Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Management Guidelines For Cultural World Heritage Sites - Feilden and Jokilehto - 1993
Management Guidelines For Cultural World Heritage Sites - Feilden and Jokilehto - 1993
......Q
\ .
MANAGEMENT
GUIDELINES
r:.r-,
g;
~
FOR WORLD
:2:
Il:I
fa
CULTURAL HERITAGE
SITES
Bernard M. Feilden and Iukka Iokilehto
.
;t.~
, ,
..
'
,.
'
, ~ .
.. . - . - .
~
...
- -
?,,-b-"- "
/,
/
..
I
.'
. . .
G
- _. '-'----
... . ..
\~ ~7i-JKi?ii ;:O/(r//li/~J
J . 1;:) re i /--6' ,~~
PJr~
I t ~ UJ~ --:=~ .,
_ ... . _
) '-
~~
/:
~_ I \() iu --
..J
'
/ cJx / ;h~C/.<; I
/.7
I? -.rf:
,K UlI:vlLl!J
v;c
tf~ <::- /-'--l
!JEte.s - U tC'( / -, '7()~ ,11/
c: c:
1J5
)=45
{85:3
F i a 1. I
U D G
. - - - - - - . _ .1
r':. iO-t~i~A~~~UK~_
. . .-. --.,~
FJ;i{ULTEst
_ ._~.J_
;~
,r. _
.. , ;
~<"11 ~\PlJli t
_~-_
.h ":'l c' .
LJ {~r l I111.J~.~'
!
~ U ., .-, r
~ ' l-.I:::U .;I
i 1\8Y:\
!-....--
r:
'--J .
,
~
: ..15.5~4
~JJJtll
ICCROM
Rome, 1993
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ix
DOCUMENTATION
WORK PLANS
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
PERSONNEL
SITE COMMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ISBN 92-9077-110-X
1993 ICCROM
ICCROM - International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property
Via di San Michele 13
1-00153 Roma RM, Italy
Printed in Italy
by R.D.E. Editrice s.r.l.
Style editing/typesetting/layout
Cynthia Rockwell with Thorgeir Lawrence
Cover design by Studio PAGE
OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES
GLOBAL STUDY
10
11
WHATISCULTURALHERITAGETODAY?
11
13
Contents
iv
16
40
What is authenticity? .
16
40
17
Cultural values . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
19
6 MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME
. .. . ... .
41
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
41
42
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
23
43
MANAGEMENT.
23
44
23
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
44
24
44
25
45
Information management
27
Research planning
28
General schedule .
28
SITE COMMISSION .. .. . . . . . . .. . . .
Administration . .
30
30
Legal instruments
31
. .. .
. 49
Programming. . .
31
49
32
50
50
32
BUDGETING
Annual budget
32
Unesco's role .
33
. 47
I
.48
.48
51
51
Architectural conservators . . . . . .
52
52
53
35
53
Procedure . . .
35
CONSERVATION FACILITIES
54
Requirements .
35
56
36
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT .
34
REPORTING . . . . . .. . . . ..
37
37
37
37
56
57
59
59
Contents
vi
vii
Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
98
61
99
64
SITE MAINTENANCE .
99
65
100
VISITOR MANAGEMENT
102
66
68
70
71
73
REFERENCES
75
111
75
115
117
CONCLUSION
77
77
78
OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING
79
Integrated conservation
80
Control of change . ..
82
PLANNING PROCEDURE
83
85
Implementation. .
85
Demands on staff .
86
86
Degrees of intervention
89
Maintenance .
89
Rehabilitation
90
Infill design . . . .
91
93
94
97
Needs of visitors
98
Promotion
. . ..
104
A code of practice
104
....
107
ix
PREFACE
This set of guidelines originated from a joint meeting organized in Rome by the
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM) and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS),
under the auspices of the Cultural Heritage Division of Unesco, in April 1983.
From their wide range of experience, the following experts contributed to the
formulation of these guidelines:
BOURKE,
Max
DIMACOPOULos, Jordan
FEILDEN, Sir Bernard
JOKILEHTO, Jukka
LEBLANC, Francois
MILLER, Hugh
MOJsILovIc-poPovIC, Svetlana
Mrunr.Amini A.
QUOSI, Adli
Australia
Greece
United Kingdom
ICCROM
Canada
USA
Yugoslavia
Tanzania
Syria
An outline of the contents was prepared by the working party, and Sir Bernard
Feilden was entrusted with the task of writing the text. The Countryside Commission of the UK, Mr Andrew Thornburn and Dr Jukka Jokilehto helped in producing
a revised draft incorporating the constructive comments of all the members of the
original committee. The draft was then circulated to several conservation experts
and managers in different countries, and their comments were also taken into
consideration. The final text was prepared jointly by Bernard Feilden and Jukka
Jokilehto, with editorial assistance from Susan Bronson and Barret Kennedy.
