
ravines; but on proceeding north, it was evident that these rains had not been there so general or so heavy,
though by steering from point to point of the hills, after crossing the Black Rock Range at Rowe's Creek, I
was able to find sufficient water for the horses, and to replenish the kegs every second or third day. From this
spot, the plains, as well as the higher land, appeared evidently to dip away to the north-east, the barren hills all
diminishing in elevation, and the deep watercourses from Flinders range all crossing the plains in that
direction. In one of these watercourses, the Siccus (lat. about 31 degrees 55 minutes), whose section nearly
equals that of the Murray, there were indications of not very remote floods having risen to between twenty
and thirty feet above its bed, plainly marked by large gum-trees lodged in the forks of the standing trees, and
lying high up on its banks, on one of which I remarked dead leaves still on the branches; and in another creek
(Pasmore River), lat. 31 degrees 29 minutes, a strong current was running at the spot where we struck it
(owing, I suppose, to recent heavy rains among the hills from whence it has its source), but below this point
the bed was like that of all the other creeks, as dry as if no rain had ever fallen, and with occasional patches of
various shrubs, and salt water tea-tree growing in it. After crossing the low ridge above Prewitt's Springs, lat.
31 degrees 45 minutes, forming the left bank of the basin of the Siccus, the plain extended between the north
and east as far as the eye could reach, and the lurid glare of the horizon, as we advanced northward, plainly
indicated the approach of Lake Torrens, which, from the direction I had followed, I expected to turn about this
point. I was obliged, however, to continue a northerly course for the sake of water, which I could only hope to
find in the ravines of the hills on our left, as high as the parallel of 30 degrees 59 minutes, where the lake was
visible within fifteen or sixteen miles, and appeared from the high land to be covered with water, studded with
islands, and backed on the east by a bold rocky shore. These appearances were, however, all deceptive, being
caused solely by the extraordinary refraction, as on riding to the spot the following day, not a drop of water
was to be seen in any direction. The islands turned out to be mere low sandy ridges, very scantily clothed with
stunted scrub on their summits, and no distant land appeared any where between the north and south-east,
though from the hills above our camp of the previous night, I could discern, with the aid of a very powerful
telescope, a ridge of low land, either on the eastern side of the lake, or rising out of it, distant at least seventy
miles, rendered visible at that distance by the excessive refractive power of the atmosphere on the horizon. A
salt crust was seen at intervals on the surface of the sand at the margin of the lake, or as it might more
properly be called, the Desert; but this appearance might either be caused by water brought down by the
Siccus, and other large watercourses spreading over the saline soil in times of flood, or by rain, and appeared
to me no proof of its ever being covered with water for any period of time. A few pieces of what appeared
drift timber were also lying about its surface. The sand, as we advanced farther east, became more loose and
drifting, and not a blade of grass, or any species of vegetation, was visible, rendering hopeless any attempt to
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cross it with horses. This point of the lake shore, being by Mr. Eyre's chart about thirty miles to the westward
of where I found it, I thought it advisable to push further north, in the direction of the highest point of the
range, which I imagined was probably his Mount Serle; for though it was not to be expected that Mr. Eyre,
whose principal and almost sole object was to discover a road to the interior, would, at the same time, have
been able to lay down the position of his route with the same accuracy that might have been expected from a
surveyor; this difference of longitude prevented my being certain of the identity of the spot, or that the range
on our left, might not after all, be another long promontory running to the north, similar to that on the western
side of which was Mr. Eyre's course. The appearance of the country, however, from the hills close under
Mount Serle (for the perpendicular cliffs on the east side of this range of hills prevented my ascending to their
summit without turning them among the ranges, for which I had not time), convinced me at once, from its
perfect accordance with the description given by Mr. Eyre, that his eastern arm of Lake Torrens was the sandy
desert I had left, its surface being about three hundred feet above the level of the sea; and our two converging
lines having thus met at Mount Serle, I knew it was useless to advance further in the same direction to a spot
which he had named, from the impossibility of proceeding beyond it, "Mount Hopeless."
"I was thus forced to return to Pasmore River, as the nearest point from whence I could cross to the low hills
to the eastward, south of Lake Torrens; and from thence I sent back to the depot two men of the party, and
three horses--the former for the sake of their rations, and the latter on account of the probable difficulty I
should have in procuring water--taking on with me only Mr. Henderson and Mr. Hawker on foot, with the
light cart and one policeman. The second evening I made the most northern of these hills, but could not find a
drop of water in any of them; and having unluckily lost the policeman, who had crossed in front of the dray
and got entangled in the dense scrub, I was detained three days riding upon his tracks, until I had traced them
to our dray tracks from the depot at the Black Rock Hill, which he reached in safety, after being out five days
without food. The cart, in the mean time, had been obliged to leave the spot where I left it, for want of
water--having been out six days without obtaining any but what we carried in the kegs; and when I overtook
it, we had not sufficient provisions for another attempt, the period of one month, for which they were intended
to last, having already nearly expired.
"I very much regret not having been able to reach, at all events, within sight of Mount Lyell; but where I
turned I could plainly see the whole country within fifty or sixty miles of the boundaries of the province, and
can speak with almost as much confidence of its absolute sterility as if I had actually ridden over it. It would
certainly be possible in the wet season to take a small party from Prewitt's Springs across to this hill of Sir
Thomas Mitchell (distant about one hundred and sixty miles), by carrying on water for eight or ten days; but
no further supply might be found short of the Darling (eighty miles beyond Mount Lyell), on which river it
would be madness to attempt anything without a considerable force, on account of the natives; and the same
point might be reached in nearly as short a time, and with much more certainty, with any number of men that
might be considered necessary, by ascending the Murray as high as the Laidley Ponds, and proceeding north
from thence.
"On returning to the depot, I moved the party down to Mount Bryan, and made another attempt on the 25th
August, with Mr. Henderson, and one man leading a pack-horse, to the north-east, hoping, from the heavy
rains which had fallen during the past two months, to find sufficient water in the ravines to enable me to push
on for several days. The second day, I crossed the high range I had observed from the Black Rock Hills and
Mount Bryan, for the southern termination of which Colonel Gawler steered when he left the northern bend of
the Murray in December, 1839; but though these hills had an elevation of twelve hundred or fourteen hundred
feet above the plain, there was no indication of rain having fallen there since the deluge. This want of water
prevented my proceeding further to the north-east; but from the summit of the highest of these hills (Mount
Porcupine,) I had a clear view of the horizon in every direction, and a more barren, sterile country, cannot be
imagined.
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"The direction of the dividing ridge between the basin of the Murray and the interior desert plain was
generally about north-east from the Black Rock Hills (the highest point north of Mount Bryan,) gradually
decreasing in elevation, and, if possible, increasing in barrenness. The summits of those hills I found
invariably rock--generally sandstone--the lower slopes covered with dense brush, and the valleys with low
scrub, with occasional small patches of thin wiry grass. I was obliged to return on the third day, and reached
the foot of Mount Bryan on the fourth evening, at the southern extremity of which hill the horses were nearly
bogged in the soft ground, though only fifty miles distant from land where the dust was flying as if in the
midst of summer.
"It appears to me certain, from the result of these different attempts, that there is no country eastward of the
high land extending north from Mount Bryan, as far as Mount Hopeless, a distance of about three hundred
miles, as far as the meridian of 141 degrees (and probably much beyond it), available for either agricultural or
pastoral purposes; and that, though there may be occasional spots of good land at the base of the main range
on the sources of the numerous creeks flowing from thence towards the inland desert, these must be too
limited in extent to be of any present value.
"The nature of the formation of the main range I found generally iron-stone, conglomerate and quartz, with
sandstone and slate at the lower elevation. At the points of highest elevation from Mount Bryan northward,
igneous rocks of basaltic character protruded from below, forming rugged and fantastic outlines.
"At one spot, particularly, about 30 degrees, there were marked indications of volcanic action, and several
hollows resembling small craters of extinct volcanoes, near one of which we found a small spring of water,
maintaining always a temperature of about 76 degrees Farenheit, when the thermometer standing in water in
the kegs stood at 52 degrees, and in the atmosphere at 54 degrees.
"The accompanying sketch of the country from Mount Bryan northwards, will probably explain its character
better than any written description. The altitudes marked at the different spots where they were observed, were
obtained by the temperature of boiling water, as observed by two thermometers; but as they were not
graduated with sufficient minuteness for such purposes, the results can only be considered approximate."
E. C. FROME,
Capt. Royal Engineers,
Surveyor-General.
September 14th, 1843.
In the above report it will be observed, that there are some apparent discrepancies between my account and
Captain Frome's. First, with respect to the position of the south-east extremity of Lake Torrens. Captain
Frome states that he found that point thirty miles more to the east than I had placed it in my chart. Now the
only sketch of my course under Flinders range, and that a rough one, which I furnished to the Colonial
Government, was sent from Port Lincoln, and is the same which was subsequently published with other
papers, relative to South Australia, for the House of Commons, in 1843. This sketch was put together hastily
for his Excellency the Governor, that I might not lose the opportunity of forwarding it when I sent from Port
Lincoln to Adelaide for supplies early in October, 1840. It was constructed entirely, after I found myself
compelled to return from the northern interior, and could only be attended to, in a hurried and imperfect
manner, during the brief intervals I could snatch from other duties, whilst travelling back from the north to
Port Lincoln (nearly 400 miles,) during which time my movements were very rapid, and many arrangements,
consequent upon dividing my party at Baxter's range, had to be attended to; added to this were the difficulties
and embarrassments of conducting myself one division of the party to Port Lincoln, through 200 miles of a
desert country which had never been explored before, and which, from its arid and sterile character, presented
impediments of no ordinary kind.
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Upon my return to Adelaide in 1841, after the Expedition had terminated, other duties engrossed my time, and
it was only after the publication of Captain Frome's report, that my attention was again called to the subject.
Upon comparing my notes and bearings with the original sketch I had made, I found that in the hurry and
confusion of preparing it, whilst travelling, I had laid down all the bearings and courses magnetic, without
allowing for the variation; nor can this error, perhaps, be wondered at, considering the circumstances under
which the sketch was constructed.
At Mount Hopeless the variation was 4 degrees E., at Mount Arden it was 7 degrees 24 minutes E. Now if this
variation be applied proportionably to all the courses and bearings as marked down in the original chart,
commencing from Mount Arden, it will be found that Mount Serle will be brought by my map very nearly in
longitude to where Captain Frome places it. [Note 30 at end of para.] Our latitudes appear to agree exactly.
The second point upon which some difference appears to exist between Captain Frome's report and mine is
the character of Lake Torrens itself, which Captain Frome thought might more properly be called a desert.
This, it will be observed, is with reference to its south-east extremity--a point I never visited, and which I only
saw once from Mount Serle; a point, too, which from the view I then had of it, distant although it was, even at
that time seemed to me to be "apparently dry," and is marked as such in Arrowsmith's chart, published from
the sketch alluded to.
[Note 30: This has been done by Arrowsmith in the map which accompanies these volumes;--to which Mr.
Arrowsmith has also added Captain Frome's route from the original tracings.]
There is, however, a still greater, and more singular difference alluded to in Captain Frome's report, which it
is necessary to remark; I mean that of the elevation of the country. On the west side of Flinders range, for 200
miles that I traced the course of Lake Torrens, it was, as I have observed, girded in its whole course by a steep
ridge, like a sea-shore, from which you descended into a basin, certainly not above the level of the sea,
possibly even below it (I had no instruments with me to enable me to ascertain this,) the whole bed consisted
of mud and water, and I found it impossible to advance far into it from its boggy nature. On the east side of
Flinders range, Captain Frome found the lake a desert, 300 feet above the level of the sea, [Note 31: By
altitude deduced from the temperature of boiling water.] and consisting of "loose and drifting sand," and "low
sandy ridges, very scantily clothed with stunted scrub on their summits." Now, by referring to Captain
Frome's chart and report, it appears that the place thus described was nearly thirty miles south of Mount Serle,
and consequently twenty miles south of that part of the bed of Lake Torrens which I had seen from that hill. It
is further evident, that Captain Frome had not reached the basin of Lake Torrens, and I cannot help thinking,
that if he had gone further to the north-east, he would have come to nearly the same level that I had been at on
the western side of the hills. There are several reasons for arriving at this conclusion. First, the manner in
which the drainage is thrown off from the east side of Flinders range, and the direction which the
watercourses take to the north-east or north; secondly, because an apparent connection was traceable in the
course of the lake, from the heights in Flinders range, nearly all the way round it; thirdly, because the loose
sands and low sandy ridges crowned with scrub, described by Captain Frome, were very similar to what I met
with near Lake Torrens in the west side, before I reached its basin.
After the Northern Expedition had been compelled to return south, (being unable to cross Lake Torrens,) the
peninsula of Port Lincoln was examined, and traversed completely round, in all the three sides of the triangle
formed by its east and west coasts, and a line from Mount Arden to Streaky Bay. A road overland from Mount
Arden was forced through the scrub for a dray; but the country travelled through was of so inhospitable a
character as to hold out no prospect of its being generally available for overland communication. One
unfortunate individual has since made an attempt to take over a few head of cattle by this route, but was
unable to accomplish it, and miserably perished with his whole party from want of water. [Note 32: Vide note
to page 154, Vol. I. (Note 11)]
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On the northern side of the triangle I have alluded to, or on the line between Mount Arden and Streaky Bay, a
singularly high and barren range, named the Gawler Range after His Excellency the Governor, was found
consisting of porphoritic granite, extending nearly all the way across, and then stretching out to the north-west
in lofty rugged outline as far as the eye could reach; the most remarkable fact connected with this range, was
the arid and sterile character of the country in which it was situated, as well as of the range itself, which
consisted entirely of rugged barren rocks, without timber or vegetation. There was not a stream or a
watercourse of any kind emanating from it; we could find neither spring nor permanent fresh water, and the
only supply we procured for ourselves was from the deposits left by very recent rains, and which in a few
days more, would have been quite dried up. The soil was in many places saline, and wherever water had
lodged in any quantity (as in lakes of which there were several) it was quite salt.
[Note 33: A small exploring party, under a Mr. Darke, was sent from Port Lincoln in August, 1844, but after
getting as far as the Gawler Range were compelled by the inhospitable nature of the country to return. The
unfortunate leader was murdered by the natives on his route homewards.]
Continuing the line of coast to the westward, the expedition passed through the most wretched and desolate
country imaginable, consisting almost entirely of a table-land, or of undulating ridges, covered for the most
part with dense scrubs, and almost wholly without either grass or water. The general elevation of this country
was from three to five hundred feet, and all of the tertiary deposit, with primary rocks protruding at intervals.
The first permanent fresh water met with on the surface was a small fresh-water lake, beyond the parallel of
123 degrees E.; but from Mount Arden to that point, a distance of fully 800 miles in a direct line, none
whatever was found on the surface (if I except a solitary small spring sunk in the rock at Streaky Bay). During
the whole of this vast distance, not a watercourse, not a hollow of any kind was crossed; the only water to be
obtained was by digging close to the sea-shore, or the sand-hills of the coast, and even by that means it
frequently could not be procured for distances of 150 to 160 miles together. With the exception of the Gawler
Range, which lies between Streaky Bay and Mount Arden, this dreary waste was one almost uniform
table-land of fossil formation, with an elevation of from three to five hundred feet, covered for the most part
by dense impenetrable scrubs, and varied only on its surface by occasional sandy or rocky undulations.
What then can be the nature of that mysterious interior, bounded as it is by a table-land without river or lakes,
without watercourses or drainage of any kind, for so vast a distance? Can it be that the whole is one immense
interminable desert, or an alternation of deserts and shallow salt lakes like Lake Torrens? Conjecture is set at
defiance by the impenetrable arrangements of nature; where, the more we pry into her secrets, the more
bewildered and uncertain become all our speculations.
It has been a common and a popular theory to imagine the existence of an inland sea, and this theory has been
strengthened and confirmed by the opinion of so talented, so experienced, and so enterprising a traveller as
my friend Captain Sturt, in its favour. That gentleman, with the noble and disinterested enthusiasm by which
he has ever been characterised, has once more sacrificed the pleasure and quiet of domestic happiness, at the
shrine of enterprise and science. With the ardour of youth, and the perseverance and judgment of riper years,
he is even now traversing the trackless wilds, and seeking to lift up that veil which has hitherto hung over
their recesses. May he be successful to the utmost of his wishes, and may he again rejoin in health and safety
his many friends, to forget in their approbation and admiration the toils he has encountered, and to enjoy the
rewards and laurels which will have been so hardly earned, and so well deserved.
It was in August, 1844, that Captain Sturt set out upon his arduous undertaking, with a numerous and well
equipped party, and having provisions calculated to last them for eighteen months. I had the pleasure of
accompanying the expedition as far as the Rufus (about 240 miles from Adelaide), to render what assistance I
could, in passing up, on friendly terms among the more distant natives of the Murray. Since my return,
Captain Sturt has been twice communicated with, and twice heard from, up to the time I left the Colony, on
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the 21st December, 1844. The last official communication addressed to the Colonial Government will be
found in Chapter IX. of Notes on the Aborigines. The following is a copy of a private letter to John Morphett,
Esq M.C., and published in the Adelaide Observer of the 9th November, 1844:--
"I left Lake Victoria, as I told you in a former letter, on the 18th of September, and again cut across the
country to the Murray. As we travelled along we saw numerous tracks of wild cattle leading from the marshes
to the river, and we encamped at the junction of the river and a lagoon (one of the most beautiful spots you
ever saw), just where these tracks were most numerous. In the night therefore we were surrounded by lowing
herds, coming to the green pastures of which we had taken possession. In the morning I sent Messrs. Poole
and Brown, with Flood my stockman, and Mark to drive in some bullocks, as I was anxious to secure one or
two workers. The brush however was too thick, and in galloping through it after a bull, Flood's carbine
exploded, and blew off three of the fingers of his right hand. This accident obliged me to remain stationary for
two days, notwithstanding my anxiety to get up to the lagoon at Williorara, to ascertain the truth or otherwise
of the report I had heard of the massacre of a party of overlanders there.
"On the 23rd I reached the junction of the Ana branch with the Murray, discovered by Eyre, and then turned
northwards. Running this Ana branch up, I crossed it where the water ceased, and went to the Darling, striking
it about fifteen miles above its junction with the Murray. The unlooked-for course of the Darling however
kept me longer on its banks than I had anticipated; but you can form no idea of the luxuriant verdure of its
flats. They far surpass those of the Murray, both in quantity and quality of soil; and extended for many miles
at a stretch along the river side. We have run up it at a very favourable season, and seen the commencement of
its floods; for, two days after we reached it, and found it with scarcely any water in its bed, we observed a
fresh in it, indicated by a stronger current. The next morning to our surprise the waters were half-bank high.
They had risen six feet during the night, and were carrying everything before them; now they are full sixteen
feet above their level, and a most beautiful river it is. Over this said mysterious river, as Major Mitchell calls
it, the trees drooped like willows, or grew in dark clusters at each turn; the sloping banks were of a vivid
green, the flats lightly timbered, and the aspect of the whole neighbourhood cheerful.
"I had hoped that we should have been able to approach the ranges pretty closely along the line of Laidley's
Ponds; but fancy our disappointment when we arrived on its banks to find that instead of a mountain stream it
was a paltry creek, connecting a lake, now dry, with the river, and that its banks were quite bare. I was
therefore obliged to fall back upon the Darling, and have been unable to stir for the last four days by reason of
heavy rain.
"On Tuesday I despatched Mr. Poole to the ranges, which are forty miles distant from us, to ascertain if there
is water or feed under them; but I have no hope of good tidings, and believe I shall ultimately be obliged to
establish myself on the Darling.
"You will be glad to hear, and so ought every body, that we have maintained a most satisfactory intercourse
with the natives. The report we had heard referred to Major Mitchell's affray with them, and you will not be
surprised at their reverting to it, when I tell you that several old men immediately recognized me as having
gone down the Murray in a boat, although they could have seen me for an hour or two only, and fifteen years
have now elapsed since I went down the river. I suppose we misunderstood the story; but most assuredly I
fully anticipated we should, sooner or later, come on some dreadful acene or other, and I came up fully
prepared to act; but the natives have been exceedingly quiet, nor have we seen a weapon in the hands of any
of them: in truth I have been quite astonished at the change in the blacks; for instead of collecting in a body,
they have visited us with their wives and children, and have behaved in the most quiet manner. We may
attribute this in part to our own treatment of the natives, and in part to Eyre's influence over them, which is
very extensive, and has been productive of great good. The account the natives give of the distant interior is
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very discouraging. It is nothing more however than what I expected. They say that beyond the hills it is all
sand and rocks; that there is neither grass or water, or wood; and that it is awfully hot. This last feature
appears to terrify them. They say that they are obliged to take wood to the hills for fire, and that they clamber
up the rocks on the hills; that when there is water there, it is in deep holes from which they are obliged to
sponge it up and squeeze it out to drink. I do not in truth think that any of the natives have been beyond the
hills, and that the country is perfectly impracticable.
"We are now not more than two hundred and fifteen feet above the sea, with a declining country to the
north-west, and the general dip of the continent to the south-west. What is the natural inference where there is
not a single river emptying itself upon the coast, but that there is an internal basin? Such a country can only be
penetrated by cool calculation and determined perseverance. I have sat down before it as a besieger before a
fortress, to make my approaches with the same systematic regularity. I must cut hay and send forage and
water in advance, as far as I can. I have the means of taking sixteen days' water and feed for two horses and
three men; and if I can throw my supplies one hundred miles in advance, I shall be able to go two hundred
miles more beyond that point, at the rate of thirty miles a-day, one of us walking whilst two rode. Surely at
such a distance some new feature will open to reward our efforts! My own opinion is, that an inland sea will
bring us up ere long--then how shall we get the boat upon it? 'Why,' you will say, 'necessity is the mother of
invention.' You will find some means or other, no doubt; and so we will. However, under any circumstances,
depend upon it I will either lift up or tear down the curtain which hides the interior from us, so look out for the
next accounts from me as of the most interesting kind, as solving this great problem, or shutting the door to
discovery from this side the continent for ever.
"P.S. Poole has just returned from the ranges. I have not time to write over again. He says that there are high
ranges to N. and N.W. and water,--a sea extending along the horizon from S.W. by W., to ten E. of N. in
which there are a number of islands and lofty ranges as far as the eye can reach. What is all this? Are we to be
prosperous? I hope so; and I am sure you do. To-morrow we start for the ranges, and then for the waters,--the
strange waters on which boat never swam, and over which flag never floated. But both shall are long. We
have the heart of the interior laid open to us, and shall be off with a flowing sheet in a few days. Poole says
that the sea was a deep blue, and that in the midst of it there was a conical island of great height. When will
you hear from me again?"
From this communication, Captain Sturt appears to be sanguine of having realized the long hoped for sea, and
at last of having found a key to the centre of the continent. Most sincerely do I hope that this may be the case,
and that the next accounts may more than confirm such satisfactory intelligence.
My own impressions were always decidedly opposed to the idea of an inland sea, nor have I changed them in
the least, now that circumstances amounting almost to proof, seem to favour that opinion.
Entertaining, as I do, the highest respect for the opinion of one so every way capable of forming a correct
judgment as Captain Sturt, it is with considerable diffidence that I advance any conjectures in opposition to
his, and especially so, as I may be thought presumptuous in doing so in the face of the accounts received.
Until these accounts, however, are further confirmed, the question still remains as it was; and it may perhaps
not be out of place to allude to some of the reasons which have led me to form an opinion somewhat different
from that entertained by Captain Sturt, and which I have been compelled to arrive at after a long personal
experience, a closer approach to the interior, and a more extensive personal examination of the continent, than
any other traveller has hitherto made. In the course of that experience, I have never met with the slightest
circumstance to lead me to imagine that there should be an inland sea, still less a deep navigable one, and
having an outer communication with the ocean. I can readily suppose, and, in fact, I do so believe, that a
considerable portion of the interior consists of the beds or basins of salt lakes or swamps, as Lake Torrens,
and some of which might be of great extent. I think, also, that these alternate, with sandy deserts, and that
probably at intervals, there are many isolated ranges, like the Gawler range, and which, perhaps, even in some
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places may form a connection of links across the continent, could any favourable point be obtained for
commencing the examination.
It is very possible that among these ranges, intervals of a better or even of a rich and fertile country might be
met with.
The suggestion thrown out by Captain Sturt a few years ago, that Australia might formerly have been an
Archipelago of islands, appears to me to have been a happy idea, and to afford the most rational and
satisfactory way of accounting for many of the peculiarities observable upon its surface or in its structure.
That it has only recently (compared with other countries) obtained its present elevation, is often forcibly
impressed upon the traveller, by the appearance of the country he is traversing, but no where have I found this
to be the case in a greater degree, than whilst exploring that part of it, north of Spencer's Gulf, where a great
portion of the low lands intervening, between the base of Flinders range, and the bed of Lake Torrens,
presents the appearance of a succession of rounded undulations of sand or pebbles washed perfectly smooth
and even, looking like waves of the sea, and seeming as if they had not been very many centuries deserted by
the element that had moulded them into their present form. In this singular district I found scattered at
intervals throughout the whole area inclosed by, but south of, Lake Torrens, many steep-sided fragments of a
table land, [Note 34 at end of para.] which had evidently been washed to pieces by the violent action of water,
and which appeared to have been originally, of nearly the same general elevation as the table lands to the
westward. It seems to me, that these table lands have formerly been the bed of the ocean, and this opinion is
fully borne out by the many marine remains, fossil shells, and banks of oyster shells, [Note 35 at end of para.]
which are frequently to be met with embedded in them. What are now the ranges of the continent would
therefore formerly have been but rocks or islands, and if this supposition be true, there are still hopes that
some other islands are scattered over the immense space occupied by Australia, and which may be of as rich
and fertile a character, as any that are yet known. Thus if the intervening extent of desert lying between any of
the known portions of Australia, and what may be considered as having been the next island, can be
ascertained and crossed over, new and valuable regions may yet be offered for the extension of the pastoral
interest of our Colonies, and for the general spread of civilization and improvement.
[Note 34: "An hundred miles above this, I passed a curious feature, called the "Square Hills" (plate 123 ). I
landed my canoe and went ashore, and to their tops to examine them. Though they appeared to be near the
river, I found it half a day's journey to travel to and from them; they being several miles from the river. On
ascending them I found them to be two or three hundred feet high, and rising on their sides at an angle of 45
deg. and on their tops, in some places for half a mile in length perfectly level, with a green turf, and
corresponding exactly with the tabular hills spoken of above the Mandans, in plate 39, vol. 1. I therein said
that I should visit these hills on my way down the river; and I am fully convinced from close examination, that
they are a part of the same original superstratum, which I therein described, though 7 or 800 miles separated
from them. They agree exactly in character, and also in the materials of which they are composed; and I
believe that some unaccountable gorge of waters has swept away the intervening earth, leaving these solitary
and isolated, though incontrovertible evidences, that the summit level of all this great valley, has at one time
been where the level surface of these hills now is, two or three hundred feet above what is now denominated
the summit level."--Catlin's American Indians, Vol. 2. pp. 11 and 12.]
[Note 35: Similar banks of fossil shells and oyster beds, are found in the Arkansas.--Vide Catlin, Vol. 2. p. 85.
At page 86, Mr. Catlin describes banks of gypsum and salt, extending through a considerable extent of
country, and which apparently was of a very similar formation to some of the localities I was in to the north of
Spencer's Gulf.]
I have already observed that several circumstances connected with my own personal experience have led me
to the conclusion, that there is no inland sea now occupying the centre of New Holland; it will be sufficient to
name three of the most important of these.
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First. I may mention the hot winds which in South Australia, or opposite the centre of the continent, always
blow from the north, to those, who have experienced the oppressive and scorching influence of these winds,
which can only be compared to the fiery and withering blasts from a heated furnace, I need hardly point out
that there is little probability that such winds can have been wafted over a large expanse of water.
Secondly. I may state that between the Darling river and the head of the Great Australian Bight, I have at
various points come into friendly communication with the Aborigines inhabiting the outskirts of the interior,
and from them I have invariably learnt that they know of no large body of water inland, fresh or salt; that there
were neither trees nor ranges, but that all was an arid waste so far as they were accustomed to travel.
Thirdly. I infer the non-existence of an inland sea, from the coincidence observable in the physical
appearance, customs, character, and pursuits of the Aborigines at opposite points of the continent, whilst no
such coincidence exists along the intervening lines of coast connecting those points.
With respect to the first consideration, it is unnecessary to add further remark; as regards the second, I may
state, that although I may sometimes not have met with natives at those precise spots which might have been
best suited for making inquiry, or although I may sometimes have had a difficulty in explaining myself to, or
in understanding a people whose language I did not comprehend; yet such has not always been the case, and
on many occasions I have had intercourse with natives at favourable positions, and have been able, quite
intelligibly, to carry on any inquiries. One of these opportunities occurred in the very neighbourhood of the
hill from which Mr. Poole is said to have seen the inland sea, as described in Captain Sturt's despatch.
There are several reasons for supposing Mr. Poole to have been deceived in forming an opinion of the objects
which he saw before him from that elevation: first, I know, from experience, the extraordinary and deceptive
appearances that are produced in such a country as Mr. Poole was in, by mirage and refration combined. I
have often myself been very similarly deceived by the semblance of hills, islands, and water, where none such
existed in reality. Secondly, in December 1843, I was within twenty-five miles of the very spot from which
Mr. Poole thought he looked upon a sea, and I was then accompanied by natives, and able, by means of an
interpreter, to communicate with those who were acquainted with the country to the north-west. My inquiries
upon this point were particular; but they knew of no sea. They asserted that there was mud out in that
direction, and that a party would be unable to travel; from which I inferred either that some branch of the
Darling spread out its waters there in time of flood, or that Lake Torrens itself was stretching out in the
direction indicated. Thirdly, I hold it physically impossible that a sea can exist in the place assigned to it, in as
much as during an expedition, undertaken by the Surveyor-general of the Colony, in September, 1843, that
officer had attained a position which would place himself and Mr. Poole at two opposite points, upon nearly
the same parallel of latitude; but about 130 miles of longitude apart, in a low level country, and in which,
therefore, the ranges of their respective vision from elevations would cross each other, and if there was a sea,
Captain Frome must have seen it as well as Mr. Poole; again, I myself had an extensive and distant view to the
north-east and east from Mount Hopeless, a low hill, about ninety miles further north than Captain Frome's
position, but a little more east; yet there was nothing like a sea to be seen from thence, the dry and
glazed-looking bed of Lake Torrens alone interrupting the monotony of the desert.
There are still some few points connected with our knowledge of the outskirts of the interior which leave great
room for speculation, and might lead to the opinion that it is not altogether a low or a desert region. The facts
which have more immediately come under my own observation, are connected, first with the presence of birds
belonging to a higher and better country in the midst of a desert region, and secondly, with the line of route
taken by the Aborigines in spreading over the continent, as deduced from a coincidence or dissimilarity of the
manners, customs, or languages of tribes remotely apart from one another.
With respect to the presence of birds in a region such as they do not usually frequent, I may state that at
Mount Arden, near the head of Spencer's Gulf, swans were seen taking their flight high in the air, to the north,
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as if making for some river or lake they were accustomed to feed at. At the Frome river, where it spreads into
the plains to the north of Flinders range; four white cockatoos were found flying about among the trees,
although those birds had not been met with for 200 miles before I attained that point. [Note 36: Vide Vol. I.
July 4, Aug 31, and March 19.] And about longitude 128 degrees 20 minutes E., when crossing over towards
King George's Sound, large parrots were found coming from the north-east, to feed upon the berries of a shrub
growing on the sea coast, although no parrots were seen for two or three hundred miles on either side, either to
the east or to the west, they must, therefore, have come from the interior. Now the parrot is a bird that often
frequents a mountainous country, and always inhabits one having timber of a better description and larger
growth than the miserable shrubs met with along the coast; it is a bird too that always lives within reach of
permanent fresh-water, as rivers, lakes, creeks, pools, etc. Can there then be such in the interior, with so
barren and arid a region, bounding it? and how are we to commence an examination with so many difficulties
and embarrassments attending the very outset?
The second series of facts which have attracted my attention, relate to the Aborigines. It is a well known
circumstance that the dialects, customs, and pursuits in use among them in the various parts of the continent,
differ very much from each other in some particulars, and yet that there is such a general similarity in the
aggregate as to leave no room to doubt that all the Aborigines of Australia have had one common origin, and
are in reality one and the same race. If this then is really the case, they must formerly have spread over the
continent from one first point, and this brings me to the
Third reason I have mentioned as being one, from which I infer, that there is not an inland sea, viz., the
coincidence observable in the physical appearance, customs, character, and pursuits of the Aborigines, at
opposite points of the continent, whilst no such coincidence exists along the intervening lines of coast
connecting those two points, and which naturally follows from the circumstances connected with the present
location of the various tribes in which this is observable, and with the route which they must have taken to
arrive at the places they now occupy on the continent. [Note 37 at end of para.] I believe that the idea of
attempting to deduce the character of the continent, and the most probable line for crossing it, from the
circumstances and habits of the natives inhabiting the coast line is quite a novel one. It appears to me,
however, to be worth consideration; and if it is true that the natives have all one common origin, and have
spread over the continent from one first point, I think it may reasonably be inferred that there is a practicable
route across the centre of New Holland, and that this line lies between the 125th and 135th degrees of east
longitude. It further appears that there must still be a second route, other than the coast line, in the direction
between Port Jackson in New South Wales and the south-east corner of the Gulf of Carpentaria on the north
coast.
[Note 37: Vide Chapter VII. of Notes on the Aborigines, where this subject will be found fully discussed, and
the reasons given for supposing the conclusions here assumed.]
If then we have reasonable grounds for believing that such lines of route actually do exist, it becomes a matter
of much interest and importance to determine the most favourable point from which to explore them. My own
experience has pointed out the dreadful nature of the southern coast, and the very great and almost insuperable
difficulties that beset the traveller at the very commencement--in his efforts even to establish a single depot
from which to enter upon his researches. The northern coast may, probably, afford greater facilities, but in a
tropical climate, where the heat and other circumstances render ordinary difficulties and impediments still
more embarrassing and dangerous, it is a matter of deep moment that the expedition for interior exploration
should commence at the right point, and this can only be ascertained by a previous examination.
I have myself always been most anxious to attempt to cross from Moreton Bay on the N. E. coast to Port
Essington on the N. W. I believe that this journey is quite practicable, and I have no doubt that if judiciously
conducted, and the country to the south of the line of route always examined, as far as that could be done, it
would completely develop, in connection with what is already known, the character and formation of
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Australia, and would at once point out the most proper place from which subsequent expeditions ought to start
in order finally to accomplish the passage across its interior--from the north to the south.
Chapter I.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
UNJUST OPINIONS GENERALLY ENTERTAINED OF THE CHARACTER OF THE NATIVE
DIFFICULTIES AND DISADVANTAGES HE LABOURS UNDER IN HIS RELATIONS WITH
EUROPEANS
AGGRESSIONS AND INJURIES ON THE PART OF THE LATTER IN GREAT DEGREE EXTENUATE
HIS CRIMES
Upon bringing to a close the narrative of an Expedition of Discovery in Australia, during the progress of
which an extensive portion of the previously unknown parts of that continent were explored, I have thought it
might not be uninteresting to introduce a few pages on the subject of the Aborigines of the country.
It would afford me much gratification to see an interest excited on their behalf proportioned to the claims of a
people who have hitherto been misjudged or misrepresented.
For the last twelve years I have been personally resident in one or other of the Australian Colonies, and have
always been in frequent intercourse with the aboriginal tribes that were near, rarely being without some of
them constantly with me as domestics.
To the advantages of private opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of their character were added, latterly,
the facilities afforded by my holding a public appointment in South Australia, in the midst of a district more
densely populated by natives than any in that Colony, where no settler had ventured to locate, and where,
prior to my arrival in October 1841, frightful scenes of bloodshed, rapine, and hostility between the natives
and parties coming overland with stock, had been of frequent and very recent occurrence.
As Resident Magistrate of the Murray District, I may almost say, that for the last three years I have lived with
the natives. My duties have frequently taken me to very great distances up the Murray or the Darling rivers,
when I was generally accompanied only by a single European, or at most two, and where, if attacked, there
was no possibility of my receiving any human aid. I have gone almost alone among hordes of those fierce and
blood-thirsty savages, as they were then considered, and have stood singly amongst them in the remote and
trackless wilds, when hundreds were congregated around, without ever receiving the least injury or insult.
In my first visits to the more distant tribes I found them shy, alarmed, and suspicious, but soon learning that I
had no wish to injure them, they met me with readiness and confidence. My wishes became their law; they
conceded points to me that they would not have done to their own people, and on many occasions cheerfully
underwent hunger, thirst, and fatigue to serve me.
Former habits and prejudices in some respects gave way to the influence I acquired. Tribes that never met or
heard of one another before were brought to mingle in friendly intercourse. Single individuals traversed over
immense distances and through many intervening tribes, which formerly they never could have attempted to
pass, and in accomplishing this the white man's name alone was the talisman that proved their safe-guard and
protection.
During the whole of the three years I was Resident at Moorunde, not a single case of serious injury or
aggression ever took place on the part of the natives against the Europeans; and a district, once considered the
wildest and most dangerous, was, when I left it in November 1844, looked upon as one of the most peaceable
and orderly in the province.
Independently of my own personal experience, on the subject of the Aborigines, I have much pleasure in
acknowledging the obligations I am under to M. Moorhouse, Esq. Protector of Aborigines in Adelaide, for his
valuable assistance, in comparing and discussing the results of our respective observations, on matters
connected with the natives, and for the obliging manner in which he has furnished me with many of his own
important and well-arranged notes on various points of interest in their history.
By this aid, I am enabled, in the following pages, to combine my own observations and experience with those
of Mr. Moorhouse, especially on points connected with the Adelaide Tribes. In some cases, extracts from Mr.
Moorhouse's notes, will be copied in his own words, but in most I found an alteration or rearrangement to be
indispensable to enable me to connect and amplify the subjects: I wish it to be particularly understood,
however, that with any deductions, inferences, remarks, or suggestions, that may incidentally be introduced,
Mr. Moorhouse is totally unconnected, that gentleman's notes refer exclusively to abstract matters of fact,
relating to the habits, customs, or peculiarities of the people treated of, and are generally confined to the
Adelaide Tribes.
[Note 38: Some few of these notes were printed in the Colony, in a detached form, as Reports to the Colonial
Government, or in the Vocabularies of the Missionaries, and since my return to England I find others have
been published in papers, ordered to be printed by the House of Commons, in August 1844. From the
necessity, however, of altering in some measure the phraseology, to combine Mr. Moorhouse's remarks with
my own, and to preserve a uniformity in the descriptions, it has not been practicable or desirable in all cases,
to separate or distinguish by inverted commas, those observations which I have adopted. I have, therefore,
preferred making a general acknowledgment of the use I have made of the notes that were supplied to me by
Mr. Moorhouse.]
In the descriptions given in the following pages, although there may occasionally be introduced, accounts of
the habits, manners, or customs of some of the tribes inhabiting different parts of Australia I have visited, yet
there are others which are exclusively peculiar to the natives of South Australia. I wish it, therefore, to be
understood, that unless mention is made of other tribes, or other parts of the continent, the details given are
intended to apply to that province generally, and particularly to the tribes in it, belonging to the districts of
Adelaide and the Murray river.
As far as has yet been ascertained, the whole of the aboriginal inhabitants of this continent, scattered as they
are over an immense extent of country, bear so striking a resemblance in physical appearance and structure to
each other; and their general habits, customs, and pursuits, are also so very similar, though modified in some
respects by local circumstances or climate, that little doubt can be entertained that all have originally sprung
from the same stock. The principal points of difference, observable between various tribes, appear to consist
chiefly in some of their ceremonial observances, and in the variations of dialect in the language they speak;
the latter are, indeed, frequently so great, that even to a person thoroughly acquainted with any one dialect,
there is not the slightest clue by which he can understand what is said by a tribe speaking a different one.
The only account I have yet met with, which professed to give any particular description of the Aborigines of
New Holland, is that contained in the able papers upon this subject, by Captain Grey, in the second volume of
his travels. When it is considered, that the material for that purpose was collected by the author, during a few
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months interval between his two expeditions, which he spent at Swan River, and a short time subsequently
passed at King George's Sound, whilst holding the appointment of Government Resident there; it is perfectly
surprising that the amount of information amassed should be so great, and so generally correct, on subjects
where so many mistakes are liable to be made, in all first inquiries, when we are ignorant of the character and
habits of the people of whom information is to be sought, and unacquainted with the language they speak.
The subject, however, upon a portion of which Captain Grey so successfully entered, is very extensive, and
one which no single individual, except by the devotion of a life-time, could hope fully to discuss. The
Continent of Australia is so vast, and the dialects, customs, and ceremonies of its inhabitants so varied in
detail, though so similar in general outline and character, that it will require the lapse of years, and the labours
of many individuals, to detect and exhibit the links which form the chain of connection in the habits and
history of tribes so remotely separated; and it will be long before any one can attempt to give to the world a
complete and well-drawn outline of the whole.
It is not therefore to satisfy curiosity, or to interrupt the course of inquiry, that I enter upon the present work; I
neither profess, nor could I attempt to give a full or matured account of the Aborigines of New Holland.
Captain Grey's descriptions on this subject are limited to the races of South-western, as mine are principally
directed to those of Southern Australia, with occasionally some remarks or anecdotes relating to tribes in other
parts of the Continent with whom I have come in contact.
The character of the Australian native has been so constantly misrepresented and traduced, that by the world
at large he is looked upon as the lowest and most degraded of the human species, and is generally considered
as ranking but little above the members of the brute creation. Savages have always many vices, but I do not
think that these are worse in the New Hollanders, than in many other aboriginal races. It is said, indeed, that
the Australian is an irreclaimable, unteachable being; that he is cruel, blood-thirsty, revengeful, and
treacherous; and in support of such assertions, references are made to the total failure of all missionary and
scholastic efforts hitherto made on his behalf, and to many deeds of violence or aggression committed by him
upon the settler.
[Note 39: I cannot adduce a stronger proof in support of the position I assume, in favour of the natives, than
by quoting the clear and just conclusions at which the Right Honourable Lord Stanley, the present Secretary
of State for the Colonies, arrived, when considering the case of some collisions with the natives on the Ovens
River, and after a full consideration of the various circumstances connected with the occurrence. In a despatch
to Governor Sir G. Gipps, dated 5th October, 1841, Lord Stanley says, "Contrasting the accounts of the
Aborigines given by Mr. Docker with those given by Mr. Mackay, and the different terms on which those
gentlemen appear to be with them in the same vicinity, I cannot divest myself of the apprehension that the
fault in this case lies with the colonists rather than with the natives. It was natural, that conduct so harsh and
intemperate as that of the Messrs. Mackay should be signally visited on them, and probably also on wholly
unoffending persons, by a race of uninstructed and ignorant savages. At the same time the case of Mr. Docker
affords a most satisfactory instance of natives entering into permanent service with white men, and working,
as they appear to do, steadily for wages."]
With respect to the first point, I consider that an intimate knowledge of the peculiar habits, laws, and
traditions, by which this people are governed, is absolutely necessary, before any just opinion can be formed
as to how far the means hitherto pursued, have been suitable, or adapted to counteract the influence of custom
and the force of prejudice. Until this knowledge is attained, we have no right to brand them as either
irreclaimable, or unteachable. My own impression, after long experience, and an attentive consideration of the
subject, is, that in the present anomalous state of our relations with the Aborigines, our measures are neither
comprehensive enough for, nor is our system sufficiently adapted to, the singular circumstances they are in, to
enable us successfully to contend with the difficulties and impediments in the way of their rising in the scale
of civilization.
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Upon the second point it is also necessary to make many inquiries before we arrive at our conclusions; and I
have no doubt, if this be done with calmness, and without prejudice, it will be generally found that there are
many extenuating circumstances which may be brought to modify our judgment. I am anxious, if possible, to
place a few of these before the public, in the hope, that by lessening in some degree the unfavourable opinion
heretofore entertained of the Aborigines, they may be considered for the future as more deserving our
sympathy and benevolence.
Without assuming for the native a freedom from vice, or in any way attempting to palliate the many
brutalising habits that pollute his character, I would still contend that, if stained with the excesses of
unrestrained passions, he is still sometimes sensible to the better emotions of humanity. Many of the worst
traits in his character are the result of necessity, or the force of custom--the better ones are implanted in him as
a part of his nature. With capabilities for receiving, and an aptness for acquiring instruction, I believe he has
also the capacity for appreciating the rational enjoyments of life.
Even in his present low and debased condition, and viewed under every disadvantages, I do not imagine that
his vices would usually be found greater, or his passions more malignant than those of a very large proportion
of men ordinarily denominated civilised. On the contrary, I believe were Europeans placed under the same
circumstances, equally wronged, and equally shut out from redress, they would not exhibit half the
moderation or forbearance that these poor untutored children of impulse have invariably shewn.
It is true that occasionally many crimes have been committed by them, and robberies and murders have too
often occurred; but who can tell what were the provocations which led to, what the feelings which impelled
such deeds? Neither have they been the only or the first aggressors, nor has their race escaped unscathed in the
contest. Could blood answer blood, perhaps for every drop of European's shed by natives, a torrent of their, by
European hands, would crimson the earth.
[Note 40: "The whites were generally the aggressors. He had been informed that a petition had been presented
to the Governor, containing a list of nineteen murders committed by the blacks. He could, if it were necessary,
make out a list of five hundred blacks who had been slaughtered by the whites, and that within a short
time."--Extract from speech of Mr. Threlkeld to the Auxiliary Aborigines' Protection Society in New South
Wales. Abstract of a "Return of the number of homicides committed respectively by blacks and whites, within
the limits of the northwestern district (of Port Phillip), since its first occupation by settlers--"
"Total number of white people killed by Aborigines 8 "Total number of Aborigines killed by white people
43."
This is only in one district, and only embraces such cases as came to the knowledge of Mr. Protector Parker.
For particulars vide Papers on Aborigines of Australian Colonies, printed for the House of Commons, August
1844, p. 318.]
Let us now inquire a little, upon whose side right and justice are arrayed in palliation (if any such there can
be) of deeds of violence or aggression on the part of either.
It is an undeniable fact, that wherever European colonies have been established in Australia, the native races
in that neighbourhood are rapidly decreasing, and already in some of the elder settlements, have totally
disappeared. It is equally indisputable that the presence of the white man has been the sole agent in producing
so lamentable an effect; that the evil is still going on, increased in a ratio proportioned to the number of new
settlements formed, or the rapidity with which the settlers overrun new districts. The natural, the inevitable,
but the no less melancholy result must be, that in the course of a few years more, if nothing be done to check
it, the whole of the aboriginal tribes of Australia will be swept away from the face of the earth. A people who,
by their numbers, have spread around the whole of this immense continent, and have probably penetrated into
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and occupied its inmost recesses, will become quite extinct, their name forgotten, their very existence but a
record of history.
It is a popular, but an unfair and unwarranted assumption, that these consequences are the result of the natural
course of events; that they are ordained by Providence, unavoidable, and not to be impeded. Let us at least
ascertain how far they are chargeable upon ourselves.
Without entering upon the abstract question concerning the right of one race of people to wrest from another
their possessions, simply because they happen to be more powerful than the original inhabitants, or because
they imagine that they can, by their superior skill or acquirements, enable the soil to support a denser
population, I think it will be conceded by every candid and right-thinking mind, that no one can justly take
that which is not his own, without giving some equivalent in return, or deprive a people of their ordinary
means of support, and not provide them with any other instead. Yet such is exactly the position we are in with
regard to the inhabitants of Australia.
[Note 41: "The invasion of those ancient rights (of the natives) by survey and land appropriations of any kind,
is justifiable only on the ground, that we should at the same time reserve for the natives an AMPLE
SUFFICIENCY for THEIR PRESENT and future use and comfort, under the new style of things into which
they are thrown; a state in which we hope they will be led to live in greater comfort, on a small space, than
they enjoyed before it occurred, on their extensive original possessions."--Reply of His Excellency Colonel
Gawler, to the gentlemen who objected to sections of land being appropriated for the natives, before the
public were allowed to select.]
Without laying claim to this country by right of conquest, without pleading even the mockery of cession, or
the cheatery of sale, we have unhesitatingly entered upon, occupied, and disposed of its lands, spreading forth
a new population over its surface, and driving before us the original inhabitants.
To sanction this aggression, we have not, in the abstract, the slightest shadow of either right or justice--we
have not even the extenuation of endeavouring to compensate those we have injured, or the merit of
attempting to mitigate the sufferings our presence inflicts.
It is often argued, that we merely have taken what the natives did not require, or were making no use of; that
we have no wish to interfere with them if they do not interfere with us, but rather that we are disposed to treat
them with kindness and conciliation, if they are willing to be friends with us. What, however, are the actual
facts of the case; and what is the position of a tribe of natives, when their country is first taken possession of
by Europeans.
It is true that they do not cultivate the ground; but have they, therefore, no interest in its productions? Does it
not supply grass for the sustenance of the wild animals upon which in a great measure they are dependent for
their subsistence?--does it not afford roots and vegetables to appease their hunger?--water to satisfy their
thirst, and wood to make their fire?--or are these necessaries left to them by the white man when he comes to
take possession of their soil? Alas, it is not so! all are in turn taken away from the original possessors. The
game of the wilds that the European does not destroy for his amusement are driven away by his flocks and
herds. [Note 42 at end of para.] The waters are occupied and enclosed, and access to them in frequently
forbidden. The fields are fenced in, and the natives are no longerat liberty to dig up roots--the white man
claims the timber, and the very firewood itself is occasion ally denied to them. Do they pass by the habitation
of the intruder, they are probably chased away or bitten by his dogs, and for this they can get no redress. [Note
43 at end of para.] Have they dogs of their own, they are unhesitatingly shot or worried because they are an
annoyance to the domestic animals of the Europeans. Daily and hourly do their wrongs multiply upon them.
The more numerous the white population becomes, and the more advanced the stage of civilization to which
the settlement progresses, the greater are the hardships that fall to their lot and the more completely are they
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cut off from the privileges of their birthright. All that they have is in succession taken away from them--their
amusements, their enjoyments, their possessions, their freedom--and all that they receive in return is obloquy,
and contempt, and degradation, and oppression. [Note 44 appears after note 43, below]
[Note 42: "But directly an European settles down in the country, his constant residence in one spot soon sends
the animals away from it, and although he may in no other way interfere with the natives, the mere
circumstance of his residing there, does the man on whose land he settles the injury of depriving him of his
ordinary means of subsistence."--GREY'S TRAVELS, vol. ii. p. 298.
"The great question was, were we to give them no equivalent for that which we had taken from them? Had we
deprived them of nothing? Was it nothing that they were driven from the lands where their fathers lived,
where they were born and which were endeared to them by associations equally strong with the associations
of more civilsed people? He believed that their affections were as warm as the Europeans." "Perhaps he
obtained his subsistence by fishing, and occupied a slip of land on the banks of a river or the margin of a lake.
Was he to be turned off as soon as the land was required, without any consideration whatever?" "Had any
proper attempt been made for their civilization? They had not yet had fair play--they had been courted by the
missionaries with the Bible on the one hand, and had at the sametime been driven away and destroyed by the
stock-keepers on the other. He thought that they might be reclaimed if the proper course was
adopted."--EXTRACTS FROM THE SPEECH OF SYDNEY STEPHEN, ESQ., AT A MEETING ON
BEHALF OF THE ABORIGINES IN SYDNEY, OCTOBER 19, 1838.
I have myself repeatedly seen the natives driven off private lands in the vicinity of Adelaide, and their huts
burned, even in cold wet weather. The records of the Police Office will shew that they have been driven off
the Park lands, or those belonging to Government, or at least that they have been brought up and punished for
cutting wood from the trees there. What are they to do, when there is not a stick or a tree within miles of
Adelaide that they can legally take?]
