APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:

MATERIALS & DESIGN

(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

APPLICATION CHEMISTRY:
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(Environmental Chemistry)


By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
Oil slicks
Formation of oil slicks when oil is spilled from oil
tankers whilst at sea.

Slicks are prevented from spreading and cleaned up as
quickly as possible.

A new method for preventing slicks from spreading is to
make booms that can be used to soak up oil spills.

Porous materials called sorbents exist that will soak
up oil and water.

This makes them much less effective as they soon
sink.
Loading...
Oil slicks
To overcome this problem increased the ability of these
sorbents to absorb oil.

This major improvement has been achieved by making a
porous fibreglass sorbent boom that repels water
and allows oil to be absorbed.

The secret is to trap fluorinated molecules in the
structure of the fibreglass sorbent.

The fluorine has hydrophobic properties and so
repels water but allows oil in.
Oil slicks
To make: Dipped fibreglass into a slurry of silica and
then into a chemical containing fluorine.

The resulting material is dried and then cut into
discs.

When tested by shaking with a mixture of crude oil and
salt water, the discs absorbed over 200 times their
weight in oil, and they did not sink.
Loading...
Remediation of
contaminated soils
There are two main approaches to cleaning soil.

Relies on knowledge of the physical properties of the
pollutant, and the second on knowledge of the
chemical properties.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
Pollutants can move through the soil by diffusion or
convection.

Diffusion occurs where there are concentration
differences in molecules, spreading out the
contamination.

Convection occurs when molecules are driven by a
fluid such as rain or wind.


Soil remediation using
physical properties
Water picks up particles as it moves through the soil,
carrying them further from the initial spill.

These mechanisms that spread the spillage can help the
process of cleaning up the contaminated soil.

To wash out oil-based contaminants such as diesel
fuels, a similar viscous fluid or foam can be pumped
through the soil from a hole on one side of the region
and pumped out of a hole on the other side, with the
contaminants dissolved in the foam.
Soil remediation using
physical properties
For gaseous (volatile) contaminant:

can be flushed out of soil simply by pumping air
through.
can be made to vapourise by heating the soil with
warm air and heating coils.

Inserting electrodes into soil, any charged or polar
contaminants can be made to move towards one
electrode.

When this method is used, the soil near the electrode is
removed and treated further before being returned.
Soil remediation using
chemical properties
Some soil remediation will happen of its own accord as
bacteria in the soil break down complex chemicals into
CO2.

Another way of breaking down the contaminants is to
add chemicals to the soil.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major
pollutant of contaminated soils.

They result from incomplete burning of carbon-
containing materials and have structures based on
benzene rings.

Ozone has been shown to break down PAHs and can
be pumped into the ground to degrade the pollutants as
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
Ground water is the water that is present below ground.

It may be present in the soil or it may be held in porous
rock such as chalk.

Chalk is particularly good at filtering and purifying
water supplies

People in Bangladesh became ill from drinking this water
and they were found to have arsenic in their bodies.


Loading...
Remediation of contaminated ground
water plants to the rescue
The whole plant (water hyacinth) was able to remove
arsenic from water and the recent research exploits
the affinity of the plant for arsenic.

Believe that powdered root will be easier to use than
the whole plant and is more effective than other
methods of removal.
Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
In the stratosphere CFCs absorb ultraviolet light that
causes a photo-dissociation of carbon-chlorine bonds as
shown below for CF2Cl2.



These radicals catalyse the breakdown of ozone to
oxygen.

As the carbon-chlorine bond is very reactive, it
photodissociates in uv light, as shown above.

Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
Alternative - hydrofluorocarbons, for example CH2FCF3.
Alkanes may also be used.

The presence of the C-H bonds is important because this
enables the compound to break down before it reaches
the stratosphere.


Trouble in the stratosphere
replacing CFCs
CFCs have a second adverse effect on the environment
they contribute to global warming.

The new replacements for CFCs may be better in terms
of the ozone layer but they are still greenhouse gases.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
Develop products and processes that are sustainable i.e.
they do not impact on the environment in terms of
pollution or depletion of resources.