Other manuals and guidelines have been initiated in the meantime, and the present
publication should be seen as an integral part of a wider context. In particular, the
other manuals include Safeguarding Historic Urban Ensembles in a Time of
Change: A Management Guide, the provisional edition of which was produced by
Professor Herb Stovel, Secretary-General of ICOMOS, and presented to delegates
at the International Symposium on World Heritage Towns, held in Quebec,
Canada, June 1991, for their comments. Also , in an agreement between ICCROM
and the Government of Canada, guidelines are under preparation by Mr Robin
Letellier on Recording, Documentation and Information Management ofCultural
Resources.
Preface
Background
For those States Parties to the Unesco World Heritage Convention that lack a
developed system for the protection of their cultural heritage, the system proposed
in these guidelines may seem complicated. The greatest challenge is to secure
sufficient specialist personnel for the care and protection of their heritage. However, the proposed system is conceived to be followed in its broad outlines and
used as a framework to accommodate the systems of each State Party as those
systems develop. Often, developing countries are rich in the craft resources that
are a 'living cultural heritage' and vital for the conservation of sites.
Who has the day-to-day, hour-by-hour responsibility for the management of a
World Cultural Heritage site? The site may be chock-a-block with visitors, but
who is responsible? There may be a Director-General, but, unless he or she has
delegated adequate authority, no local person is in effective charge. Without local
management control, anything can happen. The preventive actions needed to
protect cultural heritage must be taken by specially trained staff who understand
its significance.
These guidelines are written for all those concerned with a World Heritage site,
specifically World Cultural Heritage sites or other sites preserved for their cultural
values. The aim is to help site management staff to become alert and self-sufficient,
with adequate resources and active support from their central government. Since
conservation is an essential part of the management process, the theory guiding
conservation actions must be understood and used by the multidisciplinary management team.
The designation of a site as World Heritage implies changes. Increased numbers
of visitors demand new facilities and bring in more traders. Shops that encroach
on the site in a few days may take years to remove, even if their presence is totally
illegal. A government may seek to enhance its site by over-restoration. The
landscape and setting of the site may be damaged by intrusive development, such
as engineering works or mineral extraction, and so on.
Management is essential, and can only be exercised at the site. What are the
responsibilities of a site manager? A visitor has a serious accident: someone has
to deal with it. A school party arrives unexpectedly without having booked, it is
raining heavily and there is no shelter. There has even been a case where a dry
riverbed flooded and a party was swept away by a sudden storm. Continuous
erosion of the site causes floors with inscriptions to become worn. Even the rocks
of the Acropolis need protection. Crowding of visitors leads to frustration and this
may promote vandalism. Litter has to be cleared, paths repaired, plants protected
xi
and the needs of wild animals respected. The site manager has constantly to
monitor security and be on guard against arson. All this strain on the management
is to enable the citizens of the world to enjoy their cultural heritage.
Politicians and administrators will be primarily interested in the principles, the
Director-General in the policy, and the staff in the practicalities of site management. Conservation theory should guide all actions. The site manager is caught
between daily problems and the larger issues imposed by supervisors, who have
an eye on the budget but for whom the prime need is to conserve the World Heritage
site.
, ...The enjoyment of our heritage depends upon its conservation. These guidelines
aim to assist site managers to fulfil this role with the support of a commission of ' ,
experts, by understanding what it is that makes the site significant and protecting
it from the numerous threats.
World Heritage demonstrates that the industry, craftsmanship, love and care of
past civilizations were given to make their surroundings meaningful. This should
never cease to fill us with wonder. The past can speak to us and help us realize
where we are going in the future.
Chapter 1
SUMMARY OF THE GUIDING PRINCIPLES
1.1
OBJECTIVES
These Management Guidelines are intended to provide advice and suggestions for implementing the intentions ofthe World Heritage Conv ention .
They contain information which will be useful for all States Parties to the Unesco
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heri tage. The State Party will have already designated World Heritage sites in
accordance with conventions , guidelines and forms prescribed by Unesco.!
Management techniques can be applied at any level of technical sophistication and
can be used to raise levels of technical competence.
o
o
o
Each State Party should apply the principles given in these guidelines according
to the degree of sophistication in management that can be made efficient and
effective. If the basic framework of actions suggested in these guidelines is
followed initially , greater sophistication can be achieved in subsequent stages,
when it is perceived to be necessary and when the required professionals are
available.
Actions to implement the management of World Heritage sites should be based
upon the traditions and legislation of the State Party, which should review its
legislation and update it if necessary.