[Note 43: I have known repeated instances of natives in Adelaide being bitten severely by savage dogs
rushing out at them from the yards of their owners, as they were peaceably passing along the street. On the
other hand I have known a native imprisoned for throwing his waddy at, and injuring a pig, which was eating
a melon he had laid down for a moment in the street, and when the pig ought not to have been in the street at
all. In February 1842, a dog belonging to a native was shot by order of Mr. Gouger, the then Colonial
Secretary, and the owner as soon as he became aware of the circumstance, speared his wife for not taking
better care of it, although she could not possibly have helped the occurrence. If natives then revenge so
severely such apparently trivial offences among themselves, can we wonder that they should sometimes
retaliate upon us for more aggravated ones.]
[Note 44: The following are extracts from an address to a jury, when trying some aboriginal natives, by Judge
Willis. They at least shew some of the BLESSINGS the Aborigines experience from being made British
subjects, and placed under British laws:--"I have, on a recent occasion, stated my opinion, which I still
entertain, that the proprietor of a run, or, in other words, one who holds a lease or license from the Crown to
depasture certain Crown lands, may take all lawful means to prevent either natives or others from entering or
remaining upon it." "The aboriginals of Van Diemen's Land were strictly commanded, by Governor Arthur's
proclamation of the 15th of April 1828 (a proclamation of which His Majesty King George the Fourth,
through the Right honourable the then Secretary of State, by a dispatch of the 2nd of February, 1829, under
the circumstances, signified his approval,) "to retire and depart from, and for no reason, and no pretence, save
as therein provided, (viz. travelling annually to the sea coast in quest of shellfish, under certain regulations,) to
re-enter the settled districts of Van Diemen's Land, or any portions of land cultivated and occupied by any
person whomsoever, under the authority of Her Majesty's Government, on pain of forcible expulsion
therefrom, and such consequences as might be necessarily attendant on it, and all magistrates and other
persons by them authorized and deputed, were required to conform themselves to the directions and
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instructions of this proclamation, in effecting the retirement and expulsion of the Aborigines from the settled
districts of that territory."]
What are they to do under such circumstances, or how support a life so bereft of its wonted supplies? Can we
wonder that they should still remain the same low abject and degraded creatures that they are, loitering about
the white man's house, and cringing, and pandering to the lowest menial for that food they can no longer
procure for themselves? or that wandering in misery through a country, now no longer their own, their lives
should be curtailed by want, exposure, or disease? If, on the other hand, upon the first appearance of
Europeans, the natives become alarmed, and retire from their presence, they must give up all the haunts they
had been accustomed to frequent, and must either live in a starving condition, in the back country, ill supplied
with game, and often wanting water, or they must trespass upon the territory of another tribe, in a district
perhaps little calculated to support an additional population, even should they be fortunate enough to escape
being forced into one belonging to an enemy.
Under any circumstances, however, they have but little respite from inconvenience and want. The white man
rapidly spreads himself over the country, and without the power of retiring any further, they are overtaken,
and beset by all the evils from which they had previously fled.
Such are some of the blessings held out to the savage by civilization, and they are only some of them. The
picture is neither fanciful nor overdrawn; there is no trait in it that I have not personally witnessed, or that
might not have been enlarged upon; and there are often other circumstances of greater injury and aggression,
which, if dwelt upon, would have cast a still darker shade upon the prospects and condition of the native.
Enough has, however, perhaps been said to indicate the degree of injury our presence unavoidably inflicts. I
would hope, also, to point out the justice, as well as the expediency of appropriating a considerable portion of
the money obtained, by the sales of land, towards alleviating the miseries our occupation of their country has
occasioned to the original owners.
[Note 44a: "That it appears to memorialists that the original occupants of the soil have an irresistible claim on
the Government of this country for support, inasmuch as the presence of the colonists abridges their means of
subsistence, whilst it furnishes to the public treasury a large revenue in the shape of fees for licences and
assessments on stock, together with the very large sums paid for land seized by the Crown, and alienated to
private individuals.
"That it appears to memorialists that the interests at once of the natives and the colonists would be most
effectually promoted by the government reserving suitable portions of land within the territorial limits of the
respective tribes, with the view of weaning them from their erratic habits, forming thereon depots for
supplying them with provisions and clothing, under the charge of individuals of exemplary moral character,
taking at the same time an interest in their welfare, and who would endeavour to instruct them in agricultural
and other useful arts."--Extract from Memorial of the Settlers of the County of Grant, in the district of Port
Phillip, to His Excellency Sir G. Gipps, in 1840.]
Surely if we acknowledge the first principles of justice, or if we admit the slightest claims of humanity on
behalf of these debased, but harshly treated people, we are bound, in honour and in equity, to afford them that
subsistence which we have deprived them of the power of providing for themselves.
It may, perhaps, be replied, and at first it might seem, with some appearance of speciousness, that all is done
that can be done for them, that each of the Colonial Governments annually devotes a portion of its revenue to
the improvement, instruction, and maintenance of the natives. So far this is very praiseworthy, but does it in
any degree compensate for the evil inflicted?
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The money usually voted by the councils of Government, towards defraying expenses incurred on behalf of
the Aborigines of Australia, is but a very small per centage upon the sums that have been received for the
sales of lands, and is principally expended in defraying the salaries of protectors, in supporting schools,
providing food or clothing for one or two head stations, and perhaps supplying a few blankets once in the year
to some of the outstations. Little is expended in the daily provisioning of the natives generally, and especially
in the more distant country districts least populated by Europeans, but most densely occupied by natives, and
where the very thinness of the European inhabitants precludes the Aborigines from resorting to the same
sources to supply their wants, that are open to them in a town, or more thickly inhabited district. Such are
those afforded by the charity of individuals, by the rewards received for performing trifling services of work,
by the obtaining vast quantities of offal, or of broken victuals, which are always abundant in a country where
animal food is used in excess, and where the heat of the climate daily renders much of it unfit for consumption
in the family, and by others of a similar nature.
Such resources, however humiliating and pernicious they are in their effects, are not open to the tribes living
in a district almost exclusively occupied by the sheep or cattle of the settler, and where the very numbers of
the stock only more completely drive away the original game upon which the native had been accustomed to
subsist, and hold out a greater temptation to him to supply his wants from the superabundance which he sees
around him, belonging to those by whom he has been dispossessed. The following appropriate remarks are an
extract from Report of Aborigines' Protection Society, of March, 1841, (published in the South Australian
Register, 4th December, 1841.)
"Under that system it is obvious to every coloured man, even the least intelligent, that the extending
settlements of the Europeans involve a sentence of banishment, and eventual extermination, upon his tribe and
race. Major Mitchell, in his travels, refers to this apprehension on the part of the Aborigines--"White man
come, Kangaroo go away"--from which as an inevitable consequence follows--"black man famished away."
If, then, this appears a necessary result of the unjust, barbarous, unchristian mode of colonization pursued in
New Holland, over-looking the other incidental, and more pointedly aggravating provocations, to the coloured
man, associated with that system, how natural, in his case, is an enmity which occasionally visits some of the
usurping race with death! We call the offence in him MURDER; but let the occasion be only examined, and
we must discover that, in so designating it, we are imposing geographical, or national restrictions, upon the
virtue of patriotism; or that in the mani-festations of that principle, we make no allowances for the influence
on its features of the relative degradation or elevation of those among whom it is met.
"Our present colonization system renders the native and the colonizing races from necessity belligerents; and
there can be no real peace, no real amity, no mutual security, so long as that system is not substituted by one
reconciling the interest of both races. Colonists will fall before the spears and the waddies of incensed
Aborigines, and they in return will be made the victims of 'summary justice.'
"In cases of executive difficulty, the force of popular prejudice will be apt to be too strong for the best
intentioned Governor to withstand it; Europeans will have sustained injury; the strict forms of legal justice
may be found of difficult application to a race outcast or degraded, although ORIGINALLY in a condition
fitted to appreciate them, to benefit by them, and reflect their benefits upon others; impatient at this difficulty,
the delay it may occasion, and the shelter from ultimate punishment, the temptation will ever be strong to
revert to summary methods of proceeding; and thus, as in a circle, injustice will be found to flow reciprocal
injury, and from injury injustice again, in another form. The source of all these evils, and of all this injustice,
is the unreserved appropriation of native lands, and the denial, in the first instance of colonization, of equal
civil rights. To the removal of those evils, so far as they can be removed in the older settlements, to their
prevention in new colonies, the friends of the Aborigines are invoked to direct their energy; to be pacified
with the attainment of nothing less; for nothing less will really suffice."
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Can it be deemed surprising that a rude, uncivilized being, driven from his home, deprived of all his ordinary
means of subsistence [Note 45 at end of para.], and pressed perhaps by a hostile tribe from behind, should
occasionally be guilty of aggressions or injuries towards his oppressors? The wonder rather is, not that these
things do sometimes occur, but that they occur so rarely.
[Note 45: "If you can still be generous to the conquered, relieve the hunger which drives us in despair to
slaughter your flocks and the men who guard them. Our fields and forests, which once furnished us with
abundance of vegetable and animal food, now yield us no more; they and their produce are yours; you prosper
on our native soil, and we are famishing." --STRZELECKI'S N. S. WALES, p. 356.]
In addition to the many other inconsistencies in our conduct towards the Aborigines, not the least
extraordinary is that of placing them, on the plea of protection, under the influence of our laws, and of making
them British subjects. Strange anomaly, which by the former makes amenable to penalties they are ignorant
of, for crimes which they do not consider as such, or which they may even have been driven to commit by our
own injustice; and by the latter but mocks them with an empty sound, since the very laws under which we
profess to place them, by their nature and construction are inoperative in affording redress to the injured.
[Note 46: "To subject savage tribes to the penalties of laws with which they are unacquainted, for offences
which they, very possibly, regard as acts of justifiable retaliation for invaded rights, is a proceeding
indefensible, except under circumstances of urgent and extreme necessity."--Fourth Report of the
Colonization Commissioners, presented to the House of Commons, 29th July, 1840.
"The late act, declaring them naturalized as British subjects, has only rendered them legally amenable to the
English criminal law, and added one more anomaly to all the other enactments affecting them. This
naturalization excludes them from sitting on a jury, or appearing as witnesses, and entails a most confused
form of judicial proceedings; all which, taken together, has made of the Aborigines of Australia a nondescript
caste, who, to use their own phraseology, are 'neither black nor white.'"--Strzelecki's N. S. Wales.]
If, in addition to the many evils and disadvantages the natives must necessarily be subject to from our
presence, we take still further into account the wrongs they are exposed to from the ill feeling towards them
which has sometimes existed among the settlers, or their servants, on the outskirts of the country; the
annoyances they are harassed by, even where this feeling does not exist, in being driven away from their usual
haunts and pursuits (and this is a practice often adopted by the remote grazier as a mere matter of policy to
avoid trouble or the risk of a collision); we shall find upon the whole that they have often just causes of
offence, and that there are many circumstances connected with their crimes which, from the peculiar position
they are placed in, may well require from us some mitigation of the punishment that would be exacted from
Europeans for the same misdeeds.
Captain Grey has already remarked the strong prejudice and recklessness of human life which frequently exist
on the part of the settlers with regard to the natives. Nor has this feeling been confined to Western Australia
alone. In all the colonies, that I have been in, I have myself observed that a harsh and unjust tone has
occasionally been adopted in speaking of the Aborigines; and that where a feeling of prejudice does not exist
against them, there is too often a great indifference manifested as to their fate. I do not wish it to be
understood that such is always the case; on the contrary, I know that the better, and right thinking part of the
community, in all the colonies, not only disavow such feelings, but are most anxious, as far as lies in their
power, to promote the interests and welfare of the natives. Still, there are always some, in every settlement,
whose passions, prejudices, interests, or fears, obliterate their sense of right and wrong, and by whom these
poor wanderers of the woods are looked upon as intruders in their own country, or as vermin that infest the
land, and whose blood may be shed with as little compunction as that of the wild animals they are compared
to.
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By those who have heard the dreadful accounts current in Western Australia, and New South Wales, of the
slaughter formerly committed by military parties, or by the servants [Note 47 at end of para.] of the settlers
upon the Aborigines, in which it is stated that men, women, and children have been surprised, surrounded and
shot down indiscriminately, at their camps at night; or who have heard such deeds, or other similar ones,
justified or boasted of, it will readily be believed to what an extent the feeling I have alluded to has
occasionally been carried, and to what excesses it has led. [Note 48 appears after Note 47, below]
[Note 47: The following extract from a reply of his Honour the Superintendent of Port Phillip to the
representation made to his Honour by the settlers and inhabitants of the district of Port Fairy, in March 1842,
shews that these frightful atrocities against the natives had not even then ceased.
"That the presence of a protector in your district, and other means of prevention hitherto employed, have not
succeeded better than they have done in repressing aggression or retaliation, and have failed to establish a
good understanding between the natives and the European settlers, is greatly to be deplored.
"As far as the local government has power, every practicable extension of these arrangements shall be made
without delay; but, gentlemen, however harsh, a plain truth must be told, the destruction of European
property, and even the occasional sacrifice of European life, by the hands of the savage tribes, among whom
you live, if unprovoked and unrevenged, may justly claim sympathy and pity; but the feeling of abhorrence
which one act of savage retaliation or cruelty on your part will rouse, must weaken, if not altogether obliterate
every other, in the minds of most men; and I regret to state, that I have before me a statement presented in a
form which I dare not discredit, shewing that such acts are perpetrated among you.
"It reveals a nightly attack upon a small number of natives, by a party of the white inhabitants of your district,
and the murder of no fewer than three defenceless aboriginal women and a child, in their sleeping place; and
this at the very time your memorial was in the act of signature, and in the immediate vicinity of the station of
two of the parties who have signed it. Will not the commission of such crimes call down the wrath of God,
and do more to check the prosperity of your district, and to ruin your prospects, than all the difficulties and
losses under which you labour?" Mr. Sievewright's letter gives an account of this infamous transaction.
"Sir,--I have the honour to report that on the afternoon of the 24th instant, two aboriginal natives, named
Pwe-bin-gan-nai, Calangamite, returned to this encampment, which they had left with their families on the
22nd, and reported 'that late on the previous evening, while they with their wives, two other females, and two
children, were asleep at a tea-tree scrub, called One-one-derang, a party of eight white people on horseback
surrounded them, dismounted, and fired upon them with pistols; that three women and a child had been thus
killed, and the other female so severely wounded as to be unable to stand or be removed by them;' they had
saved themselves and the child, named 'Uni bicqui-ang,' by flight, who was brought to this place upon their
shoulders.
"At daybreak yesterday I proceeded to the spot indicated, and there found the dead bodies of three women,
and a male child about three years of age; and also found a fourth woman dangerously wounded by gunshot
wounds, and severely scorched on the limbs by the discharge of fire-arms.
"Having proceeded to the station of the Messrs. Osbrey and Smith, distant about 700 yards from where the
bodies were found, and requested the presence of those gentlemen as witnesses, I proceeded to view the
bodies, upon which were found the wounds as set forth in the accompanying report.
"All knowledge of this barbarous transaction is denied by the proprietors, overseer, and servants at the home
station, so near to which the bodies were found, nor have I as yet obtained any information which may lead to
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Description of Gun-shot Wounds upon the bodies of three Aboriginal Women and One Male Child found
dead, and an Aboriginal Woman found wounded in a tea-tree scrub, near the Station of Messrs. Osbrey and
Smith, Portland District, upon the 25th of February, 1842, by Assistant-Protector Sievewright.
"No. 2. Child (male); one gun-shot wound through the chest (a bullet), left thigh lacerated by some animal.
"No. 3. Woman big with child; one gun-shot wound through the chest (a bullet), left side scorched.
"No. 4. Woman; gun-shot wound through abdomen (a bullet), by right hip; gun-shot wound, left arm broken,
(a bullet.)
"No. 5. Woman wounded; gun-shot wound in back (a ball), gun-shot through right hand (a ball).
"(Signed)
"C. W. SIEVEWRIGHT."]
[Note 48: The belief on the part of the Home authorities that such deeds did occur, and their opinion, so many
years ago, regarding them, may be gathered from the following extract from a despatch from Lord Glenelg to
Governor Sir James Stirling, dated 23rd of July, 1835. "I perceive, with deep concern, that collisions still exist
between the colonists and the natives.
"It is impossible, however, to regard such conflicts without regret and anxiety, when we recollect how fatal, in
too many instances, our colonial settlements have proved to the natives of the places where they have been
formed.
"It will be your duty to impress upon the settlers that it is the determination of the Government to visit any act
of injustice or violence on the natives, with the utmost severity, and that in no case will those convicted of
them, remain unpunished. Nor will it be sufficient simply to punish the guilty, but ample compensation must
be made to the injured party, for the wrong received. You will make it imperative upon the officers of police
never to allow any injustice or insult in regard to the natives to pass by unnoticed, as being of too trifling a
character; and they should be charged to report to you, with punctuality, every instance of aggression or
misconduct. Every neglect of this point of duty you will mark with the highest displeasure."
Such were the benevolent views entertained by the Government in England towards the Aborigines ten years
ago, and it might be readily proved from many despatches of subsequent Secretaries of State to the different
Governors, that such have been their feelings since, and yet how little has been done in ten years to give a
practical effect to their good intentions towards the natives.]
Were other evidence necessary to substantiate this point, it would be only requisite to refer to the tone in
which the natives are so often spoken of by the Colonial newspapers, to the fact that a large number of
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colonists in New South Wales, including many wealthy landed proprietors and magistrates, petitioned the
Local Government on behalf of a party of convicts, found guilty on the clearest testimony of having
committed one of the most wholesale, cold-blooded, and atrocious butcheries of the Aborigines ever recorded
[Note 49 at end of para.], and to the acts of the Colonial Governments themselves, who have found it
necessary, sometimes, to prohibit fire-arms at out-stations, and have been compelled to take away the assigned
servants, or withdraw the depasturing licences of individuals, because they have been guilty of aggression
upon the Aborigines.
[Note 49: Seven men were hanged for this offence, on the 18th of December, 1838. In the Sydney Monitor,
published on the 24th or next issue after the occurrence, is the following paragraph:--
"The following conversation between two gentlemen took place in the military barrack square, on Tuesday,
just after the execution of the seven murderers of the native blacks, and while General O'Connell was
reviewing the troops of the garrison.
"We vouch for the truth of this conversation, and for the very words; and will prove our statement, if public
justice should, in our opinion require it."
The following letter from His Honour the Superintendent of Port Philip shews, that even in 1843, suspicions
were entertained in the colony, that this most horrible and inhuman cruelty towards the Aborigines had lately
been practised there.
"SIR,--I have the honour to report, for his Excellency's information, that in the month of December last, I
received a letter from the Chief Protector, enclosing a communication received from Dr. Wotton, the
gentleman in charge of the Aboriginal station at Mount Rouse, stating that a rumour had reached him that a
considerable number of Aborigines had been poisoned at the station of Dr. Kilgour, near Port Fairy.
"I delayed communicating this circumstance at the time, as I expected the Chief Protector and his assistants
would find it practicable to bring the crime home to the parties accused of having perpetrated it; but I regret to
state, that every attempt to discover the guilty parties has hitherto proved ineffectual, and that although there
may be strong grounds of suspicion that such a deed had been perpetrated, and that certain known parties in
this district were the perpetrators, yet it seems nearly impossible to obtain any legal proof to bear on either one
point or the other.
"I beg leave to enclose copies of two communications which I have received from Mr. Robinson on the
subject.
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Rumours of another similar occurrence existed in the settlements north of Sydney, about the same time. To
the inquiries made on the subject, by the Government, the following letters refer.
"Sir,--In reply to your inquiry respecting the grounds on which I made mention in my journal, kept during a
visit to the Bunga Bunga country, of a considerable number of blacks having been poisoned in the northern
part of this district, I beg leave to state, that having returned from Sydney in the month of March 1842, I
learnt, first, by my coadjutor, the Rev. Mr. Epper, that such a rumour was spreading, of which I have good
reason to believe also his Excellency the Governor was informed during his stay at Moreton Bay. I learnt,
secondly, by the lay missionaries, Messrs. Nique and Rode, who returned from an excursion to
"Umpie-boang" in the first week of April, that natives of different tribes, who were collecting from the north
for a fight, had related the same thing to them as a fact. Messrs. Nique and Rode have made this statement
also in their diary, which is laid before our committee in Sydney. I learnt, thirdly, by the runaway Davis, when
collecting words and phrases of the northern dialect from him, previous to my expedition to the Bunga Bunga
country, that there was not the least doubt but such a deed had been done, and moreover that the relatives of
the poisoned blacks, being in great fury, were going to revenge themselves. Davis considered it, therefore,
exceedingly dangerous for us to proceed to the north, mentioning at the same time, that two white men had
already been killed by blacks in consequence of poisoning. I ascertained likewise from him the number, 50 or
60.
"When inquiring of him whether he had not reported this fact to yourself, he replied, that both he, himself, and
Bracewell, the other runaway, whom Mr. Petrie had brought back from the Wide Bay, had done so, and that
you had stated it fully in your report to his Excellency the Governor, respecting himself and Bracewell.
"4. The natives who had carried our provisions up to Mr. Archer's station, made the same statement to us, as a
reason why they would not accompany us any farther to the Bunga Bunga country.
"When writing down, therefore, my journal, I considered it unnecessary to make a full statement of all that
had come to my knowledge since the month of March, concerning that most horrid event, or even to relate it
as something new, as it was not only known several months since to the respective authorities, but also as
almost every one at Moreton Bay supposed that an investigation would take place without delay.
"Sir,--I have the honour to report, for the information of his Excellency, that during my excursion to the
Bunga country, I have taken every opportunity of instituting an inquiry as to the truth of the alleged poisoning
of some Aborigines at a sheep station in the north of this district. A report of the kind certainly exists among
the two tribes I fell in with, namely, the Dallambarah and Coccombraral tribes, but as neither of them were
present at the time, they could give me no circumstantial information whatever on the subject. The
Giggabarah tribe, the one said to have suffered, I was unable to meet with. Upon inquiry at the stations to the
north, I could learn nothing further than that they had been using arsenic very extensively for the cure of the
scab, in which operation sheep are occasionally destroyed by some of the fluid getting down their throats; and
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as the men employed frequently neglect to bury the carcases, it is very possible that the Aborigines may have
devoured them, particularly the entrails, which they are very fond of, and that hence some accident of the kind
alluded to may have occurred without their knowledge.
For the sake of humanity I would hope that such unheard of atrocities cannot really have existed. That the bare
suspicion even of such crimes should have originated and gained currency in more than one district of
Australia, is of itself a fearful indication of the feeling among the lowest classes in the colonies, and of the
harrowing deeds to which that might lead.
Extract from South Australian Register, 10th of July, 1841, after the return of Major O'Halloran and a party of
sixty-eight individuals, sent up the Murray to try and rescue property stolen by blacks. "In the mean time we
cannot but think that the DISAPPOINTMENT SO GENERALLY EXPRESSED, because Major O'Halloran
has returned 'WITHOUT FIRING A SHOT,' is somewhat unreasonable, seeing that in his presence the natives
DID NOTHING TO WARRANT AN EXTREME MEASURE, and that there were no means of identifying
either the robbers of Mr. Inman, or the murderers of Mr. Langhorne's servants. It is quite clear that a legally
authorised English force could not be permitted to fire indiscriminately upon the natives AS SOME
PERSONS THINK they ought to have done, or to fire at all, save when attacked, or under circumstances in
which any white subject of the Queen might be shot at. We KNOW that many overland parties HAVE NOT
HESITATED TO FIRE AT THE NATIVES WHEREVER THEY APPEARED; and it is possible that the
tribes now hostilely disposed may have received some provocation."
The following extract from a letter addressed by the Chief Protector of the Port Phillip district, Mr. Robinson,
to his Honour the Superintendent at Melbourne, shews that officer's opinion of the feeling of the lower class
of the settlers' servants, with regard to the Aborigines in Australia Felix.
"Anterior to my last expedition I had seen a large portion of this province; I have now seen nearly the entire,
and, in addition, have made myself thoroughly acquainted with the character of its inhabitants.
"The settlers are, for the most part, a highly respectable body of men, many, to my knowledge, deeply
commiserating the condition of the natives; a few have been engaged in the work of their amelioration; these,
however, are but isolated instances; the majority are averse to having the natives, and drive them from their
runs.
"Nothing could afford me greater pleasure than to see a reciprocity of interest established between the settler
and aborigine, and it would delight me to see the settlers engaged in the great work of their amelioration; and
though on the part of the settlers, a large majority would readily engage, I nevertheless feel persuaded that,
until a better class of peasantry be introduced, and a code of judicature suited to the condition of the natives,
its practicability, as a general principle, is unattainable.
"In the course of my wanderings through the distant interior, I found it necessary, in order to arrive at a
correct judgment, to observe the relative character of both classes, i. e. the European and the Aborigine. The
difficulty on the part of the Aborigine by proper management can be overcome; but the difficulty on the part
of the depraved white man is of far different character, and such as to require that either their place should be
supplied by a more honest and industrious peasantry, or that a more suitable code of judicature be established,
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to restrain their nefarious proceedings with reference to the aboriginal natives.
"I found, on my last expedition, that a large majority of the white servants employed at the stock stations in
the distant interior were, for the most part, men of depraved character; and it was with deep regret that I
observed that they were all armed; and in the estimation of some of these characters, with whom I conversed,
I found that the life of a native was considered to be of no more value than that of a wild dog. The settlers
complained generally of the bad character of their men. The saying is common among them, 'That the men
and not we are the masters.' The kind of treatment evinced towards the aboriginal natives in remote parts of
the interior by this class of persons, may be easily imagined; but as I shall have occasion more fully to advert
to this topic in the report I am about to transmit to the Government, I shall defer for the present offering
further observations.
"The bad character of the white servants is a reason assigned by many settlers for keeping the natives from
their stations. At a few establishments, viz. Norman M'Leod's, Baillie's, Campbell's, Lenton's, and Urquhart's,
an amicable and friendly relation has been maintained for several years; the Aborigines are employed and
found useful. I visited these stations; and the proprietors assured me the natives had never done them any
injury; the natives also spoke in high terms of these parties. There are other settlers also who have rendered
assistance in improving the condition of the natives, and to whom I shall advert in my next report.
"Whether the proprietors of these establishments devote more attention, or whether their white servants are of
less nefarious character than others, I am not prepared to say; but the facts I have stated are incontrovertible,
and are sufficient to shew the reclaimability of the natives, when proper persons are engaged, and suitable
means had recourse to. I cannot but accede to the proposition, namely, that of holding out inducements to all
who engage in the amelioration of the aboriginal natives. Those who have had experience, who have been
tried and found useful, ought to have such inducements held out to them as would ensure a continuance of
their appointments, the more especially as it has always been found difficult to obtain suitable persons for this
hazardous and peculiar service."
The following extract from another letter, also addressed to his Honour the Superintendent, shews the
opinions and feelings of the writer, a Magistrate of the Colony, and a Commissioner of Crown Lands, in the
Geelong district.
"In offering my candid opinion, I submissively beg leave to state, that for the last three years, on all occasions,
I have been a friend to the natives; but from my general knowledge of their habits of idleness, extreme
cunning, vice, and villany, that it is out of the power of all exertion that can be bestowed on them to do good
by them; and I further beg leave to state, that I can plainly see the general conduct of the native growing
worse, and, if possible, more useless, and daily more daring. One and all appear to consider that no
punishment awaits them. This idea has latterly been instilled into their minds with, I should think,
considerable pains, and also that the white men should be punished for the least offence.
"In reply to the latter part of your letter, I beg leave to bring to your notice that, at considerable risk, two years
ago, I apprehended a native for the murder of one of Mr. Learmonth's men, near Bunengang. He was
committed to Sydney gaol, and at the expiration of a year he was returned to Melbourne to be liberated, and is
now at large. In the case of Mr. Thomson's, that I apprehended two, and both identified by the men who so
fortunately escaped. It is a difficult thing to apprehend natives, and with great risk of life on both sides. On the
Grange, and many parts of the country, it would be impossible to take them; AND IN MY OPINION, the only
plan to bring them to a fit and proper state is to insist on the gentlemen in the country to protect their property,
AND TO DEAL WITH SUCH USELESS SAVAGES ON THE SPOT."
Captain Grey bears testimony to similar feelings and occurrences in Western Australia. In speaking of
capturing some natives, he says, vol. 2. p. 351. "It was necessary that I should proceed with great caution, in
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order not to alarm the guilty parties when they saw us approaching, in which case, I should have had no
chance of apprehending them, and I did not intend to adopt the popular system of shooting them when they
ran away." And again, at page 356, he says, "It was better that I, an impartial person, should see that they were
properly punished for theft, than that the Europeans should fire indiscriminately upon them, as had lately been
done, in another quarter."
Even in South Australia, where the Colonists have generally been more concentrated, and where it might
naturally be supposed there would be less likelihood of offenders of this kind escaping detection and
punishment, there are not wanting instances of unnecessary and unprovoked, and sometimes of wanton injury
upon the natives. In almost all cases of this description, it is quite impracticable from the inadmissibility of
native evidence, or from some other circumstances, to bring home conviction to the guilty. [Note 50 at end of
para.] On the other hand, where natives commit offences against Europeans, if they can be caught, the
punishment is certain and severe. Already since the establishment of South Australia as a colony, six natives
have been tried and hung, for crimes against Europeans, and many others have been shot or wounded, by the
police and military in their attempts to capture or prevent their escape. No European has, however, yet paid
the penalties of the law, for aggressions upon the Aborigines, though many have deserved to do so. The
difficulty consists in legally bringing home the offence, or in refuting the absurd stories that are generally
made up in justification of it.
A single instance or two will be sufficient, in illustration of the impunity which generally attends these acts of
violence. On the 25th January, 1843, the sheep at a station of Mr. Hughes, upon the Hutt river, had been
scattered during the night, and some of them were missing. It was concluded the natives had been there, and
taken them, as the tracks of naked feet were said to have been found near the folds. Upon these grounds two
of Mr. Hughes' men, and one belonging to Mr. Jacobs, another settler in the neighbourhood, took arms, and
went out to search for the natives. About a mile from the station they met with one native and his wife, whom
they asked to accompany them back to the station, promising bread and flour for so doing. They consented to
go, but were then escorted AS PRISONERS, the two men of Mr. Hughes' guarding the male native, and Mr.
Jacobs' servant (a person named Gregory) the female. Naturally alarmed at the predicament they were in, the
man ran off, pursued by his two guards, but escaped. The woman took another direction, pursued by Gregory,
who recaptured her, and she was said to have then seized Gregory's gun, and to have struck at him several
blows with a heavy stick, upon which, being afraid that he would be overcome, HE SHOT HER. Mr. Hughes,
the owner of the lost sheep, came up a few moments after the woman was shot, and heard Gregory's story
concerning it, but no marks of his receiving any blows were shewn. On the 23rd of March, he was tried for the
offence of manslaughter; there did not appear the slightest extenuating circumstances beyond his own story,
and his master giving him a good character, and yet the jury, without retiring, returned a verdict of Not Guilty!
At the very next sittings of the Supreme Court Criminal Sessions, another and somewhat analogous case
appeared. The following remarks were made by His Honour Judge Cooper, to the Grand Jury respecting it:
"There was also a case of manslaughter to be tried, and he called their attention to this, because it did not
appear in the Calendar. The person charged was named Skelton, and as appeared from the depositions, was in
custody of some sheep, when an alarm of the rushing of the sheep being given, he looked and saw something
climbing over the fence, and subsequently something crawling along the ground, upon which he fired off his
piece, and hit the object, which upon examination turned out to be a native. The night was dark, and the native
was brought into the hut, where he died the next day. He could not help observing, that cases of this kind were
much more frequent than was creditable to the reputation of the Colony. Last Sessions a man was tried and
acquitted of the charge of killing a native woman. That verdict was a very merciful one, but not so merciful,
he trusted, as to countenance the idea that the lives of the natives are held too cheaply. The only observation
that he would make upon this case was, that it was ONE OF GREAT SUSPICION."
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[Note 51: I believe this case was not brought to trial.]
Other cases have occurred in which some of the circumstances have come under my own notice, and when
Europeans have committed wanton aggressions on the Aborigines, and have then made up a plausible story to
account for what had taken place, but where, from obvious circumstances, it was quite impossible to disprove
or rebut their tale, however improbable it might be. In the Port Phillip District in 1841, Mr. Chief Protector
thus writes to the local Government.
"Already appalling collisions have happened between the white and aboriginal inhabitants, and, although
instances, it is possible, have transpired when natives have been the aggressors, yet it will be found that the
largest majority originated with the Europeans. The lives of aboriginal natives known to have been destroyed
are many, and if the testimony of natives be admissible, the amount would be great indeed; but even in cases
where the Aborigines are said to be the aggressors, who can tell what latent provocation existed for
perpetrating it? Of the numerous cases that could be cited, the following from a recent journal of an assistant
protector, Mr. Parker, of the Lodden, will suffice to shew the insurmountable difficulty, I may add the
impossibility, of bringing the guilty parties to justice, for in nine cases, I may say, out of ten, where natives
are concerned, the only evidence that can be adduced is that of the Aborigines.
"This evidence is not admissible. Indeed the want of a code, suited to the Aborigines, is now so strongly felt,
and of such vital importance to the welfare and existence of the natives, that I earnestly trust that this
important subject may be brought under the early consideration and notice of Her Majesty's Government.
"The following is the extract from Mr. Parker's journal referred to: 'On the 8th of March 1841, I proceeded to
the Pyrenees to investigate the circumstances connected with the slaughter of several Aborigines, by a Mr.
Frances. On the 9th and 10th I fell in with different parties of natives. From the last of these I obtained some
distressing statements, as to the slaughter of the blacks; they gave me the names of seven individuals shot by
Mr. Frances within the last six months. I found, however, no legal evidence attainable. The only persons
present in the last and most serious affair with the Aborigines, which took place in December of last year,
were Frances, a person named Downes, and a stock-keeper in Melbourne. No other admissible evidence of the
death of these poor people can be obtained than what Frances's written statement conveys. In that he reports
that he and the person before named WENT OUT IN CONSEQUENCE OF SEEING THE BUSH ON FIRE,
AND FELL IN SUDDENLY WITH SOME NATIVES, ON WHOM THEY FIRED AND KILLED FOUR.
The natives say six were slain, and their information on that point is more to be depended on. Owing to the
legal disabilities of the Aborigines, this case must be added with many others which have passed without
judicial notice. I cannot, however, but wish that squatting licenses were withheld from persons who manifest
such an utter disregard of human life as Mr. Frances, even on his own shewing, has done.'
"And in this latter sentiment, under existing circumstances, I most cordially agree. In Frances' case, the
PERPETRATOR ADMITS his having SHOT FOUR ABORIGINES, and for aught that is shewn to the
contrary, it was AN UNPROVOKED AGGRESSION. The natives, whose testimony Mr. Parker states, can be
relied upon, affirm that six were slain, and these within the brief period of six months.
"In my last expedition I visited the country of the 'Barconedeets,' the tribe attacked by Frances; of these I
found a few sojourning with the 'Portbullucs,' a people inhabiting the country near Mount Zero, the
northernmost point of the Grampians. These persons complained greatly of the treatment they had received,
and confirmed the statement made to the sub-protector by the other natives. The following are a few of the
collisions, from authentic documents brought under the notice of this department, that have happened between
settlers and Aborigines, and are respectfully submitted for the information of the Government.
"CASES.--CHARLES WEDGE AND OTHERS.--Five natives killed and others wounded at the Grampians.
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"AYLWARD AND OTHERS.--Several natives killed and others wounded at the Grampians. In this case
Aylward deposed, 'that there must have been a great many wounded and several killed, as he saw blood upon
the grass, and in the tea-tree two or three dead bodies.'
"MESSRS. WHYTE'S FIRST COLLISION.--William Whyte deposed that 30 natives were present, and they
were all killed but two, and one of these it is reported died an hour after of his wounds.
"DARLOT.--One native shot. Two natives shot near Portland Bay by the servants of the Messrs. Henty.
"HUTTON AND MOUNTED POLICE.--The written report of this case states, 'that the party overtook the
aborigines at the junction of the 'Campaspee;' they fired, and it is stated, that to the best of the belief of the
party, five or six were killed.' In the opinion of the sub-protector a greater number were slain.
"MESSRS. WINTER AND OTHERS.--On this occasion five natives were killed.
"The following from Lloyd's deposition:--'We fired on them; I have no doubt some were killed; there were
between forty and fifty natives.'
"BY PERSONS UNKNOWN.--A native of the Coligan tribe killed by white persons.
"Names of Taylor and Lloyd are mentioned as having shot a black at Lake Colac.
"Taylor was overseer of a sheep station in the Western district, and was notorious for killing natives. No legal
evidence could be obtained against this nefarious individual. The last transaction in which he was concerned,
was of so atrocious a nature, that he thought fit to abscond, and he has not been heard of since. No legal
evidence was attainable in this latter case. There is no doubt the charges preferred were true, for in the course
of my inquiries on my late expedition, I found a tribe, a section of the Jarcoorts, totally extinct, and it was
affirmed by the natives that Taylor had destroyed them. The tribes are rapidly diminishing. The 'Coligans,'
once a numerous and powerful people, inhabiting the fertile region of Lake 'Colac,' are now reduced, all ages
and sexes, under forty, and these are still on the decay. The Jarcoorts, inhabiting the country to the west of the
great lake 'Carangermite,' once a very numerous and powerful people, are now reduced to under sixty. But
time would fail, and I fear it would be deemed too prolix, were I to attempt to particularise in ever so small a
degree, the previous state, condition, and declension of the original inhabitants of so extensive a province."
Upon the same subject, His Honour the Superintendent of Port Phillip thus writes:--
"On this subject, I beg leave to remark that great impediments evidently do interpose themselves in the way of
instituting proper judicial inquiry into the causes and consequences of the frequent acts of collision between
the settlers and the aboriginal natives, and into the conduct of the settlers on such occasions. I am quite ready
to lament with the Protectors, that numerous as the cases have unfortunately been in which the lives of the
Aborigines have been taken in this district, IN NO SINGLE INSTANCE HAS THE SETTLER BEEN
BROUGHT BEFORE THE PROPER TRIBUNAL."
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Many similar instances might be adduced to shew the little chance there is of evidence enough being
procurable, even to cause the aggressor to be put upon his trial, still less to produce his conviction.
Independently of the instances of wanton outrage, which sometimes are perpetrated on the outskirts of the
settled districts by the lowest and most abandoned of our countrymen, there are occasions also, when equal
injuries are inflicted unintentionally, from inexperience or indiscretion, on the part of those whose duty it is to
protect rather than destroy, when the innocent have been punished instead of the guilty [Note 52 at end of
para.], and thus the very efforts made to preserve peace and good order, have inadvertently become the means
of subverting them.
[Note 52: Upon collisions of this character, Lord John Russell remarks in his despatch, 21st December, 1839,
to Sir G. Gipps: "In the case now before me the object of capturing offenders was entirely lost sight of, and
shots were fired at men who were apparently only guilty of jumping into the water to escape from an armed
pursuit. I am, however, happy to acknowledge that you appear to have made every practicable exertion for the
prevention of similar calamities in future, and I approve the measures adopted by you for that purpose. You
cannot overrate the solicitude of Her Majesty's Government on the subject of the Aborigines of New Holland.
It is impossible to contemplate the condition and the prospects of that unfortunate race without the deepest
commiseration. I am well aware of the many difficulties which oppose themselves to the effectual protection
of these people, and especially of those which must originate from the exasperation of the settlers, on account
of aggressions on their property, which are not the less irritating, because they are nothing else than the
natural results of the pernicious examples held out to the Aborigines, and of the many wrongs of which they
have been the victims. Still it is impossible that the Government should forget that the original aggression was
our own; and that we have never yet performed the sacred duty of making any systematic or considerable
attempt to impart to the former occupiers of New South Wales, the blessings of Christianity, or the knowledge
of the arts and advantages of civilized life."]
Several very lamentable instances of this kind, have occurred in Port Lincoln. The following is one among
others. Soon after the murder of Messrs. Biddle and Brown, a party of soldiers was sent over to try and
capture the aggressors. In one of their attempts a native guide was procured from the Eastern tribe, who
promised to conduct them to where the murderers were. The party consisting of the military and their officer,
the police, a settler, and the missionary, in all twelve or fourteen persons, set off towards Coffin's Bay,
following as they supposed upon the track of the murders. Upon reaching the coast some natives were seen
fishing in the water, and the party was at once spread out in a kind of semicircle, among the scrub, to close
upon and capture them; the officer, missionary, and guide, being stationed near the centre. As the party
advanced nearer, the guide saw that he was mistaken in the group before him, and that they were not the guilty
parties, but friends. The officer called out not to fire, but unfortunately from the distance the men were at, and
the scrubby nature of the country, he was not heard or attended to. A shot was fired, one of the natives sprung
up convulsively in the water, walked on shore and fell down, exclaiming whilst dying, "me Kopler, me good
man," and such indeed it proved. He was one of a friendly tribe, and a particular protege of the missionary's,
having taken the name of Kopler from his German servant who was so called.
The other natives at once came forward to their dying friend, scornfully motioning away his murderers,
fearless alike of the foes around them, and regardless of their ill-timed attempts to explain the fatal mistake.
Will it be credited, that at such a scene as this the soldiers were indulging in coarse remarks, or brutal jests,
upon the melancholy catastrophe; and comparing the last convulsive spring of the dying man to a salmon
leaping in the water. Yet this I was assured was the case by the Government Resident at Port Lincoln, from
when I received this account.
Another melancholy and unfortunate case of the same nature occurred at Port Lincoln, on the 11th of April,
1844, where a native was shot by a policeman, for attempting to escape from custody, when taken in charge
on suspicion of being implicated in robbing a stranded vessel. An investigation was made into this case by the
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Commissioner of Police, when it was stated in the depositions, that attempts at rescue were made by the other
natives. Upon these grounds, I believe, it was considered that the policeman was justified in what he did.
The following extract relating to this subject, is from a letter addressed to a gentleman in Adelaide, by the
Rev. C. Schurmann, one of the German Missionaries, who has for some years past been stationed among the
Port Lincoln natives, and is intimately acquainted with their language.
[Note 53: Without adopting the tone of this letter, and which in some respects I cannot approve of, I believe
the writer to be deeply interested in the welfare of the Aborigines, and strongly impressed with a conviction of
the evils and injuries to which they are subject from our anomalous position with regard to them. I have
quoted it, therefore, not for the purpose of casting imputations on the Government, but to shew how powerless
they are, and how frequently, under the existing system in force with respect to the Aborigines, those very
measures which were conceived and entered upon with the best intentions, produce in their result the most
unmitigated evils.]
"You will probably recollect, that some time ago (I think it was in the month of May) the Adelaide
newspapers contained a short notice of a Port Lincoln native having been shot by the police in self-defence,
and a letter in the 'Observer,' mentioned another as being shot by Mr.----, but as the charitable correspondent
added, 'Unfortunately only in the arm, instead of through the body.' From these statements one would infer
that the parties concerned in these transactions were without blame, being perfectly justified--the one to
protect his life, and the other his property. However, since my return to Port Lincoln, I have learned that both
tales run very differently when told according to truth. I address myself, therefore, to you, with the true facts
of the transactions, as I have learned them, partly from the settlers themselves, partly from the natives. My
motive for so doing is to case my own mind, and to gratify the interest which I know you take in the
Aborigines of this country.
"The man shot by the police was named Padlalta, and was of so mild and inoffensive a disposition, that he
was generally noticed by the settlers on that very account, several of whom I have heard say since, it was a
pity that some other native had not been hit in his stead. The same man was captured last year by Major
O'llalloran's party, but was set at liberty as soon as I came up and testified his innocence, for which the poor
fellow kissed my hand near a dozen times.
"The day before he met his death he was as usual in the town, doing little jobs for the inhabitants, to get bread
or other food. On the evening when he was killed, he had encamped with about half a dozen other natives on
the northern side of Happy Valley, a short mile from the town. The police who were sent by the Government
Resident to see what number of natives were at the camp state, that while searching the man's wallet, he
seized hold of one gun, and when the other policeman came up to wrest it from him, he the native grasped the
other gun too. In the scuffle that ensued, one of the guns went off, when the other natives who had fled
returned and presented their spears. They then shot the native who held the gun.
"Now this statement is a very strange one, when it is considered that the native was a very spare and weak
man, so that either of the police ought to have been able to keep him at arm's length; but to say that he seized
both their guns is beyond all credibility. The natives were sitting down when the police arrived. How they
could therefore find a wallet upon the murdered man, I cannot conceive; since the natives never have their
wallets slung, except when moving; and it certainly is not probable, that the man, in spite of the fright he is
admitted to have been in, should have thought of taking up his wallet.
"The wallet is said to have contained some sovereigns, taken from the cutter Kate, which was wrecked some
time previous to this affair, about forty miles up the coast, and to have been one of those marked by the police,
at a native camp near the wreck from which the natives had been scared away, leaving all their things behind.
But if the murdered native had taken the sovereigns, why were they not then in his wallet, or why was the
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wallet not examined the day before when he was in town? [Note 54 at end of para.] I think that there is little
doubt that the police found no wallet at all upon the native, and that they coined away one of those found at
the camp upon him, with a view to incriminate him."
[Note 54: There cannot be a greater act of injustice towards the natives than that of applying the English law
to them with respect to stolen property. Any one who knows any thing of their habits, and the custom
prevalent amongst them, of giving any European clothing, or other articles they may acquire, from one to
another, must be fully aware how little the fact of their being found in possession of stolen property is just
evidence against them. Articles such as I have mentioned, often pass, in a very short time, through the hands
of three or four individuals, and perhaps even through as many tribes.]
"Another native, Charley, who was present when the said affair took place, tells me, that the police sneaked
upon, and fired at them, while sitting round the fire; [Note 55 at end of para.] that he jumped up, and
endeavoured to make himself known, as a friendly native, by saying, "Yarri (that is the name the natives have
given to one of the police), Yarri, I Charley, I Charley,"--but that the effect produced had been the pointing of
a gun at him, when of course he ran away. That any of the natives returned, and poised their spears, he firmly
denies; but accounts for the murder, by supposing that the dead man made resistance, and offered to spear his
assailants. He moreover says, that Padlalta would not have died in consequence of the first shot, but that the
police fired repeatedly, which agrees with the settlers, who say they heard three shots. When the bloody deed
had been committed (a ball had passed right through his body), the cruel perpetrators ran home, leaving the
murdered man helpless."
[Note 55: There must, I think, be some mistake here in the phrascology. I cannot think any of the police would
fire upon a small party of friendly natives whilst unresisting. The probability is, that they surrounded the
natives to make prisoners, and fired upon being resisted. This must generally occur if the police have positive
orders to make captures. Natives, not very much in contact with Europeans, will almost always resist an
attempt to make prisoners of them, or will try to escape. Very many have, at various times, met their death
under such circumstances; and too often it has occurred, that the innocent have been the suffering parties. This
shews the absurdity of applying European customs and laws to a people situated as the Australian natives are.
It shews, too, the necessity of altering our present system and policy towards them, to one that will exercise
sufficient influence over them to induce them to give up offenders themselves. I believe such a system may be
devised.--Vide Chapter IX.]
"Some time after, a party of three settlers went to the spot, one of whom he recognized, and claimed his
acquaintance, and perhaps assistance, by mentioning the party's Christian name; but, alas! no good Samaritan
was found amongst these three; they all passed by on the other side, without alleviating his pain, moistening
his parched lips, warming his shivering limbs, or aiding him in any way whatever. There he lay a whole cold
and long winter night, without a fire to warm him, or a soul to talk to him. Next morning he was found still
alive, but died on the way into town, where he was buried in the jail yard, like a condemned felon.
"What awful and melancholy reflections crowd upon one's mind in thinking on this transaction. But what
conclusians must a poor people, whom a Christian and civilized nation calls savages, arrive at, with such facts
before them.
"The other native, wounded by Mr.--in the arm, was doubtless of the party who attacked the flock; but it must
have been some hours after that he was shot, for the shepherd had to come home with the flock to inform him
of the occurrence, and then search and pursuit had to be made, during which he was overtaken. He is a stupid
idiotic sort of man, so that the natives have not deemed him worthy of receiving the honours of their
ceremonies, and still call him a boy, or youth, although he is an oldish man.
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"On another occasion, when an uninhabited hut, with some wheat in it, had been broken into by some
unknown natives, a party went in search of the offenders. It was night when they came on a camp, on the
opposite side of the lake to where the hut stands; the natives, acting upon the first impulse, and warned by
frequent examples, ran away, when two of the party snapped their pieces, but providentially both guns missed
fire. The natives, however, soon took confidence, and returned, when it was found that two of the most
orderly and useful men would have been shot if the guns had gone off. The party took upon themselves to
make one of them prisoner, but of course did not venture to bring him before the magistrate.
"These facts incontestably prove, that, notwithstanding the Aborigines are called British subjects, and in spite
of the so-called protection system, there is no shadow of protection for them, while they are debarred from the
first and most important of all liberties, namely, that of being heard in a Court of civil Justice.
"Several instances have occurred during my residence in this district, in which natives have been arraigned
before the administrators of the law, although I was morally convinced of their innocence; in other cases, they
have sought redress through me, for wanton attacks on their person and lives, without being listened to.
"Only a few weeks ago a native was very nearly being taken up, on the charge of having thrown a spear at Mr.
Smith's shepherd, without, however, any felonious intent, the distance being too great. This circumstance
saved the man, or else he would, no doubt, have been tried and found guilty on the shepherd's evidence, who
would not allow that he could be mistaken in the individual, although the accused native came boldly into
town and court (a circumstance that has never before occurred since I have known these natives), although he
was an intimate friend of the shepherd and his wife; and although all the other natives could prove where he
had been at the time of the attack on the flock, and state who were the guilty parties.
"For those who have had an opportunity of observing the Aborigines in their original state, it is not very
difficult to distinguish the guilty from the innocent, for they are a simple-minded race, little skilled in the arts
of dissimulation.
"It is bad enough that a great part of the colonists are inimical to the natives; it is worse that the law, as it
stands at present, does not extend its protection to them; but it is too bad when the press lends its influence to
their destruction. Such, however, is undoubtedly the case. When Messrs. Biddle and Brown were murdered,
the newspapers entertained their readers week after week with the details of the bloody massacre, heaping a
profusion of vile epithets upon the perpetrators. But of the slaughter by the soldiers, (who killed no less than
four innocent natives, while they captured not one guilty party), among the tribes who had had nothing to do
with the murders--of the treachery of attacking in the darkness of the night, a tribe who had the day before
been hunting kangaroo with their informers, when one of the former guides to the magistrates' pursuing party
was killed amongst others; of the wanton outrage on the mutilated body of one of the victims;--of these things
the press was as silent as the grave."
Without attempting to enlarge more fully upon the subjects entered upon in the preceding pages, I trust that I
have sufficiently shewn that the character of the Australian natives has been greatly misrepresented and
maligned, that they are not naturally more irreclaimably vicious, revengeful, or treacherous than other nations,
but on the contrary, that their position with regard to Europeans, places them under so many disadvantages,
subjects them to so many injuries, irritates them with so many annoyances, and tempts them with so many
provocations, that it is a matter of surprise, not that they sometimes are guilty of crime, but that they commit it
so rarely.
If I have in the least degree succeeded in establishing that such is the case, it must be evident that it is
incumbent upon us not only to make allowances when pronouncing an opinion on the character or the crimes
of the Aborigines; but what is of far greater and more vital importance, as far as they are concerned, to
endeavour to revise and improve such parts of our system and policy towards them as are defective, and by
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better adapting these to the peculiar circumstances of this people, at once place them upon juster and more
equal terms, and thus excite a reasonable hope that some eventual amelioration may be produced, both in their
moral and physical condition.
[Note 56: "We say distinctly and deliberately that nothing comparatively has yet been done--that the natives
have hitherto acquired nothing of European civilization, but European vices and diseases, and that the speedy
extinction of the whole race is inevitable, save by the introduction of means for their civilization on a scale
much more comprehensive and effectual than any yet adopted."--Leading Article in South Australian
Register, 1st August, 1840.]
I shall now proceed to give an account of the appearance, habits, mode of life, means of subsistance, social
relations, government, ceremonies, superstitions, numbers, languages, etc. etc. of the natives of Australia, so
as to afford some insight into the character and circumstances of this peculiar race, to exhibit the means
hitherto adopted for, and the progress made in attempting, their civilization, and to shew the effects produced
upon them by a contact with Europeans.