To help chemists work towards this aim, twelve principles
of green chemistry have been drawn up.
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
The twelve principles of green chemistry

1. Prevention of waste is cheaper than cleaning it up once it
is formed.

2. The synthesis of a new chemical product is designed to
ensure that maximum use of materials takes place.

3. New chemicals are produced with no significant toxicity to
humans or to the natural environment.

4. New chemicals are designed to achieve their use, whilst
keeping toxicity low,

5. Use of solvents should be avoided.

6. Energy efficiency should be maximised, ideally reactions
Green Chemistry and
Sustainability
1. Feedstocks should be sustainable.

2. Chemists often need to use temporary modifications to a
compound in a synthetic route to a target compound. Such
modifications should be minimised.

3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
3. It is better for a reaction to use a catalyst than a reaction
that is not catalysed.

4. Chemical products should be designed to break down
naturally.

5. Analytical monitoring of reaction processes enables
prevention of production of hazardous materials.

12. Safer chemistry reduces the risk of accidents.

Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
The following are examples where chemists have
employed these principals to design a green process or
technology.

A supercritical fluid is a gas that is compressed and
heated so that it shows properties of a liquid and a
gas at the same time.

Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid at a
pressure 7290 kPa and a temperature of 31C.

Other supercritical liquids include xenon and ethane.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Thymol has the structure shown below.

It is a used as a perfume, disinfectant and also has
medicinal properties.

Thymol is also used to make menthol.
Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
A research found a process for synthesising thymol
using supercritical CO2 as a solvent and a more
environmentally friendly catalyst, anhydrous aluminium
oxide.

The use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent avoids the
need for organic solvents, many of which are volatile,
flammable and may pose a risk to health and the
environment.


Use of supercritical
CO2 as a solvent
Whats more, by controlling the temperature and
pressure, its properties can be finetuned to minimise
the production of by-products in the reaction and to
increase the yield.

The process makes chemical reactions possible that
were previously too polluting or inefficient.
Ionic Liquids
Ionic liquids are organic salts that have melting points
below 100C.

Use as solvents for chemical reactions as they can
dissolve a wide variety of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Ionic liquids, unlike organic solvents, have no vapour
pressure and can be re-used.
Ionic Liquids
Chromium plating is a highly hazardous process that
makes use of chromic acid, a highly toxic and cancer
forming compound.

A company called Scionix have produced an ionic liquid
from chromium(III) chloride and choline chloride
(vitamin B4).


Ionic Liquids
Another use of ionic liquids is in electropolishing of
metals such as iron or aluminium, where ionic liquids
have replaced sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
Rock-munching bacteria
Copper mining produces huge piles of waste that still
contain copper.

Rock-munching bacteria
However, it is only recently that bacteria began to be
used to extract this remaining copper.

The process is termed bacterial leaching.

The bacteria create an acidic solution, dissolving the
copper from what was waste ore.

The copper is displaced by adding scrap iron, just as the
Romans did! 10% of US copper now comes from
bacterial leaching.

Rock-munching bacteria
As their names suggest (Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and
Thiobacillus thio-oxidans,), the bacteria actually use
Fe2+ and S2- ions in their metabolic processes, not
the copper. They gain their energy to live from
oxidation reactions such as the following.




The bacteria do not actually feed off the copper ore
as the ions do not enter their cells.

Overall the bacteria produce a solution of iron(III)
sulphate and copper(II) sulphate.
Loading...
Rock-munching bacteria
The process of bacterial leaching is cheaper, more
energy efficient, quieter and less polluting that other
methods of extraction.
Rock-munching bacteria
Using bacterial leaching can raise the percentage of
gold extracted to 85-100%.

However, Thiobacillus thio-oxidans prefers a
temperature of about 30C for optimum performance,
much lower than the region where the gold mining
takes place.