In particular the Unesco Conventions should be consulted, as these guidelines are based on the
assumption that the State Party adheres to and implements the said Conventions. The
Recommendations of Unesco also provide complementary guidelines for implementation of
conservation policies. In addition to the list of references given in the last chapter, selected
bibliographies relating to the management of historic areas, buildings and sites may be requested
from ICCROM in Rome, Italy, or from the Conservation Information Network (CIN) in Ottawa, Canada.
Guiding Principles
The management of a World Heritage site is based on the detailed analysis of its
significance as identified during the nomination procedure. Management includes
the following:
ensuring that all site staff understand the cultural values to be preserved in
the site;
providing specific guidelines based upon the statement of significance of
the site;
making a complete inventory of all the cultural resources within the site;
arranging for regular inspections and formal reports by professionals with
suitable qualifications and experience;
drafting a strategic maintenance plan leading to the formulation of resource
projects which are incorporated into an annual work programme according
to their priority; and
respecting, in all work , the ethics of conservation, the established international recommendations of Unesco , and guidelines such as the Venice
Charter.
1.2
Management of the site should be based on the State Party 's legislation controlling
land use, but additional protection may have to be applied, particularly to the area
surrounding the site. The inventory should include all buildings and, where
appropriate, their contents as well as the townscape and landscape resources within
~s~ .
.
1.3
WORK PLA NS
Long-term (5-30+ years), medium-term 5 years) , and annual work plans are the
basis of management planning, programming and budgeting. Annual programmes
may consist of a number of related projects which can be brought forward for
approval by stages.
Management should be organized by resource projects according to a standard
methodology. Since programming will depend on both the capacity of the staff
and the budget , resource projects must be identified in advance and implemented
in order of priority.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
A preventive maintenance strategy should be developed, based upon a multidisciplinary approach. When practical, alternative courses have been examined,
conservation theory should be used to evaluate the prescription to be adopted.
Maintenance includes all practical and technical measures that are needed to keep
the site in condition at a standard that permits enjoyment of the cultural resource
without damage. It is a continuous process. Frequencies of action should be defined
based upon professional input and special training of craftspersons. Monitoring of
the maintenance programme is necessary.
DOCUMENTA TION
All pertinent published literature relating to the site should be collected, catalogued
and made accessible. The statement of significance should take this material into
account. If this has not been done, the omission should be rectified as a matter of
urgency.
Special precautions may be needed against vandalism, theft, fire, floods and
earthquakes.
I '
1.5
PERSONNEL
Suitable experts must be selected to advise on the work plan and to assist in its
execution. The plan should start with a statement of management philosophy,
couched in terms all site staff can appreciate. Staffing requirements must be
assessed , and key staff should be appointed first. Staffing and personnel are
discussed in Chapter 7.
1.6
SITE COMMISSION
Guiding Principles
!t is desirable that the Site Commission have a budget for providing general
mformation, promoting public awareness and accommodating school education,
and t?at the mass media and other channels of communication be used to publicize
the site worldwide. The production of guidebooks merits serious consideration.
Visitor ~d community services ought to be provided, but the maximum capacity
of the site should not be exceeded, and security and protection may have to be
pr~vided. The policy on admission fees needs study. Training and licensing of
guides is usually the responsibility of the Site Commission.
Econo~ics. will control much of the Site Commission's activities. Although
dependmg m a large part on a state grant for site preservation and research
studies, the commission should be allowed to raise money from tourists in order
to develop the site and so increase visitor enjoyment, as well as defraying some
cost~. Annual ?udgeting should be established within a framework of governmental fmance, WIth powers to carry fiscal allocations forward from one year to the
next. Budgeting should be under standardized headings.
Chapter 2
GENERAL POLICY OF THE CONVENTION
2.1
The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage is one of the three Unesco Conventions related to cultural heritage, 1 and
was adopted by the General Conference of Unesco at its seventeenth session in
Paris on 16 November 1972. As of November 1992,131 states had deposited an
instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession to this Convention.
The Convention is managed by the World Heritage Committee assisted by the
Unesco Secretariat and the World Heritage Centre. Decisions are prepared for the
Committee by the World Heritage Bureau, which consists of a chair, vice-chairs
and a rapporteur. The Committee, which consists of representatives of States
Parties, generally meets once a year. The three essential functions of the Committee are:
to identify, on the basis of nominations submitted by States Parties, cultural
and natural properties of outstanding universal value which are to be
protected under the Convention, and to list those properties on the World
Heritage List;
todecide which properties on the World Heritage List are to be inscribed
on the List of World Heritage in Danger (only properties which require
major operations for their conservation and for which assistance has been
requested under the Convention can be considered); and
to determine in what way and under what conditions the resources in the
World Heritage Fund can most advantageously be used to assist States
Parties in the protection of their properties of outstanding universal value.