Chapter II.
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
DRESS
CHARACTER
HABITS OF LIFE
MEETINGS OF TRIBES
WARS
DANCES
SONGS
The Aborigines of Australia, with whom Europeans have come in contact, present a striking similarity to each
other in physical appearance and structure; and also in their general character, habits, and pursuits. Any
difference that is found to exist is only the consequence of local circumstances or influences, and such as
might naturally be expected to be met with among a people spread over such an immense extent of country.
Compared with other aboriginal races, scattered over the face of the globe, the New Hollander appears to
stand alone.
The male is well built and muscular, averaging from five to six feet in height, with proportionate upper and
lower extremities. The anterior lobes of the brain are fairly developed, so as to give a facial angle, far from
being one of the most acute to be found amongst the black races. The eyes are sunk, the nose is flattened, and
the mouth wide. The lips are rather thick, and the teeth generally very perfect and beautiful, though the dental
arrangement is sometimes singular, as no difference exists in many between the incisor and canine teeth. The
neck is short, and sometimes thick, and the heel resembles that of Europeans. The ankles and wrists are
frequently small, as are also the hands and feet. The latter are well formed and expanded, but the calves of the
legs are generally deficient. Some of the natives in the upper districts of the Murray, are, however, well
formed in this respect. In a few instances, natives attain to a considerable corpulency. The men have fine
broad and deep chests, indicating great bodily strength, and are remarkably erect and upright in their carriage,
with much natural grace and dignity of demeanour. The eye is generally large, black, and expressive, with the
eye-lashes long.
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When met with for the first time in his native wilds there is frequently a fearless intrepidity of manner, an
ingenuous openness of look, and a propriety of behaviour about the aboriginal inhabitant of Australia, which
makes his appearance peculiarly prepossessing.
In the female the average height is about five feet, or perhaps a little under. The anterior part of the brain is
more limited than in the male; the apex of the head is carried further back; the facial angle is more acute; and
the extremities are more attenuated. The latter circumstance may probably be accounted for from the fact, that
the females have to endure, from a very early age, a great degree of hardship, privation, and ill-treatment. Like
most other savages the Australian looks upon his wife as a slave. To her belongs the duty of collecting and
preparing the daily food, of making the camp or hut for the night, of gathering and bringing in firewood, and
of procuring water. She must also attend to the children; and in travelling carry all the moveable property and
frequently the weapons of her husband. In wet weather she attends to all the outside work, whilst her lord and
master is snugly seated at the fire. If there is a scarcity of food she has to endure the pangs of hunger, often,
perhaps, in addition to ill-treatment or abuse. No wonder, then, that the females, and especially the younger
ones, (for it is then they are exposed to the greatest hardships,) are not so fully or so roundly developed in
person as the men. Yet under all these disadvantages this deficiency does not always exist. Occasionally,
though rarely, I have met with females in the bloom of youth, whose well-proportioned limbs and symmetry
of figure might have formed a model for the sculptor's chisel. In personal appearance the females are, except
in early youth, very far inferior to the men. When young, however, they are not uninteresting. The jet-black
eyes, shaded by their long, dark lashes, and the delicate and scarcely-formed features of incipient womanhood
give a soft and pleasing expression to a countenance that might often be called good-looking--occasionally
even pretty.
The colour of the skin, both in the male and female, is generally black, or very darkly tinged. The hair is either
straight or curly, but never approaching to the woolliness of the negro. It is usually worn short by both sexes,
and is variously ornamented at different periods of life. Sometimes it is smeared with red ochre and grease; at
other times adorned with tufts of feathers, the tail of the native dog, kangaroo teeth, and bandages or nets of
different kinds.
[Note 57: The same fondness for red paint, ornaments of skins, tufts of feathers, etc., is noticed by Catlin as
prevalent among the American Indians, and by Dieffenbach as existing among the New Zealanders.]
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When the head of the native is washed clean, and purified from the odour of the filthy pigment with which it
is bedaubed, the crop of hair is very abundant, and the appearance of it beautiful, being a silken, glossy, and
curly black. Great pains are, however, used to destroy or mar this striking ornament of nature.
Without the slightest pride of appearance, so far as neatness or cleanliness is concerned, the natives are yet
very vain of their own rude decorations, which are all worn for EFFECT. A few feathers or teeth, a belt or
band, a necklace made of the hollow stem of some plant, with a few coarse daubs of red or white paint, and a
smearing of grease, complete the toilette of the boudoir or the ball-room. Like the scenery of a panorama, they
are then seen to most advantage at a distance; for if approached too closely, they forcibly remind us of the
truth of the expression of the poet, that "nature unadorned is adorned the most."
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The body dress is simple; consisting of the skins of the opossum, the kangaroo, or the wallabie, when they can
be procured. A single garment only is used, made in the form of an oblong cloak, or coverlet; by the skins
being stretched out and dried in the sun, and then sewn together with the sinews of the emu, etc. The size of
the cloak varies according to the industry of the maker, or the season of the year. The largest sized ones are
about six feet square, but the natives frequently content themselves with one not half this size, and in many
cases are without it altogether. The cloak is worn with the fur side outwards, and is thrown over the back and
left shoulder, and pinned on in front with a little wooden peg; the open part is opposite the right side, so as to
leave the right arm and shoulder quite unconfined, in the male; the female throws it over the back and left
shoulder, and brings it round under the right arm-pit, and when tied in front by a string passing round the
cloak and the back, a pouch is formed behind, in which the child is always carried. [Note 58 at end of para.] In
either if the skin be a handsome one, the dress is very pretty and becoming.
[Note 58: A similar custom prevails among the women of the American Indians.--CATLIN. vol. ii. p. 132.]
On the sea coast, where the country is barren, and the skins of animals cannot readily be procured, sea-weed
or rushes are manufactured into garments, with considerable ingenuity. In all cases the garments worn by day
constitute the only covering at night, as the luxury of variety in dress is not known to, or appreciated by, the
Aborigines.
No covering is worn upon the head, although they are continually exposed to the rays of an almost tropical
sun. In extreme seasons of heat, and 'when they are travelling, they sometimes gather a few green bunches or
wet weeds and place upon their heads; but this does not frequently occur.
The character of the Australian natives is frank, open, and confiding. In a short intercourse they are easily
made friends, and when such terms are once established, they associate with strangers with a freedom and
fearlessness, that would give little countenance to the impression so generally entertained of their treachery.
On many occasions where I have met these wanderers in the wild, far removed from the abodes of
civilization, and when I have been accompanied only by a single native boy, I have been received by them in
the kindest and most friendly manner, had presents made to me of fish, kangaroo, or fruit, had them
accompany me for miles to point out where water was to be procured, and been assisted by them in getting at
it, if from the nature of the soil and my own inexperience. I had any difficulty in doing so myself.
I have ever found them of a lively, cheerful disposition [Note 59 at end of para.], patiently putting up with
inconveniences and privations, and never losing that natural good temper which so strongly characterizes
them. On the occasion of my second visit from Moorunde, to the Rufus natives in 1841, when I had so far
overcome the ill-feelings and dread, engendered by the transactions in that quarter, in 1840, as to induce a
large body of them to accompany me back to the station, they had to walk a distance of 150 miles, making
daily the same stages that the horses did, and unprovided with any food but what they could procure along the
road as they passed, and this from the rapidity with which they had to travel, and the distance they had to go in
a day, was necessarily limited in quantity, and very far from sufficient to appease even the cravings of hunger,
yet tired, foot-sore, and hungry as they were, and in company with strangers, whose countrymen had slain
them in scores, but a few months before, they were always merry at their camps at nights, and kept singing,
laughing, and joking, to a late hour.
[Note 59: Such appears usually to be the characteristic of Nature's children, than whom no race appears more
thoroughly to enjoy life.--Vide character of the American Indians, by Catlin, vol. 1. p. 84.]
On falling in with them in larger numbers, when I have been travelling in the interior with my party, I have
still found the same disposition to meet me on terms of amity and kindness. Nor can a more interesting sight
well be imagined, than that of a hundred or two hundred natives advancing in line to meet you, unarmed,
shouting and waving green boughs in both hands, men, women, and children, the old and the young, all
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joining in expressing their good feelings and pacific intentions. On such occasions I have been often
astonished at the facility with which large bodies, have by a little kindness and forbearance been managed,
and kept from being troublesome or annoying, by a party of only six or seven Europeans. I have occasionally
had upwards of 150 natives sitting in a long line, where I placed them, and as orderly and obedient almost as a
file of soldiers.
At other times, when riding with only a native boy over the plains of the interior, I have seen the blue smoke
of the native fires, curling up through the distant line of trees, which marked some yet unvisited watercourse,
and upon making towards it, have come suddenly upon a party encamped in the hollow, beneath the banks
upon which I stood. Here I have remained, observing them for a few moments, unseen and unthought of. A
single call would arouse their attention, and as they looked up, would draw from them a wild exclamation of
dismay, accompanied by a look of indescribable horror and affright, at beholding the strange, and to them
incomprehensible beings who stood before them. Weapons would hastily be seized, baggage gathered up, and
the party so lately buried in repose and security, would at once be ready either to fight or to evacuate their
camps, as circumstances might seem to render most expedient. A few friendly gestures and a peaceable
demeanour would however soon dissipate their terror, and in a few moments their weapons would be thrown
aside, and both invaders and invaded be upon intimate and confiding terms.
I have always found the natives ready to barter their nets, weapons, or other implements, for European
articles, and sometimes they will give them unsolicited, and without any equivalent; amongst themselves they
constantly do this.
In their intercourse with each other, natives of different tribes are exceedingly punctilious and polite, the most
endearing epithets are passed between those who never met before; almost every thing that is said is prefaced
by the appellation of father, son, brother, mother, sister, or some other similar term, corresponding to that
degree of relationship which would have been most in accordance with their relative ages and circumstances.
In many instances, too, these titles are even accompanied by the still more insinuating addition of "dear," to
say nothing of the hugs and embraces which they mutually give and receive.
The natives are very fond of the children they rear, and often play with, and fondle them; but husbands rarely
shew much affection for their wives. After a long absence, I have seen natives, upon their return, go to their
camp, exhibiting the most stoical indifference, never take the least notice of their wives, but sit down, and act,
and look, as if they had never been out of the encampment; in fact, if any thing, they are more taciturn and
reserved than usual, and some little time elapses before they enter into conversation with freedom, or in their
ordinary manner.
[Note 60: For the existence of similar customs amongst the American Indians, vide Catlin, vol. i. p. 56.]
Upon meeting children after a long absence, I have seen parents "fall upon their necks, and weep" bitterly. It
is a mistaken idea, as well as an unjust one, that supposes the natives to be without sensibility of feeling. It
may often be repressed from pride or policy, but it will sometimes break forth uncontrolled, and reveal, that
the best and genuine feelings of the heart are participated in by savage in common with civilized man. The
following is an instance in point:--A fine intelligent young boy, was, by his father's consent, living with me at
the Murray for many weeks; but upon the old man's going into Adelaide, he took his son away to accompany
him. Whilst there, the boy died, and for nearly a year I never saw any thing more of the father, although he
occasionally had been within a few miles of my neighbourhood. One day, however, I was out shooting about
three miles from home, and accidentally fell in with him. Upon seeing me he immediately burst into tears, and
was unable to speak. It was the first time he had met me since his son's death, and my presence forcibly
reminded him of his loss. The same circumstance occurred when he accompanied me to the house, where
every thing he saw recalled the memory of his child.
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Innate propriety of behaviour is also frequently exhibited by the Aborigines in their natural state, in the
modest unassuming manner in which they take their positions to observe what is going on, and in a total
absence of any thing that is rude or offensive. It is true that the reverse of this is also often to be met with; but
I think it will usually be found that it is among natives who have before been in contact with Europeans, or
where familiarities have been used with them first, or an injudicious system of treatment has been adopted
towards them.
DELICACY of feeling is not often laid to the charge of the Aborigines, and yet I was witness to a singular
instance of it at King George's Sound. I was looking one evening at the natives dancing, and who were, as
they always are on these occasions, in a state of complete nudity. In the midst of the performance, one of the
natives standing by a spectator, mentioned that a white woman was passing up the road; and although this was
some little distance away, and the night was tolerably dark, they all with one accord crossed over to the
bushes where their cloaks were, put them on, and resumed their amusement.
It has been said, and is generally believed, that the natives are not courageous. There could not be a greater
mistake, at least as far as they are themselves concerned, nor do I hold it to be any proof that they are
cowards, because they dread or give way before Europeans and their fire-arms. So unequal a match is no
criterion of bravery, and yet even thus, among natives, who were labouring under the feelings, naturally
produced by seeing a race they were unacquainted with, and weapons that dealt death as if by magic, I have
seen many instances of an open manly intrepidity of manner and bearing, and a proud unquailing glance of
eye, which instinctively stamped upon my mind the conviction that the individuals before me were very brave
men.
In travelling about from one place to another, I have always made it a point, if possible, to be accompanied by
one or more natives, and I have often found great advantage from it. Attached to an exploring party they are
frequently invaluable, as their perceptive powers are very great, and enable them both to see and hear
anything at a much greater distance than a European. In tracking stray animals, and keeping on indistinct
paths, they display a degree of perseverance and skill that is really wonderful. They are useful also in cutting
bark canoes to cross a river, should such impede the progress of the party, and in diving for anything that may
be lost in the water, etc. etc. The Aborigines generally, and almost always those living near large bodies of
water, are admirable swimmers and divers, and are almost as much at home in the water as on dry land. I have
known them even saw a small log or root at the bottom of a deep river. In a locality, however, which is badly
watered, it sometimes happens that they cannot swim. At Meerkap, in Western Australia, while crossing with
some friends, from the Sound to Swan River, we met with some who were in this predicament, and who
seemed a good deal astonished at our venturing into the small ponds at that place. I have been told that the
natives at the Sound could not swim before that settlement was occupied by Europeans--this seems hardly
probable, however, upon the sea-coast; at all events, be this as it may, they all swim now.
In habit they are truly nomadic, seldom remaining many weeks in one locality, and frequently not many days.
The number travelling together depends, in a great measure, upon the period of the year, and the description
of food that may be in season. If there is any particular variety more abundant than another, or procurable only
in certain localities, the whole tribe generally congregate to partake of it. Should this not be the case, then they
are probably scattered over their district in detached groups, or separate families.
At certain seasons of the year, usually in the spring or summer, when food is most abundant, several tribes
meet together in each other's territory for the purpose of festivity or war, or to barter and exchange such food,
clothing, implements, weapons, or other commodities as they respectively possess; or to assist in the initiatory
ceremonies by which young persons enter into the different grades of distinction amongst them. The manner
and formalities of meeting depend upon the cause for which they assemble. If the tribes have been long apart,
many deaths may have occurred in the interim; and as the natives do not often admit that the young or the
strong can die from natural causes, they ascribe the event to the agency of sorcery, employed by individuals of
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neighbouring tribes. This must of course be expiated in some way when they meet, but the satisfaction
required is regulated by the desire of the injured tribe to preserve amicable relations with the other, or the
reverse.
The following is an account of a meeting which I witnessed, between the natives of Moorunde (comprising
portions of several of the neighbouring tribes) and the Nar-wij-jerook, or Lake Bonney tribe, accompanied
also by many of their friends. This meeting had been pre-arranged, as meetings of large bodies of natives
never take place accidentally, for even when a distant tribe approaches the territory of another unexpectedly,
messengers are always sent on in advance, to give the necessary warning. The object of the meeting in
question was to perform the initiatory ceremonies upon a number of young men belonging to both of the
tribes. In the Murray district, when one tribe desires another to come from a distance to perform these
ceremonies, young men are sent off with messages of invitation, carrying with them as their credentials, long
narrow news, made of string manufactured from the rush. These nets are left with the tribe they are sent to,
and brought back again when the invitation is responded to.
Notice having been given on the previous evening to the Moorunde natives of the approach of the
Nar-wij-jerook tribe, they assembled at an early hour after sunrise, in as clear and open a place as they could
find. Here they sat down in a long row to await the coming of their friends. The men were painted, and carried
their weapons, as if for war. The women and children were in detached groups, a little behind them, or on one
side, whilst the young men, on whom the ceremonies were to be performed, sat shivering with cold and
apprehension in a row to the rear of the men, perfectly naked, smeared over from head to foot with grease and
red-ochre, and without weapons. The Nar-wij-jerook tribe was now seen approaching. The men were in a
body, armed and painted, and the women and children accompanying them a little on one side. They
occasionally halted, and entered into consultation, and then, slackening their pace, gradually advanced until
within a hundred yards of the Moorunde tribe. Here the men came to a full stop, whilst several of the women
singled out from the rest, and marched into the space between the two parties, having their heads coated over
with lime, and raising a loud and melancholy wail, until they came to a spot about equi-distant from both,
when they threw down their cloaks with violence, and the bags which they carried on their backs, and which
contained all their worldly effects. The bags were then opened, and pieces of glass and shells taken out, with
which they lacerated their thighs, backs, and breasts, in a most frightful manner, whilst the blood kept pouring
out of the wounds in streams; and in this plight, continuing their wild and piercing lamentations, they moved
up towards the Moorunde tribe, who sat silently and immoveably in the place at first occupied. One of the
women then went up to a strange native, who was on a visit to the Moorunde tribe and who stood neutral in
the affair of the meeting, and by violent language and frantic gesticulations endeavoured to incite him to
revenge the death of some relation or friend. But he could not be induced to lift his spear against the people
amongst whom he was sojourning. After some time had been spent in mourning, the women took up their
bundles again, and retiring, placed themselves in the rear of their own party. An elderly man then advanced,
and after a short colloquy with the seated tribe, went back, and beckoned his own people to come forward,
which they did slowly and in good order, exhibiting in front three uplifted spears, to which were attached the
little nets left with them by the envoys of the opposite tribe, and which were the emblems of the duty they had
come to perform, after the ordinary expiations had been accomplished.
In advancing, the Nar-wij-jerooks again commenced the death wail, and one of the men, who had probably
sustained the greatest loss since the tribes had last met, occasionally in alternations of anger and sorrow
addressed his own people. When near the Moorunde tribe a few words were addressed to them, and they at
once rose simultaneously, with a suppressed shout. The opposite party then raised their spears, and closing
upon the line of the other tribe, speared about fifteen or sixteen of them in the left arm, a little below the
shoulder. This is the generally understood order of revenge; for the persons who were to receive the wounds,
as soon as they saw the weapons of their assailants poised, at once put out the left foot, to steady themselves,
and presented the left shoulder for the blow, frequently uttering the word "Leipa" (spear), as the others
appeared to hesitate.
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Whilst this was going on, the influential men of each tribe were violently talking to each other, and apparently
accusing one another of being accessory to the death of some of their people. Disclaimers passed on each side,
and the blame was imputed to other and more distant tribes. The manes of the dead having been appeased, the
honour of each party was left unsullied, and the Nar-wij-jerooks retired about a hundred yards, and sat down,
ready to enter upon the ceremonies of the day, which will be described in another place. [Note 61: Chapter V.]
If the meeting of the tribes be for the purpose of war, a favourable situation is selected by one of the parties,
and notice is sent to the other, who then proceed to the place of meeting, where both draw out their forces in
opposing parallel lines. Day-break, or nearly about sunset in the evening, are the times preferred for these
engagements, as the softened light at those hours does not so much affect the eyesight, and the spears are
more easily seen and avoided. Both parties are fully armed with spears, shields, and other weapons, and the
fight sometimes lasts for three or four hours, during which scarcely a word is spoken, and but little noise of
any kind is heard, excepting a shrill cry now and then, when some one is wounded or has a narrow escape.
Many are injured generally on both sides, and some severely so; but it rarely happens that more than one or
two are killed, though hundreds may have been engaged.
The fights are sometimes witnessed by men who are not concerned in them, by the women and the children.
The presence of the females may be supposed probably to inspire the belligerents with courage and incite
them to deeds of daring.
The most dangerous and fatal affrays in which the natives engage are those which occur suddenly amongst
tribes who have been encamped near one another on amicable terms, and between whom some cause of
difference has arisen, probably in relation to their females, or some recent death, which it is imagined the
sorcerers have been instrumental in producing. In the former case a kind of melee sometimes takes place at
night, when fire-brands are thrown about, spears launched, and bwirris [Note 62 at end of para.] bran-dished
in indescribable confusion. In the latter case the affray usually occurs immediately after the body is buried,
and is more of a hand-to-hand fight, in which bwirris are used rather than spears, and in which tremendous
blows are struck and frightful wounds inflicted.
[Note 62: A short, heavy, wooden stick, with a knob at one end.]
In wars males are always obliged to join their relatives by blood and their own tribe. Women frequently excite
the men to engage in these affrays to revenge injuries or deaths, and sometimes they assist themselves by
carrying spears or other weapons for their husbands. I am not aware that women or children are ever
butchered after a battle is over, and I believe such is never the case. Single camps are sometimes treacherously
surprised when the parties are asleep, and the males barbarously killed in cold blood. This generally takes
place just before the morning dawns, when the native is most drowsy, and least likely to give his attention to
any thing he might hear. In these cases the attack is generally made under the belief that the individual is a
desperate sorcerer, and has worked innumerable mischiefs to their tribe. In their attacks upon European parties
I believe the natives generally advance in a line or crescent, beating their weapons together, throwing dust in
the air, spitting, biting their beards, or using some other similar act of defiance and hostility. I have never
witnessed any such collision myself, but am told that the attack is always accompanied by that peculiar savage
sound produced by the suppressed guttural shout of many voices in unison, which they use in conflicts
amongst themselves, and which is continued to the moment of collision, and renewed in triumph whenever a
weapon strikes an opponent.
When hostilely disposed from either fear or from having been previously ill-treated, I have seen the natives,
without actually proceeding to extremities, resort to all the symptoms of defiance I have mentioned, or at
other times, run about with fire-brands in their hands, lighting the bushes and the grass, either as a charm, or
in the hope of burning out the intruders. When much alarmed and rather closely pressed, they have run up the
trees like monkeys, and concealed themselves among the boughs, evidently thinking they were secure from
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pursuit there.
If tribes meet simply for the purpose of festivity, and have no deaths to avenge on either side, although they
appear in warlike attitude, painted and bearing spear and shield, yet when they approach each other, they all
become seated upon the ground. After which, the strangers, should there be any, undergo a formal
introduction, and have their country and lineage described by the older men. At these meetings all occurrences
of interest are narrated, information is given as to the localities in which food is most abundant, and
invitations are issued by the proprietors of these districts, to their relations and friends to accompany them
thither.
The position of one tribe towards another, whether on friendly terms or otherwise, is talked about, and
consultations are held on the existing state of affairs, whether hostilities shall be continued or withdrawn, and
future plans of operation are marked out.
Whilst the men are occupied in discussing these matters, the females engage in a narration of family
occurrences, such as births of children, marriages, deaths, etc., not omitting a sprinkling of gossip and scandal,
from which, even these ebon sisters of a fairer race, are not altogether exempt.
In the evening, the huts of the different tribes are built as near to each other as practicable, each tribe locating
itself in the direction from whence it came. The size and character of the huts, with the number of their
occupants, vary according to the state of the weather, and the local circumstances of their position. In fine
weather, one hut will contain from two to five families, in wet weather more, each family however having a
separate fire.
The amusements of the natives are various, but they generally have a reference to their future occupations or
pursuits. Boys who are very young, have small reed spears made for them by their parents, the ends of which
are padded with grass, to prevent them from hurting each other. They then stand at a little distance, and
engage in a mimic fight; and by this means acquire early that skill in the use of this weapon, for which, in
after life, they are so much celebrated. At other times round pieces of bark are rolled along the ground, to
represent an animal in the act of running, at which the spears are thrown for the sake of practice.
Another favourite amusement among the children, is to practise the dances and songs of the adults, and a boy
is very proud if he attains sufficient skill in these, to be allowed to take part in the exhibitions that are made
before other tribes.
String puzzles are another species of amusement with them. In these a European would be surprised to see the
ingenuity they display, and the varied and singular figures which they produce. Our juvenile attempts in this
way, are very meagre and uninteresting compared to them. [Note 63: An amusement of the New Zealand
children.--Dieffenbach, vol. 2. p. 32.]
Other gratifications enjoyed by children, consist in learning the occupations and pursuits of after life, as to
make twine, and weapons; to ascend trees; to procure food; to guide the canoe, and many other things, which
enter into the pursuits of a savage.
The elder boys engage more extensively in similar occupations, as they are more particularly interested in
them, and by their exertions have to provide chiefly for their own support. Mock combats frequently take
place amongst them, in which they are encouraged by the adults, that they may acquire the dexterities of
warfare, in which they are soon to be more seriously engaged. [Note 64: For an account of a similar practise
among the American Indians, vide Catlin, vol. 1. p. 131.]
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An amusement of the adults, is a large bunch of emu feathers tied together, (fig. 1. Pl. 1.) which is held out
and shaken as if in defiance, by some individual, whilst the others advance to try to take it out of his hands.
This occasions an amusing struggle before the prize is gained, in which it is not uncommon to see from ten to
twenty strong and lusty men rolling in a heap together. This is a sort of athletic exercise amongst them, for the
purpose of testing each other's strength. On such an occasion they are all unarmed and naked.
At nights, dances or plays are performed by the different tribes in turn, the figures and scenes of which are
extensively varied, but all are accompanied by songs, and a rude kind of music produced by beating two sticks
together, or by the action of the hand upon a cloak of skins rolled tightly together, so as to imitate the sound of
a drum. In some of the dances only are the women allowed to take a part; but they have dances of their own,
in which the men do not join. At all times they are the chief musicians, vocal and instrumental. Sometimes,
however, they have an old man to lead the band and pitch the tunes; and at others they are assisted by the old
and young men indiscriminately.
The natives have not any war-dance, properly so called, though sometimes they are decorated in all the pomp
and circumstance of war. Being excellent mimies, they imitate in many of their dances the habits and
movements of animals. They also represent the mode of hunting, fighting, love-making, etc. New figures and
new songs are constantly introduced, and are as much applauded and encored, as more refined productions of
a similar kind in civilized communities; being sometimes passed from tribe to tribe for a considerable
distance. I have often seen dances performed to songs with which I was acquainted, and which I knew to
belong to distant parts of the country where a different dialect was spoken, and which consequently could not
be understood where I heard them. Many of the natives cannot even give an interpretation of the songs of their
own districts [Note 65 at end of para.], and most of the explanations they do give are, I am inclined to think,
generally very imperfect, as the measures or quantities of the syllables appear to be more attended to than the
sense.
[Note 65: "Not one in ten of the young men who are dancing and singing it, know the meaning of the song
they are chaunting over."--Catlin, vol. 1. p. 126. Also the case in New Zealand, with respect to some of the
songs.--Vide Dieffenbach, vol. 2. p. 57.]
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Of these amusements the natives are passionately fond; and when once they have so far overcome their
naturally indolent disposition as to be induced to engage in them there is no knowing when they will give
over. Dances are sometimes held during the day, but these are of rare occurrence, and seem to be in some way
connected with their ceremonial observances or superstitions, since rude figures, and lofty branches of trees,
decorated with tufts of feathers, emu plumes, swan's down and red ochre, occupy a prominent part in the
exhibition, although never met with in the dances by night.
The dances vary a great deal among the different tribes, both as to figures and music; the painting or
decoration of their persons, their use of weapons, and the participation of the females in them. Throughout the
entire continent, as far as it is known, there are many points of resemblance in the dances of all the
Aborigines, such as the practice of painting the body with white and red ochre, carrying boughs in their hands,
or tying them round their limbs; adorning the head with feathers or down, bearing bunches of feathers, tied in
tufts in their hands, the women singing and beating time upon folded skins, the men beating time upon sticks
or some of their smaller weapons, an old man acting as leader of the band, and giving the time and tune to the
others; the dances representing the actions of animals, the circumstances of the chase, of war, or of love; and
the singular and extraordinary quivering motion of the thighs when the legs are distended, a peculiarity
probably confined to the natives of the continent of Australia.
The most interesting dances are those which take place at the meeting of different tribes. Each tribe performs
in turn, and as there is much rivalry, there is a corresponding stimulus to exertion. The dances usually
commence an hour or two after dark, and are frequently kept up the greater part of the night, the performers
becoming so much excited that, notwithstanding the violent exercise required to sustain all their evolutions,
they are unwilling to leave off. It is sometimes difficult to induce them to commence a dance; but if they once
begin, and enter into the spirit of it, it is still more difficult to induce them to break up.
The females of the tribe exhibiting, generally sit down in front of the performers, either irregularly, in a line,
or a semicircle, folding up their skin cloaks into a hard ball, and then beating them upon their laps with the
palm of their hand, and accompanying the noise thus produced with their voices. It is surprising to see the
perfect time that is kept in this way, and the admirable manner in which the motions of the dancers accord
with the music. There is no confusion, irregularity, or mistake. Each person is conversant with his part; and all
exhibit a degree of elasticity and gracefulness in their movements which, in some of the dances, is very
striking and beautiful.
In many of the figures, weapons are carried, such as the waddy, the shield, the spear, etc. and in these it is
amazing to behold the facility and skill with which they form in close array, spread into open rank, change
places, and thread through the mazes of the dance, without ever deranging their plans, or coming in contact
with each other.
The tribes who are not engaged in dancing, are seated in a large semicircle as spectators, occasionally giving a
rapturous exclamation of delight, as any part of the performance is well gone through or any remarkable feat
of activity exhibited. Where natives have not much acquaintance with Europeans, so as to give up, in some
measure, their original habits, if there is any degree of jealousy between the respective tribes, they are
sometimes partitioned off from each other by boughs of trees, whilst they look at the dance. On one occasion I
saw five tribes met together, and the evening was of course spent in dancing. Each tribe danced in turn, about
forty being engaged at once, besides sixteen females, eight of whom were at each corner of the male
performers. The men were naked, painted in various devices with red and white, and had their heads adorned
with feathers. The women wore their opossum cloaks, and had bands of white down round their foreheads,
with the long feathers of the cockatoo sticking up in front like horns. In the dance the men and women did not
intermingle; but the two sets of women who were dancing at the corners of the line, occasionally changed
places with each other, passing in this transit, at the back of the men. All sung, and the men beat time upon
their smaller weapons whilst dancing, the whole making up a wild and piercing noise, most deafening and
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ungrateful to the ears.
The natives of the Rufus and Lake Victoria (Tar-ru) have a great variety of dances and figures. One of these,
which I witnessed, representing the character, habits, and chase of the kangaroo was admirably performed,
and would have drawn down thunders of applause at any theatre in Europe. One part of this figure, where the
whole of the dancers successively drop down from a standing to a crouching posture, and then hop off in this
position with outstretched arms and legs, was excellently executed. The contrast of their sable skins with the
broad white stripes painted down their legs; their peculiar attitudes, and the order and regularity with which
these were kept, as they moved in a large semicircle, in the softening light of the fire, produced a striking
effect; and in connection with the wild and inspiriting song, which gave an impulse to their gesticulation, led
me almost to believe that the scene was unearthly.
In some of the dances the music varies rapidly from slow to quick, and the movements alter accordingly. In
some they are altogether measured and monotonous, in others very lively and quick, keeping the performers
almost constantly at a double quick march, moving in advance and retreat, crossing past or threading through
the ranks, and using a kind of motion with the feet in unison with the music, that bears a strong resemblance
to the European mode of dancing. At particular points the figures terminate by some simultaneous motion of
the whole performers, accompanied by a deep, gutteral "Waugh," [Note 66 at end of para.] uttered by all
together; at others by the actors closing in a dense circle, and raising and pointing their weapons upwards with
the same exclamation.
[Note 66: This very peculiar sound appears to be common among the American Indians, and to be used in a
similar manner.--Vide Catlin, vol. 2. p.136.]
The "Paritke," or natives inhabiting the scrub north-west of Moorunde, have quite a different form of dancing
from the river natives. They are painted or decorated with feathers in a similar way; but each dancer ties
bunches of green boughs round the leg, above the knees, whilst the mode of dancing consists in stamping with
the foot and uttering at each motion a deep ventral intonation, the boughs round the knees making a loud
rustling noise in keeping with the time of the music. One person, who directs the others in the movements of
this dance, holds in his hands an instrument in the form of a diamond, made of two slight sticks, from two and
a half to three feet long, crossed and tied in the middle, round this a string, made of the hair of the opposum, is
pressed from corner to corner, and continued successively towards the centre until there is only room left for
the hand to hold the instrument. At each corner is appended a bunch of cockatoo feathers. With this the chief
performer keeps a little in advance of the dancers, and whisking it up and down to the time of the music,
regulates their movements.
In another dance, in which women are the chief performers, their bodies are painted with white streaks, and
their hair adorned with cockatoo feathers. They carry large sticks in their hands, and place themselves in a row
in front, whilst the men with their spears stand in a line behind them. They then all commence their
movements, but without intermingling, the males and females dancing by themselves. There is little variety or
life in this dance, yet it seems to be a favourite one with the natives.
The women have occasionally another mode of dancing, by joining the hands together over the head, closing
the feet, and bringing the knees into contact. The legs are then thrown outwards from the knee, whilst the feet
and hands are kept in their original position, and being drawn quickly in again a sharp sound is produced by
the collision. This is either practised alone by young girls, or by several together for their own amusement. It
is adopted also when a single woman is placed in front of a row of male dancers to excite their passions; for
many of the native dances are of a grossly licentious character. In another figure they keep the feet close
together, without lifting them from the ground, and by a peculiar motion of the limbs advance onwards,
describing a short semicircle. This amusement is almost exclusively confined to young females among
themselves.
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It has already been remarked, that the natives, on particular occasions, have dances which they perform in the
day-time, which are different from others, and seem to have some connection with their ceremonial
observances or superstitions. I have only witnessed one of these. It took place at Moorunde, in March 1844,
on the occasion of a large number of distant natives coming to visit the place; and the visitors were the
performers. The Moorunde natives were seated upon the brow of a sand-bank; the strangers, consisting of two
tribes, down in a hollow a little way off, among a few bushes. When ready, they advanced in a line towards
the others, dancing and singing, being painted and decorated as usual, some having tufts of feathers placed
upon their heads like cockades and others carrying them in their hands tied to short sticks. Nearly all the males
carried bunches of green boughs, which they waved and shook to the time of the song. The women were also
painted, and danced in a line with the men, those of each tribe stationing themselves at opposite ends of the
line. Dancing for a while, they retired again towards the hollow, and after a short interval advanced as before,
but with a person in the centre carrying a curious, rude-looking figure, raised up in the air. This singular object
consisted of a large bundle of grass and reeds bound together, enveloped in a kangaroo skin, with the flesh
side outwards, and painted all over in small white circles. From the top of this projected a thin stick, with a
large tuft of feathers at the end to represent the head, and sticks were stuck out laterally from the sides for the
arms, terminating in tufts of feathers stained red to represent the hands. From the front, a small stick about six
inches long was projected, ending with a thick knob, formed of grass, around which a piece of old cloth was
tied. This was painted white and represented the navel. The figure was about eight feet long, and was
evidently intended to symbolise a man. It was kept in its elevated position by the person who carried it, and
who advanced and retired with the movements of the dancers. The position of the latter was alternately erect
and crouching, whilst they sang and beat time with the green boughs. Sometimes they stretched out their right
arms simultaneously, and at other times their left, apparently for the purpose of marking the time at particular
parts of the song. After dancing for a while in this way, they again retired to the hollow, and for a few
moments there was another pause; after which they again advanced as before, but without the image. In the
place of this two standards were exhibited, made of poles, about twelve feet long, and borne by two persons.
These were perfectly straight, and for the first eight feet free from boughs; above this nine branches were left
upon each pole, having at their ends each a bunch of feathers of the hawk or owl. On the top of one of the
standards was a bunch of emu feathers. The branches were stripped of all their smaller twigs and leaves, and
of their bark. They were painted white, and wound round with the white down of the black swan, twisted into
a rope. This also extended for a considerable distance down the pole, below the undermost branch.
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Having again retired towards the hollow, they remained there for a few minutes, and then advanced for the
third time. On this occasion, however, instead of the image or standards, they all carried their spears. After
dancing with these for some time, they went forward towards the Moorunde natives, who sprang upon their
feet, and seizing their weapons, speared two or three of the strangers in the shoulder, and all was over. I was
anxious to have got hold of the rude figure to have a drawing made of it, but it had been instantly destroyed.
The standards I procured.
This dance took place between nine and ten in the morning, and was quite unlike any thing I had seen before.
A stranger might have supposed it to be a religious ceremony, and the image the object of worship. Such,
however, I am convinced was not the case, although I believe it to have had some connection with their
superstitions, and that it was regarded in the light of a charm.
Before the country was occupied by Europeans, the natives say that this dance was frequently celebrated, but
that latterly it has not been much in use. No other instance of it ever came under my own observation in any
part of New Holland.
The songs of the natives are of a very rude and unmeaning character, rarely consisting of more than one or
two ideas, which are continually repeated over and over again. They are chiefly made on the spur of the
moment, and refer to something that has struck the attention at the time. The measure of the song varies
according to circumstances. It is gay and lively, for the dance; slow and solemn for the enchanter; and wild
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and pathetic for the mourner. The music is sometimes not unharmonious; and when heard in the stillness of
the night and mellowed by distance, is often soothing and pleasing. I have frequently laid awake, after retiring
to rest, to listen to it. Europeans, their property, presence, and habits, are frequently the subject of these songs;
and as the natives possess great powers of mimicry, and are acute in the observation of anything that appears
to them absurd or ludicrous, the white man often becomes the object of their jests or quizzing. I have heard
songs of this kind sung at the dances in a kind of comic medley, where different speakers take up parts during
the breaks in the song, and where a sentence or two of English is aptly introduced, or a quotation made from
some native dialect, other than that of the performers. It is usually conducted in the form of question and
answer, and the respective speakers use the language of the persons they are supposed to represent. The
chorus is, however, still the same repetition of one or two words.
The following specimens, taken from a vocabulary published by Messrs. Teichelmann, and Schurmann,
German Missionaries to the Aborigines, will give an idea of the nature of the songs of the Adelaide tribe.
KADLITPIKO PALTI.
Pindi mai birkibirki parrato, parrato. (DE CAPO BIS.)
MULLAWIRRABURKARNA PALTI.
Natta ngai padlo ngaityarniappi; watteyernaurlo tappandi ngaityo parni tatti. (DA CAPO.)
WILTONGARROLO kundando
Strike (him, viz. the dog) with the tuft of eagle feathers.
Kadlottikurrelo paltando
Strike (him) with the girdle
Mangakurrelo paltando
Strike (him) with the string round the head
Worrikarrolo paltando
Strike (him) with the blood of circumcision
Turtikarrolo paltando
Strike (him) with the blood of the arm, etc. etc.
Wodliparrele kadlondo
Kanyamirarlo kadlondo
Karkopurrelo kadlondo
"This curse or imprecation is used in hunting a wild dog, which, by the mysterious effects of those words, is
induced to lie down securely to sleep, when the natives steal upon and easily kill him. The first word in each
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line denotes things sacred or secret, which the females and children are never allowed to see.
"These sentences are used in hunting opossums, to prevent their escape, when the natives set fire to hollow
trees in which the opossums are living.
"These words are rapidly repeated to the NGULTAS, while undergoing the painful operation of tattooing;
they are believed to be so powerful as to soothe the pain, and prevent fatal consequences of that barbarous
operation."
Another specimen may be given from the Vocabulary published by Mr. Meyer, another of the German
Missionaries at Encounter Bay.
"The above words compose one of the native songs. It refers to the road between Encounter Bay and
Willunga. All their songs appear to be of the same description, consisting of a few words which are
continually repeated. This specimen, it will be observed, consists of two regular verses:
-u|--|u-|u-u
-u|--|u-|u-u
I have not thought it worth while to give any specimens of the songs I have collected myself, because I could
not be quite certain that I should give the original words with strict accuracy, neither could I be satisfied about
the translations.
The assemblage of several tribes at one place for any of the objects I have described, rarely continues
uninterrupted for any great length of time, for even where it has taken place for the most pacific purposes, it
seldom terminates as it began; and the greater the number of natives present, the less likelihood is there that
they will remain very long in a state of quiescence.
If not soon compelled to separate by the scarcity of food, or a desire to follow some favourite pursuit, for
which the season of the year is favourable, they are generally driven to it by discord and disagreements
amongst themselves, which their habits and superstitions are calculated to foment.
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Chapter III.
FOOD
HOW PROCURED
HOW PREPARED
LIMITATION AS TO AGE, etc.
The food of the Aborigines of Australia embraces an endless variety of articles, derived both from the animal
and vegetable kingdom. The different kinds in use depend in a great measure upon the season of the year and
local circumstances. Every district has in it something peculiar to itself. The soil and climate of the continent
vary greatly in their character and afford a corresponding variety of productions to the Aborigines. As far as it
is yet known there are no localities on its coast, no recesses in its interior, however sterile and inhospitable
they may appear to the traveller, that do not hold out some inducements to the bordering savage to visit them,
or at proper seasons of the year provide him with the means of sustenance. Captain Grey remarks, in volume
2, of his travels, page 261--
"Generally speaking, the natives live well; in some districts there may at particular seasons of the year be a
deficiency of food, but if such is the case, these tracts are, at those times, deserted. It is, however, utterly
impossible for a traveller or even for a strange native to judge whether a district affords an abundance of food,
or the contrary; for in traversing extensive parts of Australia, I have found the sorts of food vary from latitude
to latitude, so that the vegetable productions used by the Aborigines in one are totally different to those in
another; if, therefore, a stranger has no one to point out to him the vegetable productions, the soil beneath his
feet may teem with food, whilst he starves. The same rule holds good with regard to animal productions; for
example, in the southern parts of the continent the Xanthorrea affords an inexhaustible supply of fragrant
grubs, which an epicure would delight in, when once he has so far conquered his prejudices as to taste them;
whilst in proceeding to the northward, these trees decline in health and growth, until about the parallel of
Gantheaume Bay they totally disappear, and even a native finds himself cut off from his ordinary supplies of
insects; the same circumstances taking place with regard to the roots and other kinds of food at the same time,
the traveller necessarily finds himself reduced to cruel extremities. A native from the plains, taken into an
elevated mountainous district near his own country, for the first time, is equally at fault.
"But in his own district a native is very differently situated; he knows exactly what it produces, the proper
time at which the several articles are in season, and the readiest means of procuring them. According to these
circumstances he regulates his visits to the different portions of his hunting ground; and I can only state that I
have always found the greatest abundance in their huts."
It is evident therefore that a European or even a stranger native would perish in a district capable of supplying
the necessaries of life, simply because he had not the experience necessary to direct him where to search for
food, or judgment to inform him what article might be in season at the particular time of his visit. It is equally
the same with respect to procuring water. The native inhabiting a scrubby and an arid district has, from his
knowledge of the country and from a long residence and practical experience in the desert, many resources at
command to supply his wants, where the white man would faint or perish from thirst.
The very densest brushes, which to the latter are so formidable and forbidding, hold out to the former
advantages and inducements to resort to them of more than ordinary temptation. Abounding in wild animals
of various kinds, they offer to the natives who frequent them an unlimited supply of food: a facility for
obtaining firewood, a grateful shade from the heat, an effectual screen from the cold, and it has already been
shewn that they afford the means of satisfying their thirst by a process but little known, and which from a
difference in habits and temperament would be but little available to the European.[Note 67 at end of para.] In
judging, therefore, of the character of any country, from the mere fact of natives being seen there, or even of
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their being numerous, we must take all these circumstances into consideration; and, in estimating the facility
with which a native can remain for a long time in a country, apparently arid and inhospitable, we must not
omit to take into account his education and experience, and the general nature of his habits. The two former
have accustomed him from infancy to feel at home and at ease, where a European sees only dread and danger:
he has thus the advantage over the European in the desert, that a swimmer has in the water over the man who
cannot swim; conscious of his own powers and resources, he feels not the least apprehension, whilst the very
terrors of the other but augment his danger. On the other hand, the general habits, mode of life, and almost
temperament of the savage, give him an equally great advantage. Indolent by disposition and indulgence, he
makes very short stages in his ordinary travels, rarely moving more than from eight to twelve miles in the day,
and this he does so leisurely and quietly, that he neither becomes excited nor heated, and consequently does
not experience that excessive thirst, which is produced by the active exertions or violent exercise of the
European, and which in the latter is at the same time so greatly augmented, by his want of confidence and
anxiety.
Another very great advantage on the part of the natives is, the intimate knowledge they have of every nook
and corner of the country they inhabit; does a shower of rain fall, they know the very rock where a little water
is most likely to be collected, the very hole where it is the longest retained, and by repairing straight to the
place they fill their skins, and thus obtain a supply that lasts them many days. Are there heavy dews at night,
they know where the longest grass grows, from which they may collect the spangles, and water is sometimes
procured thus in very great abundance. [Note 68 at end of para.] Should there be neither rains nor dews, their
experience at once points out to them the lowest levels where the gumscrub grows, and where they are sure of
getting water from its roots, with the least possible amount of labour that the method admits of, and with the
surest prospect of success.
Another very important circumstance in favour of the native, and one which results in a measure from some of
the above-mentioned considerations, is the fact, that the native sets to work to procure his supply calmly and
collectedly, and before he requires it; whilst the European, even if acquainted with the method of obtaining it,
would not resort to it until the last extremity, when the body was fatigued and heated by previous exertion, the
mouth dry and parched by thirst, and the mind excited and anxious from apprehension. The natural
consequence of such a very different combination of circumstances would be, that the native would obtain an
abundant and satisfying supply, whilst the European would never be able to procure a sufficiency to appease
his thirst, but would rather fatigue and exhaust his strength the more, from his want of skill and experience,
and from his body and mind being both in an unfit state for this particular kind of exertion. Such at least, on
many various occasions, I have found to be the case both with myself, and with natives with me who have not
been accustomed to the scrub, or to this method of procuring water. The difficulty and labour of finding and
digging out the roots, our want of skill in selecting proper ones, the great dust arising from the loose, powdery
soil in which they were, and our own previously excited and exhausted state, have invariably prevented us
from deriving the full advantage we expected from our efforts.
In cases of extreme thirst, where the throat is dry and parched, or life at all in danger, the toil of digging for
the roots would be well repaid by the relief afforded. I have myself, in such cases, found that though I could
by no means satiate my thirst, I could always succeed in keeping my mouth cool and moist, and so far in
rendering myself equal to exertions I could not otherwise have made. Indeed, I hold it impossible that a
person, acquainted with this means of procuring water, and in a district where the gum-scrub grew, could ever
perish from thirst in any moderate lapse of time, if he had with him food to eat, and was not physically
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incapable of exertion. Under such circumstances, the moisture he would be able to procure from the roots,
would, I think, be quite sufficient to enable him to eat his food, and to sustain his strength for a considerable
time, under such short stages as would gradually conduct him free from his embarrassments.
In addition to the value of the gum-scrub to the native, as a source from whence to obtain his supply of water,
it is equally important to him as affording an article of food, when his other resources have failed. To procure
this, the lateral roots are still made use of, but the smaller ones generally are selected, such as vary in diameter
from an inch downwards. The roots being dug up, the bark is peeled off and roasted crisp in hot ashes; it is
then pounded between two stones, and has a pleasant farinaceous taste, strongly resembling that of malt. I
have often seen the natives eating this, and have frequently eaten it myself in small quantities. How far it
alone would support life, or sustain a man in strength, I have of course no means of forming an opinion; but it
is, probably, only resorted to when other food is scarce. Several of the roots of other shrubs are also used for
food, and some of them are mucilaginous and very palatable.
Throughout the greater portion of New Holland, where there do not happen to be European settlers, and
invariably where fresh water can be permanently procured upon the surface, the native experiences no
difficulty whatever in procuring food in abundance all the year round. It is true that the character of his diet
varies with the changing seasons, and the formation of the country he inhabits; but it rarely happens that any
season of the year, or any description of country does not yield him both animal and vegetable food. Amongst
the almost unlimited catalogue of edible articles used by the natives of Australia, the following may be classed
as the chief:--all salt and fresh-water fish and shell-fish, of which, in the larger rivers, there are vast numbers
and many species; freshwater turtle; frogs of different kinds; rats and mice; lizards, and most kinds of snakes
and reptiles; grubs of all kinds; moths of several varieties; fungi, and many sorts of roots; the leaves and tops
of a variety of plants; the leaf and fruit of the mesembryanthemum; various kinds of fruits and berries; the
bark from the roots of many trees and shrubs; the seeds of leguminous plants; gum from several species of
acacia; different sorts of manna; honey from the native bee, and also from the flowers of the Banksia, by
soaking them in water; the tender leaves of the grass-tree; the larvae of insects; white ants; eggs of birds;
turtles or lizards; many kinds of kangaroo; opossums; squirrels, sloths, and wallabies; ducks; geese; teal;
cockatoos; parrots; wild dogs and wombats; the native companion; the wild turkey; the swan; the pelican; the
leipoa, and an endless variety of water-fowl, and other descriptions of birds.
Of these articles, many are not only procurable in abundance, but in such vast quantities at the proper seasons,
as to afford for a considerable length of time an ample means of subsistence to many hundreds of natives
congregated in one place; and these are generally the kinds of food of which the natives are particularly fond.
On many parts of the coast, and in the larger inland rivers, fish are obtained of a very fine description, and in
great abundance. At Lake Victoria, which is filled with the back waters of the Murray, I have seen six hundred
natives encamped together, all of whom were living at the time upon fish procured from the lake, with the
addition, perhaps, of the leaves of the mesembryanthemum. When I went amongst them I never perceived any
scarcity in their camps. The fish were caught in nets.
At Moorunde, when the Murray annually inundates the flats, fresh-water cray-fish make their way to the
surface of the ground from holes where they have been buried during the year, in such vast numbers that I
have seen four hundred natives live upon them for weeks together, whilst the numbers spoiled or thrown away
would have sustained four hundred more. This fish is an excellent and nutritious article of food, and would be
highly prized by the epicure. It is caught by the women who wade into the water in a long close line, stooping
down and walking backwards, whilst they grope with their hands and feet, presenting a singular, and to the
uninitiated, an incomprehensible spectacle, as they thus move slowly backwards, but keep the line regular and
well preserved, as all generally occupy the same position at one time. When a cray-fish is caught the large
claws are torn off to prevent the animal from biting, and both claws and body are put into a small net
suspended from the neck for that purpose. In two or three hours a woman will procure as many fish as will last
her family for a day. The men are too lazy to do anything when food is so abundant, and lie basking under the
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trees in luxurious indolence, whilst their wives, mothers, or sisters are engaged in cooking for them.
An unlimited supply of fish is also procurable at the Murray about the beginning of December, when the
floods, having attained their greatest height, begin again to recede; and when the waters, which had been
thrown by the back water channels of the river into the flats behind its banks, begin again to reflow through
them into the river as it falls in height. At this time the natives repair to these channels, and making a weir
across them with stakes and grass interwoven, leave only one or two small openings for the stream to pass
through. To these they attach bag nets, which receive all the fish that attempt to re-enter the river. The number
procured in this way in a few hours is incredible. Large bodies of natives depend upon these weirs for their
sole subsistence, for some time after the waters have commenced to recede.
Another very favourite article of food, and equally abundant at a particular season of the year, in the eastern
portion of the continent, is a species of moth which the natives procure from the cavities and hollows of the
mountains in certain localities. This, when roasted, has something of the appearance and flavour of an almond
badly peeled. It is called in the dialect of the district, where I met with it, Booguon. The natives are never so
well conditioned in that part of the country, as at the season of the year when they return from feasting upon
this moth; and their dogs partake equally of the general improvement.
The tops, leaves, and stalks of a kind of cress, gathered at the proper season of the year, tied up in bunches,
and afterwards steamed in an oven, furnish a favourite, and inexhaustible supply of food for an unlimited
number of natives. When prepared, this food has a savoury and an agreeable smell, and in taste is not unlike a
boiled cabbage. In some of its varieties it is in season for a great length of time, and is procured in the flats of
rivers, on the borders of lagoons, at the Murray, and in many other parts of New Holland.