Thiobacillus thio-oxidans uses its unusual metabolism to
turn pyrites (iron sulphide) and arsenopyrites ores
into iron oxides. Any gold in the material can then be
removed.
Chemistry for energy
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Brazil and Columbia have powered their cars from
ethanol made from sugar cane.

In South Africa, plants are being constructed to produce
ethanol from maize, to be blended with petrol in
proportions ranging from 10% to 85%.

In the US, the sugar in maize is also being used to
produce ethanol.

In Europe, sugar beet is being used to produce
ethanol and rapeseed oil is being used to provide a
fuel suitable for diesel-powered engines.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
In US, Approximately 40 million tonnes of maize are
being converted to bioethanol and the market is
growing.

The fuel is being sold as E85, where 85% is ethanol,
the remainder petrol.

However, the energy available from this fuel only just
exceeds the energy used in the farming to produce
the crop.

The process is not as efficient as it could be.
Biofuels: diesel and ethanol fuels
Other alternatives to oil-based fuels Biodiesel.

Biodiesel refers to fuels that can be used in place of
diesel and that are usually made from vegetable oils or
animal fats.
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009
Batteries and fuel cells
A typical fuel cell is a hydrogen cell and the reactants are
hydrogen and oxygen.
The attraction of fuel cells is that, with the reactants
being hydrogen and oxygen, the only product is water.
They are therefore emission-free.
Batteries and fuel cells
Both alkanes and hydrogen are used in fuel cells to
propel vehicles.

A prototype Audi A2 has been built that runs on
hydrogen, achieving 94 mpg, but with a limited range.

Norwegian road construction giant Mesta aims to cut
their CO2 emissions from their vehicles in half by use of
hydrogen powered vehicles.
Hydrogen is stored in three 115 dm3 bottles at a
pressure of 200 bar, giving the vehicle a 120 km range.
Batteries and fuel cells
Toyota Prius hybrid petrol/electric car has an electric
motor that is driven by a bank of nickelmetal hydride
batteries that recharge when the car is coasting down hill
and switches to petrol when acceleration is required.


Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Hydrogen gas must be compressed in order for it to be
stored at a small enough volume on a vehicle.

This carries a significant risk of explosion.

An alternative approach is to find a solid material to
absorb the hydrogen.

Sodium aluminium hydride NaAlH4, a solid known to
reversibly absorb hydrogen molecules.

High temperatures are needed and this hydride (and
related hydrides) can only store about 5% by weight
of hydrogen.
Overcoming the hydrogen
storage problem
Doping this compound with titanium made the
absorption and release of hydrogen much more
efficient.

It appears that, unexpectedly, the titanium acts as a
catalyst, forming a compound called titanium
aluminide on the surface of the NaAlH4.

Another method is to use porous materials which have
many molecular sized holes that can absorb
hydrogen and release it when needed.

Other researchers are investigating organic polymers
that can form porous materials.
Sourcing hydrogen
Processes used to produce hydrogen are not necessarily
environmentally friendly.

One option is electrolysis of water, but electricity is
required for this process, and in most countries that
electricity still comes primarily from power stations that
burn fossil fuels.

The electrolysis of water usually requires 50% more
energy that is stored in the hydrogen produced.

Another source of hydrogen is from methane in natural
gas, but this process uses up natural resources and
generates greenhouse gases.
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some of the key issues for use of nuclear power
are as follows:

Nuclear fuel can be viewed as a clean source of
energy with zero emissions of greenhouse gases.

Nuclear power stations generate radioactive waste
products and we must be sure that these can be
stored safely well beyond our lifetimes. The work of
chemists has much to contribute in terms of cleaning
up nuclear waste.

Concern that an accident at or a terrorist attack on
a nuclear plant
The future of nuclear power,
potentially the greenest of fuels?
Some people believe that nuclear power is a cheap
source of energy, others believe that the cost of
cleaning up and securing nuclear waste is
prohibitive.
END OF APPLICATION
CHEMISTRY
END OF A2 SYLLABUS!!!
The finishing line is on the horizon,
run for it dont walk!

Lucas Chan
17/3/2009