2.2
OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES
The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (hereinafter simply referred to as the Operational Guidelines), first written
in 1977 and subsequently revised? were prepared for the purpose of informing
The others are: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
(the Hague Convention), adopted in 1954, and Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and
Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, of 1970,
2
These Management Guidelines reflect all such revisions up to and including the changes to the
Operational Guidelines as adopted by the 16th Session of the World Heritage Committee in Santa Fe,
States Parties to the Convention of the principles that guide the work of the
Committee in establishing the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage
in Danger, as well as in granting international assistance under the World Heritage
Fund. The Operational Guidelines are considered a working tool , and may be
edited and revised by the World Heritage Committee according to local needs in
accordance with the policies defined for the Convention by the Committee.
2.3
The specific criteria for nomination to the World Heritage List are defined in the
Operational Guidelines (Section c., art. 23-34) and refer to two categories of
World Heritage sites : (a) monuments, groups of buildings and sites; and
(b) groups of urban buildings.
The criteria for category (a) are that they must:
represent a unique artistic achievement, a masterpiece of the creative genius;
or
have exerted great influence, over a span of time or within a cultural area
of the world , on developments in architecture, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design; or
bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a civilization or cultural
tradition which has disappeared; or
be an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural ensemble
or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; or
be an outstanding example oftraditional human settlement or land use which
is representative of a culture (or cultures), especially when it has become
vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; or, in exceptional
circumstances or in conjunction with other criteria
be directly and tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with
ideas , or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance.
have adequate legal protection and/or traditional protection and management mechanisms to ensure the conservation of the nominated cultural
property or cultural landscapes. The existence of protecti:e legisla~i?n at
the national, provincial and municipal level or well-established traditional
protection and/or management mechanisms is therefore essential and m~st
be stated clearly on the nomination form. Assurances of the effective
implementation of these laws and/or management mechanisms are also
expected. Furthermore, in order to preserve the integrity of cultural sites ,
particularly those open to large numbers of visit~rs, the St~te. Part~ concerned should be able to provide evidence of suitable administrative arrangements to cover the management of the property, its conservation and
its accessibility to the public.
Category (b) covers groups of urban buildings, and refers mainly to historic
towns." These are classified into three types (art. 27):
towns which are no longer inhabited but which provide unchanged archaeological evidence of the past; these generally satisfy the criterion of authenticity and their state of conservation can be relatively easily controlled;
historic towns which are still inhabited and which, by their very nature, have
developed and will continue to develop under the influence of socio-ec~
nomic and cultural change, a situation that renders the assessment of their
authenticity more difficult and any conservation policy more problematical;
new towns of the twentieth century which paradoxically have something in
common with both the aforementioned categories: while their original urban
organization is clearly recognizable and their authenticity is undeniable,
their future is unclear because their development is largely uncontrollable.
The Operational Guidelines define the criteria for the nomination ofhistoric towns
as follows (art. 29):
To qualify for inclusion, towns should compel recognition because
of their architectural interest and should not be considered only on
the intellectual grounds of the role they may have played in the past
or their value as historical symbols under criterion (vi) [be an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural ensemble or
landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s ) in human history]
for the inclusion of cultural properties in the World Heritage List. To
be eligible for inclusion in the List, the spatial organization, structure,
materials, forms and, where possible, functions of a group of buildings should essentially reflect the civilization or success ion of civilizations which have prompted the nomination of the property.
These are addressed more fully in Section 2.1 of the next chapter.
In addition, a World Heritage site must:
meet the test of authenticity in design, material, workmanship or setting and
in the case of cultural landscapes their distinctive character and componentsr' and
December 1992.
3
In f~rmulating these ~riteria, the Committee stressed that reconstruction is only acceptable if it is
car~led out on the baSIS of complete and detailed documentation on the original and to no extent on
conjecture.
The term towns is used generically throughout these Management Guidelines to also include cities
and other urban sites.
The historic towns that are nominated can fall into several categories depending
on their extent, from including the entire historic town (such as Rome) to including
only a significant area within the historic town area (such as the Meidan-e-Shah
square in Isfahan) or taking a selection of significant monuments that document
specific features in the town's history. In all cases, however, an integrated
approach is necessary because, first, these elements are an integral part of their
urban context, even if representing a different historical period, and, second, their
conservation is in most cases directly dependent on the management of their
physical and socio-economic context.
The nominations of cultural properties were in the past limited to monuments, sites
and historic towns, but now cultural landscapes are also eligible. The criteria for
inclusion of cultural landscapes were discussed at the December 1992 meeting of
the World Heritage Committee. The question of the test of au thenticity should,
therefore, be understood in this context as relating to historic buildings, whereas
for cultural landscapes, their distinctive character and components must be taken
into consideration.