There are many other articles of food among the natives, equally abundant and valuable as those I have
enumerated: such as various kinds of berries, or fruits, the bulbous roots of a reed called the belillah, certain
kinds of fungi dug out of the ground, fresh-water muscles, and roots of several kinds, etc. Indeed, were I to go
through the list of articles seriatim, and enter upon the varieties and subdivisions of each class, with the
seasons of the year at which they were procurable, it would at once be apparent that the natives of Australia,
in their natural state, are not subject to much inconvenience for want of the necessaries of life. In almost every
part of the continent which I have visited, where the presence of Europeans, or their stock, has not limited, or
destroyed their original means of subsistence, I have found that the natives could usually, in three or four
hours, procure as much food as would last for the day, and that without fatigue or labour. They are not
provident in their provision for the future, but a sufficiency of food is commonly laid by at the camp for the
morning meal. In travelling, they sometimes husband, with great care and abstinence, the stock they have
prepared for the journey; and though both fatigued and hungry, they will eat sparingly, and share their morsel
with their friends, without encroaching too much upon their store, until some reasonable prospect appears of
getting it replenished.
In wet weather the natives suffer the most, as they are then indisposed to leave their camps to look for food,
and experience the inconveniences both of cold and hunger. If food, at all tainted, is offered to a native by
Europeans, it is generally rejected with disgust. In their natural state, however, they frequently eat either fish
or animals almost in a state of putridity.
Cannibalism is not common, though there is reason to believe, that it is occasionally practised by some tribes,
but under what circumstances it is difficult to say. Native sorcerers are said to acquire their magic influence
by eating human flesh, but this is only done once in a life-time.
[Note 70: The only authentic and detailed account of any instance of cannibalism, that I am acquainted with,
is found in Parliamentary Papers on Australian Aborigines, published August, 1844, in a report of Mr.
Protector Sievewright, from Lake Tarong, in one of the Port Phillip districts.
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"On going out I found the whole of the men of the different tribes (amounting to upwards of 100) engaged
hand to hand in one general melee.
"On being directed by some of the women, who had likewise sought shelter near my tent, to the huts of the
Bolaghers, I there found a young woman, supported in the arms of some of her tribe, quite insensible, and
bleeding from two severe wounds upon the right side of the face; she continued in the same state of
insensibility till about 11 o'clock, when she expired.
"After fighting for nearly an hour, the men of the Bolagher tribe returned to their huts, when finding that every
means I had used to restore the young woman was in vain, they gave vent to the most frantic expressions of
grief and rage, and were employed till daylight in preparing themselves and weapons to renew the combat.
"Shortly before sunrise they again rushed towards the Targurt and Elengermite tribes, who, with about a
dozen of Wamambool natives, were encamped together, when a most severe struggle took place between
them, and very few escaped on either side without serious fractures or dangerous spear wounds. Although the
Targurt tribe were supported by the Elengermite and Wamambool natives, and were consequently much
superior in number, they were, after two hours hard fighting, driven off the ground and pursued for about four
miles, to where their women and children had retired; when one of the former, named Mootinewhannong, was
selected, and fell, pierced by about 20 spears of the pursuers.
"The body of this female was shortly afterwards burned to ashes by her own people, and the Bolagher natives
returned to their encampment, apparently satisfied with the revenge they had taken, and remained silently and
sullenly watching the almost inanimate body of the wounded female.
"When death took place, they again expressed the most violent and extravagant grief; they threw themselves
upon the ground, weeping and screaming at the height of their voices, lacerating their bodies and inflicting
upon themselves wounds upon their heads, from blows which they gave themselves with the leangville. About
an hour after the death of the young woman, the body was removed a few hundred yards into the bush by the
father and brother of the deceased; the remainder of the tribe following by one at a time, until they had all
joined what I imagined to be the usual funeral party. Having accompanied the body when it was removed, I
was then requested to return to my tent, which request I took no notice of. In a few minutes I was again
desired, rather sternly, and by impatient signs to go. I endeavoured to make them understand that I wished to
remain, and I sat down upon a tree close to where the body lay. The father of the deceased then came close up
to me, and pointed with his finger to his mouth, and then to the dead body. I was at this moment closely and
intensely scrutinized by the whole party. I at once guessed their meaning, and signified my intention to
remain, and, with as much indifference as I could assume, stretched myself upon the tree, and narrowly
watched their proceedings.
"With a flint they made an incision upon the breast, when a simultaneous shriek was given by the party, and
the same violent signs of grief were again evinced. After a short time the operation was again commenced,
and in a few minutes the body disembowelled.
"The scene which now took place was of the most revolting description; horror-stricken and utterly disgusted,
while obliged to preserve that equanimity of demeanour upon which I imagined the development of this
tragedy to depend, I witnessed the most fearful scene of ferocious cannibalism.
"The bowels and entire viscera having been disengaged from the body, were at first portioned out; but from
the impatience of some of the women to get at the liver, a general scramble took place for it, and it was
snatched in pieces, and, without the slightest process of cooking, was devoured with an eagerness and avidity,
a keen, fiendish expression of impatience for more, from which scene, a memory too tenacious upon this
subject will not allow me to escape; the kidneys and heart were in like manner immediately consumed, and as
Many methods of obtaining the various articles of food, are resorted to by the natives, some of these are very
simple; some exceedingly ingenious; whilst others require great tact and skill; and not a few exercise to their
fullest extent those qualities, which they possess so greatly, and prize so highly, such as quickness of sight,
readiness of hand, caution in arranging plans, judgment in directing them, patience in waiting for the result,
endurance in pursuing, and strength in holding fast.
Fish are procured in different ways. They are caught with weirs or dams, as already described; and also with
large seines made of string manufactured from the rush, and buoyed up with dry reeds, bound into bundles,
and weighted by stones tied to the bottom. This is used just in the same way as the European seine, being
either shot from a canoe, or set by swimming or wading, according to the depth of the water. Great numbers
of fish of various kinds, and often of a large size, are caught in this way. Fresh water turtles, varying in weight
from three to twelve pounds, are also taken in the same way, and are excellent eating.
Another kind of net (ngail-le) used in fishing is made of slender twine, and has a large mesh. It is long, but not
more than from two to three feet deep. A string is passed through the loops of the upper part, and is then
stretched across a lagoon, or any other sheet of still water, the upper part being nearly level with the surface of
the water, and the lower part dangling loose below, without weight. In setting it each extremity is fastened to a
pole or spear, stuck firmly in the mud to keep it in its place, whilst a third pole is occasionally put in the
middle. A few dry reeds are sometimes fastened at intervals to the line, running through the upper part to
prevent the net from sinking too low. When set, the native either remains by it to take the fish out as they are
caught, or leaves it there all night. The fish swimming about the lagoon, or sporting near the surface, strike
against the net, and get their heads fast in the meshes. The net swinging loose, yields to their pressure, and
entangles them the more as they struggle to extricate themselves from it. This is a most destructive mode of
catching fish, and generally secures the finest and largest.
Fish are sometimes taken in another way. A party of natives proceed to a lagoon, or lake of still water, each
carrying in his hand a small net (ken-de-ran-ko) of a semi-oval shape, about twenty inches long, from seven to
nine inches across, and from five to seven inches deep. This net is kept in shape by a thin hoop of wood
running round it in the upper part. With this the native dives to the bottom, and searches among the weeds
until he sees a fish; he then cautiously places the net under it, and, rising suddenly to the surface, holds his
victim at arm's length above his head; and then biting it to kill it, he throws it on the shore and dives down
again for another.
The natives are very skilful in this mode of fishing, and it is an interesting sight to see several of them in the
water diving together, and exerting themselves against each other in their efforts to catch the best fish, whilst
the affrighted inhabitants of the water swim wildly and confusedly about, seeking shelter in the mud and
Another method of diving with the net is conducted on a larger scale. The net itself is made of strong twine,
from six to eight feet long, oval at the top, about two feet across, and two deep. It is looped to a wooden hoop
or bow, with a strong string drawn tightly across the two ends of the bow, and passed through the loops of the
straight side of the net. With this two natives dive together under the cliffs which confine the waters of the
Murray, each holding one end of the bow. They then place it before any hole or cavity there may be in the
rocks beneath the surface, with the size, shape, and position of which they have by previous experience
become well acquainted; the terrified fish is then driven into the net and secured. Fishes varying from twenty
to seventy pounds are caught in this way. It is only, however, at particular seasons of the year, when the
female fish are seeking for a place to deposit their spawn that this mode of fishing can be adopted.
Other kinds of hoop-nets are used for catching fish in shallow waters, or for taking the shrimp, and a small
fish like the white-bait, but they need not be particularly described.
The next principal mode of procuring fish is by spearing them, and even this is performed in a variety of
ways, according to the season of the year, the description of fish to be taken, and the peculiarities of the place
where they are found. In the shallow waters upon the sea-coast the native wades with his spear and
throwing-stick, and follows the windings of the fish with singular rapidity and skill, rarely missing his aim
where he has an opportunity of striking.
In the larger rivers, when the waters are low and clear, a party of natives varying in numbers from five to forty
plunge in with their spears, which for the purpose are made of hard wood, with smooth, sharp points, and
about six feet long. Forming themselves into a large semicircle in the water, they all dive down,
simultaneously, with their weapons, accompanied sometimes by a young man, a few yards in advance of the
middle of the party, and without a spear. For a considerable time they remain under water, and then, if
successful, gradually emerge, and deliver the fish that have been speared, to their friends on the shore. If
unsuccessful they swim a few yards further down, and dive again with their weapons. And thus they
frequently go on for a mile or two, until they are either tired or satisfied with their success. I have known a
party of thirty natives kill seven or eight fish in the course of an hour, none of which were under fifteen
pounds, whilst some of them were much larger.
The regularity with which they keep their relative positions, notwithstanding the current of the river, and the
dexterity and order with which they dive under the water, are truly surprising to a person who witnesses them
for the first time.
At the period of floods, and when they have nearly attained their height, and the young reeds and rushes begin
to shew themselves above the surface of the water, near the bank of rivers or of lagoons formed by the floods
in the alluvial flats behind, another method of spearing fish is practised from a canoe (mun) made out of a
solid sheet of the bark of the gum-tree (eucalyptus).
To these reeds the fish are very fond of resorting, probably to feed upon the insects that are found upon the
tender leaves; in moving about from one place to another they strike against the reeds, and produce a vibration
in the tops above the water; this indicates to the native, who is sailing stealthily along in his canoe, the exact
place where they are passing, and suddenly raising his arm with great energy he strikes forcibly among the
reeds with his spear, without letting it go out of his hand. If the first blow does not succeed, it is rapidly
repeated, and seldom fails in securing a prize. When a large fish is speared, it is pressed downwards to the
ground, and the native leaps out of his canoe and dives to the bottom to secure it. The spear (moo-ar-roo) used
in this method of fishing varies from ten to sixteen feet in length, and is made of pine, pliant, and of nearly a
uniform thickness; it is about an inch and a half in diameter, and has two short pointed pieces of hard wood
It is used too for spearing fish by night, which is by far the most interesting method of any.
Having previously prepared his canoe, straightened his spear, and hardened and sharpened the points of the
prongs, the native breaks up his fire-wood in small pieces, and loads his canoe with a stock calculated to last
the time he intends to be absent. An oval piece of bark, about three feet long and two broad, is then coated
over with wet mud and placed in the stern of the canoe, on a framework of sticks. One or two sticks are stuck
upright in the mud, and others placed around them in the form of a cone. A fire is then put underneath, and the
native, stepping into the bow of his canoe, pushes steadily into the stream, and commences his nocturnal
employment. The wood of which the fire is made is of a particular kind, and, as only one description of tree
will answer, it has frequently to be brought from a considerable distance. It is obtained among the brush of the
table-land stretching behind the valley of the Murray, on either side, and its peculiarities are that it is light,
brittle, and resinous, emitting when burning a most agreeable fragrance and a powerful and brilliant light,
almost wholly free from smoke.
Two men usually accompany each canoe, one to attend to the fire, and keep it always burning brightly, and
the other to guide the canoe and spear the fish. As soon as the fire begins to blaze up the scene becomes most
beautiful. The low black looking piece of bark floats noiselessly down the middle of the stream, or stealthily
glides under the frowning cliffs, now lit up by a brilliant light. In the bow is seen the dark, naked, but graceful
form of the savage, standing firm and erect, and scarcely seeming to move, as with the slightest motion of his
arms he guides the frail canoe. His spear is grasped in his hand, whilst his whole attitude and appearance
denote the most intense vigilance and attention. Suddenly you see his arm uplifted, and the weapon
descending with the rapidity of thought, a splash is seen, a struggle heard, and a fish is slowly and cautiously
drawn towards the canoe pierced through with the spear. If it is a large one, the native at once plunges into the
water, still retaining his hold of the spear, and soon reappears with the trophy in his arms.
Among the rocks under the cliffs, or among logs or roots of trees, or on a clayey bottom, large fresh-water
lobsters (poo-ta-ron-ko) are procured in the same way, weighing from two to four pounds each, and of a most
delicate and excellent flavour. I have frequently been out with a single native, and seen him spear from ten to
sixteen of these in an hour or two.
It has a singular and powerful effect upon the imagination, to witness at midnight a fleet of these canoes,
gliding about in the distance like so many balls of fire, imparting a still deeper shade to the gloom of darkness
which surrounds the spectator, and throwing an air of romance on the whole scene. Occasionally in travelling
at night, and coming suddenly upon the river from the scrub behind, I have been dazzled and enchanted with
the fairy sight that has burst upon me. The waters have been alive with brilliant fires, moving to and fro in
every direction, like meteors from a marsh, and like those too, rapidly and inexplicably disappearing when the
footsteps of strangers are heard approaching.
A few other methods of catching fish are sometimes resorted to, such as stirring up the mud in stagnant ponds,
and taking the fish when they come up almost choked to the surface. Groping with their hands or with boughs,
etc. etc.
There is also a particular season of the year (about September), when in the larger rivers the fish become ill or
diseased, and lie floating on the surface unable to descend, or drift down dead with the current. Fishes
weighing nearly eighty pounds are sometimes taken in this way. The natives are always looking out for
opportunities of procuring food so easily, and never hesitate to eat any fish, although they may have been dead
for some time.
I have never seen the natives use hooks in fishing of their own manufacture, nor do I believe that they ever
make any, though they are glad enough to get them from Europeans.
The large fresh-water lobster is sometimes procured by diving, in which case the females are generally
employed, as the weather is cold, and night is the best time to procure them. It is extraordinary to see a party
of women plunge into the water on a cold dark night, and swim and dive about amongst logs, stumps, roots,
and weeds without ever hurting themselves, and seldom failing to obtai the object of their search.
Turtle are procured in the same way, but generally by the men, and in the day time.
Muscles of a very large kind are also got by diving. The women whose duty it is to collect these, go into the
water with small nets (len-ko) hung round their necks, and diving to the bottom pick up as many as they can,
put them into their bags, and rise to the surface for fresh air, repeating the operation until their bags have been
filled. They have the power of remaining for a long time under the water, and when they rise to the surface for
air, the head and sometimes the mouth only is exposed. A stranger suddenly coming to the river when they
were all below, would be puzzled to make out what the black objects were, so frequently appearing and
disappearing in the water.
Cray-fish of the small kind (u-kod-ko) weighing from four to six ounces are obtained by the women wading
into the water as already described, or by men wading and using a large bow-net, called a "wharro," which is
dragged along by two or three of them close to the bottom where the water is not too deep.
Frogs are dug out of the ground by the women, or caught in the marshes, and used in every stage from the
tadpole upwards.
Rats are also dug out of the ground, but they are procured in the greatest numbers and with the utmost facility
when the approach of the floods in the river flats compels them to evacuate their domiciles. A variety is
procured among the scrubs under a singular pile or nest which they make of sticks, in the shape of a hay-cock,
three or four feet high and many feet in circumference. A great many occupy the same pile and are killed with
sticks as they run out.
Snakes, lizards and other reptiles are procured among the rocks or in the scrubs. Grubs are got out of the
gum-tree into which they eat their way, as also out of the roots of the mimosa, the leaves of the zamia, the
trunk of the xanthorra, and a variety of other plants and shrubs.
One particularly large white grub, and a great bon-bouche to the natives, is procured out of the ground. It is
about four inches long and half an inch in thickness, and is obtained by attaching a thin narrow hook of hard
wood to the long, wiry shoots of the polygonum, and then pushing this gently down the hole through which
the grub has burrowed into the earth until it is hooked. Grubs are procured at a depth of seven feet in this way
without the delay or trouble of digging.
Moths are procured as before described; or the larger varieties are caught at nights whilst flying about.
Fungi are abundant, and of great variety. Some are obtained from the surface of the ground, others below it,
and others again from the trunks and boughs of trees.
Roots of all kinds are procured by digging, one of the most important being that of the flag or cooper's reed,
which grows in marshes or alluvial soils that are subject to periodical inundations. This is used more or less at
all seasons of the year, but is best after the floods have retired and the tops have become decayed and been
burnt off. The root is roasted in hot ashes, and chewed, when it affords a nutritious and pleasant farinaceous
food.
The thick pulpy leaf of the mesembryanthemum is in general use in all parts of Australia which I have visited,
and is eaten as a sort of relish with almost every other kind of food. That which grows upon the elevated table
lands is preferred to that which is found in the valleys. It is selected when the full vigour of the plant begins to
decline and the tips of the leaves become red, but before the leaf is at all withered. The fruit is used both when
first ripe and also after it has become dried up and apparently withered. In each case it has an agreeable
flavour and is much prized by the natives.
Many other descriptions of fruits and berries are made use of in different parts of the continent, the chief of
which, so far as their use has come under my own observation, are--
1. A kind of fruit called in the Moorunde dialect "ketango," about the size and shape of a Siberian crab, but
rounder. When this is ripe, it is of a deep red colour, and consists of a solid mealy substance, about the eighth
of an inch in thickness, enclosing a large round stone, which, upon being broken, yields a well-flavoured
kernel. The edible part of the fruit has an agreeable acid taste, and makes excellent puddings or preserves, for
which purpose it is now extensively used by Europeans. The shrub on which this grows, is very elegant and
graceful, and varies from four to twelve feet in height. [Note 71: A species of fusanus.] When in full bearing,
nothing can exceed its beauty, drooping beneath its crimson load.
Another shrub found in the scrubs, may sometimes be mistaken for this, as it bears in appearance a similar
fruit; but on being tasted, it is bitter and nauseous. This in the Murray dialect is called "netting." The natives
prepare it by baking it in an oven, which takes the bitter taste away. The "netting" is earlier in season than the
"ketango."
2. A berry about the size and shape of a large sloe, but with a smaller stone; conical in shape, and rounded at
the large end. This fruit is juicy and saline, though not disagreeable in taste. There are several varieties of it,
which when ripe are of a black, red, or yellow colour. The black is the best. The bush upon which it grows is a
salsolaceous bramble [Note 72: Nitraria Australis], and is found in large quantities on the saline flats,
bordering some parts of the Murrumbidgee and Murray rivers; and along the low parts of the southern coast,
immediately behind the ridges bounding the sea shore. It is a staple article of food in its season, among the
natives of those districts where it abounds, and is eaten by them raw, stone and all.
3. A small berry or currant, called by the natives of Moorunde "eertapko," about the size of No. 2. shot. When
ripe it is red, and of an agreeable acid flavour. It grows upon a low creeping tap-rooted plant, of a salsolaceous
character, found in the alluvial flats of the Murray, among the polygonum brushes, and in many other places.
A single plant will spread over an area of many yards in diameter, covering the dry and arid ground with a
close, soft, and velvety carpet in the heat of summer, at which time the fruit is in perfection. To collect so
small a berry with facility, and in abundance, the natives cut a rounded tray of thin bark, two or three feet
long, and six or eight inches wide, over this they lift up the plant, upon which the fruit grows, and shake the
berries into it. When a sufficiency has been collected, the berries are skilfully tossed into the air, and separated
from the leaves and dirt. The natives are very fond of this fruit, which affords them an inexhaustible resource
for many weeks. In an hour a native could collect more than he could use in a day.
The other sorts of fruits and berries are numerous and varied, but do not merit particular description.
"Ascending a steep hill, some four miles further on, we passed through a bunya scrub, and for the first time
had an opportunity of examining this noble tree more closely. It raises its majestic head above every other tree
in the forest, and must, therefore, frequently reach the height of 250 feet; the trunk is beautifully formed,
being as straight as an arrow, and perfectly branchless for above two-thirds of its height; branches then strike
off, nearly at right angles from the trunk, forming circles which gradually diminish in diameter till they reach
the summit, which terminates in a single shoot; the foliage shining, dark green, the leaves acutely pointed and
lanceolate, with large green cones, the size of a child's head, hanging from the terminal branches in the
fruiting season (January). It is, too, very remarkable that the bunya tree, according to the natives, is nowhere
to be met with but in these parts; it is, however, there is no doubt, a species of the araucaria genus, well known
in South America; the timber, when green, is white, fine grained and very tough, but whether it retains these
qualities when dry, has not yet been determined. The Aborigines are particularly fond of the bunya nuts,
which are as large as a full sized almond, including the shell, and, in good seasons, come from a distance of
100 or 200 miles to feast upon them."]
Bark from the roots of trees and shrubs is roasted, and then pounded between two stones for use.
Gums exude from the trees on which they are procured. These are generally varieties of the Mimosa.
Manna exudes in great abundance from the tree already mentioned, as constituting the firewood which the
natives use in fishing by night. It is of a mottled red or brown colour, of a firm consistency and sweet taste,
resembling exactly in appearance, flavour, and colour, the manna used medicinally in Europe.
Another variety is yielded by the Eucalyptus mannifera and is found early in the morning under the tree,
scattered on the ground. This is beautifully white and delicate, resembling flakes of snow.
Honey is procured by steeping the cones of the Banksia or other melliferous flowers in water. It is procured
pure from the hives of the native bees, found in cavities of rocks, and the hollow branches of trees. The
method of discovering the hive is ingenious. Having caught one of the honey bees, which in size exceeds very
little the common house fly, the native sticks a piece of feather or white down to it with gum, and then letting
it go, sets off after it as fast as he can: keeping his eye steadily fixed upon the insect, he rushes along like a
madman, tumbling over trees and bushes that lie in his way, but rarely losing sight of his object, until
conducted to its well-filled store, he is amply paid for all his trouble. The honey is not so firm as that of the
English bee, but is of very fine flavour and quality.
White ants are dug in great numbers out of their nests in the ground, which are generally found in the scrubs.
They are a favourite food of the natives in the spring of the year. The females only are used, and at a time just
before depositing their eggs. They are separated from the dirt that is taken up with them, by being thrown into
the air, and caught again upon a trough of bark.
The eggs of birds are extensively eaten by the natives, being chiefly confined to those kinds that leave the nest
at birth, as the leipoa, the emu, the swan, the goose, the duck, etc. But of others, where the young remain some
time in the nest after being hatched, the eggs are usually left, and the young taken before they can fly. The
eggs of the leipoa, or native pheasant, are found in singular-looking mounds of sand, thrown up by the bird in
the midst of the scrubs, and often measuring several yards in circumference. The egg is about the size of the
goose egg, but the shell is extremely thin and fragile. The young are hatched by the heat of the sand and
leaves, with which the eggs are covered. Each egg is deposited separately, and the number found in one nest
varies from one to ten.
The eggs of the emu are rather smaller than those of the ostrich. They are of a dark green colour and the shell
is very thick. They are deposited by the bird almost upon the ground, in the vicinity of a few bushes, or tufts
of grass, and usually in a country that is tolerably open; a great many eggs are found in one nest, so that it is
generally looked upon by the natives as a great prize.
Eggs are eaten in all stages. I have even seen rotten ones roasted, and devoured with great relish.
Kangaroos are speared, netted, or caught in pit falls. Four methods of spearing them are practised. 1st. A
native travelling with his family through the woods, when he sees a kangaroo feeding or sleeping, will steal
silently and cautiously upon it, keeping, as he advances, a tree or shrub between himself and the animal, or
holding up before him, if he be in an open place, a large branch of a tree, until sufficiently near to throw the
fatal weapon. 2ndly. Two natives get upon the track of a kangaroo, which they follow up perseveringly even
for two or three days, sleeping upon it at night, and renewing their pursuit in the morning, until, at last, the
wearied animal, fairly tired out by its relentless pursuers, is no longer able to fly before them, and at last
becomes a prize to the perseverance of the hunters. 3rdly. A small hut of reeds is made near the springs, or
water holes, in those districts, where water is scarce; and in this, or in the top of a tree, if there be one near, the
native carefully conceals himself, and patiently waits until his game comes to drink, when he is almost sure to
strike it with his spear, seldom quitting his lurking place without an ample remuneration for his confinement.
4thly. A large party of men go out early in the morning, generally armed with barbed spears, and take their
stations upon ground that has been previously fixed upon in a large semicircle. The women and children, with
a few men, then beat up, and fire the country for a considerable extent, driving the game before them in the
direction of the persons who are lying in wait, and who gradually contract the space they had been spread
over, until they meet the other party, and then closing their ranks in a ring upon the devoted animals, with
wild cries and shouts they drive them back to the centre as they attempt to escape, until, at last, in the conflict,
many of them are slaughtered. At other times, the ground is so selected as to enable them to drive the game
over a precipice, or into a river, where it is easily taken. Netting the kangaroo does not require so large a
party; it is done by simply setting a strong net (mugn-ko) across the path, which the animal is accustomed to
frequent, and keeping it in its place by long sticks, with a fork upon the top. A few natives then shew
themselves in a direction opposite to that of the net, and the kangaroo being alarmed, takes to his usual path,
gets entangled in the meshes, and is soon despatched by persons who have been lying in wait to pounce upon
him.
Pitfalls are also dug to catch the kangaroo around the springs, or pools of water they are accustomed to
frequent. These are covered lightly over with small sticks, boughs, etc. and the animal going to drink, hops
upon them, and falls into the pit without being able to get out again. I have only known this method of taking
the kangaroo practised in Western Australia, between Swan River and King George's Sound,
The emu is taken similarly to the kangaroo. It is speared in the first, third, and fourth methods I have
described. It is also netted like the kangaroo, indeed with the same net, only that the places selected for setting
The emu is frequently netted by night through a peculiarity in the habits of the bird, that is well-known to the
natives, and which is, that it generally comes back every night to sleep on one spot for a long time together.
Having ascertained where the sleeping place is, the natives set the net at some little distance away, and then
supplying themselves with fire-sticks, form a line from each end of the net, diverging in the distance. The
party may now be considered as forming two sides of a triangle, with the net at the apex and the game about
the middle of the base; as soon as the sides are formed, other natives arrange themselves in a line at the base,
and put the bird up. The emu finding only one course free from fire-sticks, viz. that towards the net or apex of
the triangle, takes that direction, and becomes ensnared.
Opossums are of various kinds and sizes. They inhabit the hollows of trees, or sometimes the tops, where they
make a house for themselves with boughs. They are also found in the holes of rocks. They are hunted both in
the day-time and by moon-light. During the day the native, as he passes along, examines minutely the bark of
the trees, to see whether any marks have been left by the claws of the animal in climbing on the previous
night. If he finds any he is sure that an opossum is concealed, either in that tree or one adjoining. The way he
distinguishes whether the marks are recently made or otherwise is, by examining the appearance of the bark
where the wound is, if fresh it is white, has rough edges, or has grains of sand adhering to it; if otherwise it is
dry and brown, and free from loose particles. Having ascertained that an opossum has recently been there, he
then ascends the tree to look for it; this, if the tree be in a leaning position, or has a rough bark, is not difficult
to him, and he rarely requires any other aid than his hands and feet; but if the bark be smooth, and the tree
straight, or of very large dimensions, he requires the assistance of his stone hatchet, or of a strong
sharp-pointed stick, flattened on one side near the point (called in the Adelaide dialect, "Wadna," in that of
Moorunde "Ngakko,"); with this instrument a notch is made in the bark about two feet above the ground. In
this the small toes of the left foot are placed, the left arm is employed in clasping the trunk of the tree, and the
right in cutting another notch for the right foot, about two feet above the first; but a little to one side of it, the
wadna or ngakko is now stuck firmly in the bark above, and serves to enable him to raise the body whilst
gaining the second notch, into which the ball of the great toe of the right foot is placed, and the implement
liberated to make a third step on the left side, and so on successively until the tree is ascended. The descent is
made in the same manner, by clasping the tree, and supporting the feet in the notches. The principle of
climbing in the way described, appears to consist in always having three points of contact with the tree, either
two arms and one leg, or two legs and one arm.
Having got up the tree, the native proceeds to search for any holes there may be in its trunk, or among the
boughs; these vary from one foot to nine, or more, in depth, for the whole trunk itself is sometimes hollow. To
ascertain in which hole the opossum is, the native drops in a pebble or a piece of bark, or a broken bit of stick,
and then applying his ear to the outside, listens for the rustling motion made by the animal in shifting its
position, when disturbed by what has been dropped upon it. A stick is sometimes made use of, if the hole be
not very deep, for the same purpose, after inserting it in the hole, and twisting the rough end round and
withdrawing it, he looks to see if any fur is left on the point, if so, the animal is there, but if the point of the
stick shews no fur, he goes to the next hole or tree, and so on until he finds it.
If not very far in the hole the native puts in his arm, and draws it out by the tail, striking its head violently
against the tree to prevent its biting him, as soon as it is clear of the orifice; if the hole be deep, the furthest
point to which the animal can recede is ascertained, and an opening made near it with whatever implement he
may be using. If the whole trunk of the tree, or a large portion of it be hollow, a fire is made in the lower
opening, which soon drives out the game.
When opossums are hunted by moonlight, the native dog is useful in scenting them along the ground where
they sometimes feed, and in guiding the native to the tree they have ascended, when alarmed at his approach.
They are then either knocked down with sticks or the tree is ascended as in the day time.
Flying squirrels are procured in the same way as opossums. The sloth, which is an animal as large as a good
sized monkey, is also caught among the branches of the larger scrub-trees, among which it hides itself; but it
is never found in holes.
Wallabies are of many kinds, and are killed in various ways. By hunting with bwirris, by nets, by digging out
of the ground; the larger sorts, as rock wallabies, by spearing, and several kinds by making runs, into which
they are driven. In hunting with bwirris (a short heavy stick with a knob at one end) a party of natives go out
into the scrub and beat the bushes in line, if any game gets up, the native who sees it, gives a peculiar
"whir-rr" as a signal for the others to look out, and the animal is at once chased and bwirris thrown at him in
all directions, the peculiar sound of the "whir-rr" always guiding them to the direction he has taken. It rarely
happens that an animal escapes if the party of natives be at all numerous.
In netting the wallabies, a party of seven or eight men go in advance, with each a net of from twenty to forty
feet long, and when they arrive near the runs, usually made use of by these animals, a favourable spot is
selected, and the nets set generally in a line and nearly together, each native concealing himself near his own
net. The women and children who, in the mean time had been making a considerable circuit, now begin to
beat amongst the bushes with the wind, shouting and driving the wallabies before them towards the nets,
where they are caught and killed.
Other species of the wallabie burrow in the ground like rabbits, and are dug out. The large rock-wallabies are
speared by the natives creeping upon them stealthily among the rugged rocks which they frequent, on the
summits of precipitous heights which have craggy or overhanging cliffs.
In making runs for taking the wallabie, the natives break the branches from the bushes, and laying them one
upon another, form, through the scrubs, two lines of bush fence, diverging from an apex sometimes to the
extent of several miles, and having at intervals large angles formed by the fence diverging. At the principal
apex and at all the angles or corners the bushes are tied up, and a hole in the fence left like the run of a hare.
At each of these a native is stationed with his bwirris, and the women then beating up the country, from the
base of the triangle drive up the game, which finding themselves stopped by the bush fence on either side, run
along in search of an opening until the first angle presents itself, when they try to escape by the run, and are
knocked on the head by the native guarding it.
Native companions and swans are sometimes speared or killed with bwirris; the latter are also caught easily in
the water holes or lakes when moulting, as they are then unable to fly. Pelicans are caught in nets or whilst
asleep in the water, by natives wading in and seizing them by the legs.
Wild dogs are speared, but young ones are often kept and tamed, to assist in hunting, in which they are very
useful. The wombat is driven to his hole with dogs at night, and a fire being lighted inside, the mouth is closed
with stones and earth. The animal being by this means suffocated, is dug out at convenience.
Birds are killed on the wing, with bwirris, or whilst resting on the ground, or in the water, or upon branches of
trees. They are also taken by spearing, by snaring, by noosing, and by netting. In spearing them the natives
make use of a very light reed spear (kiko), which is pointed with hard wood, and projected when used, with
the nga-waonk or throwing stick. They resort to the lagoons or river flats, when flooded, and either wading or
Ducks and teal are caught by snaring, which is practised in the following manner. After ascertaining where
there is a shelving bank to any of the lagoons, which is frequented by these birds, and upon which there is
grass, or other food that they like near the edges, the natives get a number of strong reeds, bend them in the
middle, and force the two ends of each into the ground, about seven inches apart, forming a number of
triangles, with their uppermost extremities about five or six inches from the ground. From these, strings are
suspended with slip nooses, and when a sufficient number are set, the natives go away, to let the ducks come
up to feed. This they soon do; and whilst poking their heads about in every direction a great many push them
through the snares and get hung.
Noosing waterfowl is another general and very successful mode of taking them. It is performed by a native,
with a tat-tat-ko, or long rod, tapering like a fishing rod, but longer, and having a piece of string at the end,
with a slip noose working over the pliant twig which forms the last joint of the rod. [Note 74: Plate 4, fig. 1.
(not reproduced in this etext)] This being prepared, and it having been ascertained where the birds are, the
native binds a quantity of grass or weeds around his head, and then taking his long instrument, plunges into
the water and swims slowly and cautiously towards them, whilst they see nothing but a tuft of grass or weeds
coming floating towards them, of which they take no notice, until coming close upon them he gently raises the
tapering end of the instrument, and carefully putting the noose over the head of the bird, draws it under water
towards him. After taking it out of the noose, he tucks its head in his belt, or lets it float on the water, whilst
he proceeds to catch another, or as many more as he can before the birds take the alarm at the struggles of
their companions, and fly away. A windy day is generally selected for this employment, when the water is
ruffled by waves. On such occasions a skilful native will secure a great many birds.
Netting birds remains to be described, and is the most destructive mode of taking them of any that is practised.
Geese, ducks, teal, widgeons, shags, pelicans, pigeons, and others are procured in this way. The method
adopted is as follows:--a large square or oblong net, (kue-rad-ko) from thirty to sixty feet broad, and from
twenty to forty deep, is formed by lacing together pieces of old fishing nets, or any others, made of light
twine, that they may have. A strong cord is then passed through the meshes of one end, and tied at both
extremes of the net. The natives then go down to a lagoon of moderate width, where two tall trees may be
standing opposite to each other on different sides, or they select an opening of a similar kind among the trees
on the bank of the river, through which the ducks, or other birds, are in the habit of passing when flying
between the river and the lagoons. An old man ascends each of the trees, and over the topmost branch of both
lowers the end of a strong cord passing through the net. The other end is tied near the root of each tree, and
serves for the native, who is stationed there, to raise or lower the net as it may be required. When set, the
ropes are hauled tight, and the net dangles in the air between the two trees, hanging over the lagoon, or dry
passage, as the case may be. All being ready, a native is left holding each end of the rope, and others are
stationed at convenient places near, with little round pieces of bark in their hands to throw at the birds, and
drive them onwards as they approach the net. The women are then sent to put the birds up, and they come
flying through the open space towards the net, not dreaming of the evil that awaits them; as they approach
nearer, the two natives at the trees utter a shrill whistle, resembling the note of the hawk, upon which the
flock, which usually consists of ducks, lower their flight at once, and proceeding onwards, strike full against
the net, which is instantly lowered by the men attending to it, and the birds are left struggling in the water, or
on the ground, entangled in its meshes, whilst the natives are busy paddling in their canoes, or scampering
towards the net on the ground, to wring their necks off, and get the instrument of destruction raised again, to
be ready for the next flight that may come. Should the birds fly too high, or be inclined to take any other
direction, little pieces of bark are thrown above them, or across their path, by the natives stationed for that
As many as fifty birds are taken in a single haul. I have myself, with the aid of a native, caught thirty-three,
and many more would have been got, but that the net was old, and the birds broke through it before they could
be all killed. On other occasions, I have been out with the natives, where a party of five or six have procured
from twenty to thirty ducks, on an average, daily, for many days successively. In these occupations the natives
make use of a peculiar shrill whistle to frighten down the birds; it is produced by pulling out the under lip with
the fore-finger and thumb, and pressing it together, whilst the tongue is placed against the groove, or hollow
thus formed, and the breath strongly forced through. Whistling is also practised in a variety of other ways, and
has peculiar sounds well known to the natives, which indicate the object of the call. It is used to call attention,
to point out that game is near, to make each other aware of their respective positions in a wooded country, or
to put another on his guard that an enemy is near, etc., etc.
Such is an outline of some of the kinds of food used by the natives, and the modes of procuring it as practised
in various parts of Australia where I have been. There is an endless variety of other articles, and an infinite
number of minute differences in the ways of procuring them, which it is unnecessary to enter upon in a work
which professes to give only a general account of the Aborigines, their manners, habits, and customs, and not
a full or complete history, which could only be compiled after the observation of many years devoted
exclusively to so comprehensive a subject.
In the preparation and cooking of their food, and in the extent to which this is carried, there are almost as
many differences as there are varieties of food. Having no vessels capable of resisting the action of fire, the
natives are unacquainted with the simple process of boiling. Their culinary operations are therefore confined
to broiling on the hot coals, baking in hot ashes, and roasting, or steaming in ovens. The native oven is made
by digging a circular hole in the ground, of a size corresponding to the quantity of food to be cooked. It is then
lined with stones in the bottom, and a strong fire made over them, so as to heat them thoroughly, and dry the
hole. As soon as the stones are judged to be sufficiently hot, the fire is removed, and a few of the stones taken,
and put inside the animal to be roasted if it be a large one. A few leaves, or a handful of grass, are then
sprinkled over the stones in the bottom of the oven, on which the animal is deposited, generally whole, with
hot stones, which had been kept for that purpose, laid upon the top of it. It is covered with grass, or leaves,
and then thickly coated over with earth, which effectually prevents the heat from escaping. Bark is sometimes
used to cover the meat, instead of grass or leaves, and is in some respects better adapted for that purpose,
being less liable to let dirt into the oven. I have seen meat cooked by the natives in this manner, which, when
taken out, looked as clean and nicely roasted as any I ever saw from the best managed kitchen.
If the oven is required for steaming food, a process principally applied to vegetables and some kinds of fruits,
the fire is in the same way removed from the heated stones, but instead of putting on dry grass or leaves, wet
grass or water weeds are spread over them. The vegetables tied up in small bundles are piled over this in the
central part of the oven, wet grass being placed above them again, dry grass or weeds upon the wet, and earth
over all. In putting the earth over the heap, the natives commence around the base, gradually filling it
upwards. When about two-thirds covered up all round, they force a strong sharp-pointed stick in three or four
different places through the whole mass of grass weeds and vegetables, to the bottom of the oven. Upon
withdrawing the stick, water is poured through the holes thus made upon the hissing stones below, the top
grass is hastily closed over the apertures and the whole pile as rapidly covered up as possible to keep in the
steam. The gathering vegetable food, and in fact the cooking and preparing of food generally, devolves upon
the women, except in the case of an emu or a kangaroo, or some of the larger and more valuable animals,
when the men take this duty upon themselves.
In preparing the food for the cooking process a variety of forms are observed. In most animals, as the
opossum, wallabie, dog, kangaroo, etc. the the bones of the legs are invariably broken, and the fur is singed
off; a small aperture is made in the belly, the entrails withdrawn, and the hole closed with a wooden skewer,
to keep in the gravy whilst roasting. The entrails of all animals, birds, and fishes, are made use of, and are
frequently eaten whilst the animal itself is being prepared. Most birds have the feathers pulled or singed off,
they are then thrown on the fire for a moment or two and when warm are withdrawn, skinned and the skin
eaten. The meat is now separated on each side of the breast bone, the limbs are disjointed and thrown back,
and the bird is placed upon the fire, and soon cooked, from the previous dissection it had undergone, and from
hot coals being put above it.
The smaller fish and reptiles are simply thrown upon the fire, sometimes gutted, at other times not. The larger
fish are divided into three pieces, in the following manner. The fish is laid on its side, and a longitudinal cut
made from the head to within three or four inches of the tail, just above where the ribs are joined to the back
bone, these are separated by a sharp pointed stick, and the same done on the other side; a transverse incision is
then made near the root of the tail, the gills are separated from the head, the fleshy part covering the back
dissected from one to two inches thick, over the whole surface left between the longitudinal cuts that had been
made in the sides, and extending from the head to the transverse incision near the tail. The divisions then
consist of three pieces, one comprising the head, backbone, and tail, another the fleshy part that covered the
back, and the third the belly and sides. The last is the most prized of the three. This method of dividing the
fish is well adapted for ensuring rapid preparation in the process of cooking; it is also well suited for
satisfying the respective owners and claimants; the three pieces being, if not quite equal in size, sufficiently so
for the purpose of partition.
There are many usages in force among the natives respecting the particular kinds of food allowed to be eaten
at different ages; restrictions and limitations of many kinds are placed upon both sexes at different stages of
life. What is proper to be eaten at one period, is disallowed at another, and vice versa. And although laws of
this nature appear to be in force throughout the whole continent, there appear to be occasional differences of
custom as to restriction in regard to both food and age. It also appears that there are more restrictions placed
upon the females, until past the age of child-bearing, than upon the males.
Infants are not often weaned until between two and three years old; but during this time any food is given to
them which they can eat, except those kind of vegetables which are likely to disagree with them. No
restrictions are placed upon very young children of either sex, a portion being given to them of whatever food
their parents may have. About nine or ten years appears to be the age at which limitations commence. Boys
are now forbidden to eat the red kangaroo, or the female or the young ones of the other kinds; the musk duck,
the white crane, the bandicoot, the native pheasant, (leipoa, meracco), the native companion, some kinds of
fungi, the old male and female opossum, a kind of wallabie (linkara), three kinds of fish (toor-rue, toitchock,
and boolye-a), the black duck, widgeon, whistling duck, shag (yarrilla), eagle, female water-mole (nee-witke),
two kinds of turtles (rinka and tung-kanka), and some other varieties of food.
When young men they are disallowed the black duck, the widgeon, the whistling duck, the emu, the eggs of
the emu, a fish called kalapko, the red kangaroo, the young of other kinds of kangaroo, if taken from the
pouch; a kind of shag called yarrilla, the snake (yarl-dakko), the white crane, the eagle, a kind of water-mole
(nee-witke), two kinds of turtle (rinka and tung-kanka), the musk-duck, the native dog, the large grub dug out
of the ground (ronk), a vegetable food called war-itch (being that the emu feeds upon), the native companion,
bandicoot, old male opossum, wallabie (linkara), coote, two fishes (toor-rue and toit-chock), etc. etc.
Married men, until from thirty-five to forty years of age, are still forbidden the red kangaroo, the young of any
kangaroo from the pouch, the fish kelapko, the shag yarrilla, the coote, the white crane, the turtle rinka, the
native companion, the eagle, etc.
Young females, before the breasts are fully developed, are disallowed the young of any of the kangaroo
species if taken from the pouch, the red kangaroo, the white crane, the bandicoot, the native companion, the
old male opossum, the wallabie (linkara), the shag (yarrilla), the eagle, etc.
Full grown young females are not allowed to eat the male opossum, the wallabie (linkara), the red kangaroo,
the fish kelapko, the black duck, the widgeon, the whistling duck, the coote, the native companion, two turtles
(rinka and tung-kanka), the emu, the emu's egg, the snake (yarl-dakko), cray-fish which may have deformed
claws, the female or the young from the pouch of any kangaroo, the musk duck, the white crane, the
bandicoot, the wild dog, two kinds of fish (toor-rue and toitchock), the shag (yarrilla), the water mole
(neewitke), the ground grub (ronk), the vegetable food eaten by the emu (war-itch), etc. When menstruating,
they are not allowed to eat fish of any kind, or to go near the water at all; it being one of their superstitions,
that if a female, in that state, goes near the water, no success can be expected by the men in fishing. Fish that
are taken by the men diving under the cliffs, and which are always females about to deposit their spawn, are
also forbidden to the native women.
Old men and women are allowed to eat anything, and there are very few things that they do not eat. Among
the few exceptions are a species of toad, and the young of the wombat, when very small, and before the hair is
well developed.
Chapter IV.
PROPERTY IN LAND
DWELLINGS
WEAPONS
IMPLEMENTS
GOVERNMENT
CUSTOMS
SOCIAL RELATIONS
MARRIAGE
NOMENCLATURE
It has generally been imagined, but with great injustice, as well as incorrectness, that the natives have no idea
of property in land, or proprietary rights connected with it. Nothing can be further from the truth than this
assumption, although men of high character and standing, and who are otherwise benevolently disposed
towards the natives, have distinctly denied this right, and maintained that the natives were not entitled to have
any choice of land reserved for them out of their own possessions, and in their respective districts.
In the public journals of the colonies the question has often been discussed, and the same unjust assertion put
forth. A single quotation will be sufficient to illustrate the spirit prevailing upon this point. It is from a letter
on the subject published in South Australian Register of the 1st August, 1840:--"It would be difficult to define
what conceivable proprietary rights were ever enjoyed by the miserable savages of South Australia, who never
"My Dear Friend,--In reply to the question which you proposed to me some time ago, in the course of
conversation in London, and of which you have reminded me in the letter I had the pleasure of receiving from
you yesterday, with the pamphlets and letters for America, viz.--'Whether the Aborigines of the Australian
continent have any idea of property in land,' I beg to answer most decidedly in the affirmative. It is well
known that these Aborigines in no instance cultivate the soil, but subsist entirely by hunting and fishing, and
on the wild roots they find in certain localities (especially the common fern), with occasionally a little wild
honey; indigenous fruits being exceedingly rare. The whole race is divided into tribes, more or less numerous,
according to circumstances, and designated from the localities they inhabit; for although universally a
wandering race with respect to places of habitation, their wanderings are circumscribed by certain
well-defined limits, beyond which they seldom pass, except for purposes of war or festivity. In short, every
tribe has its own district, the boundaries of which are well known to the natives generally; and within that
district all the wild animals are considered as much the property of the tribe inhabiting, or rather ranging on,
its whole extent, as the flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, that have been introduced into the country by
adventurous Europeans, are held by European law and usage the property of their respective owners. In fact,
as the country is occupied chiefly for pastoral purposes, the difference between the Aboriginal and the
European ideas of property in the soil is more imaginary than real, the native grass affording subsistence to
the kangaroos of the natives, as well as to the wild cattle of the Europeans, and the only difference indeed
being, that the former are not branded with a particular mark like the latter, and are somewhat wilder and
more difficult to catch. Nay, as the European regards the intrusion of any other white man upon the
CATTLE-RUN, of which European law and usage have made him the possessor, and gets it punished as a
trespass, the Aborigines of the particular tribe inhabiting a particular district, regard the intrusion of any other
tribe of Aborigines upon that district, for the purposes of kangaroo hunting, etc. as an intrusion, to be resisted
and punished by force of arms. In short, this is the frequent cause of Aboriginal, as it is of European wars;
man, in his natural state, being very much alike in all conditions--jealous of his rights, and exceedingly
pugnacious. It is true, the European intruders pay no respect to these Aboriginal divisions of the territory, the
"But particular districts are not merely the property of particular tribes; particular sections or portions of these
districts are universally recognised by the natives as the property of individual members of these tribes; and
when the owner of such a section or portion of territory (as I ascertained was the case at King George's Island)
has determined on burning off the grass on his land, which is done for the double purpose of enabling the
natives to take the older animals more easily, and to provide a new crop of sweeter grass for the rising
generation of the forest, not only all the other individuals of his own tribe, but whole tribes from other districts
are invited to the hunting party, and the feast and dance, or corrobory that ensue; the wild animals on the
ground being all considered the property of the owner of the land. I have often heard natives myself tell me, in
answer to my questions on the subject, who were the Aboriginal owners of particular tracts of land now held
by Europeans; and indeed this idea of property in the soil, FOR HUNTING PURPOSES, is universal among
the Aborigines. They seldom complain of the intrusion of Europeans; on the contrary, they are pleased at their
SITTING DOWN, as they call it, on their land: they do not perceive that their own circumstances are thereby
sadly altered for the worse in most cases; that their means of subsistence are gradually more and more limited,
and their numbers rapidly diminished: in short, in the simplicity of their hearts, they take the frozen adder in
their bosom, and it stings them to death. They look for a benefit or blessing from European intercourse, and it
becomes their ruin.
"If I had a little more leisure I would have written more at length, and in a style more worthy of your perusal;
but you may take it as certain, at all events, that the Aborigines of Australia HAVE an idea of property in the
soil in their native and original state, and that that idea is, in reality, not very different from that of the
European proprietors of sheep and cattle, by whom they have, in so many instances, been dispossessed,
without the slightest consideration of their rights or feelings.
"Indeed, the infinity of the native names of places, all of which are descriptive and appropriate, is of itself a
PRIMA FACIE evidence of their having strong ideas of property in the soil; for it is only where such ideas are
entertained and acted on, that we find, as is certainly the case in Australia, NULLUM SINE NOMINE
SAXUM.
The dwellings of the Aborigines are simple, of a very temporary character, and requiring but little skill or
labour to construct them. In the summer season, or when the weather is fine, they consist of little more than a
few bushes laid one upon the other, in the form of a semicircle, as a protection from the wind, for the head,
which is laid usually close up to this slight fence. In the winter, or in cold or wet weather, the semicircular
form is still preserved, but the back and sides are sheltered by branches raised upon one end, meeting at the
top in an arch, and supported by props in front, the convex part being always exposed to the wind. The sizes
of these huts depends upon the facilities that may be afforded for making them, the number of natives, and the
state of the weather.
[Note 75: "Travelled northerly for 20 miles; at evening encamped at Tarcone, adjacent to the station (then
being formed) of Drs. Bernard and Kilgour. The greater part of the servants at this establishment had been
convicts, they were in a state of great insubordination. My native attendants pointed out an extensive weir,
200 feet long and five feet high; they said it was the property of a family, and emphatically remarked, "that
"Left early, attended by Pevay, to reconnoitre the country. In the marshes numerous trenches were again met
with; these resembled more the works of civilized than of savage men; they were of considerable extent; one
continuous treble line measured 500 yards in length, two feet in width, and from 18 inches to two feet in
depth; these treble dikes led to extensive ramified watercourses; the whole covered an area of at least ten
acres, and must have been done at great cost of labour to the Aborigines, a convincing proof of their
persevering industry. These are the most interesting specimens of native art I had seen; thousands of yards had
been accomplished; the mountain streams were made to pass through them. In fishing, the natives use the
arabine or eel-pot of platted grass, from nine to twelve feet in length. On the elevated ground were some of the
largest ash-hills I had seen, and must have been the work of generations; one measured 31 yards in length, 29
in width, and two in height, with hollow cavities for the natives' bivouacs and camping places."--"Extract
from Mr. Robinson's Letter, copied from papers relative to Australian Aborigines, printed for the House of
Commons, August 1844, p. 240."]
Sometimes each married man will have a hut for himself, his wives, and family, including perhaps
occasionally his mother, or some other near relative. At other times, large long huts are constructed, in which,
from five to ten families reside, each having their own separate fire. Young unmarried men frequently unite in
parties of six or eight, and make a hut for themselves. The materials of which the huts are composed, are
generally small branches or boughs of trees, covered in wet weather with grass, or other similar material. At
other times, and especially if large, or made in wet weather, they are formed of thick solid logs of wood, piled
and arranged much in the same way as the lighter material, but presenting an appearance of durability that the
others do not possess. In this case they are generally well covered over with grass, creeping plants, or
whatever else may appear likely to render them waterproof. In travelling through the country, I have found
that where bushes or shrubs abounded, I could at any time in an hour or two, by working hard, make myself a
hut in which I could lie down, perfectly secure from any rain. The natives, of course, have much less difficulty
in doing this, from their great skill and constant practice. In many parts of New Holland that I have been in,
bark is almost exclusively used by the natives, for their huts; where it can be procured good it is better than
any thing else. I have frequently seen sheets of bark twelve feet long, and eight or ten feet wide, without a
single crack or flaw, in such cases one sheet would form a large and good hut; but even where it is of a far
inferior description, it answers, by a little system in the arrangement, better than almost any thing else.