The word site will be used to refer to all the categories contained in the definitions
given above. In some cases, however, both cultural and natural heritage resources
are found together. The methodology of management by resource projects is
remarkably similar in both cases. The criteria for the inclusion of natural properties in the World Heritage List are defined in section D (art. 35-36) of the Operational
Guidelines.
To ensure that effective and active measures are taken for the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage situated on its territory,
each State Party to this Convention shall endeavour, in so far as is possible, and
as appropriate for each country:
to adopt a general policy which aims to give the cultural and natural
heritage a function in the life of the community and to integrate the
protection of that heritage into comprehensive planning programmes;
to set up within its territories , where such services do not exist, one or
more services for the protection, conservation and presentation of the
cultural and natural heritage with an appropriate staff and possessing
the means to discharge their functions;
to develop scientific and technical studies and research and to work ?ut
such operating methods as will make the State capable of counteractmg
the dangers that threaten its cultural or natural heritage;
to take the appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and
financial measures necessary for identification, protection, conservation , presentation and rehabilitation of this heritage; and
to foster the establishment or development of natural or regional centres
for training in the protection, conservation of the cultural and natural
heritage and to encourage scientific research in this field.
In 1990, the World Heritage Committee initiated a project, called the Global
Study, aimed at establishing an overall framework of the world's cultural heritage
and providing a reference for future nominations. This ongoing project is being
carried out in collaboration with the competent authorities and specialists in States
Parties, ICOMOS and ICCROM.
Once a site has been classified as being of World Heritage standard and is included
on the World Heritage List, it is expected that the values and conditions which
give it universal significance, and which make it an outstanding example, will be
maintained on a permanent basis. This means that actions that would reduce the
authenticity or the values of the site, and that would have barred acceptance of ~he
nomination will not be acceptable after the site is listed. Therefore, the evaluation
document ~pon which the designation of a World Heritage. site is. based. is
important as a basic reference; it should identify the values m the sI.te ,:"hIch
contribute to its significance in a manner that everyone concerned WIth It can
understand.
2.5
2.6
2.4
GLOBAL STUDY
If the site and its integrity are threatened by serious and specific dangers (ascertained or potential), caused by either man or nature , it may be included (at the
request of the State party) on the List of World Her itage .in Danger with the aim
of providing international assistance to the State Party until such time as the threat
has terminated. Such a threat may be defined as not only external pressure for
undesired change in the setting of a site, but also inappropriate proposals for its
treatment, eventual use, or both.
10
2.7
11
2.8
THE EMBLEM
Site~ that have been nominated to the World Heritage List may use the World
Hentage Em~Iem and the na~e, symbol or depiction of World Heritage sites. The
emblem , designed by Mr. MIchel Olyff, "symbolizes the interdependence of
c~ltural and natural propertIes: the central square is a form created by man and the
~rrcle represents nature , the two being intimately linked. The emblem is round,
like the world, but at the same time it is a symbol of protection." (Operational
Guidelines, Section VI-A, art. 103-106.)
Chapter 3
EVALUATION FOR CONSERVATION
3.1
SUMMARY
The modem concept of cultural heritage is related to the whole built environment,
.and should be seen in the ecological context of the world; within this context, the
sites on the World Heritage List are distinguished for their outstanding universal
value. Conservation policies should be based on a critical process starting with the
survey, documentation, and definition of the intrinsic cultural resource, and the
values related to it. These values may be divided into two groups: cultural values
and contemporary economic values.
The conservation of cultural heritage is a cultural problem. Restoration is not a
recipe , but depends on an appropriate understanding of the values contained in the
heritage resource. Decisions related to the treatment of World Heritage sites must
be based on balanced judgement with due consideration of the objectives of the
Convention as a priority. The policy of conservation involves making interventions at various scales and levels of intensity; these are determined by the physical
condition, causes of deterioration and anticipated future environment of the
cultural resource under treatment. Each case must be considered as a whole, and
individually, taking all factors into account. The final aim and the principles of
conservation and restoration must be kept in mind; generally the minimum
effective intervention has proved to be the best policy.
3.2
12
- sometimes ruthlessly - in the pre-industrial era, people and the built environment
were more dependent upon nature than they are today. In parallel with this, a new
problem has been created by the explosive population increase in many countries
and the worldwide trend of urbanization: the inconsiderate consumption of nonrenewable resources (such as oil and minerals) and the lack of care for resources
which are at least partly renewable (such as water, air and forests) have become
an international concern.
D Since physical cultural heritage is one of the world's most important
non-renewable resources, a special effort is needed to redress the imbalance
between our needs and its protection.
The aim of this Convention is to protect sites that represent "outstanding universal
value. " The World Heritage List, which was established and is maintained on the
basis of this Convention, identifies sites in different States Parties that are recognized as resources of international significance, thus meriting special acknowledgement and protection. Together these exemplary resources represent the rich
diversity of the world's heritage and, as a consequence, they have important
educational connotations.
For the purposes of the Convention, cultural heritage includes monuments, groups
of buildings or sites, and these are defined as (Article 1):
monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and
painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature , inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features , which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;
groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which ,
because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the
landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of
history, art or science; or
sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of man, and
areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal
value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological
points of view.
The basic requirement for the nomination of a site to the World Heritage List is
that it represent outstanding universal value. The Operational Guidelines define
this concept as it is applied to the nomination process, as was addressed in detail
in Section 2.3 above .
3.3
:or a list of .Unesco Conventions and Recommendations, see Appendix B; the texts are published
In: Conventions and Re~ommendat~onsof Unesco concerning the protection of the cultural heritage,
Unesc~ 1985. Con~ernlng the .Vemce Charter, one may observe that it was written in 1964, during
the period of extensive restorations and reconstructions after the damage of the Second World War.
The specific problems of that time were emphasized , and less attention given to other concerns that
are relevant today. Many attempts have since been made to improve the charter, and in fact
numerous international, ~~gi o n a l or nati~nal recommendations have been written with this purpose;
these often refer to specific types of heritage or particular problems. The Venice Charter however
continues to be valid as a proclamation of some of the basic principles.
"
13
In the past, restoration theories have often emphasized specific types of treatment,
but the conservation and the mise-en-valeur of cultural heritage should not be
viewed simply as a series of recipes . Today , the concept of cultural heritage is
understood in a much broader sense. Consequently, specific protection and conservation strategies are likely to vary considerably according to the context and
14
Evaluation/or Conservation
The aim ofconservation is to safeguard the quality and values ofthe resource,
protect its material substance and ensure its integrity for future generations.
15
intention. One of the aims of the survey and critical-historical assessment of the
object is to define the wholeness of the resource and the state of its potential unity.
Above all else, integrity relates to the material completeness of the resource. The
intrinsic qualities of a heritage resource refer to the quality of its materials, its
workmanship, its design, its setting and its relationship to the setting.
Over time, the original heritage resource may be partly damaged, intentionally
modified or even destroyed, causing its potential unity to be diminished or lost.
On the other hand, an historic resource may, at different periods of its history,
become part of a new whole, through which it is redefined as part of a new pot~ntial
unity; such transformations are part ofits historical stratigraphy. Treatments.aimed
at the restoration of a heritage resource should refer to this new potential umty and
should therefore be carried out within the framework defined by it.
Historic areas and their surroundings require particularly careful study and consideration since individual monuments and historic buildings are only part of the
larger ensemble of the heritage resource. The Unesco Recommendatio~con~ern~
ing Safeguarding and Contemporary Role ofHistoric Areas, formulated in Nairobi
in 1976, provides the following guideline (General Principles, 11,2):
Every historic area and its surroundings should be considered in their
totality as a coherent whole whose balance and specific nature depend
on the fusion of the parts of which it is composed and which include
human activities as much as the buildings, the spatial organization
and the surroundings. All valid elements, including human activities,
however modest, thus have a significance in relation to the whole
which must not be disregarded.
The whole of historic areas should thus not be considered only in relation to an
architectural framework; it should also include the human values related to its
social and economic context. Of particular importance is also the question of
historic parks and landscapes. Throughout history, in many cou~tries, garden
design has been very closely associated with architectur~ (e.g.: ~hma, E?gland,
France, India, Iran, Italy and Japan). It is important that, m defining the SIte, due
attention be given to these features, requiring proper archaeological research, and
knowledge of the history and principles of garden design, in order not to lose these
important and often fragile features in a rehabilitation process. In recent year~,
much international attention has been given to historic parks and gardens, and their
documentation; guidelines h:fve been developed for their proper maintenance,
conservation and restoration.
The Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies (loAAS) of the University of York, England, has
established a centre for studies of historic parks and gardens, which has been recognized by ICCR.OM.
Contact: Mr Peter Goodchild, 10AAS, University of York, The King's Manor, York Y01 2EP, United
Kingdom.
16
Evaluation/or Conservation
Particularly since the 1980s, with the increased awareness of the importance of
the relationship and interdependence of the built and the natural environment, the
issue of protecting cultural landscapes has become significant in many countries,
both in industrialized areas and in areas undergoing rapid development (where
modem development often ignores the values of the existing ecological or traditional cultural context and the need to maintain existing resources). The question
ofdefining criteria for the nomination of cultural landscapes to the World Heritage
List has been under study, but whether or not these are implemented, there remains
the urgent necessity to take due care not only of specific monuments or groups of
buildings, but also to provide sufficient planning tools for the control and balanced
development of their wider context.