Projecting, or overhanging rocks, caverns, hollows of trees, etc. etc., are also frequently made use of by the
natives for lodging houses in cold or wet weather. When hostile parties are supposed to be in the
neighbourhood, the natives are very cautious in selecting secret and retired places to sleep. They go up on the
high grounds, back among scrubs, or encamp in the hollows of watercourses, or where there are dense bushes
of polygonum, or close belts of reeds; the fires are very small on these occasions, and sometimes none are
made; you may thus have a large body of natives encamped very near you without being conscious of it. I
have been taken by a native to a camp of about twenty people in a dense belt of reeds, which I had gone close
by without being aware of their presence, although I could not have been more than three or four yards from
some of them when I passed.
It has already been remarked, that where many natives meet together, the arrangements of their respective huts
depends upon the direction they have come from. In their natural state many customs and restrictions exist,
Such is the custom requiring all boys and uninitiated young men to sleep at some distance from the huts of the
adults, and to remove altogether away in the morning as soon as daylight dawns, and the natives begin to
move about. This is to prevent their seeing the women, some of whom may be menstruating; and if looked
upon by the young males, it is supposed that dire results will follow. Strangers are by another similar rule
always required to get to their own proper place at the camp, by going behind and not in front of the huts. In
the same way, if young males meet a party of women going out to look for food, they are obliged to take a
circuit to avoid going near them. It is often amusing to witness the dilemma in which a young native finds
himself when living with Europeans, and brought by them into a position at variance with his prejudices on
this point. All the buildings of the natives are necessarily from their habits of a very temporary character,
seldom being intended for more than a few weeks' occupation, and frequently only for a few days. By this
time food is likely to become scarce, or the immediate neighbourhood unclean, and a change of locality is
absolutely unavoidable. When the huts are constructed, the ground is made level within, any little stumps of
bushes, or plants, stones, or other things being removed, and grass, reeds, or leaves of trees frequently
gathered and spread over the bottom, to form a dry and soft bed; this and their opossum cloak constitute the
greatest degree of luxury to which they aspire. Occasionally native men, in very cold weather, are both
without huts and clothing of any kind. In this case, many small fires are made (for the natives never make a
large one), by which they keep themselves warm. I have often seen single natives sleep with a fire at their
head, another at their feet, and one on either side, and as close as ever they could make them without burning
themselves; indeed, sometimes within a very few inches of their bodies.
The weapons of the natives are simple and rudimental in character, but varied in their kind and make,
according to the purposes for which they may be required, or the local circumstances of the district in which
they are used. The spear, which is the chief weapon of offence over all the known parts of the continent, is of
two kinds, one kind is used with the throwing stick, and the other is thrown out of the hand; of each there are
four varieties that I am acquainted with. Of those launched with the throwing stick there are--1, the kiko, or
reed spear, pointed with hard wood; 2, the kiero, or hard wood spear, with about two feet of the flower-stem
of the grass-tree jointed to the upper end; 3, a similar weapon, with five or six jags cut in the solid wood of the
point upon one side; and 4, the light hard wood spear of Port Lincoln, and the coast to the eastward, where a
single barb is spliced on at the extreme point with the sinew of the emu or the kangaroo: each spear averages
from six to eight feet in length, and is thrown with facility and precision to distances, varying from thirty to
one hundred yards, according to the kind made use of, and the skill of the native in using it.
Of the large spear there is--1, the karkuroo, or smooth heavy spear, made of the gum-scrub; 2, the same
description of weapon, barbed with fragments of flint or quartz; 3, another variety, having five or six jags cut
at the point, upon one side; and 4, a similar weapon, with the same number of barbs cut upon both sides of the
point: each of them is from twelve to fourteen feet long, and is thrown with most deadly force and accuracy to
distances of from thirty to forty feet. The fishing spear has already been described. The Nga-wa-onk, or
throwing stick is from twenty to twenty-six inches in length, and is of a very similar character throughout the
continent, varying a little in width or shape according to the fashion of particular districts. It consists of a
piece of hard wood, broad about the middle, flattened and sometimes hollowed on the inside, and tapering to
either extremity; at the point the tooth of a kangaroo is tied and gummed on, turning downwards like a hook;
the opposite end has a lump of pitch with a flint set in it, moulded round so as to form a knob, which prevents
the hand from slipping whilst it is being used, or it is wound round with string made of the fur of the opossum
The Wangn or wangno (the boomerang of Eastern and kiley of Western Australia) is another simple but
destructive weapon, in the hands of the native. It consists of a thin, flat, curved piece of hard wood, about two
feet long, made out of the acacia pendula or gum-scrub, the raspberry-jam wood, or any other of a similar
character, a branch or limb is selected which has naturally the requisite curve (an angle from one hundred to
one hundred and thirty degrees) and is dressed down to a proper shape and thickness, and rounded somewhat
at the bend, those whose angles are slightly obtuse, are usually thrown with the sharp edge against the wind,
and go circling through the air with amazing velocity, and to a great height and distance, describing nearly a
parabola and descending again at the foot of the person who throws them; those which have the largest obtuse
angle are thrown generally against the ground from which they bound up to a great height, and with much
force. With both, the natives are able to hit distant objects with accuracy, either in hunting or in war; in the
latter case this weapon is particularly dangerous, as it is almost impossible, even when it is seen in the air, to
tell which way it will go, or where descend. I once nearly had my arm broken by a wangno, whilst standing
within a yard of the native who threw it, and looking out purposely for it.
The (katta twirris) or two-edged sword is a formidable weapon, used among the tribes to the north of
Adelaide, exclusively for war; another weapon, common among the same tribes, is the katta, a round
chisel-pointed stick, about three feet long, and used principally in pitched battles between two individuals.
Another weapon is an angular piece of hard wood, pointed and shaped very much like a miner's pick, the
longer or handle-end being rounded and carved, to give a firmer grasp; another dreadful weapon, intended for
close combat, is made out of hard wood, from two to three feet long, straight and with the handle rounded and
carved for the grasp, which has an immense pointed knob at the end; the bwirri, is also a weapon of hard
wood about two feet long, rather slight and merely smoothed in the handle, with a round knob at the
extremity, it is principally thrown, and with very great precision; but is more generally used after game than in
The shield (tar-ram) is made out of the bark or wood of the gum-tree, and varies in shape and device, the
ordinary shield is about two or two and a half feet long, from eight to eighteen inches across, and tapering
from the middle towards the extremities, two holes are made near the centre, through which a piece of wood is
bent for a handle; shields are always carved and painted in time of war.
The implements made use of by the natives are not very numerous, and their general characteristics are nearly
the same all over the continent. The native hatchet is made of a very hard greenish-looking stone, rubbed to an
edge on either side; it is fixed in the cleft of a stick, or a branch is doubled round it, and either tied or gummed
to prevent its slipping. The throwing sticks have generally a sharp piece of quartz or flint gummed on at the
lower end, which is used as a knife or chisel; flints or muscle shells are used for skinning animals, dissecting
food, cutting hair, etc.
The ngak-ko, a strong chisel-pointed stick, from three to four feet long, is used for dissecting the larger
animals and fish, for digging grubs out of the trees, for making holes to get out opossums, etc., for stripping
bark, ascending trees, for cutting bark canoes, and a variety of other useful purposes. The rod for noosing
ducks, (tat-tat-ko) and other wild fowl, is about sixteen feet long, and consists, in its lower part, for the first
ten feet, of hard wood, tapering like an ordinary spear, to this is cemented with resin, a joint of tolerably
strong reed about sixteen inches long, at the upper end of this is inserted and cemented with wax, a tapering
rod of hard wood, three feet long and very similar to the top joint of a fly-fishing rod, to this is spliced a fine
springy and strong top, of about eighteen inches in length, at the end of which is bound a piece of fine strong
cord, which works with a running noose upon the tapering end of the instrument. Needles are made from the
fibula of the emu or kangaroo, and are pointed at one end by being rubbed on a stone, they are used in sewing
as we use a shoemaker's awl, the hole is bored and the thread put through with the hand; the thread is made of
the sinews of the emu and kangaroo. The netting needle is a little round bit of stick or reed, about the size of a
lead pencil, round which the string is wound, no mesh is used, the eye and hand enabling the native to net
with the utmost regularity, speed, and neatness.
The nets for hunting, for carrying their effects or food, for making belts for the waist, or bandages for the
head, are all made from the tendons or fur of animals, or from the fibres of plants. In the former, the sinews of
the kangaroo or emu, and the fur of opossums and other similar animals, are used; in the latter, a species of
rush, the fibres of the root of the mallow, the fibres of the root of the broad flag-reed, etc. and in some parts of
the continent, the fibrous bark of trees. The materials are prepared for use by being soaked in water and
carded with the teeth and hands, or by being chewed or rubbed.
String is made by the fibres being twisted, and rubbed with the palm of the hand over the naked thighs, and is
often as neatly executed as English whip-cord, though never consisting of more than two strands,--the strands
being increased in thickness according to the size of the cord that may be required. Nets vary in size and
strength according to the purposes for which they are required; the duck net (kew-rad-ko) has already been
Other things being equal, a man's authority and influence increase among his tribe in proportion to his years.
To each stage of life through which he passes is given some additional knowledge or power, and he is
privileged to carry an additional number of implements and weapons, as he advances in life. An old
grey-headed man generally carries the principal implements and weapons, either for war or sorcery; many of
the latter the women and children are never allowed to see, such as pieces of rock-crystal, by which the
sorcerer can produce rain, cause blindness, or impart to the waters the power of destroying life, etc.; sacred
daggers for causing the death of their enemies by enchantment; the moor-y-um-karr or flat oval piece of wood
which is whirled round the camp at nights, and many others of a similar nature.
I have not, however, found that age is invariably productive of influence, unless the individual has previously
signalized himself among his people, and taken up a commanding position when youth and strength enabled
him to support his pretensions, and unless he be still in full possession of vigour of mind and energy of
character, though no longer endowed with personal strength. The grey-head appears to be usually treated with
respect as long as the owner is no incumbrance to those around him, but the moment he becomes a drag, every
tie is broken, and he is at once cast off to perish. Among many tribes with which I have been acquainted, I
have often noticed that though the leading men were generally elderly men from forty-five to sixty years old,
they were not always the oldest; they were still in full vigour of body and mind, and men who could take a
prominent part in acting as well as counselling. I am inclined, therefore, to think that the degree of estimation
in which any native is held by his fellows, or the amount of deference that may be paid to his opinions, will in
a great measure depend upon his personal strength, courage, energy, prudence, skill, and other similar
qualifications, influenced, perhaps, collaterally by his family connections and the power which they possess.
Each father of a family rules absolutely over his own circle. In his movements and arrangements he is
uncontrolled, yet, as a matter of policy, he always informs his fellows where he is going, what he is going to
do, how long he will be absent, when he will meet them again, etc. It thus happens that, although a tribe may
be dispersed all over their own district in single groups, or some even visiting neighbouring tribes, yet if you
meet with any one family they can at once tell you where you will find any other, though the parties
themselves may not have met for weeks. Some one or other is always moving about, and thus the news of
each other's locality gets rapidly spread among the rest. The principal occupation, indeed, of parties when they
meet, is to give and receive information relative to neighbouring families or tribes. In cases of sudden danger
or emergency, the scattered groups are rapidly warned or collected by sending young men as messengers, or
by raising signal smokes in prominent positions.
In an assembly of the tribe, matters of importance are generally discussed and decided upon, by the elder men,
apart from the others. It not unfrequently happens, however, that some discontented individual will loudly and
violently harangue the whole tribe; this usually occurs in the evening, and frequently continues for hours
together; his object being generally either to reverse some decision that has been come to, to excite them to
something they are unwilling to do, or to abuse some one who is absent. Occasionally he is replied to by
others, but more frequently allowed uninterruptedly to wear himself out, when from sheer exhaustion he is
compelled to sit down.
Occasionally the tribe is addressed by its most influential members in the language of admonition or advice,
and though at such times a loud tone and strong expressions are made use of, there is rarely any thing
amounting to an order or command; the subject is explained, reasons are given for what is advanced, and the
result of an opposite course to that suggested, fully pointed out; after this the various members are left to form
their own judgments, and to act as they think proper.
In their domestic relations with one another polygamy is practised in its fullest extent. An old man having
usually from one to four wives, or as many as he can procure.
The females, and especially the young ones are kept principally among the old men, who barter away their
daughters, sisters, or nieces, in exchange for wives for themselves or their sons. Wives are considered the
absolute property of the husband, and can be given away, or exchanged, or lent, according to his caprice. A
husband is denominated in the Adelaide dialect, Yongarra, Martanya (the owner or proprietor of a wife).
Female children are betrothed usually from early infancy, and such arrangements are usually adhered to; still
in many cases circumstances occur frequently to cause an alteration; but if not, the girls generally go to live
with their husbands about the age of twelve, and sometimes even before that. Relatives nearer than cousins are
not allowed to marry, and this alliance does not generally take place. Female orphans belong to the nearest
male relative, as also does a widow, instead of to the nearest male relative of the husband, as was found to be
the case in Western Australia by Captain Grey. Two or three months generally elapse before the widow goes
to another husband; but if the wife dies, the man takes another as soon as he can get one. If a woman, having
young children, join another tribe, the children go with her; but I am not aware whether they would remain
permanently attached to that tribe or not. Brothers often barter their sisters for wives for themselves, but it can
only be done with the parents' consent, or after their death. If a wife be stolen, war is always continued until
she is given up, or another female in her place.
There is no ceremony connected with the undertaking of marriage. In those cases where I have witnessed the
giving away of a wife, the woman was simply ordered by the nearest male relative in whose disposal she was,
to take up her "rocko," the bag in which a female carries the effects of her husband, and go to the man's camp
to whom she had been given. Marriage is not looked upon as any pledge of chastity, indeed no such virtue is
recognised.
[Note 76: Foeminae sese per totam pene vitam prostituunt. Apud plurimas tribus juventutem utriusque sexus
sine discrimine concumbere in usus est. Si juvenis forte indigenorum coetum quendam in castris manentem
adveniat ubi quaevis sit puella innupta, mos est; nocte veniente et cubantibus omnibus, illam ex loco
exsurgere et juvenem accedentem cum illo per noctem manere unde in sedem propriam ante diem redit. Cui
foemina sit, eam amicis libenter praebet; si in itinere sit, uxori in castris manenti aliquis ejus supplet ille vires.
Advenis ex longinquo accedentibus foeminas ad tempus dare hospitis esse boni judicatur. Viduis et foeminis
jam senescentibus saepe in id traditis, quandoque etiam invitis et insciis cognatis, adolescentes utuntur.
Puellae tenerae a decimo primum anno, et pueri a decimo tertio vel quarto, inter se miscentur. Senioribus mos
est, si forte gentium plurium castra appropinquant, viros noctu huic inde transeuntes, uxoribus alienis uti et in
sua castra ex utraque parte mane redire. Temporis quinetiam certis, machina quaedam ex ligno ad formam ovi
facta, sacra et mystica, uam foeminas aspicere haud licitam, decem plus minus uncias longa et circa quatuor
lata insculpta ac figuris diversis ornata, et ultimam perforata partem ad longam (plerumque e crinibus humanis
textam) inscrendam chordam cui nomen "Mooyumkarr," extra castra in gyrum versata, stridore magno e
percusso aere facto, libertatem coeundi juventuti esse tum concessam omnibus indicat. Parentes saepe
infantum, viri uxorum quaestum corporum faciunt. In urbe Adelaide panis praemio parvi aut paucorum
denariorum meretrices fieri eas libenter cogunt. Facile potest intelligi, amorem inter nuptos vix posse esse
grandem, quum omnia quae ad foeminas attinent, hominum arbitrio ordinentur et tanta sexuum societati
laxitas, et adolescentes quibus ita multae ardoris explendi dantur occasiones, haud magnopere uxores, nisi ut
servas desideraturos.
But little real affection consequently exists between husbands and wives, and young men value a wife
principally for her services as a slave; in fact when asked why they are anxious to obtain wives, their usual
"The early life of a young woman at all celebrated for beauty is generally one continued series of captivity to
different masters, of ghastly wounds, of wanderings in strange families, of rapid flights, of bad treatment from
other females amongst whom she is brought a stranger by her captor; and rarely do you see a form of unusual
grace and elegance, but it is marked and scarred by the furrows of old wounds; and many a female thus
wanders several hundred miles from the home of her infancy, being carried off successively to distant and
more distant points."]
Women are often sadly ill-treated by their husbands or friends, in addition to the dreadful life of drudgery, and
privation, and hardship they always have to undergo; they are frequently beaten about the head, with waddies,
in the most dreadful manner, or speared in the limbs for the most trivial offences. No one takes the part of the
weak or the injured, or ever attempts to interfere with the infliction of such severe punishments.
Few women will be found, upon examination, to be free from frightful scars upon the head, or the marks of
spear-wounds about the body. I have seen a young woman, who, from the number of these marks, appeared to
have been almost riddled with spear wounds. Upon this point Captain Grey remarks, vol. ii. p. 249.
The menses commence to flow among the native females at an earlier age than among Europeans, frequently
beginning at about twelve; they are also subject to many irregularities in their periodical return, arising
probably from the kind of life they lead and the nature of the diet upon which they live. I have known cases
where this irregularity has extended to three months. Child-bearing does not commence often before the age
of sixteen, nor have I ever noticed pregnant women under that age. In inquiries conducted by Mr. Moorhouse
among the natives of Adelaide, that gentleman ascertained, that as many as nine children have occasionally
been born to one woman; that the average number is about five; but that each mother only reared an average
of two. At childbirth, the placenta, which is considered as sacred, is carefully put away from the reach of the
dogs as soon as thrown off from the uterus, and the female is up and following her usual avocations a very
few hours after the accouchement. Instances have occurred of women sitting up, and asking for food an hour
after confinement, though wet with rain, and having very little fire. Two days after it, I have seen a woman
walking two or three miles, and going out to look for food in her usual manner. Infanticide is very common,
and appears to be practised solely to get rid of the trouble of rearing children, and to enable the woman to
follow her husband about in his wanderings, which she frequently could not do if encumbered with a child.
The first three or four are often killed; no distinction appears to be made in this case between male or female
children. Half-castes appear to be always destroyed.
IF MALE. IF FEMALE.
The 1st child would be called Kertameru Kertanya
2nd child would be called Warritya Warriarto
3rd child would be called Kudnutya Kudnarto
4th child would be called Monaitya Monarto
5th child would be called Milaitya Milarto
6th child would be called Marrutya Marruarto
7th child would be called Wangutya Wangwarto
8th child would be called Ngarlaitya Ngarlarto
9th child would be called Pouarna Ngarlarto
These are given at birth; but a short time after another name is added, which is derived from some object in
nature, as a plant, animal, or insect. This name continues until after marriage and the birth of the first child,
upon which the father takes the name of this child, and has the word binna or spinna, (an adult,) affixed, as
Kadli; name of a child, Kadlitpinna, the father of Kadli; the mother is called Kadli ngangki, or mother of
Kadli, from ngangki, a female or woman. The names of the father and mother are changed at the birth of
every child in the same manner.
At Moorunde, and among many other tribes, I have not found any numerical names to be given at birth, the
first name usually being that derived from some object in nature. This is occasionally changed after marriage
and the birth of a child; as among the Adelaide or northern natives, the father taking the name of the child
with the affix of imbe or nimbe (implying father), as Kartul, a child's name, Kartulnimbe the father of Kartul,
Memparne, a child's name, Memparnimbe the father of Memparne. This paidronymic is not, however, always
adhered to in preference to the original name; thus Memparnimbe is as often called by his former name of
Tenberry as his paidronymic; he is also called occasionally Worrammo, from his being left-handed. Neither
have I found the name of the parent change at the birth of every child; thus Memparnimbe has other children,
younger than Memparne, as Warrulan, Timarro, etc. yet he is never called Warrulanimbe, Timarronimbe, etc.
The mother's name, similarly to that of the father, is also occasionally altered to that of the child, with the
affix of arwer, or emarwer, as Kartulemarwer, the mother of Kartul, Memparnemarwer, the mother of
Memparne, yet is the original name of the mother as often used as the paidronymic. Old men are frequently
called by the name of the place which belongs to them, with the affix of bookola thus Mooroondooyo Bookola
is the old man who owns Mooroonde, etc.
At other times nicknames are given to natives, and so generally made use of by the others that the proper or
original name becomes almost lost. Thus a native named Marloo, from a habit he had of looking about him
and saying, "I see, I see," is called Nairkinimbe, or the father of seeing. Another named Ngalle-ngalle is called
Eukonimbe, the father of eukodko, from his being very fond of the crayfish of that name, and so on. Other
local appellations are given referring to some peculiarity of personal appearance, Parn-gang-gapko, the
baldheaded, Towang Makkeroo, the broken-thighed, etc. Others again refer to family bereavements, as Roo
ptootarap, a father without children, Parntomakker, a childless mother, Parnko, an orphan, Wirrang, one who
has lost a brother, Rockootarap, one whose wife is dead, Thaltarlpipke, an unmarried man, Rartchilock, one
who owns a wife, Rang, a widow, Waukerow, an unmarried woman, etc. These are all distinctions, which
though readily discoverable by a person tolerably well versed in the dialect, or long resident among the same
natives, present many difficulties, and lead to many mistakes, amongst casual inquirers, or those whose
pursuits do not keep them long at the place of their inquiries. There are others which are still more difficult to
Even among the Adelaide tribes, where there appears to be a greater uniformity in the system of nomenclature
than I have met with any where else, and where Mr. Moorhouse has devoted more time and attention to the
subject than perhaps any other person, there are still difficulties and uncertainties. Thus an Adelaide boy about
the age of ten, is called by the name of Koar (the crow), from early infancy, but between ten and twelve, after
undergoing one of their ceremonies, the name was changed to Mannara, (which I believe means the crow's
nest). According, however, to the usual system adopted, this boy's name ought to have remained Koar, until,
by becoming a married man and a father, it gave way to a paidronymic.
There is another subject somewhat analogous to that of nomenclature, and about which still less is
known;--that of every native adopting some object in creation as his crest, or tiende. The same thing is noticed
by Captain Grey in his narrative (vol. ii. p. 228).
"But as each family adopts some animal or vegetable, as their crest or sign, or KOBONG as they call it, I
imagine it more likely, that these have been named after the families, than that the families have been named
after them.
"A certain mysterious connection exists between a family and its KOBONG, so that a member of a family will
never kill an animal of the species, to which his KOBONG belongs, should he find it asleep; indeed, he
always kills it reluctantly, and never without affording it a chance to escape. This arises from the family
belief, that some one individual of the species is their nearest friend, to kill whom would be a great crime, and
to be carefully avoided. Similarly, a native who has a vegetable for his KOBONG, may not gather it under
certain circumstances, and at a particular period of the year."
From the foregoing quotation, it is apparent that very little difference exists in the custom as practised in
Western and Southern Australia. In the former, however, there appears to be an unwillingness to destroy the
object represented by the kobong or tiende that I have never observed in the latter. But very little appears to be
known on this subject at present, as far as regards the reason for assuming the tiende, or its connection with
the individual or family it may represent. The same tiende seems to descend from a father to his children; but I
have been told occasionally of instances where such has not been the case. There are several striking
differences between the customs and habits of the Aborigines of Western Australia, narrated by Captain Grey,
and those in force among the tribes I have myself been best acquainted with in Southern or South-eastern
Australia. One singular peculiarity is described by Captain Grey.
"One of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives, is that they are divided into certain great
families, all the members of which bear the same names, as a family or second name: the principal branches
of these families, so far as I have been able to ascertain, are the
Ballaroke
Tdondarup
Ngotak
Nagarnook
Nogonyuk
Mongalung
Narrangur.
"But in different districts the members of these families give a local name to the one to which they belong,
which is understood in that district, to indicate some particular branch of the principal family. The most
Didaroke
Gwerrinjoke
Maleoke
Waddaroke
Djekoke
Kotejumeno
Namyungo
Yungaree.
"These family names are common over a great portion of the continent; for instance, on the Western coast, in
a tract of country extending between four and five hundred miles in latitude, members of all these families are
found. In South Australia, I met a man who said that he belonged to one of them, and Captain Flinders
mentions Yungaree, as the name of a native in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
"These family names are perpetuated, and spread through the country, by the operation of two remarkable
laws:--
"1st. That children of either sex, always take the family name of their mother.
"2nd. That a man cannot marry a woman of his own family name."
From this it appears that the natives of that part of the country have in addition to their other ordinary names a
family or surname, which is perpetuated through successive generations on the mother's side. This is not the
case as far as my observations and inquiries have enabled me to ascertain among the numerous tribes
frequenting the Murray river, and Mr. Moorhouse assures me that he has been equally unable to detect any
coincidence of the kind among the tribes frequenting the district of Adelaide.
The division, numbers, and names of the various tribes are also subjects of difficulty and uncertainty. As far
as my researches have yet extended upon this point, it appears to me, first, that groups of natives have a
distinctive or a local appellation, derived from the particular place they belong to, as Barmerara maru, the
natives frequenting the lake called Barmera: Moolyoolpero maru, the natives frequenting the lagoon called
Moolyoolko, and so on. Secondly, a general or tribal name, as Narwijjerook, a native of the tribe so called,
which includes the natives of Barmera and various others in that neighbourhood. Karn-brickolenbola, a native
of the tribe so called, and which includes various groups around Mooroonde. Thirdly, it appears that wherever
a change occurs in the name of the tribes to which contiguous groups of natives may belong, there is a
corresponding change in the dialect or language spoken; thus the Narwij-jerook speak a dialect called
Narwijjong, the Karn-brickolenbola tribe the Aiawong dialect, and so on.
In many of these dialects there appears to be little more difference than exists among the counties in England.
Such is the case up the course of the Murray from Lake Alexandrina to the Darling; and such Captain Grey
found to be the case throughout a great part of Western Australia. In others the dialects are so totally unlike
one another, that natives, meeting upon opposite sides of a river, cannot speak to or understand a word of what
each other say, except through the medium of a third language, namely that spoken by the natives of the river
itself, and which is totally unlike either of the other two.
This is the case at Moorunde, where three different dialects meet, the Yakkumban, or dialect spoken by the
Paritke tribe, or natives inhabiting the scrub to the west and north-west of the Murray. The Boraipar or
language of the Arkatko tribe, who inhabit the scrub to the east of the Murray, and the Aiawong or river
dialect, extending, with slight variations, from the junction of the Murray and Lake Alexandrina to the
Darling.
Chapter V.
CEREMONIES AND SUPERSTITIONS
FORMS OF BURIAL
MOURNING
CUSTOMS
RELIGIOUS IDEAS
EMPIRICS, etc.
The ceremonies and superstitions of the natives are both numerous and involved in much obscurity; indeed it
is very questionable if any of them are understood even by themselves. Almost all the tribes impose initiatory
rites upon the young, through which they must pass from one stage of life to another, until admitted to the
privileges and rights of manhood. These observances differ greatly in different parts of the continent,
independently of local or distinctive variations indicative of the tribe to which a native may belong.
Thus at the Gulf of Carpentaria, the rite of circumcision is performed; at Swan River, King George's Sound,
and nearly three hundred miles to the eastward of the latter place, no such rite exists. Round the head of the
Great Australian Bight, and throughout the Port Lincoln Peninsula, not only is this rite performed, but a still
more extraordinary one conjoined with it. [Note 78: "Finditur usque ad urethram a parte inferaa penis."]
Descending the east side of Spencer's and St. Vincent's Gulf, and around the district of Adelaide, the simple
rite of circumcision is retained. Proceeding but a little farther to the banks of the Murray, and its
neighbourhood, no such ceremony exists, nor have I ever heard of its having been observed any where on the
southeastern, or eastern parts of the continent.
So also with respect to tattooing; in one part of the continent it is adopted, in another it is rejected; when it is
practised, there are many varieties in the form, number, or arrangement of the scars, distinguishing the
different tribes, so that one stranger meeting with another any where in the woods, can at once tell, from the
manner in which he is tattooed, the country and tribe to which he belongs, if not very remote. In the Adelaide
district, Mr. Moorhouse has observed, that there are five stages to be passed through, before the native attains
the rank of a bourka, or full grown man. The first is, that from birth to the tenth year, when he is initiated into
the second, or Wilya kundarti, by being covered with blood, drawn from the arm of an adult; he is then
allowed to carry a wirri for killing birds, and a small wooden spade (karko) for digging grubs out of the
ground. At from twelve to fourteen, the third stage is entered, by having the ceremony of circumcision
performed, which takes place in the following manner. Early in the morning, the boys to be circumcised are
seized from behind, and a bandage is fastened over the eyes of each; they are then led away from the presence
of the women and children to a distance of half a mile, when they are laid on the ground, and covered with a
cloak, or skin, so as not to see what is passing amongst the adults, who proceed with the ceremony. Three of
them now commence limping, and making a peculiar groaning noise, until they arrive opposite one of the
boys, upon whom they seize. The individual laid hold of, jumps up, and runs off at full speed, as if he
intended to escape; the three, before occupied in limping and groaning, run with him to prevent this, and after
three or four races, all four run over the place where the boys are covered up, and the boy, who had been
trying to escape, is caught, and laid down near the other boys, and covered with dust. He is now supposed to
be in a state of enchantment, from which he is aroused by being lifted up by the ears, at the same time that
loud noises are made into them. All the men now, except the sick, form themselves into a circle, and keep
walking round in single file, the first individual having a katto, or long stick held down his back. After a few
circles this is given to another; a short rest is taken, and then the whole party rise, except the sick, the inspired
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men, or sorcerers, and those upon whom the operation is to be performed, and proceed to a short distance, the
man with the katto down his back leading. When assembled, they form into a line, and at word of command
commence the peculiar stamping and groaning, beginning at the far end of the line, and gradually advancing
towards the other. During several rounds of this noise, they advance at each, a little nearer to the boys, who
when they are very near, have their eyes uncovered that they may see the men approaching. The first man who
held the katto, fastens it in the ground, and all the others coming up, take hold of it, and fall down into a heap.
The boys are then thrown upon the heap of men, and the operation is performed by men who are supposed to
be inspired, or sorcerers. Immediately after the operation, the boys are taken away from the presence of all
females, and kept upon a vegetable diet until recovered from its effects. The head is covered with grease, and
red ochre, with a bandage passed round it, and is ornamented with tufts of feathers. The Yudna, or pubic
covering, is worn by the circumcised for some months after the operation.
The fourth stage (Wilyaru) is entered about the age of twenty, when the back, shoulders, arms and chest, are
tattooed. He is called ngulte, at the time of the operation; yellambambettu, when the incisions have begun to
discharge pus; tarkange, when the sores are just healed; mangkauitya, at the time the cuts begin to rise; and
bartamu, when the scars are at their highest elevation. Each tribe has a distinctive mode of making their
incisions. Some have scars running completely across the chest, from one axillar to the other, whilst others
have merely dotted lines; some have circles and semicircles formed on the apex of the shoulder, others small
dots only.
The fifth stage is bourka or full man, and is only attained when the individual is getting grey-headed.
Among the Murray natives and contiguous tribes, instead of the rite of circumcision, a ceremony called
wharepin, is performed upon youths from fourteen to sixteen. Early in the morning some of the male friends
of the boy about to be operated upon, go behind him to seize him, upon which he sets off running as hard as
he can, as if to escape; but being followed by his pursuers is soon captured and thrown down; he is then raised
up and surrounded by several natives, who hold him and smear him from head to foot, with red ochre and
grease; during this part of the ceremony, a band of elderly women, generally the mother and other near
relatives, surround the group, crying or lamenting, and lacerating their thighs and backs with shells or flints,
until the blood streams down. When well ochred all over, the novice is led away by another native, apart from
the rest of the tribe, or if there are more than one, they stand together linked hand in hand, and when tired sit
down upon bunches of green boughs brought for that purpose, for they are neither allowed to sit on the
ground, nor to have any clothing on; and when they move about they always carry a bunch of green boughs in
each hand.
They are now ready for the ceremony, which is usually performed by influential natives of distant tribes, and
which generally takes place at the meetings of these tribes, as in the case of the meeting of the Moorunde
natives, and the Nar-wij-jerook tribe described in Chapter II.P.220. On that occasion, there were three
Moorunde natives to be operated upon. As soon as the ceremonial of the meeting of the tribes had been gone
through, as already described, the Nar-wij-jerook natives retired about a hundred yards, and sat down on the
ground, the Moorunde people remaining standing. The three spears which had little nets attached to them, and
which had been brought down by the Nar-wij-jerooks, were now advanced in front of that tribe, still seated
and stuck in a row in the ground. Three men then got up and seated themselves at the foot of the three spears,
with their legs crossed. Two other natives then went over to the Moorunde people, to where the three novices
stood shaking and trembling, like criminals waiting for their punishment, seizing them by the legs and
shoulders, and carefully lifting them from the ground, they carried each in turn, and laid them on their backs at
full length upon green boughs, spread upon the ground in front of the three men sitting by the spears, so that
the head of each rested on the lap of one of the three. From the moment of their being seized, they resolutely
closed their eyes, and pretended to be in a deep trance until the whole was over. When all three novices had
been laid in their proper position, cloaks were thrown over them, but leaving the face exposed, and a
Nar-wij-jerook coming to the side of each, carefully lifted up a portion of the covering and commenced
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plucking the hair from the pubes. At intervals, the operators were relieved by others of both sexes, and of
various ages; little children under ten, were sometimes but not frequently officiating. When all the hair had
been pulled out, that belonging to each native was carefully rolled up in green boughs, the three lots being put
together, and given to one of the wise or inspired men to be put properly away; bunches of green boughs were
now placed under each arm of the boys as also in their hands, after which several natives took hold of them,
and raised them suddenly and simultaneously to their feet, whilst a loud gutteral Whaugh was uttered by the
other natives around. They were then disenchanted and the ceremony was over, but for some time afterwards,
the initiated are obliged to sleep away from the camp, and are not allowed to see the women; their heads and
bodies are kept smeared with red ochre and grease, and tufts of feathers and kangaroo teeth are worn tied to
the hair in front. One of the most singular circumstances connected with this ceremony, is that the natives who
have officiated never afterwards mention the name of the young men, nor do the latter ever mention the names
of the individuals who have operated upon them; should the name of either be accidentally mentioned in the
presence of the other, they are greatly annoyed, and at once put the hand up to the mouth to signify that it
must not be spoken. It is thus often very difficult to find out the names of particular natives, and strangers
would make many mistakes, imagining that they were putting down the name, when in reality they were
marking some phrase, signifying that his name could not be mentioned by the one applied to. They have no
objection to meet each other after the ceremony, nor do they decline speaking, but there is this peculiarity in
their conduct that if one gives food, or any thing else to the other, it is either laid on the ground for him to
take, or is given through the intervention of a third person, in the gentlest and mildest manner possible,
whereas to another native it would be jerked, perhaps much in the same way that a bone is thrown to a dog.
There are other instances in which the names of natives are never allowed to be spoken, as those of a father or
mother-in-law, of a son-in-law and some cases arising from a connection with each other's wives. In speaking,
therefore, of one another, or introducing persons to distant natives, a very round about way of describing them
has often to be adopted, yet so intimately are neighbouring tribes acquainted with the peculiar relations
subsisting between the members of each, that there is rarely any difficulty in comprehending who the
individual is that is alluded to. Among the Adelaide tribes, there is no circumstance but death that makes them
unwilling to mention the name of any of their acquaintances, and this cause of unwillingness I believe extends
equally all over the continent.
The ceremony of tattooing is practised among the tribes of the Murray and its neighbourhood with great
circumstantial variety. Some are tattooed all over the back or breast in rows, some only one half of each or of
one, some are only dotted, others have rings or semicircles round the upper part of the arms and some are
tattooed on the belly, etc.
Many tribes I have met with in different parts of Australia, have no tattooing at all, others are marked on the
breast by singular looking scars, occupying a space of six or eight inches each way upon the chest, these are
called "renditch" in the Murray dialect, and are made by fire; but I have never been able to obtain any
satisfactory information respecting them. These scars are confined to particular tribes whom I have only met
with occasionally, and for a period which did not allow me the opportunity of making much inquiry into their
origin.
At Encounter Bay, instead of plucking out the hair of the pubes, the incipient beard is pulled out by the roots,
and the youth, as at the Murray, is smeared from head to foot with red ochre and grease.
Among the females the only ceremony of importance that I am aware of is that of tattooing the back, a long
and very painful operation. [Note 79 at end of para.] The method of performing the operation is as follows:
the person whose back is to be tattooed is taken out early in the morning and squatted on the ground with her
back towards the operator (always a male), and her head bent down between the knees of a strong old woman
who is sitting on the ground for that purpose; the back is thus presented in the best position to the operator,
and the girl, as long as her head is kept firmly in its position, cannot possibly arise until all is over. The man
who performs the ceremony then commences by taking hold of a fold of the flesh on the girl's right side, just
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above the breech, with his left hand, whilst with his right he holds a piece of flint or shell, and cuts
perpendicular gashes an inch long, three-sixteenths of an inch deep, and about half an inch apart, in horizontal
lines from right to left quite across the back, the rows being half an inch or three-quarters distant from each
other.
[Note 79: Hoc plerumque menstruis jam primum venientibus factum est: saepe autem puellis propter timorem
statum suam celantibus, aut aliqua alia ex causa, opus quod tempore menstruali fieri prorsus necessarium est,
in proxima differtur.]
This is carried up the whole way from where he commences to the shoulders, and when freshly done, presents
one of the most dreadful spectacles imaginable, the blood gushes out in torrents, and though frequently wiped
away with grass by some of the women present, is scarcely removed before the crimson stream flows as
profusely as ever. During the time of the ceremony the mother and other female relations lament and mourn,
whilst they lacerate their bodies with shells. When the incisions are all made, grass or boughs are warmed at
the fire, to wipe off the blood. The whole scene is most revolting and disgusting; the ground near where the
poor creature sits is saturated with blood, and the whole back is one mass of coagulated gore. In one case,
where I saw this operation performed upon a girl belonging to the Paritke tribe, she seemed to suffer much
pain. At first, until nearly a row of scars had been made across the lower part of the back, she bore the
operation well, but as it proceeded, her cries were piteous and unceasing, and before it was concluded, they
became the most heart-rending screams of agony. From the position in which she was held, however, by the
old woman on the ground (and who, by the way, was her mother,) it was impossible for her to stir or escape;
indeed, had she attempted it, she would probably have been most cruelly beaten in addition.
The ceremony occupied three-quarters of an hour, but it was two hours before the wounds had ceased to
bleed, and even then, the dried blood was not washed off. Two kangaroo teeth, and a tuft of emu feathers were
tied to the girl's hair, and she was smeared over with grease and red ochre, but was still forbidden to touch
food until the morning.
Many weeks elapse before the wounds heal, and the inconveniences attending them are removed.
In another case that I saw, the girl bore the operation most stoically, until about two-thirds over, when she
could stand it no longer, but screaming out in agony, applied her teeth and nails with such good effect to the
thighs of the old lady who held her down, that the latter was compelled to release her grasp, and the poor girl
got up, vowing she would not have another incision made. Of course all resistance would have been futile, or
probably have only brought down a fearful chastisement upon her if she had been alone with her tribe in the
bush; but she took advantage of my presence, and escaped with nearly one-third of the incisions deficient. At
this ceremony many other natives of both sexes, and of all ages were standing looking on; but so little did they
commiserate the poor creature's sufferings, that the degree of her pain only seemed to be the measure of their
laughter and merriment.
The girls, however, are always anxious to have this ceremony performed, as a well tattooed back is considered
a great addition to their other charms, and whenever I have offered to protect them from the cruelty of their
tribe for refusing to submit to it, they have invariably preferred submitting to the operation.
The only other ceremonies undergone by the females, are those of having the belly or arms tattooed, and of
having the hair plucked from the pubes after the death of a child, and sometimes from other causes.
In the mode of disposing of the dead, and the ceremonials attending it, there is a difference in almost every
tribe. Among the Adelaide natives as soon as a person dies, a loud wailing cry is raised by the relations and
friends. The body is immediately wrapped up in the skin or clothing worn during life, and in the course of a
day or two, it is placed upon the wirkatti or bier, which is made of branches crossed so as to form the radii of a
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circle, an examination is then entered upon as to the cause of death, in the following manner. The bier is
carried upon the shoulders of five or six persons, over places where the deceased had been living; whilst this
is going on, a person is placed under the bier, professedly in conversation with the deceased. He asks, what
person killed you? If the corpse say no one, the inquest ceases; but if it states that some person has, the bier
moves round, the corpse is said to produce the motion, influenced by kuingo (a fabulous personification of
death). If the alleged murderer be present, the bier is carried round by this influence, and one of the branches
made to touch him. Upon this a battle is sure to ensue either immediately, or in the course of a day or two.
At the time of burial the body is removed from the bier, and deposited, with the head to the west, in a grave
from four to six feet deep. Children under four years are not buried for some months after death. They are
carefully wrapped up, carried upon the back of the mother by day, and used as a pillow by night, until they
become quite dry and mummy-like, after which they are buried, but the ceremony is not known to Mr.
Moorhouse.
In the Encounter Bay neighbourhood, four modes of disposing of the dead obtain, according to Mr.
Meyer:--old persons are buried; middle-aged persons are placed in a tree, the hands and knees being brought
nearly to the chin, all the openings of the body, as mouth, nose, ears, etc. being previously sewn up, and the
corpse covered with mats, pieces of old cloth, nets, etc. The corpse being placed in the tree, a fire is made
underneath, around which the friends and relatives of the deceased sit, and make lamentations. In this
situation the body remains, unless removed by some hostile tribe, until the flesh is completely wasted away,
after which the skull is taken by the nearest relative for a drinking cup.
The third mode is to place the corpse in a sitting posture, without any covering, the face being turned to the
eastward, until dried by the sun, after which it is placed in a tree. This mode is adopted with those to whose
memory it is intended to shew some respect. The fourth method is to burn the body; but this is only practised
in the case of still-born children, or such as die shortly after birth.
Another method practised upon Lake Alexandrina, is to construct a platform [Note 80 at end of para.], or bier
upon high poles of pine, put upright in the ground upon which the body is placed, bandages being first put
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round the forehead, and over the eyes, and tied behind. A bone is stuck through the nose, the fingers are
folded in the palm of the hand, and the fist is tied with nets, the ends of which are fastened about a yard from
the hands; the legs are put crossing each other.
[Note 80: "They often deposit their dead on trees and on scaffolds." --Catlin's AMERICAN INDIANS, vol. ii.
p. 10--vide also vol. i. p. 89]
The lamentations are raised by the natives around, fires are made below, so that the smoke may ascend over
the corpse, and the mourners usually remain encamped about the place for a great length of time, or until the
body is thoroughly dry, after which they leave it. Mr. Schurman says, "At Port Lincoln, after the body is put in
a grave, and a little earth is thrown on it; the natives place a number of sticks across its mouth, over which
they spread grass or bushes to prevent the remaining earth from falling down, so that an empty space of about
three feet in depth is left between the body and the top earth."
At the Flinders river (Gulf of Carpentaria), Captain Stokes observes, "At the upper part of Flinders river, a
corpse was found lodged in the branches of a tree, some twenty feet high from the ground; it had three
coverings, first, one of bark, then a net, and outside of all a layer of sticks."
On the Murray river, and among the contiguous tribes, many differences occur in the forms of burial adopted
by the various tribes. Still-born children are buried immediately. Infants not weaned are carried about by the
mother for some months, well wrapped up, and when thoroughly dry, are put into nets or bags, and deposited
in the hollows of trees, or buried. Children and young people are buried as soon as practicable after death, and
a spearing match generally ensues.
Old people are also buried without unnecessary delay. I have even seen a man in the prime of life all ready
placed upon the bier before he was dead, and the mourners and others waiting to convey him to his long
home, as soon as the breath departed.
In the case of a middle-aged, or an old man, the spearing and fighting contingent upon a death is always
greater than for younger natives. The burial rites in some tribes assimilate to those practised near Adelaide; in
others I have witnessed the following ceremony:--The grave being dug, the body was laid out near it, on a
triangular bier (birri), stretched straight on the back, enveloped in cloths and skins, rolled round and corded
close, and with the head to the eastward; around the bier were many women, relations of the deceased, wailing
and lamenting bitterly, and lacerating their thighs, backs, and breasts, with shells or flint, until the blood
flowed copiously from the gashes. The males of the tribe were standing around in a circle, with their weapons
in their hands, and the stranger tribes near them, in a similar position, imparting to the whole a solemn and
military kind of appearance. After this had continued for some time, the male relatives closed in around the
bier, the mourning women renewed their lamentations in a louder tone, and two male relatives stepped up to
the bier, and stood across the body, one at the head, and one at the foot, facing each other.
Having cut above the abdomen the strings binding the cloths which were wound round the body, they
proceeded to cut a slit of about ten inches long, through the swathing cloths above the belly; through this
opening, they removed the arms, which appeared to have been crossed there, laying them down by the sides,
inside the wrappings (for no part was unwound); having warmed a handful of green boughs over a fire, they
thrust them in through the opening in the cloths, upon the naked belly of the corpse; after a little while these
were removed, and one of their sorcerers made an incision of about eight inches long in the abdomen. Having
pulled out the entrails and peritoneum, they were turned over, and carefully examined, whilst the women kept
wailing and cutting [Note 81 at end of para.] themselves more violently than before, and even the men
themselves lamented aloud. When this had been continued for some time, a portion of the omentum was cut
off, wrapped in green leaves, and then put carefully away in a bag. The entrails were now replaced, a handful
or two of green leaves thrust in above them, the cloths replaced, and the body again bound up ready for
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interment.
[Note 81: Also an American custom.--Catlin, vol. i. p. 90. Lacerating the flesh at death was expressly
forbidden in the Jewish dispensation. It is practised also in New Zealand.--Vide Dieffenbach.]
A relative of the deceased now jumped up, with his weapons, violently excited, and apparently with the
intention of spearing some one; but he was at once restrained by his friends, who informed me that the
investigation had satisfied them that the man had not died through the agency of sorcery; if he had, it is
imagined that a cicatrice would have been found upon the omentum. Two men now got into the grave, spread
a cloth in the bottom, and over that green boughs. Other natives turned the bier round, and lifting up the body,
gave it to the two in the grave to lay in its proper position, which was quite horizontal, and with the head to
the west [Note 82 at end of para.], the grave being dug east and west: green boughs were now thrown thickly
into it, and earth was pushed in by the bystanders with their feet, until a mound had been raised some height
above the ground. All was now over, and the natives began to disperse, upon which the wild and piercing wail
of the mourners became redoubled.
[Note 82: This appears to be a very general custom, and to be of Eastern origin. Catlin describes it as always
being attended to at the disposal of the dead by the American Indians. In South Africa, however, Moffat states
(p. 307), "that the corpse is put exactly facing the north."]
Upon the mounds, or tumuli, over the graves, huts of bark, or boughs, are generally erected to shelter the dead
from the rain; they are also frequently wound round with netting. Many graves being usually in one vicinity,
and an elevated dry place being selected, the cemeteries often present a picturesque appearance. Graves are
frequently visited by the women at intervals, for some months, and at such times the wail is renewed, and their
bodies lacerated as at the interment. At Boga Lake, I saw a grave with a very neat hut of reeds made over it,
surmounted by netting, and having a long curious serpentine double trench, of a few inches deep, surrounding
it; possibly it might have been the burial place of the native mentioned by Major Mitchell, as having been shot
by his black, Piper, at that lake.
Nets, but not implements, are sometimes buried with the natives; nor do the survivors ever like to use a net
that has belonged to a man who is dead.
There are not any ceremonies attending the burial of young children; and the male relatives often neglect to
attend at all, leaving it altogether to the women.
The natives have not much dread of going near to graves, and care little for keeping them in order, or
preventing the bones of their friends from being scattered on the surface of the earth.
I have frequently seen them handling them, or kicking them with the foot with great indifference. On one
occasion when out with an old native looking for horses before it was daylight, I came to a grave of no very
old date, and where the boughs and bushes built over in the form of a hut were still remaining undisturbed; the
weather was extremely cold, and the old man did not hesitate to ask me to pull down the boughs to make a
fire, but would not do it himself.
On another occasion when a poor old woman had been deserted by the natives of Moorunde, and died a few
days after being brought up to the station, I had great difficulty in getting the other natives to bury her, they
would on no account touch the body; but after digging a hole, they got a long wiry branch of a tree, and one
man taking hold of each end they bent the middle round the old woman's neck, and thus dragged her along the
ground and threw her into the pit like a dog, all the time violently and continually spitting out in every
direction to ward off, as they said, the infection.
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[Note 83: "He tied a thong to her leg, avoiding the touch of that form which gave him birth, dragged the
corpse to some bushes, and left the thong because it had been in contact with the body of his mother."
--Moffat's South Africa, p. 306.]
Sometimes it happens that when a death occurs, the nearest grown up male relative, whose duty it would be to
take the principal part in the ceremonies, or inflict punishment if evil agency is suspected to have caused the
death, may be absent. In this case he would have to discharge these duties upon the first occasion of his
meeting with the supposed aggressors. The following is an instance which I witnessed.
A relative of Tenberry, one of the principal natives of the Murray, had died when he was absent, and the son
of the deceased was too young to revenge the sorcery which it was imagined had caused his father's death, it
therefore became Tenberry's duty to do this upon the first occasion that offered. I was with him when the
parties first came into the neighbourhood, and I witnessed the proceedings. Notice having been sent by
Tenberry the evening before, to warn them to be ready, I accompanied him early in the morning towards the
encampment of the natives, situated in a hollow near the water; when within about a hundred yards we saw
from the rise all the natives seated below us in the valley. Tenberry now halted, and having taken a hasty
survey of the group hung down his head upon his breast and raised a low mournful lamentation; after a time it
ceased, and the wail was at once replied to and continued by women's voices in the camp: he now hastily went
down to the camp still uttering his lamentations, and the whole body rose at his approach, and formed a large
open circle around him. The natives who were supposed to have caused the death of his friend, formed a part
of the circle and were armed with spears; behind them stood the orphan son of the deceased, probably in the
light of an accuser; and behind the son were the widows, wailing and lamenting bitterly.
After taking the centre of the circle, Tenberry called for a spear, but no one offered one, he therefore took a
long one from a native in the ring, who had evidently brought it for that purpose and yielded it unresistingly.
Pacing with this weapon furiously up and down the circle, he advanced and retreated before the accused,
brandishing the spear at them, and alternately threatening and wailing. No one replied, but the melancholy
dirge was still kept up by the widows in the rear.
After sufficiently exciting himself in this manner for some time, he advanced with uplifted spear, and
successively repeating his blows speared four or five persons among the accused natives in the left arm, each
of them pushing forward his arm unflinchingly for the blow as he advanced upon them. Tenberry now again
hung down his head and took up his lamentation for a short time, after which he paced about rapidly,
vehemently haranguing, and violently gesticulating, and concluded by ordering all the natives present to
separate their camps, and each tribe to make their own apart.
Mourning is performed by the men by cutting their beards [Note 84 at end of para.] and hair, and daubing the
head and breast with a white pigment; among the women, by cutting and burning the hair close off [Note 85 at
end of para.] to the head and plastering themselves with pipe-clay. In some cases, hot ashes are put upon the
head to singe the hair to its very roots, and they then literally weep "in dust and ashes." Among some of the
Murray tribes, a mourning cap is worn by the women, made two or three inches thick of carbonate of lime. It
is moulded to the head when moist around a piece of net work; the weight is eight pounds and a half. (Pl. 1,
fig. 17.)
[Note 84: The custom among the Australians of putting dust or ashes on the head, of shaving the head, of
clipping the beard, and of lacerating the body at death or in sign of mourning, appears very similar to the
practices among the Israelites in the time of Moses. Vide Leviticus xix. 27, 28; Leviticus xxi. 5; Jeremiah
xiviii. 30, 31, 32; Revelations xviii. 19, etc.]