3.3.4 Historical time Iine 3
The relationship of a heritage resource, such as a work of art, an historic building
or an historic town to time and history may be broken down into in three phases:
the first phase, which resulted in the creation of the object;
the second phase, which extends from the end of the creation phase to the
present time; and
the third phase, which is associated with the perception of the monument in
our consciousness at the present time.
This sequence of phases forms the historical time line of the resource. This
historical time line is irreversible. It is a product of the specific cultural, social,
economic and political conditions of the phases that contributed to its creation and
evolution. This linkage with specific historic phases becomes a fundamental
reference for the evaluation of an historic resource. Alois Riegl, an Austrian art
historian and conservator, developed the concept of Kunstwollen4 in 1903 to
express the fact that an object created at a given time both reflects the artistic trends
of its period and contributes to these trends. A heritage resource that is substantially
reconstructed today would become a product of the present.
Authenticity derives from the definition of the resource, and so authenticity may
be understood in different ways depending on the context of its historical significance.
The word authentic may be understood as original, first hand (as opposed to copy), or as real, actual,
genuine (as opposed to pretended). Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.
In the case ofa heritage resource, its historical authenticity should generally
reflect the significantphases ofconstruction and utilization in different phases
of its historical time line.
17
Many values may be associated with heritage resources, and are generally extrinsic
to the resource itself. Those that are deemed significant will provide justification
for its protection and conservation. Such values range from historical to commercial , and a single resource may possess conflicting
values that make management
.
.
6
decisions especially difficult, and the value Judgements may change over time.
When dealing with World Heritage sites, considerations should include both
cultural values, and
contemporary socio-economic values.
6
Riegl, writing in 1903, was already analysing in detail the different values related to historic
monuments at the beginning of the 20th century. (See bibliography)
18
Evaluationfor Conservation
The presence or absence of these values will lead to the safeguarding and
preservation of cultural heritage resources or, in other instances, could lead to their
neglect and destruction. For example, nationalistic or political values could
provide a motivation for the protection and restoration of a resource, but these
same values could cause the loss of resource that does not meet the prevailing
political conception of significance.
19
Impact: These values result from research carried out by professionals, with the
intention of demonstrating the relative significance of the resource in
relation to its own time, to other periods, and to the present. They provide
a basis for classification and listing, as well as strategy for treatment.
Rarity value (based on statistics):
Values: This group of values relates the resource to other constructions of the
same type, style, builder, period, region or some combination of these;
they define the resource's rarity , representativeness or uniqueness.
Impact: This group of values is related to the two previous value groups, and
influences the level of protection accorded to the resource. A high rarity
value may reinforce the significance of the qualities that have outstanding universal value, and therefore strengthen the possibility of listing as
a World Heritage site.
3.4.2 Contemporary socio-economic values
Use values are related to present-day society and its socio-economic and political
infrastructures. The following categories have been identified:
Economic value:
Values: Since economics encourages the best allocation of resources to fit a wide
range of needs, the economic value may not be restricted to a financial
value. In terms of cultural heritage, economic value may be understood
as a value generated by the heritage resource or by conservation action.
Impact: Economic values have four potential sources of revenue: tourism, commerce, use and amenities. The mismanagement of anyone of these
sources could lead to the undesirable development, or even the destruction, of the heritage resource; this is often the case when profit value is
erroneously measured instead of using a more appropriate collective
cost-benefit approach.
Functional value:
Values: Functional value is related to economic value, as it involves the continuity of the original type of function or the initiation of a compatible use
of a building or an area. In a ruined structure, the original functional
value is lost, but a new one has been found in serving programmatic
requirements for resource interpretation, or as a venue for activities such
as the visual and performing arts.
20
Impact: Social values can generate the concern for the local environment that
leads to maintenance and repair of the fabric of a heritage resource; a
lack of this social coherence and appreciation can handicap conservation. Such grass-roots interest has been the driving force behind the Civic
Amenity movements.
Political value:
Values: Political value is often related to specific events in the history of the
heritage resource with respect to its region or country. The present-day
significance of the resource could be influenced by these events insofar
as they coincide with the intentions of contemporary political priorities.
21
23
Chapter 4
MANAGEMENT OF WORLD HERITAGE SITES
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
MANAGEMENT
24
World Heritage towns will probably be managed individually, but may need
enlarged buffer areas.
If the State Party has a national council for conservation of heritage, should
it be given the task of managing the World Heritage sites? If so, should
creation of management units be considered?
There are many ways in which the historical, artistic, technical and craft skills of
academics, professionals and artisans can be mobilized effectively, with delegated
responsibility and accountability, so that the cultural resources of the site are
protected and handed over intact to the next generation. These Management
Guidelines aim at helping such a Commission to execute its complex tasks in
conserving all World Heritage sites.