[Note 85: The women among the American Indians also cut off the hair close to the head as a sign of
mourning.--Vide Catlin, vol. i.]
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The lamentations for the dead do not terminate with the burial; frequently they are renewed at intervals by the
women, during late hours of the night, or some hours before day-break in the morning. Piercingly as those
cries strike upon the traveller in the lonely woods, if raised suddenly, or very near him, yet mellowed by
distance they are soothing and pleasing, awakening a train of thoughts and feelings, which, though sad and
solemn, are yet such as the mind sometimes delights to indulge in. The names of the dead are never repeated
by the natives among themselves, and it is a very difficult matter for a European to get them to break through
this custom, nor will they do it in the presence of other natives. In cases where the name of a native has been
that of some bird or animal of almost daily recurrence, a new name is given to the object, and adopted in the
language of the tribe. Thus at Moorunde, a favourite son of the native Tenberry was called Torpool, or the
Teal; upon the child's death the appellation of tilquaitch was given to the teal, and that of torpool altogether
dropped among the Moorunde tribe.
The natives of New Holland, as far as yet can be ascertained, have no religious belief or ceremonies. A Deity,
or great First Cause, can hardly be said to be acknowledged, and certainly is not worshipped by this people,
who ascribe the creation to very inefficient causes. They state that some things called themselves into
existence, and had the property of creating others. But upon all subjects of this nature their ideas are indistinct
and indefinite, as they are not naturally a reasoning people, and by no means given to the investigation of
causes or their effects; hence, if you inquire why they use such and such ceremonies, they reply, our fathers
did so, and we do it; or why they believe so and so, our fathers told us it was so. [Note 86 at end of para.]
They are not fond of entering upon abstruse subjects, and when they are induced to do it, it is more than
possible, from our imperfect acquaintance with their language, and total ignorance of the character and bent of
their thoughts upon such points, that we are very likely to misunderstand and misrepresent their real opinions.
It appears to me that different tribes give a different account of their belief, but all generally so absurd, so
vague, unsatisfactory, and contradictory, that it is impossible at present to say with any certainty what they
really believe, or whether they have any independent belief at all. Mr. Moorhouse, who has taken great pains
in his inquiries among the natives around Adelaide upon questions of this nature, states that they believe in a
Soul or Spirit (itpitukutya), separate and distinct altogether from the body, which at death goes to the west, to
a large pit, where the souls of all men go. When all are dead, the souls will return to their former place of
residence, go to the graves of their forsaken bodies, and inquire, are these the bodies that we formerly
inhabited? The bodies will reply, "we are not dead, but still living." The souls and bodies will not be re-united;
the former will live in trees during the day, and at night alight on the ground, and eat grubs, lizards, frogs, and
kangaroo rats, but not vegetable food of any description. The souls are never again to die, but will remain
about the size of a boy eight years old.
[Note 86: "For that practice, they are, as far as I could learn, unable to give any other reason than that of its
being the custom of their forefathers which they are therefore bound to follow."--Burchell's Bichuana tribes,
vol. ii. p. 531.]
The account given me by some of the natives of the Murray of the origin of the creation, is, that there are four
individuals living up among the clouds, called Nooreele, a father and his three male children, but there is no
mother. The father is all-powerful, and of benevolent character. He made the earth, trees, waters, etc., gave
names to every thing and place, placed the natives in their different districts, telling each tribe that they were
to inhabit such and such localities, and were to speak such and such a language. It is said that he brought the
natives originally from some place over the waters to the eastward. The Nooreele never die, and the souls
(ludko, literally a shadow) of dead natives will go up and join them in the skies, and will never die again.
Other tribes of natives give an account of a serpent of immense size, and inhabiting high rocky mountains,
which, they say, produced creation by a blow of his tail. But their ideas and descriptions are too incongruous
and unintelligible to deduce any definite or connected story from them.
All tribes of natives appear to dread evil spirits, having the appearance of Blacks (called in the Murray dialect
Tou, in that of Adelaide Kuinyo). They fly about at nights through the air, break down branches of trees, pass
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simultaneously from one place to another, and attack all natives that come in their way, dragging such as they
can catch after them. Fire [Note 87 at end of para.] appears to have considerable effect in keeping these
monsters away, and a native will rarely stir a yard by night, except in moonlight, without carrying a fire-stick.
Under any circumstances they do not like moving about in the dark, and it is with the greatest difficulty that
they are ever induced to go singly from one station to another, a mile or two distant, after night-fall.
Notwithstanding this dread of they don't know exactly what, the natives do not let their fears prevent them
moving about after dark, if any object is to be gained, or if several of them are together. By moonlight they are
in the habit of travelling from one place to another, as well as of going out to hunt opossums.
[Note 87: Fire is produced by the friction of two pieces of wood or stick--generally the dry flower-stem of the
Xanthorrea. The natives, however, usually carry a lighted piece of wood about with them, and do not often let
it go out.]
Anything that is extraordinary or unusual, is a subject of great dread to the natives: of this I had a singular
instance at Moorunde. In March, 1843, I had a little boy living with me by his father's permission, whilst the
old man went up the river with the other natives to hunt and fish. On the evening of the 2nd of March a large
comet was visible to the westward, and became brighter and more distinct every succeeding night. On the 5th
I had a visit from the father of the little boy who was living with me, to demand his son; he had come down
the river post haste for that purpose, as soon as he saw the comet, which he assured me was the harbinger of
all kinds of calamities, and more especially to the white people. It was to overthrow Adelaide, destroy all
Europeans and their houses, and then taking a course up the Murray, and past the Rufus, do irreparable
damage to whatever or whoever came in its way. It was sent, he said, by the northern natives, who were
powerful sorcerers, and to revenge the confinement of one of the principal men of their tribe, who was then in
Adelaide gaol, charged with assaulting a shepherd; and he urged me by all means to hurry off to town as
quickly as I could, to procure the man's release, so that if possible the evil might be averted. No explanation
gave him the least satisfaction, he was in such a state of apprehension and excitement, and he finally marched
off with the little boy, saying, that although by no means safe even with him, yet he would be in less danger
than if left with me.
All natives of Australia believe in sorcery and witchcraft on the part of certain of their own tribe, or of others.
To enable them to become sorcerers, certain rites must be undergone, which vary among the different tribes.
Around Adelaide they have at one period to eat the flesh of young children, and at another that of an old man,
but it does not appear that they partake more than once in their life of each kind. When initiated, these men
possess extensive powers, they can cure or cause diseases, can produce or dissipate rain [Note 88 at end of
para.], wind, hail, thunder, etc. They have many sacred implements or relics, which are for the most part
carefully kept concealed from the eyes of all, but especially from the women, such as, pieces of rock crystal,
said to have been extracted by them from individuals who were suffering under the withering influence of
some hostile sorcerers; the pringurru, a sacred piece of bone (used sometimes for bleeding), etc. The latter, if
burned to ashes in the fire, possesses mortiferous influence over enemies. If two tribes are at war, and one of
either happens to fall sick, it is believed that the sickness has been produced by a sorcerer of the opposite
tribe, and should the pringurru have been burnt, death must necessarily follow.
[Note 88: Also an American superstition.--Vide Catlin, vol.i.p. 134. "Sorcerers or rain makers, for both offices
are generally assumed by one individual."--Moffat's South Africa, p. 305.]
As all internal pains are attributed to witchcraft, sorcerers possess the power of relieving or curing them.
Sometimes the mouth is applied to the surface where the pain is seated, the blood is sucked out, and a bunch
of green leaves applied to the part; besides the blood, which is derived from the gums of the sorcerer, a bone
is sometimes put out of the mouth, and declared to have been procured from the diseased part; on other
occasions the disease is drawn out in an invisible form, and burnt in the fire, or thrown into the water; at
others the patient is stretched upon the ground, whilst another person presses with his feet or hands upon the
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Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
diseased part, or cold water is sprinkled over, and green leaves used as before. There are few complaints that
the natives do not attempt to cure, either by charms or by specific applications: of the latter a very singular
one is the appliance personally of the urine from a female--a very general remedy, and considered a sovereign
one for most disorders. Bandages are often applied round the ankles, legs, arms, wrists, etc. sufficiently tight
to impede circulation; suction is applied to the bites of snakes, and is also made use of by their doctors in
drawing out blood from the diseased part, a string being tied to the hair, if it be the head that ails, or to any
other part, and the opposite end is put into the sorcerer's mouth, who then commences sucking and spitting out
blood, which he declares comes from the patient. Blood letting is practised occasionally to relieve pains in the
head, or oppression of the system. The operation is performed by opening a vein in the arm, with a piece of
rock crystal in the same way as Europeans bleed.
Fractures of the extremities are treated with splints and bandages, as in Europe. Venereal ulcers are sprinkled
with alkaline wood ashes, the astringent liquid of the nettle bark, or a macerated preparation from a particular
kind of broad-leaved grass. Superficial wounds are left to themselves, and usually heal without much trouble.
Malformations of the body are attributed to the influence of the stars, caused by the mother eating forbidden
food during pregnancy, or if occurring after birth it is still caused by the stars, in consequence of forbidden
food being eaten. The teeth of the native are generally regular and very beautiful, indeed, in their natural state,
I have never seen a single instance of decayed teeth, among them. Among those, however, who have been
living near Europeans for some years past, and whose habits and diet have been changed from simple to more
artificial ones, a great alteration is taking place in this respect, and symptoms of decaying teeth are beginning
to make their appearance among many.
Among other superstitions of the natives, they believe in the existence of an individual called in the
Murrumbidgee Biam, or the Murray Biam-baitch-y, who has the form and figure of a black, but is deformed
in the lower extremities, and is always either sitting cross-legged on the ground, or ferrying about in a canoe.
From him the natives say they derive many of the songs sung at their dances; he also causes diseases
sometimes, and especially one which indents the face like the effects of small pox. Another evil agency,
dreaded by the natives, is a spirit of the waters, called ngook-wonga, it causes many diseases to those who go
into the waters in unauthorised places, or at improper times, hence a native is very loth to go into water he is
not accustomed to for the first time.
To counteract the evil effects produced by this spirit, there are persons particularly devoted to this branch of
sorcery, the following is a case where I saw them exercise their powers. A boy of about fourteen had at the
Murray river been seized with a severe attack of erysipelas in the lower part of one of his legs, from bathing
and remaining in the water when heated. As this did not get better, it was ascribed to the evil agency of the
Spirit of the Waters; and the Pachwonga or Pachwin were called in to cure him. They arrived late at night,
three in number, and at once proceeded to the exercise of their duties. As soon as it was seen that the
magicians were coming, the friends of the boy lifted him up, and carrying him some distance away from the
camp, placed him on the ground by himself, and then ranged themselves in two rows upon either side, in a
sitting posture, but at some distance behind the patient. The three magi now advanced in the form of a
triangle, one leading and the other two behind, equidistantly apart. They were all painted, carried bunches of
green reeds in their hands, which they kept shaking, and danced [Note 89 at end of para.] with a measured
tread, keeping the right foot always in advance of the other as in a galopade, and singing a low solemn dirge,
which was vehemently beat time to, by the natives behind thumping on the ground. Upon arriving at the boy,
the leading native fell down on his knees close to him, and took hold of the diseased leg, the other two still
dancing and singing around the patient. In a little time, one of the two fell down also on his knees on another
side of the boy, leaving the third still dancing and singing around them. At last he fell down also on his knees
in a triangular position with the others, the boy being in the centre. All three now commenced blowing,
spitting, making curious gurgling kinds of noises, waving their green bunches of reeds, and pressing forcibly
upon the diseased leg to make the patient give audible indications of the evil spirit leaving him. After some
Chapter V. 141
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
time, two of the three doctors got up again, danced and sung around the boy, and then once more assuming
their kneeling positions, recommenced spitting and blowing, waving their bunches of reeds, and making the
same curious noises, but louder than ever. Their exorcism at last was effectual, the evil spirit, in the shape of a
sharp stone, was extracted from the limb, and driven into the ground; but it was too dark they said to see it. As
soon as this agreeable news was announced, the friends of the boy came up and hastily removed him back to
the camp, whilst the three doctors assuming the triangular position, sung and danced round the place where
the boy had been laid, and then advancing in the same form towards the river, keeping the right foot always in
advance, they at last fairly drove the spirit into the water and relieved the neighbourhood from so troublesome
a visitor.
[Note 89: "Dancing over him, shaking his frightful rattles, and singing songs of incantation, in the hopes to
cure him by a charm."--Catlin's North American Indians, vol. i.p. 39.]
It was a long time before I lost a vivid impression of this ceremony; the still hour of the night, the naked
savages, with their fancifully painted forms, their wild but solemn dirge, their uncouth gestures, and unnatural
noises, all tended to keep up an illusion of an unearthly character, and contributed to produce a thrilling and
imposing effect upon the mind.
At the Murray River, singular looking places are found sometimes, made by the natives by piling small stones
close together, upon their ends in the ground, in a shape resembling the accompanying diagram, and
projecting four or five inches above the ground. The whole length of the place thus inclosed, by one which I
examined, was eleven yards; at the broad end it was two yards wide, at the narrow end one. The position of
this singular looking place, was a clear space on the slope of a hill, the narrow end being the lowest, on in the
direction of the river. Inside the line of stones, the ground was smoothed, and somewhat hollowed. The
natives called it Mooyumbuck, and said it was a place for disenchanting an individual afflicted with boils. In
other places, large heaps of small loose stones are piled up like small haycocks, but for what purpose I could
never understand. This is done by the young men, and has some connection probably with their ceremonies or
amusements.
In others, singular shaped spaces are inclosed, by serpentine trenches, a few inches deep, but for what purpose
I know not, unless graves have formerly existed there.
Another practice of the natives, when travelling from one place to another, is to put stones up in the trees they
pass, at different heights from the ground, to indicate the height of the sun when they passed. Other natives
following, are thus made aware of the hour of the day when their friends passed particular points. Captain
Grey found the same custom in Western Australia; vol. i. p. 113, he says:--
"I this day again remarked a circumstance, which had before this period elicited my attention, which was, that
we occasionally found fixed on the boughs of trees, at a considerable height from the ground, pieces of
sandstone, nearly circular in form, about an inch and a half in thickness, and from four to five in diameter, so
that they resembled small mill-stones. What was the object of thus fashioning, and placing these stones, I
never could conceive, for they are generally in the least remarkable spots. They cannot point out burial places,
for I have made such minute searches, that in such case I must have found some of the bones; neither can they
indicate any peculiar route through the country, for two never occur near one another."
The power of sorcery appears always to belong, in a degree, to the aged, but it is assumed often by the middle
aged men. It is no protection to the possessor, from attack, or injury, on the part of other natives. On the
contrary, the greater the skill of the sorcerer, and the more extensive his reputation, the more likely is he to be
charged with offences he is unconscious of, and made to pay their penalty. Sorcerers are not ubiquitous, but
have the power of becoming invisible, and can transport themselves instantaneously to any place they please.
Women are never sorcerers. It is a general belief among almost all the Aborigines, that Europeans, or white
Chapter V. 142
Journals Of Expeditions Of Discovery Into Central Australia Volume 2
people, are resuscitated natives, who have changed their colour, and who are supposed to return to the same
localities they had inhabited as black people. The most puzzling point, however, with this theory, appears to
be that they cannot make out how it is that the returned natives do not know their former friends or relatives. I
have myself often been asked, with seriousness and earnestness, who, among the Europeans, were their
fathers, their mothers, and their other relatives, and how it is that the dead were so ignorant, or so forgetful, as
not to know their friends when they again returned to the earth.
One old native informed me, that all blacks, when dead, go up to the clouds, where they have plenty to eat and
drink; fish, birds, and game of all kinds, with weapons and implements to take them. He then told me, that
occasionally individuals had been up to the clouds, and had come back, but that such instances were very rare;
his own mother, he said, had been one of the favoured few. Some one from above had let down a rope, and
hauled her up by it; she remained one night, and on her return, gave a description of what she had seen in a
chaunt, or song, which he sung for me, but of the meaning of which I could make out nothing.
Chapter VI.
NUMBERS
DISEASES
CAUSE OF LIMITED POPULATION
CRIMES AGAINST EUROPEANS
AMONGST THEMSELVES
TREATMENT OF EACH OTHER IN DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD, etc.
There is scarcely any point connected with the subject of the Aborigines of New Holland, upon which it is
more difficult to found an opinion, even approximating to the truth, than that of the aggregate population of
the continent, or the average number of persons to be found in any given space. Nor will this appear at all
surprising, when the character and habits of the people are taken into consideration. Destitute of any fixed
place of residence, neither cultivating the soil, nor domesticating animals, they have no pursuits to confine
them to any particular locality, or to cause them to congregate permanently in the same district. On the
contrary, all their habits have an opposite tendency.
The necessity of seeking daily their food as they require it, the fact of that food not being procurable for any
great length of time together in the same place, and the circumstance that its quality, and abundance, or the
facility of obtaining it, are contingent upon the season of the year, at which they may visit any particular
district, have given to their mode of life, an unsettled and wandering character.
The casual observer, or the passing traveller, has but little, therefore, to guide him in his estimate of the
population of the country he may be in. A district that may at one time be thinly inhabited, or even altogether
untenanted, may at another be teeming with population. The wanderer may at one time be surrounded by
hundreds of savages, and at another, in the same place he may pass on alone and unheeded.
At Lake Victoria, on the Murray, I have seen congregated upwards of six hundred natives at once, again I
have passed through that neighbourhood and have scarcely seen a single individual; nor does this alone
constitute the difficulty and uncertainty involved in estimating the numbers of the Aborigines. Such are the
silence and stealth with which all their movements are conducted, so slight a trace is left to indicate their line
of march, and so small a clue by which to detect their presence, that the stranger finds it impossible to tell
from any thing that he sees, whether he is in their vicinity or not. I have myself often when travelling, as I
imagined in the most retired and solitary recesses of the forest, been suddenly surprised by the unexpected
Captain Grey has observed in other parts of Australia, the same ingenuity and stealth manifested by them in
either cloaking their movements, or concealing their presence, until circumstances rendered it in their opinion
no longer necessary to preserve this concealment, vol. i. p. 147, he says: "Immediately numbers of other
natives burst upon my sight, each tree, each rock, seemed to give forth its black denizen as if by enchantment;
a moment before the most solemn silence pervaded these woods, we deemed that not a human being moved
within miles of us, and now they rang with savage and ferocious yells, and fierce armed men crowded around
us on every side, bent on our destruction."
Nor is it less difficult to arrive at the number of the population in those districts which are occupied by
Europeans. In some, the native tribes rarely frequent the stations, in others, portions only of the different tribes
are to be found; some belong to the district and others not. In all there is a difficulty in ascertaining the exact
number of any tribe, or the precise limits to which their territory extends in every direction around. Even
could these particulars be accurately obtained in a few localities, they would afford no data for estimating the
population of the whole, as the average number of inhabitants to the square mile, would always vary
according to the character of the country and the abundance of food.
Upon this subject Captain Grey remarks, vol. ii. p. 246, "I have found the number of inhabitants to a square
mile to vary so much from district to district, from season to season, and to depend upon so great a variety of
local circumstances, that I am unable to give any computation which I believe would even nearly approach to
truth."
Mr. Moorhouse, who has also paid much attention to this subject, in the neighbourhood of Adelaide, has
arrived at the conclusion, that, in 1843, there were about sixteen hundred aborigines, in regular or irregular
contact with the Europeans, in the province of South Australia; these he has classed as follows, viz.:--
Adelaide -
Encounter Bay 100
Moorunde 200
Port Lincoln 340
Hutt River 40
---
680
On the Murray River, which is, perhaps, the most densely populated part of the country, I imagine there are,
from Moorunde, about three to four natives to every mile of river, which as it winds very considerably in its
course, would give a large population to the square mile, if only the valley of the Murray was taken into
account.
There are other tribes also frequenting the river occasionally, from the back scrubs on either side; but as these
range through a great extent of country beyond the valley, and only sometimes come down there on a visit; I
do not include them in the estimate.
At Moorunde itself I have sometimes had from four to five hundred collected, and among those, only a few,
perhaps, from the very remote tribes.
At the Rufus and Lake Victoria, I have seen above six hundred together, where they had no other motive to
collect in so large a party, than from custom, and for the enjoyment of festivity.
Large towns are frequently the centre of meeting for many, and very distant tribes. The facility of obtaining
scraps by begging, small rewards for trifling jobs of work, donations from the charitable, and a variety of
broken victuals, offal, etc. enable them to collect in large numbers, and indulge to the uttermost their curiosity
in observing the novelties around them, in meeting strange tribes, and joining them either in war or festivity,
in procuring tools, clothes, etc. to carry back and barter in their own districts, and for other similar objects.
Thus, Adelaide is nearly always occupied by tribes from one part or other of the country: on an average, it will
support probably six hundred in the way I have described, though occasionally eight hundred have met there.
The following returns of the numbers who have attended the annual muster on the Queen's birthday, when
bread and beef have been distributed, will show how the ratio has gone on increasing during the last five
years.
In the Murray district, where it has been customary, since the first establishment of the post at Moorunde, to
issue a certain quantity of flour once in the month (at the full moon) to every native who chose to come in to
receive it, the increase in attendance has been progressively going on, viz.
2 issues in 1841 the average attendance were 52 men, women, and children
12 issues in 1842 the average attendance were 94 men, women, and children
10 issues in 1843 the average attendance were 136 men, women, and children
9 issues in 1844 the average attendance were 171 men, women, and children
Occasionally nearly 500 natives have been present at these monthly issues of flour, and the reason that the
average attendance is not greater, is, that immediately after collecting at Moorunde, at the full of the moon, to
In endeavouring to estimate the numbers and proportions of the sexes, and children, almost as great a
difficulty exists as in that of obtaining their aggregate numbers. This arises from the fact of the more distant
tribes who visit Europeans stations, frequently leaving their younger wives, or little children at home, with
aged relatives, whilst they themselves go to a distance. In all the periodical, or regular issues of flour at the
time of full moon, I have accurately kept lists of all who attended. The gross totals of thirty-three issues are as
follows:--
Men 1266
Women 1330
Boys 930
Girls 551
Infants 52
----
4129
From this it is apparent, first, that the women attending the monthly meetings at the Murray have been, on the
whole, about five and a half per cent in excess of the men, an extraordinary and unusual circumstance, as
compared with the results obtained at other places. I can only account for this upon the supposition before
given, that when large bodies of natives leave Moorunde for Adelaide, more men than women go away, and
that consequently a larger proportion of females is left behind. Mr. Moor-house remarks, upon this point, that
he has found the males to average seventy per cent more than the females, among the Adelaide tribes. My
own observation leads me to the opinion that upon the Murray the two sexes are as nearly equal in numbers as
may be.
Secondly, it would appear, that of the Moorunde issues, the number of girls attending has been little more than
one half that of the boys. This may, perhaps, arise in some measure from females assuming the duties of
women, and being classed as such, at an age when males would still be considered as only boys. The principal
reason, however, must, as before, be ascribed to a greater number of girls being left behind by the more
distant tribes when they come to visit Moorunde.
Thirdly, from the list I have given, it seems that to each woman there would be about 1 1/3 child. Upon this
subject Mr. Moorhouse remarks, that his investigation has led to the conclusion that each woman has, on an
average, five children born (nine being the greatest number known), but that each mother only rears, upon an
average, two; and this I think, upon the whole, would be a tolerably correct estimate.
There is one point connected with the return I have given, peculiarly striking, as it shews the comparatively
small increase that now appears to be going on among the more numerous tribes of the Aborigines, I allude to
the fact of there only having been fifty-two young infants among 1330 women. By infants I mean such as had
to be carried in the arms, for those who could walk at all have been classed among the boys and girls.
I have never known a case of twins among the Aborigines, and Mr. Moorhouse informs me that no case has
ever come under his observation; but Captain Grey found such to occur sometimes in Western Australia. On
the number and proportion of the sexes he observes, that 4.6 seemed to be the average number of children
These remarks, as far as my observation has extended, apply to the natives of New Holland generally. I have
frequently met with many venerable, white-headed men among the Aborigines, who could not, I think, have
been less than eighty years of age, and who yet retained the full vigour of mind, and the bold, upright, though
now wasted form, that had characterised them in the pride of manhood; but about sixty-five appears perhaps
to be the average age attained by the old.
The second inference is more than borne out by the statement already recorded, that for every five children
born on an average to each mother, two only are reared, and these subject to all the casualities and dangers
which savage life is exposed to.
[Note 90: This can of course only apply to tribes tolerably well known to Europeans, and more or less
frequently coming in contact with them. Of tribes in their natural state we can have no accurate data, and but
few passing notes even that are worthy of confidence. Generally I have found children to be numerous among
tribes who have never had intercourse with Europeans' and it is a well known fact that the increase of numbers
in aboriginal tribes is checked in proportion to the frequency, or the extent of their communication with
Europeans. At Flinders island to which 210 Van Diemen's Land natives were removed from Van Diemen's
Land in 1835, this is singularly exemplified. In 1842 Count Strzelecki says, page 353--"And while each
family of the interior of New South Wales, uncontaminated by contact with the whites, swarms with children,
those of Flinders island, had during eight years an accession of only fourteen in number."]
Upon inquiry into the causes which tend to prevent population going on in an increasing ratio among the
natives of Australia, the following appear to be the most prominent. First, polygamy, and the illicit and almost
unlimited intercourse between the sexes, habits which are well known to check the progress of population,
wherever they prevail.
Secondly. Infanticide, which is very general, and practised to a great extent, especially among the younger and
favourite women.
Thirdly. Diseases, to which in a savage state young children are peculiarly liable, such as dysentry, cold, and
their consequences, etc.
[Note 91: Huic accedit, ex quo illis sunt immisti Europaei, lues venerea. Morbum infantibus matres afflant, et
ingens multitudo quotannis inde perit.]
Fourthly. Wars and quarrels, occurring sometimes from the most trivial circumstances, and often ending in
deaths, or wounds that terminate in death.
The diseases to which the natives are subject, are with the exception of those induced by artificial living, as
gout, rheumatism, etc. very similar to those which afflict Europeans, the principal being the result of
inflammation, acute, or chronic, arising from exposure to the cold, and which affects most generally the
bronchiae, the lungs, and the pleura. Phthisis occasionally occurs, as does also erysipelas. Scrofula has been
met with, but very rarely. A disease very similar to the small-pox, and leaving similar marks upon the face,
appears formerly to have been very prevalent, but I have never met with an existing case, nor has Mr.
[Note 92: Ex morbis quos patiuntur ab adventu Europaeorum longe frequentissima et maxime fatalis est lues
venerea. An hic morbus indigenis, priusquam illis immiscebuntur Europaei erat notus, sciri nunc minime
potest. Ipsi jamdiu ex oriente adductum dicunt, ex quo maxime probabile videtur, eum, origine prima ex
Europa, inde de gente in gentem per totam poene continentem esse illatam. Neque dubium eum in gentibus iis
quibus non immiscentur Europaei, neque frequentem esse, nec acrem, eorum autem per immistionem
terribilem in modum augescere. Quinetiam ii sunt indigenarum mores, ut, adveniat modo forma sub pessima
morbus, velox et virulentus qualis nusquam alias illico latissime effluat. Licet bene sciant hae gentes, hunc,
sicut ejus modi alii morbum per contactum contractum esse illis tamen pestem cujus indies spectantur tantae
tamque terribiles offensiones, vitare minime curae est. Vidi egomet plurimos non modo aegrotorum in
tentoriis otiari, verum etiam foedatus ita secure induere vestes aut iisdem in stragulis cubare, ac si optima ibi
adesset sanitas. Mihi stationem publicam ponendi causa ad "Morrandi" in mensa Octobris, 1841, advenienti,
occurrebant populi morbis poene liberi formam atque membra bene formati; postea autem ex frequenti cum
oppido et proximis stationibus commercio, circa Octobrem 1844, morbos quam maxime horridos
contraxerant. Inde eo tempore moribundi erant plurimi, nonnulli mortui, paucique ex iis, qui frequenter
coibant, ex omni aetate et sexu hujusce pestis formis omnino expertes erant. Apud indigenas morbus hic
eodem fere modo quo apud Europaeos sese ostendere videtur variis tamen ex causis etiam magis odiosum, eo
praesertim quod pustulae rotundae, magnitudinem fere uncialem habentes, simul in cute exsurgunt. His
gradatim, cum pure effluente, pars media expletur, et inde magis magisque crescentibus et dispersis corporis
universi superficies tabe ac scabie laborat, quae propinquantibus simul horrorem ac nauseam movent. Ulcera
haec aliquando infra sex vel octo menses ipsa se cohaerent; plerumque autem incitamentorum et vi
causticorum ad locum adhibita infra hebdomadas tres sanantur. Nec minus apud indigenas quam apud
Europaeos, remedium hujusoe morbi speciale: medicamenta sunt mercurialia, majore tamen illis cum
periculo, tum propter eorum mores, quum quod plerumque sub dio vivunt, omni absente medicina. Post
annum primum aut alterum morbus evanescit, interdum mortem affert. Semper autem aegrotis miseris
cruciatus maximus et dolores perpetui inde flunt. Moorhousi de morbo hoc opiniones in paucis a meis
experimentis dissident, quum ille num glandem penis aut inguinis, principio nunquam, glandem autem penis
rarissime vel secundo attingere arbitrabatur. Ego autem et hoc et illud in ripis Murray fluminis vidi.]
Many natives of deformed persons are occasionally to be met with, especially in the extremities. I have seen
natives tall, and perfect, and well built in the body and limbs, from the head down to the knees: but from that
point downwards, shrivelled and blighted, presenting but skin and bone. Many are blind in one eye, some in
both; sometimes this appears the effect of inflammation, or of cataract; at others, it may be the result of
accident. Among those natives inhabiting the sandy drifts along the western coast, where the sand is always
circling about in a perfect shower, I have no doubt but that many become blind from its effects.
In October, 1839, Mr. Moorhouse found nine inhabitants in two huts to the south; out of these, five were quite
blind, and one had lost one eye; they were occupied in making nets.
Deaf and dumb persons are not often found among the Aborigines, but I have met with instances of this kind.
One of the most intelligent natives I ever met with, was a deaf and dumb youth at the Wimmera. From this
poor boy, I could more readily and intelligibly obtain by signs a description of the country, its character, and
localities, than from any native I ever met with, whose language I was at the time quite unacquainted with.
The blind, or the infirm, are generally well treated, and taken care of when young, but as soon as they advance
in years, or become an impediment to the movements of the tribe, they are abandoned at once by their people,
and left to perish.
The crimes committed by the natives against Europeans do not bear any proportion, either numerically, or in
magnitude, to their number, as a people, and the circumstances of their position. When we consider the low
state of morals, or rather, the absence of all moral feeling upon their part, the little restraint that is placed upon
their community, by either individual authority, or public opinion, the injuries they are smarting under, and
the aggressions they receive, it cannot but be admitted that they are neither an ill disposed, nor a very
vindictive people. The following are the returns of the convictions of natives in South Australia for the years
1842 and 1843, viz. :--
SUPREME COURT.
--------------
Larceny 2 0 2
Assault with intent to murder 2 0 0
Wilful murder 0 3 1
Sheep stealing 1 2 1
Cattle stealing 0 1 2
Assault 0 3 3
Breaking windows 1 0 0
Intoxication 3 0 0
Injuring park trees 0 0 2
----------
9 9 11
In the colony of New South Wales, the return of all the trials of the Aborigines, from 10th February, 1837, to
the 24th July, 1843, amounted to thirty-three cases, and implicated sixty-one individuals. The offences were
chiefly murder and assault, or stealing sheep and cattle. In ten cases only, out of thirty-three, convictions took
place, and nineteen individuals were sentenced, viz., twelve to death, six to transportation for ten years, and
one to a flogging. [Note 93: For particulars vide Papers on the Aborigines of Australian Colonies, printed for
the House of Commons, August 9th, 1844.]
Among the natives, but few crimes are committed against each other; in fact, it would be somewhat difficult
to define what their idea of crime would be, for that which is offensive on the part of another is considered a
virtue in themselves. Accustomed to act upon the impulse of the moment, and to take summary vengeance for
injury, real or imagined, their worst deeds are but in accordance with their own standard of right, having no
moral sense of what is just or equitable in the abstract, their only test of propriety must in such cases be,
whether they are numerically, or physically strong enough to brave the vengeance of those whom they may
have provoked, or injured. Custom has, however, from time immemorial, usurped the place of laws, and with
them, perhaps, is even more binding than they would be. Through custom's irresistible sway has been forged
the chain that binds in iron fetters a people, who might otherwise be said to be without government or
restraint. By it, the young and the weak are held in willing subjection to the old and the strong. Superstitious
to a degree they are taught from earliest infancy to dread they know not what evil or punishment, if they
infringe upon obligations they have been told to consider as sacred. All the better feelings and impulses
implanted in the human heart by nature, are trampled upon by customs, which, as long as they remain
unchanged, must for ever prevent them from rising in the scale of civilization and improvement, or to use the
apt and expressive language of Captain Grey upon this point, vol. ii. p. 217 :--
Those customs regulate all things, the acquisition and disposal of wives, the treatment of women, of the
elders, the acquiescence of the younger members of a tribe in any measure that may have been decided upon
by the old men, the rules which guide the international intercourse between different tribes, the certain
restrictions or embargoes that are put upon different kinds of food or at certain ages, the fear of sorcery or
witchcraft if they transgress the orders of the elders, or break through the ordinances that have been imposed
upon them, and many other similar influences.
In their intercourse with each other I have generally found the natives to speak the truth and act with honesty,
and they will usually do the same with Europeans if on friendly terms with them. In their treatment of each
other, and in the division of food, policy and custom have induced them to be extremely polite and liberal.
Old men are especially well off in this respect, as the younger people always give them the best and largest
share of everything. Males generally are generous and liberal to each other in sharing what food they have, but
it is not often that the females participate in the division. When following their usual pursuits upon the
Murray, I have seen the men after an hour or two's fishing with the nets, sit down and devour all they had
caught, without saving anything for their family or wives, and then hurry about noon to the camps to share in
what had been procured by the women, who usually begin to return at that hour, with what they have been
able to collect. Favourite kinds of food are also frequently sent as presents from one male to another, and at
other times two parties will meet and exchange the different kinds they respectively bring. Among the
younger people I have often seen a poor hungry fellow, who had by his skill or perseverance obtained some
small article of food, compelled by the rules of savage politeness to share out the petty spoil among a group of
expectant sharks around, whilst he whose skill or labour had procured it dared hardly taste it, and was sure to
come in for the smallest share.
Naturally, I do not think they are bloodthirsty; custom or example may sometimes lead them on to shed blood,
but it is usually in accordance with their prejudices or to gratify the momentary excitement of passion. With
many vices and but few virtues, I do not yet think the Australian savage is more? vicious in his propensities or
more virulent in his passions than are the larger number of the lower classes of what are called civilized
communities. Well might they retort to our accusations, the motives and animus by which too many of our
countrymen have been actuated towards them.
I have remarked that as far as my observation has enabled me to judge, the natives are rarely guilty of
offences (which they deem such,) towards members of their own tribes. There are many acts, however, which
according to our ideas of right and wrong, are acts of the greatest cruelty and tyranny, which they exercise
towards each other, though sanctioned by custom, and enforced by daily practice. Such are the cruelties
inflicted upon the women, who are looked upon in the light of slaves, and mercilessly beaten or speared for
the most trifling offences. No one under any circumstances ever attempts to take the part of a female, and
consequently they are maltreated and oppressed in a shocking degree. Does a native meet a woman in the
woods and violate her, he is not the one made to feel the vengeance of the husband, but the poor victim whom
he has abused. Is there hard or disagreeable work of any kind to be done--the woman is compelled to do it. Is
there a scarcity of food at the camp when the husband comes home hungry--the wife is punished for his
indolence and inactivity.
[Note 94: In February 1842, Mr. Gouger, then Colonial Secretary at Adelaide, caused a dog belonging to a
native to be shot for some cause or other I am not acquainted with. The animal had been left by its master in
the charge of his wife, and as soon as he learnt that it was dead, he speared her for not taking better care of it.]
On the Murray river, or amongst the Adelaide natives I am not aware that any stated punishments are affixed
to specific crimes, except that of spearing in the arm to expiate deaths. Vengeance appears usually to be
summarily executed and on the spot, according to the physical strength or number of friends of the individual
injured; otherwise it is made a cause of quarrel between tribes, and a battle or disturbance of some kind takes
place. This appears to be one great point of distinction between the practice of some of the tribes in Southern
and Western Australia. Captain Grey says in reference to the latter place, (vol. ii. p. 243.)
"Any other crime may be compounded for, by the criminal appearing and submitting himself to the ordeal of
having spears thrown at him by all such persons as conceive themselves to have been aggrieved, or by
permitting spears to be thrust through certain parts of his body; such as through the thigh, or the calf of the
leg, or under the arm. The part which is to be pierced by a spear, is fixed for all common crimes, and a native
who has incurred this penalty, sometimes quietly holds out his leg for the injured party to thrust his spear
through."
This custom does not appear to hold among the tribes of South Australia, with whom I have come in contact;
but I have often been told by natives of tribes in New South Wales, that they practised it, although an instance
of the infliction of the punishment never came under my own observation.
Injuries, when once overlooked, are never revenged afterwards. Tribes may compel members to make
restitution, as in the case of stealing a wife; but I have never known an instance of one of their number being
given up to another tribe, for either punishment or death. Occasionally they have been induced to give up
guilty parties to Europeans; but to effect this, great personal influence on the part of the person employed is
necessary to ensure success. Though they are always ready to give up or point out transgressors, if belonging
to other tribes than their own.
Chapter VII.
LANGUAGE, DIALECTS, CUSTOMS, etc.
GENERAL SIMILARITY THROUGHOUT THE CONTINENT
CAUSES OF DIFFERENCES
ROUTE BY WHICH THE NATIVES HAVE OVERSPREAD THE COUNTRY, etc.
During the last few years much has been done towards an examination and comparison of the dialects spoken
by the aboriginal tribes of Australia in different portions of the continent. The labours of Mr. Threlkeld, of
Captain Grey, of Messrs. Teichelman and Schurmann, of Mr. Meyer, of Mr. Schurman, with the occasional
notes of visitors and travellers, have done much to elucidate this subject, and have presented to the world
vocabularies of the Hunter's River and Lake Macquarie districts in New South Wales; of Swan River and
King George's Sound in Western Australia; of Adelaide, of Encounter Bay, and of Port Lincoln, in South
Australia; besides occasional phrases or scanty manuals of various other dialects spoken in different districts.
From these varied contributions it would appear that a striking coincidence exists in the personal appearance,
[Note 95: Catlin remarks the existence of a similar number and variety in the dialects of the American Indians,
but appears to think them radically different from one another.]
The most singular and remarkable fact, connected with the coincidence of customs or dialect, amongst the
Aborigines, is that it exists frequently to a less degree among tribes living close to one another, than between
those who are more remotely separated. The reason of this apparent anomaly would seem to be, that those
tribes now living near to one another, and among whom the greatest dissimilarity of language and customs is
found to exist, have originally found their way to the same neighbourhood by different lines of route, and
consequently the greatest resemblances in language and custom, might naturally be expected to be met with,
(as is in reality the case), not between tribes at present the nearest to each other, but between those, who
although now so far removed, occupy respectively the opposite extremes of the lines of route by which one of
them had in the first instance crossed over the continent.
Without entering into an elaborate analysis, of either the structure or radical derivation of the various dialects
we are acquainted with, I shall adduce a few instances in each, of words taken from the vocabularies I have
mentioned before, for King George's Sound, Adelaide, Encounter Bay, and Port Lincoln, and supply them
myself from other dialects, including those meeting on the Murray or at the Darling, to shew the degree of
similarity that exists in language.
In selecting the examples for comparison, I have taken first the personal pronouns and numerals, as being the
words which usually assimilate more closely in the different dialects, than any other. Secondly, those words
representing objects which would be common to all tribes, and which from their continual recurrence, and
daily use, might naturally be supposed to vary the least from each other, if the original language of all were
the same, but which, if radically different in any, render the subject still more difficult and embarrassing.
DIALECTS
========
[Note 97. I may here refer to a curious mathematical calculation, by Dr. Thomas Young, to the effect, that if
three words coincide in two different languages, it is ten to one they must be derived in both cases from some
parent language, or introduced in some other manner. "Six words would give more," he says, "than seventeen
hundred to one, and eight near 100,000; so that in these cases, the evidence would be little short of absolute
certainty."--Vestiges of the Creation, p. 302.]
It must be admitted, however, that where the languages spoken by two tribes, appear to differ greatly, there is
no key common to both, or by which a person understanding one of them thoroughly, could in the least degree
make out the other, although an intimate acquaintance with one dialect and its construction, would
undoubtedly tend to facilitate the learning of another. A strong illustration of this occurs at Moorunde, where
three dialects meet, varying so much from each other, that no native of any one of the three tribes, can
understand a single word spoken by the other two, except he has learnt their languages as those of a foreign
people.
The dialects I allude to, are first that of the Murray river, called the "Aiawong" and which is spoken with
slight variations from the Lake Alexandrina, up to the Darling. Secondly, the "Boraipar," or language of the
natives to the east of the Murray, and which appears in its variations to branch into that of the south-eastern
tribes; and thirdly, the "Yak-kumban," or dialect spoken by the natives, inhabiting the country to the
north-west and north of the Murray, and which extends along the range of hills from Mount Bryant to the
Darling near Laidley's Ponds, and forms in its variations the language of the Darling itself; these tribes meet
upon the Murray at Moorunde, and can only communicate to each other by the intervention of the Aiawong
dialect, which the north-western or south-eastern tribes are compelled to learn, before they can either
communicate with each other, or with the natives of the Murray, at their common point of rendezvous.
To the tables already given, it is thought desirable to add two of the dialects, spoken in the country to the
eastward of South Australia, and which were published for the House of Commons, with other papers on the
Aborigines, in August 1844.
[Note: At this point in the book two table appear, with the following headings. These tables have not been
reproduces in this eBook.]
Captain Flinders observed the same difference to exist in various parts of New Holland, which he visited, and
yet that judicious navigator inclined to the opinion that all the various tribes had originally one common
origin. Vol. ii. p. 213-14, he says,
"The language of Caledon Bay (north-west coast) may therefore be totally different to what is spoken on the
east and south coasts, and yet the inhabitants have one common origin; but I do not think that the language is
absolutely and wholly different, though it certainly was no better understood by Bongarrco (a Sydney native)
than by ourselves. In three instances I found a similarity. The personal pronoun of Port Jackson, 'Ngia' (I), was
used here, and apparently in the same sense. When inquiry was made after the axe, the natives replied
'yehangeree-py,' making signs of beating, and py signifies to beat in the Port Jackson language. The third
instance was that of the lad Woga calling to Bongarree in the boat, which after he had done several times
without being answered, he became angry, and exclaimed Bongarree-gah in a vehement manner, as Bongarree
himself would have done in a similar case."
Captain Grey, in speaking of the Aborigines of New Holland, says (vol. ii. p. 209),
"One singularity in the dialects spoken by the Aborigines in different portions of Australia is, that those of
districts widely removed from one another, sometimes assimilate very closely, whilst the dialects spoken in
the intermediate ones differ considerably from either of them. The same circumstances take place with regard
to their rights and customs."
And again, after comparing some of the dialects of South Australia and New South Wales with those of
Western Australia, Captain Grey says (vol. ii. p. 216),
"Having thus traced the entire coast line of the continent of Australia, it appears that a language the same in
root is spoken throughout this vast extent of country, and from the general agreement in this, as well as in
personal appearance, rites and ceremonies, we may fairly infer a community of origin for the Aborigines."
Had we a collected and an authentic account of the dialects, weapons, habits, customs, and traditions of all the
tribes of Australia with whom Europeans have already been in close or friendly contact, and which, with very
few exceptions, would embrace the circuit of the whole continent, we should have a mass of valuable and
interesting information, that would enable us, not only to form a probable opinion as to the community of
origin of the various tribes, and the point from which they first overspread the continent, but also to guide us
in conjecturing the routes which the various offsets have taken from the parent tribe, the places of contact
where they have met from opposite extremities of the continent, and the gradual change which has taken place
in the habits, customs, and dialects of each.
In the absence of many links necessary to form a connection, we can at present only surmise conclusions,
which otherwise might have been almost certainly deduced.
Connecting, however, and comparing all the facts with which we are acquainted, respecting the Aborigines, it
appears that there are still grounds sufficient to hazard the opinion, that it is not improbable that Australia was
first peopled on its north-western coast, between the parallels of 12 degrees and 16 degrees S. latitude. From
whence we might surmise that three grand divisions had branched out from the parent tribe, and that from the
offsets of these the whole continent had been overspread.
The first division appears to have proceeded round the north-western, western, and south-western coast, as far
as the commencement of the Great Australian Bight. The second, or central one, appears to have crossed the
continent inland, to the southern coast, striking it about the parallel of 134 degrees E. longitude. The third
division seems to have followed along the bottom of the Gulf of Carpentaria to its most south-easterly bight,
and then to have turned off by the first practicable line in a direction towards Fort Bourke, upon the Darling.
From these three divisions various offsets and ramifications would have been made from time to time as they
Commencing with the parent tribe, located as I have supposed, first upon the north-west coast, we find, from
the testimony of Captain Flinders and Dampier, that the male natives of that part of the country, have two
front teeth of the upper jaw knocked out at the age of puberty, and that they also undergo the rite of
circumcision; but it does not appear that any examination was made with sufficient closeness to ascertain,
whether [Note 98: Vide Note 78.] any other ceremony was conjoined with that of circumcision. How far these
ceremonies extend along the north-western or western coasts we have no direct evidence, but at Swan River,
King George's Sound, and Cape Arid, both customs are completely lost, and for the whole of the distance
intervening between these places, and extending fully six hundred miles in straight line along the coast, the
same language is so far spoken, that a native of King George's Sound, who accompanied me when travelling
from one point to the other, could easily understand, and speak to any natives we met with. This is, however,
an unusual case, nor indeed am I aware that there is any other part of Australia where the same dialect
continues to be spoken by the Aborigines, with so little variation, for so great a distance, as in the colony of
Western Australia.
Following round the southern coast easterly, the head of the Great Bight is the first point at which any great
change appears to occur, and even here it is less in the character, language, and weapons of the natives, than in
their ceremonial observances. For the first time the rite of circumcision is observed, and conjoined with it the
still more extraordinary practice to which I have before alluded. The ceremony of knocking out the two upper
front teeth of boys arrived at the age of puberty, is not, however, adopted. We have already noticed, that for
six hundred miles to the west and north-west from the Great Bight, circumcision is unknown. The tribes,
therefore, who practise it, cannot have come from that direction, neither are they likely to have come from the
eastward, for after crossing the head of the Port Lincoln peninsula, and descending towards Adelaide, we find
the rite of circumcision alone is practised, without any other ceremony in connection with it. Now, in a change
of habits or customs, originating in the wandering, unsettled life of savages, it is very likely, that many of their
original customs may gradually be dropped or forgotten; but it is scarcely probable, that they should be again
revived by their descendants, after a long period of oblivion, and when those tribes from whom they more
immediately proceeded, no longer remembered or recognised such ceremonials. By extending the inquiry still
further to the east, the position I have assumed is more forcibly borne out, for the rite of circumcision itself
then becomes unknown. It is evident, therefore, that the Adelaide or Port Lincoln natives could not have come
along either the eastern or western coasts, and retained customs that are there quite unknown, neither could
they have come across the country inland, in the direction of the Darling, for the ceremonies alluded to are
equally unknown there. They must then have crossed almost directly from the north-western coast, towards
the south-eastern extremity of the great Australian Bight. And from them the Adelaide natives would appear
to be a branch or offset.
Returning to the north-west coast, and tracing down the route of the third division of the parent family, from
the south-east Bight of Carpentaria, towards Fort Bourke upon the Darling, we shall find, that by far the
greatest and most fertile portion of New Holland appears to have been peopled by it. In its progress, offsets
and ramifications would have branched off in every direction along the various ranges or watercourses
contiguous to the line of route. All the rivers running towards the eastern coast, together with the Nammoy,
the Gwyder, the Castlereagh, Macquarie, Bogan, Lochlan, Darling, Hume, Goulburn, etc. with their many
branches and tributaries, would each afford so many routes for the different sub-divisions of the main body, to
spread over the varied and fertile regions of Eastern, South-eastern, and part of Southern Australia. As tribe
separated from tribe, each would retain, in a greater or less degree, some of the language, habits, or customs of
the original division; but such points of resemblance would naturally again undergo many changes or
The division I have supposed as taking a south-easterly course from the Gulf of Carpentaria, would appear
early to have lost the rite of circumcision; but to have retained among some of its branches, the practice of
knocking out the front teeth of the upper jaw. Thus, those who made their way to Port Jackson and to Hunter's
River, and to some of the southern parts of New South Wales, still retained the practice of knocking out one of
the front teeth at the age of puberty; but at Keppel's, Harvey's, and Glass-House bays, on the north-east coast,
at Twofold bay on the south-east, at Port Phillip on the south, and upon the rivers Darling and Murray, of the
interior, no such rite is practised. It is clear, therefore, that when the continent was first peopled, the natives of
Sydney or Hunter's River could not have come round the north-east coast by Keppel's or Harvey's bays, and
retained a ceremony that is there lost; neither could the Murrumbidgee or southern districts of New South
Wales, have been peopled from Port Phillip, or from South Australia, or by tribes passing up the Murray for
the same reason. It is not demanding too much, therefore, to suppose that the general lines of route taken by
the Aborigines in spreading over the continent of Australia, have been somewhat analogous to those I have
imagined, or that we can fairly account for any material differences there may be in the dialects, customs, or
weapons of the different tribes, by referring them to the effect of local circumstances, the length of time that
may have elapsed since separation, or to the isolated position in which they may have been placed, with
regard to that division of the parent tribe from which they had seceded.
At present our information respecting the customs, habits, weapons and dialects of the various tribes is too
limited and too scattered to enable us to trace with accuracy the division to which each may have originally
belonged, or the precise route by which it had arrived at its present location; but I feel quite confident that this
may be done with tolerable certainty, when the particulars I have referred to shall be more abundantly and
correctly recorded.
It is at least a subject of much interest, and one that is well worthy the attention of the traveller or the
philanthropist. No one individual can hope personally to collect the whole material required; but if each
recorded with fidelity the facts connected with those tribes, with whom he personally came in contact, a mass
of evidence would soon be brought together that would more than suffice for the purpose required.
Chapter VIII.
EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH EUROPEANS
ATTEMPTS AT IMPROVEMENT AND CIVILIZATION
ACCOUNT OF SCHOOLS
DEFECTS OF THE SYSTEM
Of the blighting and exterminating effects produced upon simple and untutored races, by the advance of
civilization upon them, we have many and painful proofs. History records innumerable instances of nations
who were once numerous and powerful, decaying and disappearing before this fatal and inexplicable
influence; history WILL record, I fear, similar results for the many nations who are now struggling; alas, how
vainly, against this desolating cause. Year by year, the melancholy and appalling truth is only the more
apparent, and as each new instance multiplies upon us, it becomes too fatally confirmed, until at last we are
almost, in spite of ourselves, forced to the conviction, that the first appearance of the white men in any new
country, sounds the funeral knell of the children of the soil. In Africa, in the country of the Bushmen, Mr.
Moffat says--
"I have traversed those regions, in which, according to the testimony of the farmers, thousands once dwelt,
drinking at their own fountains, and killing their own game; but now, alas, scarcely is a family to be seen! It is
impossible to look over those now uninhabited plains and mountain glens without feeling the deepest
melancholy, whilst the winds moaning in the vale seem to echo back the sound, 'Where are they?'"
"The number of natives, estimated at the time of the discovery at about 200,000, are stated to have been
reduced, or cut off, to the present population of about 32,000, by a continual system of oppression, which
once begun, never slackened."
Catlin gives a feeling and melancholy account of the decrease of the North American Indians, [Note 99: Vide
Catlin's American Indians, vol. i. p. 4 and 5, and vol. ii. p. 238.] and similar records might be adduced of the
sad fate of almost every uncivilized people, whose country has been colonized by Europeans. In Sydney,
which is the longest established of all our possessions in New Holland, it is believed that not a single native of
the original tribes belonging to Port Jackson is now left alive. [Note 100 at end of para.] Advancing from
thence towards the interior a miserable family or two may be met with, then a few detached groups of
half-starved wretches, dependant upon what they can procure by begging for their daily sustenance. Still
further, the scattered and diseased remnants [Note 101 at end of para.], of once powerful, but now decayed
tribes are seen interspersed throughout the country, until at last upon arriving at the more remote regions,
where the blighting and annihilating effects of colonization have not yet overtaken them, tribes are yet found
flourishing in their natural state, free from that misery and diminution which its presence always brings upon
them.
[Note 100: "In the first year of the settlement of New South Wales, 1788, Governor Phillip caused the amount
of the population of Port Jackson to be ascertained, by every cove in it being visited by different inspectors at
the same time. The number of natives found in this single harbour was 130, and they had 67 boats. At the
same time it was known that many were in the woods making new canoes. From this and other data, Governor
Phillip estimated the population between Botany Bay and Broken Bay inclusive, at 1500."--Aboriginal
Protection Society's Report, May 1839, p. 13.
[Note 101: "The whole eastern country, once thickly peopled, may now be said to be entirely abandoned to
the whites, with the exception of some scattered families in one part, and of a few straggling individuals in
another; and these once so high spirited, so jealous of their independence and liberty, now treated with
contempt and ridicule even by the lowest of the Europeans; degraded, subdued, confused, awkward, and
distrustful, ill concealing emotions of anger, scorn, and revenge--emaciated and covered with filthy
rags;--these native lords of the soil, more like spectres of the past than living men, are dragging on a
melancholy existence to a yet more melancholy doom."--STRZELECHI'S N. S. WALES, p.350.]
It is here that the native should be seen to be appreciated, in his native wilds, where he alone is lord of all
around him. To those who have thus come into communication with the Aborigines, and have witnessed the
fearless courage and proud demeanour which a life of independence and freedom always inspires, it cannot
but be a matter of deep regret to see them gradually dwindling away and disappearing before the presence of
Europeans. As the ravages of a flood destroy the country through which it takes its course, and which its
deposit ought only to have fertilized, [Note 102 at end of para.] so the native, who ought to be improved by a
contact with Europeans, is overwhelmed and swept away by their approach. In Van Diemen's Land the same
result has been produced as at Sydney, but in a more extended and exterminating manner.[Note 103 at end of
para.] There, instead of a few districts, the whole island is depopulated of its original inhabitants, and only
thirty or forty individuals, the banished remnant of a once numerous people, are now existing as exiles at
Flinders Island, to tell the tale of their expatriation. [Note 104 at end of para.] In Western Australia the same
process is gradually but certainly going on among the tribes most in contact with the Europeans. In South
Australia it is the same; and short as is the time that this province has been occupied as a British Colony, the
results upon the Aborigines are but too apparent in their diminished numbers, in the great disproportion that
has been produced between the sexes, and in the large preponderance of deaths over births. A miserably
diseased condition, and the almost total absence of children, are immediate consequences of this contact with
Europeans. The increase or diminution of the tribes can only be ascertained exactly in the different districts,
by their being regularly mustered, and lists kept of the numbers and proportion of the sexes, births, deaths, etc.
[Note 102: "Hard indeed is the fate of the children of the soil, and one of the darkest enigmas of life lies in the
degradation and decay wrought by the very civilization which should succour, teach, and
improve."--ATHENAEUM.]
[Note 103: "That the Aboriginal Tasmanian was naturally mild and inoffensive in disposition, appears to be
beyond doubt. A worm, however, will turn, and the atrocities which were perpetrated against these
unoffending creatures may well palliate the indiscriminate, though heart-rending slaughter they entailed. Such
was the character of the Tasmanian native before roused by oppression, and ere a continued and systematic
hostility had arisen between the races--ere 'their hand was against every man, and every man's hand against
them.'" --MARTYN'S COLONIAL MAGAZINE, May, 1840.]
[Note 104: "At the epoch of their deportation, in 1835, the number of the natives amounted to 210. Visited by
me in 1842, that is, after the interval of seven years, they mustered only fifty-four individuals."
--STRZELECKI'S NEW SOUTH WALES, p. 352
Respecting the Aborigines of Van Diemen's Land, who were thus forcibly removed, Mr. Chief Protector
Robinson (who removed them) observes (Parliamentary Report, p. 198), "When the natives were all
assembled at Flinders Island, in 1835, I took charge of them, and have continued to do so ever since. I did not
find them retaining that ferocious character which they displayed in their own country; they shewed no
hostility, nor even hostile recollection towards the whites. Unquestionably these natives assembled on the
island were the same who had been engaged in the outrages I have spoken of; many of them, before they were
In April, 1843, or only six and a half years after South Australia had first been occupied, the Protector of the
Aborigines in Adelaide ascertained that the tribes, properly belonging to that neighbourhood, consisted of 150
individuals, in the following proportions, namely, 70 men, 39 women, and 41 children. Now, at the Murray,
among a large number of natives who, until 1842, were comparatively isolated from Europeans, and among
whom are frequently many different tribes, I found by an accurate muster every month at Moorunde for a
period of three years, that the women, on an average, were equally numerous with the men, from which I infer
that such is usually the case in their original and natural state. Taking this for granted, and comparing it with
the proportions of the Adelaide tribe, as given above, we shall find that in six years and a half the females had
diminished from an equality with the males, to from 70 to 80 per cent. less, and of course the tribe must have
sustained also a corresponding diminution with respect to children.
[Note 105: This result seems to be generally borne out by the few accurate returns that have hitherto been
made on the subject. In Mr. Protector Parker's report for his district, to the north-west of Port Phillip (for
January, 1843), that gentleman gives a census of 375 male natives, and 295 female, which gives an excess of
about 26 per cent. of males over females. In 1834 Mr. Commissioner Lambie gives a census, for the district of
Manero, of 416 males and 321 females, or an excess of the former over the latter of nearly 45 per cent. It
would appear that the disproportion of the sexes increases in a ratio corresponding to the length of time a
district has been occupied by settlers and their stock, and to the density of the European population residing in
it. Official returns for four divisions of the Colony of New South Wales, give a decrease of the proportion of
females to males of fifteen per cent. in two years. Vide Aborigines Protection Society Report, July, 1839, p.
69. In the same Report, p. 70, Mr. Threlkeld states, that the Official Report for one district gives only two
women to 28 men, two boys, and no girls.]
Again, in 1844, the Protector ascertained from the records he had kept that, in the same tribe, there were, in
four years, twenty-seven births and FIFTY deaths, which shews, beyond all doubt, the gradual but certain
destruction that was going on among the tribe. If no means can be adopted to check the evil, it must eventually
lead to their total extermination.
By comparing the twenty-seven births in four years with the number of women, thirty-nine, it appears that
there would be annually only one child born among every six women: a result as unnatural as it is evidently
attributable to the increased prostitution that has taken place, with regard both to Europeans and other native
tribes, whom curiosity has attracted to the town, but whom the Adelaide tribe were not in the habit of meeting
at all, or, at least, not in such familiar intercourse prior to the arrival of the white people. This single cause,
with the diseases and miseries which it entails upon the Aborigines, is quite sufficient to account for the
paucity of births, and the additional number of deaths that now occur among them.
In the Moorunde statistics, given Chapter VI., the very small number of infants compared with the number of
women is still more strongly illustrated; but in this case only those infants that lived and were brought up by
their mothers to the monthly musters were marked down; many other births had, doubtless, taken place, where
the children had died, or been killed, but of which no notice is taken, as it would have been impossible under
the circumstances of such a mixture of tribes, and their constantly changing their localities, to have obtained
an accurate account of all.
Under the circumstances of our intercourse with the Aborigines as at present constituted, the same causes
which produced so exterminating an effect in Sydney and other places, are still going on in all parts of
Australia occupied by Europeans, and must eventually lead to the same result, if no controlling measures can
Many attempts, upon a limited scale, have already been made in all the colonies, but none have in the least
degree tended to check the gradual but certain extinction that is menacing this ill-fated people; nor is it in my
recollection that throughout the whole length and breadth of New Holland, a single real or permanent convert
to Christianity has yet been made amongst them, by any of the missionaries engaged in their instruction, many
of whom have been labouring hopelessly for many years.
In New South Wales, one of the oldest and longest established missions in Australia was given up by the Rev.
Mr. Threlkeld, after the fruitless devotion of many years of toil. [Note 106 at end of para.] Neither have the
efforts hitherto made to improve the physical circumstances or social relations of the Aborigines been
attended with any better success. None have yet been induced permanently to adopt our customs, or
completely to give up their wandering habits, or to settle down fixedly in one place, and by cultivating the
ground, supply themselves with the comforts and luxuries of life. It is not that the New Hollander is not as apt
and intelligent as the men of any other race, or that his capacity for receiving instruction, or appreciating
enjoyment is less; on the contrary, we have the fullest and most ample testimony from all who have been
brought much into contact with this people that the very contrary is the case: a testimony that is completely
borne out by the many instances on record, of the quickness with which natives have learned our language, or
the facility with which temporarily they have accommodated themselves to our habits and customs.
[Note 106: Vide Parliamentary Reports on Australian Aborigines, 9th of August, 1844, pages 160 and
161.--"In submitting to this decision, it is impossible not to feel considerable disappointment to the
expectations formerly hoped to be realized in the conversion of some at least of the Aborigines in this part of
the colony, and not to express concern that so many years of constant attention appear to have been fruitlessly
expended. It is however, perfectly apparent that the termination of the mission has arisen solely from the
Aborigines becoming extinct in these districts, and the very few that remain elsewhere are so scattered, that it
is impossible to congregate them for instruction; and when seen in the towns, they are generally unfit to
engage in profitable conversation. The thousands of Aborigines, if ever they did exist in these parts, decreased
to hundreds, the hundreds have lessened to tens, and the tens will dwindle to units before a very few years will
have passed away."
"This mission to the Aborigines has ceased to exist, not from want of support from the British Government,
nor from the inclination of the agent, but purely from the Aborigines themselves becoming extinct in these
parts; and in leaving this scene of much solitariness, privation, and trial, it is earnestly hoped that He who
fixes the bounds of our habitation, apparently in Sydney for a season, will guide our feet through life to his
glory, and provide support for a numerous family, so that the 'ministry be not blamed.'"]
On the natural intelligence of the native children, Mr. Moorhouse remarks, after several years practical
experience:--
"They are as apt as European children so far as they have been tried, but they have not been put to abstract
reasoning. Their perceptive powers are large, as they are much exercised in procuring food, etc. Anything
requiring perception only is readily mastered, the alphabet will be known in a few lessons; figures are soon
recognised, and the quantities they represent, but addition from figures alone always presents difficulties for a
while, but in a little time, however, it is understood."
Upon the same subject, Captain Grey remarks, vol. ii. p. 374.
"They are as apt and intelligent as any other race of men I am acquainted with; they are subject to the same
affections, appetites, and passions as other men."
If we admit, and it is admitted by all whose experience best qualifies them to give an opinion, that the
Australian is fully equal in natural powers and intelligence, to the generality of mankind; it is very evident,
that where so little success has hitherto attended any attempts to improve him, either morally or socially, there
must either be some radical defects in the systems adopted, or some strongly counteracting causes to destroy
their efficiency. I believe, that to both these circumstances, may be traced the results produced.
The following remarks, by Captain Grey, upon this subject, point out some of the evils to which the natives
are subject, and in a great degree, account for the preference they appear to give to their own wild life and
habits. (Vol. 2. pp. 367 to 371.) He says:--
"If we inquire into the causes which tend to detain them in their present depressed condition, we shall find that
the chief one is--'prejudice' The Australians have been most unfairly represented as a very inferior race, in fact
as one occupying a scale in the creation which nearly places them on a level with the brutes, and some years
must elapse, ere a prejudice so firmly rooted as this can be altogether eradicated, but certainly a more
unfounded one never had possession of the public mind.
"Amongst the evils which the natives suffer in their present position, one is an uncertain and irregular demand
for their labour, that is to say, they may one day have plenty of means for exerting their industry afforded
them by the settlers, and the next their services are not required; so that they are necessarily compelled to have
recourse to their former irregular and wandering habits.
"Another is the very insufficient reward for the services they render. As an example of this kind, I will state
the instance of a man who worked during the whole season, as hard and as well as any white man, at getting in
the harvest for some setlers, and who only received bread, and sixpence a day, whilst the ordinary labourers
would earn at least fifteen shillings. In many instances, they only receive a scanty allowance of food, so much
so, that some settlers have told me that the natives left them because they had not enough to eat.
"The evil consequence of this is, that a native finding he can gain as much by the combined methods of
hunting and begging, as he can by working, naturally prefers the former and much more attractive mode of
procuring subsistence, to the latter one.
"Many of the natives have not only a good idea of the value of money, but even hoard it up for some
particular purpose; several of them have shewn me their little treasure of a few shillings, and have told me it
was their intention to save more until they had enough to buy a horse, a gun, or some wished-for article, but
their improvidence has always got the better of their thriftiness, and this sum has eventually been spent in
treating their friends to bread and rice.
"Another evil is the very extraordinary position in which they are placed with regard to two distinct sets of
laws; that is they are allowed to exercise their own laws upon one another, and are again held amenable to
"The following instances will prove my assertion: In the month of October 1838, I saw early one morning
some natives in the public street in Perth, in the act of murdering a native woman, close to the store of the
Messrs. Habgood: many Europeans were present, amongst others a constable; but there was no interference on
their part until eventually the life of the woman was saved by the courage of Mr. Brown, a gardener in Perth,
who rushed in amongst the natives, and knocked down the man who was holding her; she then escaped into
the house of the Messrs. Habgood, who treated the poor creature with the utmost humanity. She was,
however, wounded in several places in the most severe and ghastly manner.
"A letter I received from Mr. A. Bussel, (a settler in the southern part of the colony,) in May, 1839, shews that
the same scenes are enacted all over it. In this case, their cow-keeper, (the native whose burial is narrated at p.
330,) was speared by the others. He was at the time the hired servant of Europeans, performing daily a stated
service for them; yet they slew him in open day-light, without any cause of provocation being given by him.
"Again, in October, 1838, the sister of a settler in the northern district, told me that shortly before this period,
she had, as a female servant, a most interesting little native girl, not more than ten or eleven years of age. This
girl had just learned all the duties belonging to her employment, and was regarded in the family as a most
useful servant, when some native, from a spirit of revenge, murdered this inoffensive child in the most
barbarous manner, close to the house; her screams were actually heard by the Europeans under whose
protection, and in whose service she was living, but they were not in time to save her life. This same native
had been guilty of many other barbarous murders, one of which he had committed in the district of the Upper
Swan, in the actual presence of Europeans. In June, 1839, he was still at large, unmolested, even occasionally
visiting Perth.
"Their fondness for the bush and the habits of savage life, is fixed and perpetuated by the immense boundary
placed by circumstances between themselves and the whites, which no exertions on their part can overpass,
and they consequently relapse into a state of hopeless passive indifference.
"I will state a remarkable instance of this:--The officers of the Beagle took away with them a native of the
name of Miago, who remained absent with them for several months. I saw him on the North-west coast, on
board the Beagle, apparently perfectly civilized; he waited at the gun-room mess, was temperate (never tasting
spirits), attentive, cheerful, and remarkably clean in his person. The next time I saw him was at Swan River,
where he had been left on the return of the Beagle. He was then again a savage, almost naked, painted all
over, and had been concerned in several murders. Several persons here told me,--"you see the taste for a
savage life was strong in him, and he took to the bush again directly." Let us pause for a moment and
consider.
"Miago, when he was landed, had amongst the white people none who would be truly friends of his,--they
would give him scraps from their table, but the very outcasts of the whites would not have treated him as an
equal,--they had no sympathy with him,--he could not have married a white woman,--he had no certain means
of subsistence open to him,--he never could have been either a husband or a father, if he had lived apart from
his own people;--where, amongst the whites, was he to find one who would have filled for him the place of his
black mother, whom he is much attached to?--what white man would have been his brother?--what white
woman his sister? He had two courses left open to him,--he could either have renounced all natural ties, and
have led a hopeless, joyless life amongst the whites,--ever a servant,--ever an inferior being;--or he could
renounce civilization, and return to the friends of his childhood, and to the habits of his youth. He chose the
latter course, and I think that I should have done the same."
In New South Wales and Port Phillip, the Government have made many efforts in behalf of the Aborigines;
for a series of years past, and at present, the sum of about ten thousand pounds, is annually placed upon the
estimates, towards defraying the salaries of a Chief Protector, and several subordinate ones, and for other
expenses connected with the natives.
In Western Australia a sum of money is also devoted annually towards defraying the salaries of two
Protectors, and other expenses connected with the department.
I am not, however, personally aware, what the particular arrangements may be that have latterly been adopted
in either of these colonies, for the benefit of the Aborigines, or the degree of success which may have attended
them. I believe, however, that in both places, more has been attempted, within the last three or four years, than
had ever been the case before. What the eventual result may be it is impossible to tell, but with the past
In South Australia many efforts have been made in behalf of the Aborigines, and an anxious desire for their
welfare has frequently been exhibited on the part of the Government, and of many of the colonists. For the
year 1845 the sum of 820 pounds is noted in the estimates for the Aboriginal Department. This sum is
distributed as follows:--
There are three native schools established in the province. The first is that at the native location in the town of
Adelaide, commenced in December, 1839, by Mr. Klose, one of the Dresden missionaries. The average
attendance of children has been about sixteen, all of whom have latterly been lodged as well as fed at the
school. The progress made by the children may be stated to have been as follows: on the 16th February,
1844--
Most of the children could repeat the Lord's Prayer and Commandments, and they were able to narrate the
history of the Creation, the fall of our first parents, and other portions of the Old and New Testament. A few
were able to write these subjects to dictation. In geography many of the scholars knew the ordinary divisions
of the earth, its shape, diameter, circumference, and the names of the continents, oceans, seas, gulfs, etc. etc.
together with the general description of the inhabitants of each part, as to colour, etc. Of the girls, fourteen had
been taught to sew, and have made upwards of fifty garments for themselves, besides several shirts for
Europeans.
Mr. Klose receives as salary 33 pounds per annum from the Government, and a remittance from his society at
Dresden. The matron of the establishment also receives 20 pounds from the Government. The average
expense of provisions for each child per week, amounts to two shillings and ten pence. The cost of clothing
each child per year is 2 pounds. Until very recently this school was taught in the native language; but English
is now adopted, except in lecturing from Scripture, when the native language is still retained.
At Walkerville, about one mile from North Adelaide, another school has been established under the
superintendence of Mr. Smith, since May, 1844. Up to October of the same year the average attendance of
children had been sixty-three. In that short time the progress had been very satisfactory; all the children had
They go four times in the week to the council chamber to be instructed by gratuitous teachers. On Sunday
evening service is performed according to the Church of England by Mr. Fleming, and the children are said to
be attentive and well-behaved. The Methodists of the New Connection have them also under spiritual
instruction in the morning and afternoon of each Sabbath, assisted by persons of other religious
denominations.
All instruction is given in English; their food is cooked by the elder children, (who also provide the firewood,)
and distributed by themselves under the master's eye The cook is said to take good care of himself, and
certainly his appearance does not belie the insinuation, for he is by far the fattest boy in the lot. The school
building is a plain, low cottage, containing a school-room, a sleeping-room for the male children, another for
the female, and apartments for the master and mistress. There is also an old out-building attached, where the
children perform their ablutions in wet weather. Mr. and Mrs. Smith receive 100 pounds per annum from the
Colonial Government for their services. The children of this school have not yet been generally provided with
other clothing than a small blanket each. The third school was only just commenced at Encounter Bay, where
it has been established through the influence and exertions of Mr. Meyer, one of the missionaries. The
Government give 20 pounds per annum, and the settlers of the neighbourhood 100 bushels of wheat, and some
mutton. Six or eight children are expected to be lodged and boarded at this school, with the means at present
existing.
Besides the establishment of schools, there is a Protector resident in Adelaide to take the management of the
aboriginal department, to afford medical assistance and provisions to such of the aged or diseased as choose to
apply for them, and to remunerate any natives who may render services to the Government, or the
Protectorate. At Moorunde, upon the Murray, the natives are mustered once a month by the Resident
magistrate, and two pounds and a half of flour issued to each native who chooses to attend. This is
occasionally done at Port Lincoln, and has had a very beneficial effect. Once in the year, on the Queen's
birthday, a few blankets are distributed to some of the Aborigines at Adelaide, Moorunde, Encounter Bay, and
Port Lincoln, amounting in all to about 300. Four natives are also provisioned by the Government as attaches
to the police force at different out-stations, and are in many respects very useful.
Exclusive of the Government exertions in behalf of the Aborigines, there are in the province four missionaries
from the Lutheran Missionary Society at Dresden, two of whom landed in October 1838, and two in August
1840. Of these one is stationed at the native location, and (as has already been stated) acts as schoolmaster. A
second is living twelve miles from Adelaide, upon a section of land, bought by the Dresden Society, with the
object of endeavouring to settle the natives, and inducing them to build houses upon the property, but the plan
seems altogether a failure. It was commenced in November 1842, but up to November 1844 natives had only
been four months at the place; and on one occasion a period of nine months elapsed, without their ever
visiting it at all, although frequently located at other places in the neighbourhood.
A third missionary is stationed at Encounter Bay, and is now conducting a school, mainly established through
his own exertions and influence.
The fourth is stationed at Port Lincoln. All the four missionaries have learned the dialects of the tribes where
they are stationed, and three have published vocabularies and grammars as the proof of their industry.
Such is the general outline of the efforts that have hitherto been made in South Australia, and the progress
made. It may be well to inquire, what are likely to be the results eventually under the existing arrangements.
From the first establishment of the schools, until June 1843, the children were only instructed at the location,
their food was given to them to take to the native encampments to cook, and they were allowed to sleep there
at night. The natural consequence was, that the provisions intended for the sonolars were shared by the other
natives, whilst the evil influence of example, and the jeers of their companions, did away with any good
impression produced by their instruction. I have myself, upon going round the encampments in Adelaide by
night, seen the school-children ridiculed by the elder boys, and induced to join them in making a jest of what
they had been taught during the day to look upon as sacred.
A still more serious evil, resulting from this system was, that the children were more completely brought into
the power, and under the influence of the parents, and thus their natural taste for an indolent and rambling life,
was constantly kept up. The boys naturally became anxious to participate and excel in the sports, ceremonies,
or pursuits of their equals, and the girls were compelled to yield to the customs of their tribe, and break
through every lesson of decency or morality, which had been inculcated.
Since June, 1843, the system has so far been altered, that the children, whilst under instruction, are boarded
and lodged at the school houses, and as far as practicable, the boys and girls are kept separate. There are still,
however, many evils attending the present practice, most of which arise from the inadequacy of the funds,
applicable to the Aborigines, and which must be removed before any permanent good can be expected from
the instruction given. The first of these, and perhaps one of the greatest, is that the adult natives make their
encampments immediately in the neighbourhood of the schools, whilst the children, when out of school, roam
in a great measure at will, or are often employed collecting firewood, etc. about the park lands, a place almost
constantly occupied by the grown up natives, there is consequently nearly as much intercourse between the
school children and the other natives, and as great an influence exercised over them by the parents and elders,
as if they were still allowed to frequent the camps.
Another evil is, that no inducement is held out to the parents, to put their children to school, or to allow them
to remain there. They cannot comprehend the advantage of having their children clothed, fed, or educated,
whilst they lose their services; on the contrary, they find that all the instruction, advice, or influence of the
European, tends to undermine among the children their own customs and authority, and that when compelled
to enforce these upon them, they themselves incur the odium of the white men. Independently, however, of
this consideration, and of the natural desire of a parent to have his family about him, he is in reality a loser by
their absence, for in many of the methods adopted for hunting, fishing, or similar pursuits, the services even of
young children are often very important. For the deprivation of these, which he suffers when his children are
at school, he receives no equivalent, and it is no wonder therefore, that by far the great majority of natives
would prefer keeping their children to travel with them, and assist in hunting or fishing. It is a rare occurrence,
for parents to send, or even willingly [Note 107 at end of para.] to permit their children to go to school, and
the masters have consequently to go round the native encampments to collect and bring away the children
against their wishes. This is tacitly submitted to at the time, but whenever the parents remove to another
locality, the children are informed of it, and at once run away to join them; so that the good that has been done
in school, is much more rapidly undone at the native camp. I have often heard the parents complain
indignantly of their children being thus taken; and one old man who had been so treated, but whose children
had run away and joined him again, used vehemently to declare, that if taken any more, he would steal some
European children instead, and take them into the bush to teach them; he said he could learn them something
useful, to make weapons and nets, to hunt, or to fish, but what good did the Europeans communicate to his
children?
[Note 107: "Mr. Gunter expressed very decidedly his opinion, that the blacks do not like Mr. Watson, and that
they especially do not like him, SINCE HE HAS TAKEN CHILDREN FROM THEM BY FORCE: he would
himself like to have some children under his care, IF HE COULD PROCURE THEM BY PROPER
MEANS."--Memorandum respecting Wellington Valley, by Sir G. Gipps, November 1840.]
Such being the very limited, and perhaps somewhat equivocal advantages we offer the Aborigines, we can
hardly expect that much or permanent benefit can accrue to them; and ought not to be disappointed if such is
not the case. [Note 108 at end of para.] At present it is difficult to say what are the advantages held out to the
natives by the schools, since they have no opportunity of turning their instruction to account, and must from
necessity relapse again to the condition of savages, when they leave school. Taken as children from their
parents, against the wishes of the latter, there are not means sufficient at the schools for keeping them away
from the ill effects of the example and society of the most abandoned of the natives around. They are not
protected from the power or influence of their parents and relatives, who are always encouraging them to
leave, or to practise what they have been taught not to do. The good that is instilled one day is the next
obliterated by evil example or influence. They have no future openings in life which might lead them to
become creditable and useful members of society; and however well disposed a child may be, there is but one
sad and melancholy resource for it at last, that of again joining its tribe, and becoming such as they are.
Neither is there that disinclination on the part of the elder children to resume their former mode of life and
customs that might perhaps have been expected; for whilst still at school they see and participate enough in
the sports, pleasures, or charms of savage life to prevent their acquiring a distaste to it; and when the time
arrives for their departure, they are generally willing and anxious to enter upon the career before them, and
take their part in the pursuits or duties of their tribe. Boys usually leave school about fourteen, to join in the
chase, or learn the practice of war. Girls are compelled to leave about twelve, through the joint influence of
parents and husbands, to join the latter; and those only who have been acquainted with the life of slavery and
degradation a native female is subject to, can at all form an opinion of the wretched prospect before her.
[Note 108: The importance of a change in the system and policy adopted towards the Aborigines, and the
urgent necessity for placing the schools upon a different and better footing, appears from the following extract
from a despatch from Governor Hutt to Lord Stanley, 21st January, 1843, in which the difficulties and failure
attending the present system are stated. Mr. Hutt says (Parliamentary Reports, p. 416). "It is to the schools, of
course, that we must look for any lasting benefit to be wrought amongst the natives, and I regret most deeply
the total failure of the school instituted at York, and the partial failure of that at Guilford, both of which at
FIRST promised so well. The fickle disposition of these people, in youth as in older years, incapacitate them
from any long continued exertions, whether of learning or labour, whilst from the roving lives of the parents
in search of food, the children, if received into the schools, must be entirely supported at the public expense.
This limits the sphere of our operations, by restricting the number of the scholars who can thus be taken
charge of. Through the kindly co-operation of the Wesleyan Society at Perth, and the zealous pastoral
exertions of the Rev. Mr. King at Fremantle, the schools at both these places have been efficiently maintained;
but in the country, and apart from the large towns, to which the Aborigines have an interest in resorting in
large numbers for food and money, the formation of schools of a lasting character will be for some time a
work of doubt and of difficulty."]
There are two other points connected with the natives to which I will briefly advert: the one, relative to the
language in which the school children are taught, the other, the policy, or otherwise, of having establishments
for the natives in the immediate vicinity of a town, or of a numerous European population.
With respect to the first, I may premise, that for the first four years the school at the location in Adelaide was
conducted entirely in the native tongue. To this there are many objections.
First, the length of time and labour required for the instructor to master the language he has to teach in.
Secondly, the very few natives to whom he can impart the advantages of instruction, as an additional school,
and another teacher would be required for every tribe speaking a different dialect.
Thirdly, the sudden stop that would be put to all instruction if the preceptor became ill, or died, as no one
would be found able to supply his place in a country where, from the number, and great differences of the
various dialects, there is no inducement to the public to learn any of them.
Fourthly, that by the children being taught in any other tongue than that generally spoken by the colonists,
they are debarred from the advantage of any casual instruction or information which they might receive from
others than their own teachers, and from entering upon duties or relations of any kind with the Europeans
among whom they are living, but whose language they cannot speak.
Fifthly, that, by adhering to the native language, the children are more deeply confirmed in their original
feelings and prejudices, and more thoroughly kept under the influence and direction of their own people.
Among the colonists themselves there have scarcely been two opinions upon the subject, and almost all have
felt, that the system originally adopted was essentially wrong. It has recently been changed, and the English is
now adopted instead of the native language. I should not have named this subject at all, had I not been aware
that the missionaries themselves still retain their former impressions, and that although they have yielded to
public opinion on this point, they have not done so from a conviction of its utility.
The second point to which I referred,--the policy, or otherwise, of having native establishments near a
populous European settlement, is a much more comprehensive question, and one which might admit, perhaps,
of some reasons on both sides, although, upon the whole, those against it greatly preponderate.
The following are the reasons I have usually heard argued for proximity to town.
1st. It is said that the children sooner acquire the English language by mixing among the towns people. This,
however, to say the least, is a very negative advantage, for in such a contact it is far more probable that they
will learn evil than good; besides, if means were available to enable the masters to keep their scholars under
proper restrictions, there would no longer be even the opportunity for enjoying this very equivocal advantage.
2nd. It is stated that the natives are sooner compelled to give up their wandering habits, as there is no game
near a town. This might be well enough if they followed any better employment, but the contrary is the case;
and with respect to the school-children, the restriction would be the correction of a bad habit, which they
ought never to be allowed to indulge in, and one which might soon be done away with entirely if sufficient
inducement were held out to the parents to put their children to school, and allow them to remain there.
3rd. It is thought that a greater number of children can be collected in the vicinity of a town than elsewhere.
This may perhaps be the case at present, but would not continue so if means were used to congregate the
natives in their own proper districts.
4th. It is said that provisions and clothing are cheaper in town and more easily procured than elsewhere. This
is the only apparently valid reason of the whole, but it is very questionable whether it is sufficient to
counterbalance the many evils which may result from too close a contiguity to town, and especially so as far
as the adults are concerned. With respect to the children, if kept within proper bounds, and under proper
discipline, it is of little importance where they may be located, and perhaps a town may for such purposes be
sometimes the best. With the older natives however it is far different, and the evils resulting to them from too
close contact with a large European population, are most plainly apparent; in,--
1st. The immorality, which great as it is among savages in their natural state, is increased in a tenfold degree
when encouraged and countenanced by Europeans, and but little opening is left for the exercise of missionary
influence or exertions.
2nd. The dreadful state of disease which is superinduced, and which tends, in conjunction with other causes as
before stated, to bring about the gradual extinction of the race.
3rd. The encouragement a town affords to idleness, and the opportunities to acquire bad habits, such as
begging, pilfering, drinking, etc. the effects of which must also have a very bad moral tendency upon the
children.
The town of Adelaide appears capable of supporting about six hundred natives on an average. Many of these
obtain their food by going errands, by carrying wood or water, or by performing other light work of a similar
kind. Many are supported by the offal of a place where so much animal food is consumed; but by far the
greater number are dependent upon charity, and some few even extort their subsistence from women or
children by threats, if they have the opportunity of doing so without fear of detection.
The number of natives usually frequenting the town of Adelaide averages perhaps 300, but occasionally there
are even as many as 800. These do not belong to the neighbourhood of the town itself, for the Adelaide tribe
properly so called only embraces about 150 individuals. The others come in detached parties from almost all
parts of the colony. Some from the neighbourhood of Bonney's Well, or 120 miles south; some from the
Broughton, or 120 miles north; some from the upper part of the Murray, or nearly 200 miles east. Thus are
assembled at one spot sometimes portions of tribes the most distant from each other, and whose languages,
customs and ceremonies are quite dissimilar. If any proof were wanted to shew the power of European
influence in removing prejudices or effecting a total revulsion of their former habits and customs, a stronger
one could scarcely be given than this motley assembly of "all nations and languages." In their primitive state
such a meeting could never take place; the distant tribes would never have dreamt of attempting to pass
through the country of the intermediate ones, nor would the latter have allowed a passage if it had been
attempted.
I have remarked that in Adelaide many of the natives support themselves by light easy work, or going errands;
there are also a dozen, or fourteen young men employed regularly as porters to storekeepers with whom they
spend two-thirds of their time, and make themselves very useful. At harvest time many natives assist the
settlers. At Encounter Bay during 1843, from 70 to 100 acres of wheat or barley, were reaped by them; at
Adelaide from 50 to 60 acres, and at Lynedoch Valley they aided in cutting and getting in 200 acres. Other
natives have occasionally employed themselves usefully in a variety of ways, and one party of young men
collected and delivered to a firm in town five tons of mimosa bark up to December 1843. At the native
location during the year 1842, three families of natives assisted by the school-children, had dug with the spade
the ground, and had planted and reaped more than one acre of maize, one acre of potatoes, and half an acre of
melons, besides preparing ground for the ensuing year. On the Murray River native shepherds and
stock-keepers have hitherto been employed almost exclusively, and have been found to answer well. Most of
the settlers in that district have one or more native youths constantly living at their houses.
In concluding an account of the present state and prospects of the Aborigines and of the efforts hitherto made
on their behalf, I may state that I am fully sensible that to put the schools upon a proper footing and to do
away with the serious disadvantages I have pointed out as at present attending them, or to adopt effective
means for assembling, feeding, or instructing the natives in their own respective districts would involve a
I am aware that the subject of the Aborigines is one of a very difficult and embarrassing nature in many
respects, and I know that evils and imperfections will occasionally occur, in spite of the utmost efforts to
prevent them. No system of policy can be made to suit all circumstances connected with a subject so varied
and perplexing, and especially so, where every new arrangement and all benevolent intentions are restrained
or limited, by the deficiency of pecuniary means to carry out the object in a proper manner. Already the
subject of apprenticing the natives, or teaching them a trade, has been under the consideration of the
Government, but has been delayed from being brought into operation by the want of funds sufficient to carry
the object into effect. It is intended, I believe, to make the experiment as soon as means are available for that
purpose.
My duties as an officer of the Government having been principally connected with the more numerous, but
distant tribes of the interior, I can bear testimony to the anxious desire of the Government to promote the
welfare of the natives.
I have equal pleasure in recording the great interest that prevails on their behalf among their numerous friends
in the colonies, and the general kindness and good feeling that have been exhibited towards them on the part
of a large proportion of the colonists of Australia. It is in the hope that this good feeling may be promoted and
strengthened that I have been led to enter into the details of the preceding pages. In bringing before the public
instances of a contrary conduct or feeling, I by no means wish to lead to the impression that such are now of
very frequent or general occurrence, and I trust my motives may not be misunderstood. My sole, my only
wish has been to bring about an improvement in the terms of intercourse, which subsists between the settlers
and the Aborigines. Whilst advocating the cause of the latter, I am not insensible to the claims of the former,
who leaving their native country and their friends, cheerfully encounter the inconveniences, toils, privations,
and dangers which are necessarily attendant upon founding new homes in the remote and trackless wilds of
other climes. Strongly impressed with the advantages, and the necessity of colonization, I am only anxious to
mitigate its concomitant evils, and by effecting an amelioration in the treatment and circumstances of the
Aborigines, point out the means of rendering the residence or pursuits of the settler among an uncivilized
community, less precarious, and less hazardous than they have been. My object has been to shew the result, I
may almost say, the necessary result of the system at present in force, when taking possession of and
occupying a country where there are indigenous races. By shewing the complete failure of all efforts hitherto
made, to prevent the oppression and eventual extinction of these unfortunate people, I would demonstrate the
necessity of remodelling the arrangements made on their behalf, and of adopting a more equitable and liberal
system than any we have yet attempted.
I believe that by far the greater majority of the settlers in all the Australian Colonies would hail with real
pleasure, the adoption of any measures calculated to remove the difficulties, which at present beset our
relations with the Aborigines; but to be effectual, these measures, at the same time that they afford, in some
degree, compensation and support to the dispossessed and starving native--must equally hold out to the settler
and the stockholder that security and protection, which he does not now possess, but which he is fairly entitled
to expect, under the implied guarantee given to him by the Government, when selling to him his land, or
authorizing him to locate in the more remote districts of the country.
From a long experience, and an attentive observation of what has been going on around me, I am perfectly
satisfied, that unless some great change be made in our system, things will go on exactly as they have done,
and in a few years more not a native will be left to tell the tale of the wrongs and sufferings of his unhappy
I have now nearly discharged the duty I have undertaken--a duty which my long experience among the
natives, and an intimate acquaintance with their peculiarities, habits, and customs, has in a measure almost
forced upon me. In fulfilling it, I have been obliged to enter at some length upon the subject, to give as
succinct an account as I could of the unfavourable impressions that have often, but unjustly, been entertained
of the New Hollanders: of the difficulties and disadvantages they have laboured under, of the various relations
that have subsisted, or now subsist between them and the colonists, of the different steps that have been
adopted by the Government or others, to ameliorate their condition, and of the degree of success or otherwise
that has attended these efforts. I have stated, that from the result of my own experience and observation, for a
long series of years past, from a practical acquaintance with the character and peculiarities of the Aborigines,
and after a deliberate and attentive consideration of the measures that have been hitherto pursued, I have
unwillingly been forced to the conviction, that some great and radical defect has been common to all; that we
have not hitherto accomplished one single, useful, or permanent result; and that unless a complete change in
our system of policy be adopted for the future, there is not the slightest hope of our efforts being more
successful in times to come, than they have been in times past. That I am not alone or singular in the view
which I take on this subject, may be shewn from various sources, but most forcibly from the opinions or
statements of those, who from being upon the spot, and personally acquainted with the real facts of the case,
may be supposed to be most competent to form just conclusions, and most worthy of having weight attached
to their opinions. The impression on the public mind in the colonies, with respect to the general effect of the
measures that have heretofore been adopted, may be gathered from the many opinions or quotations to which I
have already referred in my remarks; many others might be adduced, if necessary, but one or two will suffice.
The following extract is from a speech by A. Forster, Esq. at a meeting held to celebrate the anniversary of the
South Australian Missionary Society, on the 6th September, 1843, and at which the Governor of the Colony
presided:--
"This colony had been established for nearly seven years, and during the whole of that time the natives had
been permitted to go about the streets in a state of nudity. [Note 109 at end of para.] This was not only an
outrage on decency and propriety, but it was demoralising to the natives themselves. Like Adam, after having
come in contact with the tree of knowledge, they had begun to see their own nakedness, and were ashamed of
it. If they could give them a nearer approach to humanity by clothing them, if they could make them look like
men, they would then, perhaps, begin to think like men. What he complained of was, not that they were in a
low and miserable condition, but that no effort had been made to rescue them from that condition."
[Note 109: And yet a law is passed, subjecting natives, who appear thus, to punishment!--How are they to
clothe themselves?]
"The circumstances, too, of the aborigines called upon them for increased exertion. They were wasting away
with disease--they were dying on the scaffold--they were being shot down in mistake for native dogs, and
their bleeding and ghastly heads had been exhibited on poles, as scare-crows to their fellows."
The report of the Missionary Society, read on the same occasion, says,
"Though it is undeniable that there is much to discourage in the small results which can yet be reckoned from
these efforts, and a variety of secondary means might be brought to bear with great advantage on the condition
of the natives, still we must exercise faith in the power of the Spirit of God, over the most savage soul, in
subduing the wicked passions and inclining the heart unto wisdom by exalted views of a future state, and of
the divine character and will."
Captain Grey's opinion of the little good that had ever been accomplished, may be gathered from the
following quotation, and which is fully as applicable to the state of the natives in 1844, as it was in 1841. Vol.
ii. p. 366, he says,
"I wish not to assert, that the natives have been often treated with wanton cruelty, but I do not hesitate to say,
that no real amelioration of their condition has been effected, and that much of negative evil, and indirect
injury has been inflicted on them."
Upon the same subject, the Committee of Management of the Native School at Perth, Swan River, Western
Australia, state in their 3rd Annual Report, dated 1844.
"With regard to the physical condition of the native children, and those who are approaching to mature life, it
may be observed, that they are somewhat improving, though slowly, we trust surely. We find that to undo is a
great work; to disassociate them from their natural ideas, habits, and practices which are characteristic of the
bush life, is a greater difficulty, for notwithstanding the provisions of sleeping berths in good rooms, also of
tables, etc. for their use, and which are peculiar to civilised life, and with which they are associated, yet they
naturally verge towards, and cling to aboriginal education, and hence to squat on the sand to eat, to sleep a
night in the bush, to have recourse to a Byly-a-duck man for ease in sickness; these to them seem reliefs and
enjoyments from these restraints which civilized life entails upon them."
"With regard to the mental improvement of the native children, we cannot say much."
"As to the religious state of the pupils in the institution we have signs, improvements, and encouragements,
which say to us, 'Go on.'"
The following quotation from Count Strzelecki's work only just published (1845), shews the opinion of that
talented and intelligent traveller, after visiting various districts of New South Wales, Port Phillip, Van
Diemen's Land, and Flinders' Island, and after a personal acquaintance with, and experience among the
Aborigines:--
"Thus, in New South Wales, since the time that the fate of the Australasian awoke the sympathies of the
public, neither the efforts of the missionary, nor the enactments of the Government, and still less the
Protectorate of the "Protectors," have effected any good. The attempts to civilize and christianize the
Aborigines, from which the preservation and elevation of their race was expected to result, HAVE UTTERLY
FAILED, though it is consolatory, even while painful, to confess, that NEITHER THE ONE NOR THE
OTHER ATTEMPT HAS BEEN CARRIED INTO EXECUTION, WITH THE SPIRIT WHICH ACCORDS
WITH ITS PRINCIPLES."
With such slight encouragement in colonies where the best results are supposed to have been obtained, and
with instances of complete failure in others, it is surely worth while to inquire, why there has been such a
signal want of success?--and whether or not any means can be devised that may hold out better hopes for the
future? I cannot and I would not willingly believe, that the question is a hopeless one. The failure of past
measures is no reason that future ones should not be more successful, especially when we consider, that all
past efforts on behalf of the Aborigines have entirely overlooked the wrongs and injuries they are suffering
under from our mere presence in their country, whilst none have been adapted to meet the exigencies of the
Chapter IX.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEM ADOPTED TOWARDS THE NATIVES.
In the preceding chapters I have given a general outline of the character, manners, and customs of the
Aborigines of Australia, and of the effects produced upon them by a contact with civilization.
I have thus endeavoured to lay before the public their present state and future prospects, and as far as I am
able, have attempted to explain what appear to me the reasons that so little success has hitherto attended
Missionary, or other efforts, in their behalf. I would sincerely hope, that the accounts which I have given, may
not be altogether useless; but that a certain knowledge of the real position of the natives, of the just claims
they have upon us, and of the little prospect that exists of any real or permanent good being effected for them,
until a great alteration takes place in our system, and treatment, may be the means of attracting attention to
their condition, and of enlisting the sympathy of my fellow-countrymen in their cause.
Englishmen have ever been ready to come forward to protect the weak, or the oppressed; nor could they lend
their aid to promote a greater, or a nobler work, than that of endeavouring, to arrest the decay, and avert the
destruction which at present threatens the aboriginal races of our Australian colonies; and to try at least to
bring within the pale of christianity and civilization, a people hitherto considered as the lowest, and most
irreclaimable of mankind, but whose natural capabilities and endowments, are, I feel assured, by no means
inferior to those of the most favoured nations.
I shall now briefly suggest such alterations and additions, in the system of instruction and policy adopted
towards them, as appear to me likely to prove beneficial.
I am aware, that in carrying out the improvements I propose, a greatly increased expenditure on behalf of the
natives would be necessary, beyond what has hitherto been allowed by any of the Colonial Governments.
If we are sincere in our desires and efforts to promote the improvement, or prevent the decay of this
unfortunate people, we are bound to make our measures sufficiently comprehensive to hold out some
reasonable hope of success, otherwise our labour and money are only thrown away.
I do not believe that there is any one practically acquainted with the present state of our relations with the
Aborigines, and the system adopted towards them, its working, defects, and inaptitude to overcome opposing
difficulties, who would conscientiously assert that there is the least prospect of any greater benefits resulting
in future than have been realized up to the present time.
There is another reason, independently of justice or humanity, one which, with some, may perhaps have more
weight, as a motive for extending and amending our policy towards the natives. I mean self-interest. If our
measures were calculated to afford them that protection which we claim for ourselves; and in place of those
resources we have deprived them of, to offer to them a certain and regular supply of food in their respective
districts, their wandering habits would be partially restrained, and a degree of influence and authority acquired
over the whole aboriginal population, in contact with Europeans, which would counteract their natural
propensities. The flocks and herds of the settlers, and the lives of his family and servants, would be as
unmolested and uninjured as among our own people. There would no longer occur those irritating
aggressions, or bloody retaliations, which have too often taken place heretofore, between the black and the
white man; and the misfortune of always having the border districts in a state of excitement and alarm, would
be avoided, whilst the expense and inconvenience of occasionally sending large parties of military and police,
to coerce or punish transgressors that they can rarely meet with, would be altogether dispensed with.
Unfortunately, the system I propose has been so little tried in Australia, that but few instances of its practical
results can be adduced. There is one instance, however, which, from its coming nearer to it than any other,
may serve to exemplify the success that might be expected. The case I allude to, is that of the establishment of
Between the 16th of April, and 27th of August, or in about four months, four several affrays had taken place
between the Aborigines and Europeans, in which many of the latter had been killed, and stock, drays, and
other property, had been taken to a great value, (in one instance alone amounting to 5,000 sheep, besides drays
and stores); on the other hand the sacrifice of native life had been very great, and was admitted in one case, to
have amounted to thirty individuals, exclusive of many who were perhaps mortally wounded. Four different
parties had been sent up the river during this short period, to punish aggressions, or protect property. In one of
these the Europeans were worsted and driven back by the natives, in another a number amounting to
sixty-eight Europeans, were absent for upwards of six weeks, at an immense expense, and were then obliged
to return without bringing in a single culprit from the offending tribes.
[Note 110: In this latter case, the Commissioner of Police, and the greater number of his men, accompanied
the expedition, leaving of course the colony unprotected, and ordinary civil arrangements at a stand still until
their return. I have already remarked, the little chance there is, of either the police or military ever succeeding
in capturing native offenders, and how very frequently it has occurred, that in their attempts to do so, either
through mistake, or from mismanagement, they have very often been guilty of most serious and lamentable
acts of injury and aggression upon the innocent and the unoffending. As a mere matter of policy, or financial
arrangement, I believe it would in the long run, be prudent and economical, to adopt a liberal and just line of
treatment towards the Aborigines. I believe by this means, we should gain a sufficient degree of influence, to
induce them always to GIVE UP OFFENDERS THEMSELVES; and I believe that this is the ONLY MEANS
by which we can ever hope to ensure their CAPTURE.]
The line of route had become unsafe and dangerous for any party coming from New South Wales; a feeling of
bitter hostility, arising from a sense of injury and aggression, had taken possession both of the natives and the
Europeans, and it was evident for the future, that if the European party was weak, the natives would rob and
murder them, and if otherwise, that they would commit wholesale butchery upon the natives. It was to remedy
this melancholy state of affairs, that the Government station at Moorunde was established, and his Excellency
the Governor, did me the honour to confide to my management the carrying out the objects proposed.
The instructions I received, and the principles upon which I attempted to carry out those instructions, were
exclusively those of conciliation and kindness. I made it my duty to go personally amongst the most distant
and hostile tribes, to explain to them that the white man wished to live with them, upon terms of amity, and
that instead of injuring, he was most anxious to hold out the olive branch of peace.
By the liberality of the Government, I had it in my power once every month, to assemble all the natives who
chose to collect, whether from near or more distant tribes, and to give to each a sufficiency of flour to last for
about two days, and once in the year, at the commencement of winter, to bestow upon some few of the most
deserving, blankets as a protection against the cold.
How far success attended the system that was adopted, or the exertions that were made, it is scarcely perhaps
becoming in me to say: where the object, however, is simply and solely to try to benefit the Aborigines, and
by contrasting the effects of different systems, that have been adopted towards them, to endeavour to
recommend the best, I must, even at the risk of being deemed egotistical, point out some of the important and
beneficial results that accrued at Moorunde.
For three years I was resident at Moorunde, and during the whole of that time, up to November, 1844, not a
single case of serious aggression, either on the persons or property of Europeans had ever occurred, and but
very few offences even of a minor character. The only crime of any importance that was committed in my
neighbourhood, was at a sheep station, about 25 miles to the westward, where somefew sheep were stolen, by
a tribe of natives during the absence or neglect of the men attending them. By a want of proper care and
precaution, temptation was thrown in the way of the natives, but even then, it was only some few of the young
men who were guilty of the offence; none of the elder or more influential members of the tribe, having had
any thing to do with it. Neither did the tribe belong to the Murray river, although they occasionally came
down there upon visits. There was no evidence to prove that the natives had stolen the sheep at all; the only
fact which could be borne witness to, was that so many sheep were missing, and it was supposed the natives
had taken them. As soon as I was made acquainted with the circumstances, I made every inquiry among the
tribe suspected, and it was at once admitted by the elder men that the youths had been guilty of the offence. At
my earnest solicitations, and representations of the policy of so doing, the culprits, five in number, WERE
BROUGHT IN AND DELIVERED UP BY THEIR TRIBE. No evidence could be procured against them, and
after remanding them from time to time as a punishment, I was obliged to discharge them.
I may now remark, that upon inquiry into the case, and in examining witnesses against the natives, it came out
in evidence, that at the same station, and not long before, a native HAD BEEN FIRED AT, (with what effect
did not appear,) simply because he SEEMED to be going towards the sheep-folds, which were a long way
from the hut, and were directly in the line of route of any one either passing towards Adelaide, or to any of the
more northern stations. Another case occurred about the same time, and at the same station, where an
intelligent and well-conducted native, belonging to Moorunde, was sent by a gentleman at the Murray to a
surgeon, living about sixty miles off, with a letter, and for medicines. The native upon reaching this station,
which he had to pass, was ASSAULTED AND OPPOSED BY A MAN, ARMED WITH A MUSKET, and if
not fired at, (which he said he was,) was at least intimidated, and driven back, and PREVENTED FROM
GOING FOR THE MEDICINES FOR THE INDIVIDUAL WHO WAS ILL. I myself knew the native who
was sent, to be one of the most orderly and well-conducted men we had at the Murray; in fact he had
frequently, at different times, been living with me as an attache to the police force.
In the second place, I may state, that during the time I have held office at Moorunde, I have frequently visited
on the most friendly terms, and almost alone, the most distant and hostile tribes, where so short a time before
even large and well-armed bodies of Europeans could not pass uninterrupted or in safety. Many of those very
natives, who had been concerned in affrays or aggressions, have since travelled hundreds of miles and
encountered hunger and thirst and fatigue, to visit a white man's station in peace, and on friendly terms.
Thirdly, I may observe, that ever since I went to the Murray, instead of shewing signs of enmity or hostility,
the natives have acted in the most kind and considerate manner, and have upon all occasions, when I have
been travelling in less known and more remote districts, willingly accompanied me as guides and interpreters,
introducing me from one tribe to another, and explaining the amicable relations I wished to establish. In one
case, a native, whom I met by himself, accompanied me at once, without even saying good-bye to his wife
and family, who were a mile or two away, and whom, as he was going to a distance of one hundred and fifty
miles and back, he was not likely to see for a great length of time. He was quite content to send a message by
By the assistance of the natives, I was enabled in December 1843, to ascend the Darling river as far as
Laidley's Ponds (above 300 miles from Moorunde) when accompanied only by two other Europeans, and
should have probably been enabled to reach Mount Lyell (100 miles further) but that a severe attack of illness
compelled me to return. My journey up the Darling had, however, this good effect, that it opened a friendly
communication with natives who had never before come in contact with the white man, except in enmity or in
contest, and paved the way for a passage upon friendly terms of any expedition that might be sent by that
route to explore the continent. Little did I anticipate at the time, how soon such an expedition was to be
undertaken, and how strongly and how successfully the good results I so confidently hoped for were to be
fully tested.
In August 1844, Captain Sturt passed up the Murray to explore the country north-west of the Darling, and
whilst at Moorunde, on his route, was supplied with a Moorunde boy to accompany his party to track stock,
and also with a native of the Rufus named And-buck, to go as guide and interpreter to the Darling. The latter
native had accompanied me to Laidley's Ponds in December 1843, and had come down to Moorunde,
according to a promise he then made me, to visit me in the winter, and go again with me up the Darling, if I
wished it. At Laidley's Ponds I found the natives very friendly and well conducted, and one of them, a young
man named Topar, was of such an open intelligent disposition that although my own acquaintance with him
was of very short duration, I did not hesitate to recommend him strongly to my friend Captain Sturt, as likely
to be a willing and useful assistant. The following report from Captain Sturt, dated from Laidley's Ponds, will
best shew how far I was justified in expecting that a friendly intercourse might be maintained even with the
Darling natives, and to what distance the influence of the Government station at Moorunde had extended,
upon the conciliatory system that had been adopted, limited though it was by an inadequacy of funds to
provide for such a more extended and liberal treatment of the Aborigines as I should wish to have adopted.
"Sir,--Feeling assured that the Governor would be anxious to hear from me as soon as possible after the
receipt of my letters from Lake Victoria, I should have taken the earliest opportunity of forwarding despatches
"In continuing, for his Excellency's information, the detail of the proceedings of the expedition under my
orders since I last addressed you, I have the honour to state that I had advanced a considerable way up the
Darling before I ascertained satisfactorily the true grounds of the report I had heard at Lake Victoria, and was
enabled to dismiss all further anxiety on the subject from my mind.
"It referred to the affray which took place on the Darling, opposite to Laidley's Ponds, between Major
Mitchell and the natives; and I conclude that the circumstance of our being about to proceed to the same place,
recalled a transaction which had occurred eight years ago to their minds; for we can trace a connection
between the story we heard at the Lake, and what we have heard upon the spot; but all the circumstances were
at first told to us with such minuteness, that coupling them with the character Major Mitchell has given of the
Darling natives, and the generally received opinion of their ferocity and daring, we could hardly refuse giving
a certain degree of credit to what we heard; more especially as it was once or twice confirmed by natives with
whom we communicated on our way up the river. I really feared we should come into collision with these
people, despite my reluctance to proceed to extremities; but it will be satisfactory to his Excellency, as I trust
it will to Lord Stanley, to know that we have passed up the Darling on the most friendly terms with the native
tribes, insomuch that I may venture to hope that our intercourse with them will be productive of much good.
So far from the show of any hostility, they may have invariably approached us unarmed, nor have we seen a
weapon in the hands of a native since we touched upon the river. THEY HAVE CONSTANTLY SLEPT AT
OUR FIRES, AND SHEWN BY THEIR MANNER THAT THEY HAD EVERY CONFIDENCE IN US,
BRINGING THEIR WIVES AND CHILDREN TO THE CAMP, NOR AT ANY TIME GIVING US THE
LEAST ANNOYANCE, BUT ALWAYS SHEWING A WILLINGNESS TO SAVE US TROUBLE, AND
TO DO WHATEVER WE DESIRED THEM TO DO. NOTHING INDEED COULD HAVE BEEN MORE
SATISFACTORY TO US THAN OUR INTERCOURSE WITH THESE POOR PEOPLE, OR MORE
AMUSING THAN THE SPIRITS AND FEELINGS TO WHICH THEY HAVE GIVEN WAY BEFORE US,
WHEN UNCONTROLLED BY FEAR. MANY INDEED HAVE CONTINUED WITH US FOR SOME
TIME, AND HAVE EVINCED SINCERE AND MARKED SORROW AT LEAVING US. I have made it a
rule to give blankets to the old and infirm, and tomahawks and knives to the young men, and they perfectly
understand the reason of this distinction. Finding too, that they consider kangaroos as their own property, we
have almost invariably given them all the animals the dogs have killed, and have endeavoured to convince
them that we wish to be just, and have the kindest feelings toward them. In this humane duty I have been most
cordially assisted both by Mr. Poole and Mr. Browne, and I must add, by the conduct of my men towards the
natives, which reflects very great credit upon them. WE HAVE RECEIVED VERY GREAT ASSISTANCE
FROM OUR GUIDES, WHO HAVE ALWAYS SMOOTHED THE WAY TO OUR COMMUNICATION
WITH THE DIFFERENT TRIBES; and I have earnestly to recommend Nadbuck, who has accompanied us
from Moorunde to this place, to the favour of the Governor, and to request that he may be rewarded in such
manner as his Excellency thinks fit, from the funds of the expedition. We find that Mr. Eyre's influence has
extended to this place, and that he is considered in the highest light by all the natives along the Darling. In
their physical condition they are inferior to the natives of the Murray in size and strength, but we have seen
many very handsome men, and, although diminutive in stature, exceedingly well proportioned. The tribe at
Williorara, Laidley's Ponds, numbers about eighty souls; the greater proportion women and children. One of
them, Topar, accompanies us to the hills with another native, Toonda, who has been with us since we left
Lake Victoria, and who is a native of this tribe. He is a very singular and remarkable man, and is rather aged,
but still sinewy and active; Topar is young, and handsome, active, intelligent, and exceedingly good
natured;--with them I hope we shall be able to keep up our friendly relations with the natives of the interior.
"I have to request that you will thank his Excellency for the prompt assistance he would have afforded us; but
I am sure it will be as gratifying to him as it is to us to know that it is not required.
"As I reported to you in my letter of the 17th of September, I left Lake Victoria on the following day, and
crossing the country in a south-easterly direction, reached the Murray after a journey of about fifteen miles,
over plains, and encamped on a peninsula formed by the river and a lagoon, and on which there was
abundance of feed. We had observed numerous tracks of wild cattle leading from the brush across the plains
to the river, and at night our camp was surrounded by them. I hoped, therefore, that if I sent out a party in the
morning. I should secure two or three working bullocks, and I accordingly detached Mr. Poole and Mr.
Browne, with Flood, my stockman, and Mack, to run them in; but the brush was too thick, and in galloping
after a fine bull, Flood's carbine went off, and carried away and broke three of the fingers of his right hand.
This unfortunate accident obliged me to remain stationary for a day; but we reached the junction of the
ana-branch of the Darling with the Murray, on the 23rd, and then turned for the first time to the northward.
"We found the ana-branch filled by the back waters of the Murray, and ran up it for two days, when the water
in it ceased, and we were obliged to cross over to the Darling, which we struck on an east course, about
eighteen miles above its junction with the Murray. It had scarcely any water in its bed, and no perceptible
current--but its neighbourhood was green and grassy, and its whole aspect pleasing. On the 27th, we thought
we perceived a stronger current in the river, and observed small sticks and grass floating on the water, and we
were consequently led to believe that there was a fresh in it; and as we had had rain, and saw that the clouds
hung on the mountains behind us, we were in hopes the supply the river was receiving came from Laidley's
Ponds. On the following morning the waters of the Darling were half-bank high, and from an insignificant
stream it was at once converted into a broad and noble river, sweeping everything away on its turbid waters at
the rate of these or four miles an hour. The river still continues to rise, and is fast filling the creeks and
lagoons on either side of it. The cattle enjoy the most luxuriant feed on the banks of the river--there being
abundance of grass also in the flats, which far surpass those of the Murray both in richness of soil, and in
extent. I cannot but consider the river as a most valuable feature of the interior: many a rich and valuable farm
might be established upon it. Its seasons appear to be particularly favourable, for we have had gentle rains
ever since we came upon it. Its periodical flooding is also at a most favourable period of the year, and its
waters are so muddy that the deposit must be rich, and would facilitate the growth of many of the
inter-tropical productions, as cotton, indigo--the native indigo growing to the height of three feet--maize, or
flax; whilst, if an available country is found in the interior, the Darling must be the great channel of
communication to it. The country behind the flats is sandy and barren, but it would in many places support a
certain number of stock, and might be found to be of more value than appearances would justify me in stating,
and I would beg to be understood, in speaking of the Darling, that I only speak of it as I have seen it. The
summer sun probably parches up the vegetation and unclothes the soil; but such is the effect of summer heat
in all similar latitudes, and that spot should be considered the most valuable where the effect of solar heat can
be best counteracted by natural or artificial means. I had hoped, as I have stated, that the Darling was
receiving its accession of waters from the Williorara (Laidley's Ponds); but on arriving on its banks we were
sadly disappointed to find, instead of a mountain stream, a creek only connects the river with Cowandillah
Lake; instead of supplying the Darling with water it was robbing it, and there was scarcely a blade of
vegetation on its banks. I was, therefore, obliged to return to the Darling, and to encamp until such time as I
should determine on our next movement. From some hills above the camp, we had a view of some ranges to
the north-west and north, and I detached Mr. Poole on the 4th to ascertain the nature of the country between us
and them, before I ventured to remove the party; more especially as the natives told us the interior beyond the
ranges was perfectly impracticable. This morning Mr. Poole returned, and informed me that, from the top of
the ranges he ascended, he had a view of distant ranges to the north and north-west, as far as he could see; that
from south-west to west to 13 degrees east of north, there was water extending, amidst which there were
"I will not venture a conjecture as to the nature of the country whose features have been thus partially
developed to us. How far these waters may stretch, and what the character of the ranges is, it is impossible to
say, but that there is a good country at no great distance, I have every reason to hope. Mr. Poole states that the
small scolloped parroquets passed over his head from the north-west in thousands; and he observed many new
birds. I am therefore led to hope, that, as these first are evidently strong on the wing on their arrival here, that
the lands from which they come are not very remote from us. So soon as I shall have verified my position in a
satisfactory manner,--which a clouded sky has hitherto prevented my doing,--we shall move to the ranges, and
leaving my drays in a safe place, shall proceed with the horse teams to a closer examination of the country,
and, if I should find an open sea to north-west, shall embark upon it with an ample supply of provisions and
water, and coast it round. The reports of the fine interior, which we have heard from the natives, are so
contradictory, that it is impossible to place any reliance in them; but Toonda informs us that the water Mr.
Poole has seen is fresh--but as we are not more than two hundred and fifteen feet above the sea, and are so
near Lake Torrens, I can hardly believe that such can be the case. It is a problem, however, that will now very
soon be solved, and I most sincerely trust this decided change in the barrenness of the land will lead us to a
rich and available country.
"I have great pleasure in reporting to you the continued zeal and anxiety of my officers, and the cheerful
assistance they render me. I have found Mr. Piesse of great value, from his regular and cautious issue of the
stores and provisions; and Mr. Stewart extremely useful as draftsman. Amongst my men, I have to
particularise Robert Flood, my stockman, whose attention to the horses and cattle has mainly insured their
fitness for service and good condition; and I have every reason to feel satisfied with the manner in which the
men generally perform their duties.
"I have to apologize for the hurried manner in which this letter is written, and beg to subscribe myself,
"CHARLES STURT."
With reference to the above report, I may mention in explanation, that, after I had accompanied the exploring
party as far as the Rufus, and returned from thence to Moorunde, a rumour was brought to Captain Sturt by
some natives from the Darling, of a massacre said to have taken place up that river near Laidley's Ponds. From
being quite unacquainted with the language not only of the Darling natives, but also of the Rufus interpreter or
the Moorunde boy, Captain Sturt's party had been only able to make out the story that was told to them by
signs or by the aid of such few words of English as the boy might have learnt at Moorunde. They had
naturally fallen into some error, and had imagined the natives to be describing the recent murder of a
European party coming down the Darling with stock, instead of their narrating, as was in reality the case, an
old story of the affray with Major Mitchell some years before. As Captain Sturt was still at the Rufus (150
miles from Moorunde) when he received the account, as he imagined, of so sanguinary an affray, he felt
anxious to communicate the occurrence to the Colonial Government as early as possible, and for this purpose,
induced two natives to bring down despatches to Moorunde. Upon their arrival there, the policeman was
absent in town, and I had no means of sending in the letters to the Government, but by natives. Two undertook
the task, and walked from Moorunde to Adelaide with the letters, and brought answers back again to the
station within five days, having walked 170 miles in that period, Moorunde being 85 miles from Adelaide.
By this means a regular intercourse was kept up with the exploring party, entirely through the aid and good
feeling of the natives, up to the time I left the colony, in December, 1844, when messengers who had been
sent up with despatches were daily expected back with answers. For their very laborious and harassing
journeys, during which they must suffer both some degree of risk in passing through so many other tribes on
their line of route, and of hunger and other privations in prosecuting them, the messengers are but ill requited;
the good feeling they displayed, or the fatigues they went through, being recompensed only by the present of a
SMALL BLANKET AND A FEW POUNDS OF FLOUR. With these facts before us can we say that these
natives are a ferocious, irreclaimable set of savages, and destitute of all the better attributes of humanity? yet
are they often so maligned. The very natives, who have now acted in such a friendly manner, and rendered
such important services to Europeans, are the SAME NATIVES who were engaged in the plundering of their
property, and taking away their lives when coming over land with stock. Such is the change which has been
effected by kindness and conciliation instead of aggression and injury; and such, I think, I may in fairness
argue, would generally be the result if SIMILAR MEANS were more frequently resorted to.
As yet Moorunde is the only place where the experiment has been made of assembling the natives and giving
food to them; but as far as it has been tried, it has been proved to be eminently successful. I am aware that the
system is highly disapproved of by many of the colonists, and the general feeling among them appears to be
that nothing should be given where nothing is received, or in other words, that a native should never have any
thing given to him until he does some work for it. I still maintain that the native has a right to expect, and that
we are IN JUSTICE BOUND to supply him with food in any of those parts of the country that we occupy, and
to do this, too, WITHOUT demanding or requiring any other consideration from him than we have
ALREADY received when we TOOK FROM HIM his possessions and his hunting grounds. It may be all
very proper to get him to work a little if we can--and, perhaps, that MIGHT follow in time, but we have no
right to force him to a labour he is unused to, and WHICH HE NEVER HAD TO PERFORM IN HIS
NATURAL STATE, whilst we have a right to supply him with what he has been accustomed to, BUT OF
WHICH WE HAD DEPRIVED HIM--FOOD.
If in our relations with the Aborigines we wish to preserve a friendly and bloodless intercourse; if we wish to
have their children at our schools to be taught and educated; if we hope to bring the parents into a state that
will better adapt them for the reception of christianity and civilization; or if we care about staying the rapid
and lamentable ravages which a contact with us is causing among their tribes, we must endeavour to do so, by
removing, as far as possible, all sources of irritation, discontent, or suffering. We must adopt a system which
may at once administer to their wants, and at the same time, give to us a controlling influence over them; such
as may not only restrain them from doing what is wrong, but may eventually lead them to do what is right--an
influence which I feel assured would be but the stronger and more lasting from its being founded upon acts of
justice and humanity. It is upon these principles that I have based the few suggestions I am going to offer for
the improvement of our policy towards the natives. I know that by many they will be looked upon as
chimerical or impracticable, and I fear that more will begrudge the means necessary to carry them into effect;
but unless something of the kind be done--unless some great and radical change be effected, and some little
compensation made for the wrongs and injuries we inflict--I feel thoroughly satisfied that all we are doing is
but time and money lost, that all our efforts on behalf of the natives are but idle words--voces et preterea
nihil--that things will still go on as they have been going on, and that ten years hence we shall have made no
more progress either in civilizing or in christianizing them than we had done ten years ago, whilst every day
and every hour is tending to bring about their certain and total extinction.
1st. It appears that the most important point, in fact almost the only essential one, in the first instance, is to
gain such an influence or authority over the Aborigines as may be sufficient to enable us to induce them to
adopt, or submit to any regulations that we make for their improvement, and that to effect this, the means
must be suited to their circumtances and habits.
2ndly. It is desirable that the means employed should have a tendency to restrain their wandering habits, and
thus gradually induce them to locate permanently in one place.
3rdly. It is important that the plan should be of such a nature as to become more binding in its influence in
proportion to the length of time it is in operation.
4thly. It should hold out strong inducements to the parents, willingly to allow their children to go to, and
remain at the schools.
5thly. It should be such as would operate, in some degree, in weaning the natives from towns or populous
districts.
6thly. It should offer some provision for the future career of the children upon their leaving school, and its
tendency should be of such a character as to diminish, as far as practicable, the attractions of a savage life.
7thly. It is highly important that the system adopted should be such as would add to the security and
protection of the settlers, and thereby induce their assistance and co-operation, instead, as has too often been
the case hitherto with past measures, of exciting a feeling of irritation and dislike between the two races.
I believe that all these objects might be accomplished, in a great degree, by distributing food regularly to all
the natives, in their respective districts.
[Note 111: The whole of my remarks on the Aborigines having been hurriedly compiled, on board ship,
during the voyage from Australia, it was not until my arrival in England that I became aware that a plan
somewhat similar to this in principle, was submitted to Lord John Russell by a Mr. J. H. Wedge, and was sent
out to the colony of New South Wales, to be reported upon by the authorities. I quote the following extract
from Mr. La Trobe's Remarks on Mr. Wedge's letter, as shewing an opinion differing from my own
(Parliamentary Papers, p. 130). "With reference to the supply of food and clothing, it has not been hitherto
deemed advisable to furnish them indiscriminately to all natives visiting the homesteads. In one case, that of
the Western Port District, the assistant protector has urged that this should be the case; but I have not felt
myself sufficiently convinced of the policy or expediency of such measure to bring it under his Excellency's
notice."]
I have previously shewn, that from the injuries the natives sustain at our hands, in a deprivation of their usual
means of subsistence, and a banishment from their homes and possessions, there is at present no alternative
for them but to remain the abject and degraded creatures they are, begging about from house to house, or from
station to station, to procure food, insulted and despised by all, and occasionally tempted or driven to commit
crimes for which a fearful penalty is enacted, if brought home to them. I have given instances of the extent to
which the evils resulting from the anomalous state of our relations with them are aggravated by the kind of
feeling which circumstances engender on the part of the Colonists towards them. I have pointed out the
tendency of their own habits and customs, to prevent them from rising in the scale of improvement, until we
can acquire an influence sufficient to counteract these practices; and I have shewn that thus situated,
oppressed, helpless, and starving, we cannot expect they should make much progress in civilization, or pay
great regard to our instructions, when they see that we do not practice what we recommend, and that we have
one law for ourselves and another for them. The good results that have been produced when an opposite and
more liberal system has been adopted (limited as that system was) has also been stated. It is only fair to
My own conviction is, that by adopting the system I recommend, an almost unlimited influence might be
acquired over the native population. I believe that the supplying them with food would gradually bring about
the abandonment of their wandering habits, in proportion to the frequency of the issue, that the longer they
were thus dependent upon us for their resources, the more binding our authority would be; that when they no
longer required their children to assist them in the chase or in war, they would willingly allow them to remain
at our schools; that by only supplying food to natives in their own districts they would, in some measure, be
weaned from the towns; that by restraining the wandering habits of the parents in this way, there would be
fewer charms and less temptation to the children to relapse from a comparative state of civilization into one of
barbarism again; and that, by supplying the wants of the natives, and taking away all inducements to crime, a
security and protection would be afforded to the settlers which do not now exist, and which, under the present
system, can never be expected, until the former have almost disappeared before their oppressors.
Many subordinate arrangements would be necessary to bring the plan into complete operation, and from its
general character it could not, perhaps, be carried out every where at once, but if such arrangements were
made, only in a few districts every year, much would be done towards eventually accomplishing the ends
desired.
At Moorunde flour was only regularly issued once in the month, but that is not often enough to attain the full
advantages of the system, still less to remedy the evils the natives are subject to, or restrain their wandering
propensities. Upon the Murray the natives are peculiarly situated, and have greater facilities for obtaining their
natural food than in any other part of the country. They were consequently in a position more favourable for
making an experiment upon, than those of the inland districts, where a native is often obliged to wander over
many miles of ground for his day's subsistence, and where large tribes cannot remain long congregated at the
same place. In these it would therefore be necessary to make the issues of food much more frequently, and I
would proportion this frequency to the state of each district with regard to the number of Europeans, and stock
in it; and the facility there might be for procuring native food. On the borders of the colony, where the natives
are less hemmed in, the issue might take place once every fortnight, gradually increasing the number of the
issues in approaching towards Adelaide as a centre. At the latter, and in many other of the districts where the
country is thoroughly occupied by Europeans, it would be necessary, as it would only be just, to supply the
natives with food daily, and I would extend this arrangement gradually to all the districts, as funds could be
obtained for that purpose. It is possible that if means at the same time were afforded of teaching them
industrial pursuits, a proportion of the food required might eventually be raised by themselves, but it would
not be prudent to calculate upon any such resources at first.
Having now explained what I consider the first and most important principle, to be observed in all systems
devised for the amelioration of the Aborigines, viz. that of endeavouring to adapt the means employed to the
acquisition of a strong controlling influence over them, and having shewn how I think this might best be
obtained, I may proceed to mention a few collateral regulations, which would be very essential to the effective
working of the system proposed.
First. It would be necessary for the sake of perspicuity to suppose the country divided into districts, agreeing
as nearly as could be ascertained with the boundaries of the respectives tribes. In these districts a section or
two of land, well supplied with wood and water, should be chosen for the Aborigines; such lands, if possible,
to be centrically situated with regard to the tribes intended to assemble there, but always having reference to
their favourite places of resort, or to such as would afford the greatest facilities for procuring their natural
food. I do not apprehend that these stations need be very numerous at first: for the whole colony of South
Australia nine or ten would probably be sufficient at present; thus stations such as I have described, at
Adelaide, Encounter Bay, The Coorong, Moorunde, the Hutt River, Mount Bryant, Mount Remarkable, and
Port Lincoln would embrace most of the tribes of Aborigines at present in contact with the settlers; others
could be added, or these altered, as might be thought desirable or convenient.
Secondly. In order to carry due weight when first established, and until the natives get well acquainted with
Europeans and their customs, it would be essential that each station should be supported by two or more
policemen. These might afterwards be reduced in number, or withdrawn, according to the state of the district.
[Note 112: "It is absolutely necessary, for the cause of humanity and good order, that such force should exist;
for as long as distant settlers are left unprotected, and are compelled to take care of and avenge themselves, so
long must great barbarities necessarily be committed, and the only way to prevent great crimes on the part of
the natives, and massacres of these poor creatures, as the punishment of such crimes, is to check and punish
their excesses in their infancy; it is only after becoming emboldened by frequent petty successes that they
have hitherto committed those crimes, which have drawn down so fearful a vengeance upon them."--GREY,
vol ii. p. 379.]
Under any circumstances a police is necessary in all the country districts, nor do I think on the whole, many
more policemen would be required than there are at out-stations at present. They would only have to be
quartered at the native establishments.
Thirdly. It would be absolutely requisite to have experienced and proper persons in charge of each of the
locations; as far as practicable, it would undoubtedly be the most desirable to have these establishments under
missionaries. In other cases they might be confided to the protectors of the Aborigines, and to the resident or
police magistrates. All officers having such charge should be deemed ex-officio to be protectors, and as many
should be in the commission of the peace as possible.
Many other necessary and salutary regulations, would naturally occur in so comprehensive a scheme, but as
these belong more to the detail of the system, it may be desirable to allude only to a few of the most
important.
It would be desirable to keep registers at all the stations, containing lists of the natives frequenting them, their
names, and that of the tribe they belong to.
Natives should not be allowed to leave their own districts, to go to Adelaide, or other large towns, unless
under passes from their respective protectors, and if found in Adelaide without them, should be taken up by
the police and slightly punished.
[Note 113: Natives, from a distance, are in the habit of going at certain times of the year into Adelaide, and
remaining three or four months at a time. They are said by Europeans to plunder stations on the line of route
backwards and forwards, and to threaten, and intimidate women and children living in isolated houses near the
town. There is no doubt but that they have sometimes driven away the natives properly belonging to Adelaide,
and have been the means, by their presence, of a great decrease in the attendance of the children of the
Adelaide tribes at the school. The protector has more than once been obliged to make official representations
on this subject, and to request that measures might be taken to keep them away.]
Deaths, Births, and Marriages, should be duly registered, and a gratuity given on every such occasion, to
ensure the regulation being attended to.
Rewards should be given, (as an occasional present, of a blanket for instance), to such parents as allowed their
children to go to and remain at school during the year.
Rewards should be bestowed for delivering up offenders, or for rendering any other service to the
Government.
Light work should be offered to such as could be induced to undertake it, and rewards, as clothing, or the like,
should be paid in proportion to the value of the work done, and BEYOND THE MERE PROVIDING THEM
with food.
Gifts might also be made to those parents, who consented to give up the performance of any of their savage or
barbarous ceremonies upon their children.
Young men should be encouraged to engage themselves in the service of settlers, as shepherds or
stockkeepers, and the masters should be induced to remunerate their services more adequately than they
usually do.
The elder natives should be led as far as could be, to make articles of native industry for sale, as baskets, mats,
weapons, implements, nets, etc., these might be sent to Adelaide and sold periodically for their benefit.
Such and many other similar regulations, would appear to be advantageous, and might be adopted or altered
from time to time, as it should be deemed desirable.
Upon the subject of schools for the native children, it appears that much benefit would be derived from having
them as far separated as possible from other natives, and that the following, among others, would be
improvements upon the plans in present use.
1st. That the school buildings should be of such size and arrangement, as to admit of all the scholars being
lodged as well as boarded, and of the boys and girls having different sleeping rooms.
2ndly. That the schools should have a sufficiency of ground properly enclosed around them, for the
play-grounds, and that no other natives than the scholars should be admitted within those precincts, except in
the presence of the master, when relatives come to see each other; but that on no account should any natives
be permitted to encamp or sleep within the school grounds.
3rdly. That the children should not be allowed or encouraged to roam about the towns, begging, or to ramble
for any purpose outside their boundaries, where they are likely to come under the influence of the other
natives. This is particularly necessary with respect to girls, indeed the latter should never be allowed to be
absent from school at all, by themselves.
4thly. To compensate in some degree, for what may at first appear to them an irksome or repulsive restraint,
playthings should occasionally be provided for those children who have behaved well, and all innocent
amusement be encouraged, and as often as might be convenient, the master should accompany his scholars out
into the country for recreation, or through the town, or such other public places, as might be objects of interest
or curiosity.
5thly. That a stimulus to exertion, should be excited by prizes, being given to children distinguishing
themselves at certain stages of their progress, such as a superior article of dress, a toy, or book, or whatever
might be best adapted to the age or disposition of the child.
6thly. That parents should never be allowed to withdraw the children, contrary to their wishes, after having
once consented to allow them to remain there.
7thly. That children of both sexes, after having received a proper degree of instruction, and having attained a
certain age, should be bound out as apprentices for a limited term of years, to such as were willing to receive
them, proper provision being made for their being taught some useful occupation, and being well treated.
8thly. Encouragement should be offered to those who have been brought up at the schools to marry together
when their apprenticeships are out, and portions of land should be preserved for them and assistance given
them in establishing themselves in life. At first perhaps it might be advisable to have these settlements in the
form of a village and adjoining the school grounds, so that the young people might still receive the advantage
of the advice or religious instruction of the missionaries or such ministers as attended to this duty at the
schools.
9thly. The children should be taught exclusively in the English language and on Sundays should always attend
divine service at some place of public worship, accompanied by their masters.
In carrying into effect the above or any other regulations which might be found necessary for the welfare and
improvement of the children. I believe that a sufficient degree of influence would be acquired over the parents
by the system of supplying them with food, which I have recommended to induce a cheerful consent, but it
would be only prudent to have a legislative enactment on the subject, that by placing the school-children
under the guardianship of the protectors, they might be protected from the influence or power of their
relatives; after these had once fully consented to their being sent to school to be educated.
[Note 114: "The best chance of preserving the unfortunate race of New Holland lies in the means employed
for training their children: the education given to such children should consist in a very small part of reading
and writing. Oral instruction in the fundamental truths of the Christian religion will be given by the
missionaries themselves. The children should be taught early; the boys to dig and plough, and the trades of
shoemakers, tailors, carpenters and masons; the girls to sew and cook and wash linen, and keep clean the
rooms and furniture. The more promising of these children might be placed, by a law to be framed for this
purpose, under the guardianship of the Governor and placed by him at a school, or in apprenticeship, in the
more settled parts of the colony. Thus early trained, the capacity of the race for the duties and employments of
civilized life would be fairly developed."--Letter from Lord John Russell to Sir G. Gipps; Parliamentary
Report on Aborigines, p. 74.]
There is yet another point to be considered with respect to the Aborigines, and upon the equitable adjustment
of which hinges all our relations with this people, whilst upon it depends entirely our power of enforcing any
laws or regulations we may make with respect to them, I allude to the law of evidence as it at present stands
with respect to persons incompetent to give testimony upon oath.
It is true that in South Australia an act has very recently passed the legislative council to legalize the unsworn
testimony of natives in a court of justice, but in that act there occurs a clause which completely neutralizes the
boon it was intended to grant, and which is as follows, "Provided that no person, whether an Aboriginal or
other, SHALL BE CONVICTED OF ANY OFFENCE by any justice or jury upon the SOLE TESTIMONY
of any such uncivilized persons." 7 and 8 Victoria, section 5.
Here then we find that if a native were ill-treated or shot by an European, and the whole tribe able to bear
witness to the fact, no conviction and no punishment could ensue: let us suppose that in an attempt to maltreat
the native, the European should be wounded or injured by him, and that the European has the native brought
up and tried for a murderous attack upon him, how would it fare with the poor native? the oath of the white
man would overpower any exculpatory unsworn testimony that the native could bring, and his conviction and
punishment would be (as they have been before) certain and severe.
Without attempting to assign a degree of credence to the testimony of a native beyond what it deserves, I will
leave it to those who are acquainted with Colonies, and the value of an oath among the generality of
storekeepers and shepherds, to say how far their SWORN evidence is, in a moral point of view, more to be
depended upon than the unsworn parole of the native. I would ask too, how often it occurs that injuries upon
the Aborigines are committed by Europeans in the presence of those competent to give a CONVICTING
TESTIMONY, (unless where all, being equally guilty, are for their own sakes mutually averse to let the truth
be known)? or how often even such aggressions take place under circumstances which admit of circumstantial
evidence being obtained to corroborate native testimony?
Neither is it in the giving of evidence alone, that the native stands at a disadvantage as compared with a white
man. His case, whether as prosecutor or defendant, is tried before a jury of another nation whose interests are
opposed to his, and whose prejudices are often very strong against him.
I cannot illustrate the position in which he is placed, more forcibly, than by quoting Captain Grey's remarks,
vol. ii. p. 381, where he says:--
"It must also be borne in mind, that the natives are not tried by a jury of their peers, but by a jury having
interests directly opposed to their own, and who can scarcely avoid being in some degree prejudiced against
native offenders."
The opinion of Judge Willis upon this point may be gathered from the following extract, from an address to a
native of New South Wales, when passing sentence of death upon him:--
"The principle upon which this court has acted in the embarrassing collisions which have too frequently arisen
between the Aborigines and the white Europeans, has been one of reciprocity and mutual protection. On the
one hand, the white man when detected (WHICH I FEAR SELDOM HAPPENS), has been justly visited with
the rigour of the law, for aggressions on the helpless savages; and, on the other, the latter has been
accountable for outrages upon his white brethren. As between the Aborigines themselves, the court has never
interfered, for obvious reasons. Doubtless, in applying the law of a civilized nation to the condition of a wild
savage, innumerable difficulties must occur. The distance in the scale of humanity between the wandering,
houseless man of the woods, and the civilized European, is immeasurable! FOR PROTECTION, AND FOR
RESPONSIBILITY IN HIS RELATION TO THE WHITE MAN THE BLACK IS REGARDED AS A
BRITISH SUBJECT. In theory, this sounds just and reasonable; but in practice, how incongruous becomes its
application! As a British subject, he is presumed to know the laws, for the infraction of which he is held
accountable, and yet he is shut out from the advantage of its protection when brought to the test of
responsibility. As a British subject, he is entitled to be tried by his PEERS. Who are the peers of the black
man? Are those, of whose laws, customs, language, and religion, he is wholly ignorant--nay, whose very
complexion is at variance with his own--HIS peers? He is tried in his native land by a race new to him, and by
laws of which he knows nothing. Had you, unhappy man! had the good fortune to be born a Frenchman, or
had been a native of any other country but your own, the law of England would have allowed you to demand a
trial by half foreigners and half Englishmen. But, by your lot being the lowest, as is assumed, in the scale of
humanity, you are inevitably placed on a footing of fearful odds, when brought into the sacred temple of
British justice. Without a jury of your own countrymen--without the power of making adequate defence, by
speech or witness--you are to stand the pressure of every thing that can be alleged against you, and your only
chance of escape is, not the strength of your own, but the weakness of your adversary's case. Surrounded as
your trial was with difficulties, everything, I believe, was done that could be done to place your case in a
proper light before the jury. They have come to a conclusion satisfactory, no doubt, to their consciences.
Whatever might be the disadvantages under which you laboured, they were convinced, as I am, that you
destroyed the life of Dillon; and as there was nothing proved to rebut the presumption, of English law, arising
from the fact of homicide being committed by you, they were constrained to find you guilty of murder. There
may have been circumstances, if they could have been proved, which would have given a different
complexion to the case from that of the dying declaration of the deceased, communicated to the Court through
the frail memory of two witnesses, who varied in their relation of his account of the transaction. This
declaration, so taken, was to be regarded as if taken on oath, face to face with your accuser; and, although you
had not the opportunity of being present at it, and of cross-examining the dying man, yet by law it was
receivable against you."
"I have been a personal witness to a case in which a native was most undeservedly punished, from the
circumstance of the natives, who were the only persons who could speak as to certain exculpatory facts, not
being permitted to give their evidence."
Under the law lately passed in South Australia, the evidence of natives would be receivable in a case of this
kind, in palliation of the offence. Although it is more than questionable how far such evidence would weigh
against the white man's oath; but for the purpose of obtaining redress for a wrong, or of punishing the cruelty,
or the atrocity of the European [Note 115 at end of para.], no amount of native evidence would be of the least
avail. Reverse the case, and the sole unsupported testimony of a single witness, will be quite sufficient to
convict even unto death, as has lately been the case in two instances connected with Port Lincoln, where the
natives have been tried at different times for murder, convicted, and two of them hung, upon the testimony of
one old man, who was the only survivor left among the Europeans, but who, from the natural state of alarm
and confusion in which he must have been upon being attacked, and from the severe wounds he received,
could not have been in an advantageous position, for observing, or remarking the identity of the actual
murderers, among natives, who, even under more favourable circumstances are not easily recognizable upon a
hasty view, and still less so, if either they, or the observer, are in a state of excitement at the time. Is it possible
for the natives to be blind to the unequal measure of justice, which is thus dealt out, and which will still
continue to be so as long as the law remains unchanged?
[Note 115: Governor Hutt remarks, in addressing Lord Glenelg on this subject:--"In furtherance of the truth of
these remarks, I would request your Lordship particularly to observe, that here is one class of Her Majesty's
subjects, who are DEBARRED A TRUE AND FAIR TRIAL BY JURY, whose evidence is inadmissible in a
court of justice, and who consequently may be the victims of any of the most outrageous cruelty and violence,
and yet be UNABLE, FROM THE FORMS AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE LAW, to obtain redress, and
whose quarrels, ending sometimes in bloodshed and death, it is unjust, as well as inexpedient, to interfere
with.
"A jury ought to be composed of a man's own peers. Europeans, in the case of a native criminal, cannot either
in their habits or sympathies be regarded as such, and his countrymen are incapable of understanding or taking
upon themselves the office of juror."]
I have no wish to give the native evidence a higher character than it deserves, but I think that it ought not to be
rendered unavailable in a prosecution; the degree of weight or credibility to be attached to it, might be left to
the court taking cognizance of the case, but if it is consistent and probable, I see no reason why it should not
be as strong a safeguard to the black man from injury and oppression, as the white man's oath is to him. There
are many occasions on which the testimony of natives may be implicitly believed, and which are readily
distinguishable by those who have had much intercourse with this people--unaccustomed to the intricacies of
untruth, they know not that they must be consistent to deceive, and it is therefore rarely difficult to tell when a
native is prevaricating.
Among the natives themselves, the evil effects resulting from the inability of their evidence to produce a
conviction are still more apparent and injurious. [Note 116 at end of para.] It has already been shewn how
highly important it is to prevent the elders from exercising an arbitrary and cruel authority over the young and
[Note 116: Upon the inability of natives to give evidence in a court of justice, Mr. Chief Protector Robinson
remarks, in a letter to His Honour, the Superintendent of Port Phillip, dated May, 1843--"The legal disabilities
of the natives have been a serious obstacle to their civil protection; and I feel it my duty, whilst on this
subject, respectfully to bring under notice the necessity that still exists for some suitable system of judicature
for the governance and better protection of the aboriginal races. 'As far as personal influence went, the
aboriginal natives have been protected from acts of injustice, cruelty, and oppression; and their wants, wishes,
and grievances have been faithfully represented to the Government of the colony,' and this, under the
circumstances, was all that could possibly be effected. There is, however, reason to fear that the destruction of
the aboriginal natives has been accelerated from the known fact of their being incapacitated to give evidence
in our courts of law. I have frequently had to deplore, when applied to by the Aborigines for justice in cases of
aggression committed on them by white men, or by those of their own race, my inability to do so in
consequence of their legal incapacity to give evidence. It were unreasonable, therefore, under such
circumstances, to expect the Aborigines would respect, or repose trust and confidence in the Protectors, or
submit to the governance of a department unable efficiently to protect or afford them justice. Nor is it
surprising they should complain of being made to suffer the higher penalties of our law, when deprived (by
legal disability) of its benefits. Little difficulty has been experienced in discovering the perpetrator where the
blacks have been concerned, even in the greater offences, and hence the ends of justice would have been
greatly facilitated by aboriginal evidence. It is much to be regretted the Colonial Act of Council on aboriginal
evidence was disallowed."]
The following very forcible and just remarks are from Captain Grey's work, vol. ii. pages 375 to 378:--
"I would submit, therefore, that it is necessary from the moment the Aborigines of this country are declared
British subjects, they should, as far as possible, be taught that the British laws are to supersede their own, so
that any native who is suffering under their own customs, may have the power of an appeal to those of Great
Britain; or to put this in its true light, that all authorized persons should, in all instances, be required to protect
a native from the violence of his fellows, even though they be in the execution of their own laws.
"So long as this is not the case, the older natives have at their disposal the means of effectually preventing the
civilization of any individuals of their own tribe, and those among them who may be inclined to adapt
themselves to the European habits and mode of life, will be deterred from so doing by their fear of the
consequences, that the displeasure of others may draw down upon them.
"So much importance am I disposed to attach to this point, that I do not hesitate to assert my full conviction,
that whilst those tribes which are in communication with Europeans are allowed to execute their barbarous
laws and customs upon one another, so long will they remain hopelessly immersed in their present state of
barbarism: and however unjust such a proceeding might at first sight appear, I believe that the course pointed
out by true humanity would be, to make them from the very commencement amenable to the British laws,
both as regards themselves and Europeans; for I hold it to be imagining a contradiction to suppose, that
individuals subject to savage and barbarous laws, can rise into a state of civilization, which those laws have a
"I have known many instances of natives who have been almost or quite civilized, being compelled by other
natives to return to the bush; more particularly girls, who have been betrothed in their infancy, and who, on
approaching the years of puberty, have been compelled by their husbands to join them.
"To punish the Aborigines severely for the violation of laws of which they are ignorant, would be manifestly
cruel and unjust; but to punish them in the first instance slightly for the violation of these laws would inflict
no great injury on them, whilst by always punishing them when guilty of a crime, without reference to the
length of period that had elapsed between its perpetration and their apprehension, at the same time fully
explaining to them the measure of punishment that would await them in the event of a second commission of
the same fault, would teach them gradually the laws to which they were henceforth to be amenable, and would
shew them that crime was always eventually, although it might be remotely, followed by punishment.
"I imagine that this course would be more merciful than that at present adopted; viz. to punish them for a
violation of a law they are ignorant of, when this violation affects a European, and yet to allow them to
commit this crime as often as they like, when it only regards themselves; for this latter course teaches them,
not that certain actions, such, for instance, as murder, etc. are generally criminal, but only that they are
criminal when exercised towards the white people, and the impression, consequently excited in their minds is,
that these acts only excite our detestation when exercised towards ourselves, and that their criminality
consists, not in having committed a certain odious action, but in having violated our prejudices."
Many instances have come under my own personal observation, where natives have sought redress both
against one another and against Europeans, but where from their evidence being unavailable no redress could
be afforded them. Enough has however been now adduced to shew the very serious evils resulting from this
disadvantage, and to point out the justice, the policy, the practicability, and the necessity of remedying it.
In bringing to a close my remarks on the Aborigines, their present condition and future prospects, I cannot
more appropriately or more forcibly conclude the subject than by quoting that admirable letter of Lord
Stanley's to Governor Sir G. Gipps, written in December, 1842; a letter of which the sentiments expressed are
as creditable to the judgment and discrimination, as they are honourable to the feelings and humanity of the
minister who wrote it, and who, in the absence of personal experience, and amidst all the conflicting
testimony or misrepresentation by which a person at a distance is ever apt to be assailed and misled, has still
been able to separate the truth from falsehood, and to arrive at a rational, a christian, and a just opinion, on a
subject so fraught with difficulties, so involved in uncertainty, and so beset with discrepancies.
In writing to Sir G. Gipps, Lord Stanley says (Parliamentary Reports, pp. 221, 2, 3):--
"I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your despatches of the dates and numbers mentioned in the
margin, reporting the information which has reached you in respect to the aboriginal tribes of New South
Wales, and the result of the attempts which have been made, under the sanction of Her Majesty's Government,
to civilize and protect these people.
"I have read with great attention, but with deep regret, the accounts contained in these despatches. After
making every fair allowance for the peculiar difficulty of such an undertaking, it seems impossible any longer
to deny that the efforts which have hitherto been made for the civilization of the Aborigines have been
unavailing; that no real progress has yet been effected, and that there is no reasonable ground to expect from
them greater suceess in future. You will be sensible with how much pain and reluctance I have come to this
"Your despatch of the 11th March last, No. 50, contains an account of the several missions up to that date,
with reports likewise from the chief Protector and his assistants, and from the Crown Land Commissioners.
The statements respecting the missions, furnished not by their opponents, nor even by indifferent parties, but
by the missionaries themselves, are, I am sorry to say, as discouraging as it is possible to be. In respect to the
mission at Wellington Valley, Mr. Gunther writes in a tone of despondency, which shews that he has
abandoned the hope of success. The opening of his report is indeed a plain admission of despair; I sincerely
wish that his facts did not bear out such a feeling. But when he reports, that after a trial of ten years, only one
of all who have been attached to the mission 'affords some satisfaction and encouragement;' that of the others
only four still remain with them, and that these continually absent themselves, and when at home evince but
little desire for instruction; that 'their thoughtlessness, and spirit of independence, ingratitude, and want of
sincere, straightforward dealing, often try us in the extreme;' that drunkenness is increasing, and that the
natives are 'gradually swept away by debauchery and other evils arising from their intermixture with
Europeans,' I acknowledge that he has stated enough to warrant his despondency, and to shew that it proceeds
from no momentary disappointment alone, but from a settled and reasonable conviction.
"Nor do the other missions hold out any greater encouragement. That at Moreton Bay is admitted by Mr.
Handt to have made but little progress, as neither children nor adults can be persuaded to stay for any length
of time; while that at Lake Macquarie had, at the date of your despatch, ceased to exist, from the extinction or
removal of the natives formerly in its vicinity. The Wesleyan Missionaries at Port Phillip, notwithstanding an
expenditure in 1841 of nearly 1,300 pounds, acknowledge that they are 'far from being satisfied with the
degree of success which has attended our labours,' and 'that a feeling of despair sometimes takes possession of
our minds, and weighs down our spirits,' arising from the frightful mortality among the natives.
"In the face of such representations, which can be attributed neither to prejudice nor misinformation, I have
great doubts as to the wisdom or propriety of continuing the missions any longer. I fear that to do so would be
to delude ourselves with the mere idea of doing something; which would be injurious to the natives, as
interfering with other and more advantageous arrangements, and unjust to the colony, as continuing an
unnecessary and profitless expenditure.
"To this conclusion I had been led by your despatch, No. 50, but anticipating that the protectorate system
would promise more beneficial results, I postponed my instructions in the matter until I should receive some
further information.
"Your despatches of the 16th and 20th May have furnished that further information, although they contradict
the hopes which I had been led to entertain. After the distinct and unequivocal opinion announced by Mr. La
Trobe, supported as it is by the expression of your concurrence, I cannot conceal from myself that the failure
of the system of protectors has been at least as complete as that of the missions.
"I have no doubt that a portion of this ill success, perhaps a large portion, is attributable to the want of sound
judgment and zealous activity on the part of the assistant protectors. Thus the practice of collecting large
bodies of the natives in one spot, and in the immediate vicinity of the settlers, without any previous provision
for their subsistence or employment, was a proceeding of singular indiscretion. That these people would
commit depredations rather than suffer want, and that thus ill-blood, and probably collisions, would be caused
between them and the settlers, must, I should have thought, have occurred to any man of common
observation; and no one could have better reason than Mr. Sievewright to know his utter inability to control
them. When such a course could be adopted, I am not surprised at your opinion that the measures of the
protectors have tended 'rather to increase than allay the irritation which has long existed between the two
races.'
"I cannot conclude this despatch without expressing my sense of the importance of the subject of it, and my
hope that your experience may enable you to suggest some general plan by which we may acquit ourselves of
the obligations which we owe towards this helpless race of beings. I should not, without the most extreme
reluctance, admit that nothing can be done; that with respect to them alone the doctrines of Christianity must
be inoperative, and the advantages of civilization incommunicable. I cannot acquiesce in the theory that they
are incapable of improvement, and that their extinction before the advance of the white settler is a necessity
which it is impossible to control. I recommend them to your protection and favourable consideration with the
greatest earnestness, but at the same time with perfect confidence: and I assure you that I shall be willing and
anxious to co-operate with you in any arrangement for their civilization which may hold out a fair prospect of
success.
PLATE I.--ORNAMENTS.
1. Ku-ru-un-ko--tuft of emu feathers used in the play spoken of, page 228.
2. Three tufts of feathers tied in a bunch, with two kangaroo teeth, worn tied to the hair.
3. Tufts of feathers, used as a flag or signal, elevated on a spear; similar ones are worn by the males, of eagle
or emu feathers over the pubes.
PLATE II.--WEAPONS.
1. Spear barbed on both sides, of hard wood, 10 1/2 feet long, used in war or hunting.
2. Similar to the last but only barbed on one side, used for same purposes.
3. Kar-ku-ru--smooth spear of hard wood, 10 1/2 feet, used for punishments, as described page 222, also for
general purposes.
4. Short, smooth, hard wood spear, 7 1/2 feet long, used to spear fish in diving.
5. Reed spear with barbed hard wood point, used for war with the throwing stick--the way of holding it, and
position of the hand are shewn.
6. Hard wood spear with grass-tree end, 8 feet long, used with the throwing stick for general purposes.
7. Hard wood spear with single barb spliced on, 8 feet long, used from Port Lincoln to King George's Sound
for chase or war, it is launched with the throwing stick.
8. Ki-ko--reed spear, hard wood point, 6 to 7 feet long, used with the throwing-stick to kill birds or other
game.
9. Hard wood spear, grass-tree end, barbed with flint, used with the throwing-stick for war.
10. The head of No. 9 on a arger scale.
11. The head of No. 1 on a larger scale.
12. The head of a Lachlan spear, taken from a man who was wounded there, the spear entered behind the
shoulder in the back, and the point reached to the front of the throat, it had to be extracted by cutting an
opening in the throat and forcing the spear-head through from behind--the man recovered.
13. The head of No. 7 on a larger scale.
PLATE III.--WEAPONS.
PLATE IV.--IMPLEMENTS.
1. Tat-tat-ko, or rod for noosing wild fowl, 16 feet long, vide p. 310.
2. Moo-ar-roo, or paddle and fish spear, 10 to 16 feet, vide p. 263.
3. Chisel pointed hard wood stick, from 3 to 4 feet long, used by the women for digging.
4. Ngakko, or chisel pointed stick, 3 feet long, used by the men.
5. Mun--canoe of bark, vide p. 314.
6. 7, 8. Varieties of Mooyumkarr, or sacred oval pieces of wood, used at night, by being spun round with a
long string so as to produce a loud roaring noise for the object of counteracting any evil influences, and for
other purposes.
9. 10, 11, 12. Needles, etc. from the fibulas of kangaroos, wallabies, emus, etc.
13. Kangaroo bone, used as a knife.
14. Stone with hollow in centre for pounding roots.
15. Stone hatchet.
16. Distaff with string of hair upon it.
17. Lenko, or net hung round the neck in diving to put muscles, etc. in.
18. Kenderanko, net used in diving, vide p. 260.
19. Drinking cup made of a shell.
20. Drinking cup, being the scull of a native with the sutures closed with wax or gum.
1. Lukomb, or skin for carrying water, made from the skins of opossums, wallabie, or young kangaroo; the fur
is turned inside, and the legs, tail, and neck, are tied up; they hold from 1 quart to 3 gallons.
2. Pooneed-ke--circular mat, 1 foot 9 inches in diameter, made of a kind of grass, worn on the back by the
women, with a band passed round the lower part and tied in front, the child is then slipped in between the mat
and the back, and so carried.
3. Kal-la-ter--a truncated basket of about a foot wide at the bottom, made also of a broad kind of grass, used
for carrying anything in, and especially for taking about the fragile eggs of the Leipoa.
4. A wallet, or man's travelling bag, made of a kangaroo skin, with the fur outside.
5. A small kal-la-ter.
6. Pool-la-da-noo-ko, or oval basket made of broad-leaved grass, used for carrying anything; from its flat
make, it fits easily to the back.
7. An Adelaide oblong and somewhat flattish basket, made of a kind of rush.
8. The Rok-ko, or net bag, made of a string manufactured from the rush, it is carried by the women, and
contains generally all the worldly property of the family, such as shells and pieces of flint for knives--bones
for needles--sinews of animals for thread--fat and red ochre for adorning the person--spare ornaments or
belts--white pigment for painting for the dance--a skin for carrying water--a stone for pounding roots--the
sacred implements of the husband carefully folded up and concealed--a stone hatchet--and many other similar
1. Head of war spear of the North Coast, barbed for 3 feet, total length 9 1/2 feet.
2. Head of fish spear of the North Coast, barbed for 18 inches, total length 8 3/4 feet.
2. Head of spear of the North Coast, barbed for 18 inches, total length 8 3/4 feet.
4. Head of war spear of the North Coast, with head of quartz, 6 inches, total length 9 1/2 feet.
5. Head of war spear of the North Coast, with head of slate, 6 inches, total length 9 1/2 feet.
6. Two handed sword of hard wood, North Coast, 3 1/2 feet.
7. Throwing stick of North Coast, 3 feet 1 inch.
8. Throwing stick of North Coast, very pliant, 3-16ths of an inch only thick, 3 feet 6 inches.
9. Broad short throwing stick, 2 feet 2 inches.
10. An ornament of feathers for the neck.
11. Five Kangaroo teeth in a bunch, worn round the neck.
12. A net waistband or belt, from Murray River, 8 feet long 6 inches wide.
13. Plume of feathers tied to thin wand, and stuck in the hair at dances--New South Wales.
14. War club.
15. War club.
16. Bag of close net work.
17. Band for forehead of Swan's down.
18. Root end of a kind of grass, used as pins for pegging out skins.
19. Sorcerer's stick.
20. Sorcerer's stick.
The End
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