In general, the historical use of the site should be maintained, as this is the reason
for its significance. Nothing stays still, however, and change is inevitable. The art
of planning is to guide change in a way that will, if possible, enhance the
significance of the site by minimum intervention at key points. This invokes two
questions:
How to find the key points? and
What is the minimum intervention?
These questions are for the planning team to consider. In addition, other aspects
should be considered for the general management plan, including:
investigation of plans for alternative use and their application, together with
assessment of their feasibility and cost;
designation of use zones, if necessary;
in historic towns or areas, control of the height, size and scale of new, infill
building;
designation of conservation areas, with subsidies to encourage both maintenance and suitable improvements, especially to the streetscape;
25
control of electrical cables and other wires, and of signs, shop fronts and
advertisements; and
establishment of zones for compatible activities of benefit to all users of
heritage sites, excluding - by preventing permission for - incompatible uses .
26
However, one point that must be stressed is that of compatibility - i.e., that the
form in which the data is stored should conform to accepted international standards
so that the data can be easily shared, or easily transferred to successor systems. In
this context, the need for simple operating manuals for users - in their own
language - and the establishment of minimum data requirements should be made
clear.
Looking ahead, data currently being collected should be stored in its most
dis-aggregated form to allow maximum flexibility in its future use.
For sites that cover a large area or have complex urban elements, consideration
could be given to the possibility of using geographical information system (GIs)
techniques to efficiently manage the data.
Satellite photos, aerial photography, as well as aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry , are invaluable aids to forming a quantitative inventory of both natural and
man-made sites. However, the technology to be used in the recording process
depends both on the type and character of the resource as well as on the objectives
and the utilization of the records. Several types of techniques may be considered
either independently or in combination depending on the case; at one extreme, this
could include hand recording, record photography, rectified photography or video;
at the other extreme, the use of electronic theodolites or stereo-photogrammetry,
with computer-aided design (CAD) or image processing. The recommended levels
of recording could include an initial photographic recording, a preliminary, and a
detailed record, which could be partial (for operational needs) or complete (for
future reference).
27
Most heritage databases have so far been developed in isolation, often without
consultation or links outside the immediate group, thus multiplying the efforts.
It will therefore be necessary to start a process of unification ofstandards, in
order to facilitate accessibility and interpretation of records, to facilitate the
process ofpreparation ofrecords and make it easier to provide a comprehensive coverage without forgetting essential issues in the process.
The published literature relating to the heritage site may take a long time to collect
and it may be necessary to arrange for photographic or microform copies to be
made of documents held elsewhere. Ideally, these should be catalogued, preferably using the UNISIST system, and skillfully abstracted so as to enhance the
availability of essential information through the computerized inventory. Documents dealing with policy and research should be stored, together with copies of
all resolutions and minutes of meetings leading up to the establishment of the site
as World Heritage status.
While access to these documents by researchers, students and interested members
of the public should be encouraged, the proper management of the documents in
perpetuity must be given primary consideration. Trained librarians and archivists,
adequate space and proper storage conditions are essential. All items should be
examined by a trained conservator and treated if necessary before being stored.
Fire protection for documentation should be given priority and, ifany type of
natural disaster is a hazard, the risk should be assessed and suitable precautions taken, such as safe, off-site storage ofduplicate copies.
This issue will be addressed more fully in the forthcoming International Management Guidelines/or
the Recording, Documentation and Information Management of Cultural Resources, by R. Letellier,
as mentioned in the preface .
28
4.2.5
e
o
We are now ready to select the least bad management plan and submit it for
approval.
.I The plan should start with a statement of the managem ent aim; this
should be expressed in terms that all staff can appreciate.
Research planning
What issues demand research?
How should research be managed?
.I An outline of the State Party's planning regulati ons, as they affect the
whole site, should be prepared.
These simple questions do not have simple answers. Every World Heritage site
contains a wide range of elements deserving of research, much of which is purely
academic . Close liaison should be maintained with universities and other
facilities interested in the cultural resources, and the collection of all pertinent
documentation related to the site is obviously essential.
.I Other plans and legislation that affect the site should be considered by the
Site Commission and integrated into the overall schemes of management,
maintenance, development or research.
.I Alternative courses of action and their effects have been studied and
documented.
29
30
The annual progress report should have two parts: a technical one covering in detail
all work done, results, costs, implications of findings, etc., and a popular one
suitable for public information purposes, highlighting activities and significant
findings. Such reports serve as valuable tools. The popular version is good for
public relations and fund raising, while the technical one forms part of the ongoing
documentation archive of the site.
4.2.7 Administration
o The role of the administration and management team is to conserve the
heritage resource and to serve the public interest, provided this is not detrimental to the site.
Responsibilities should be decentralized and individual staff members should be
allowed to make their own immediate decisions within the context of the management plan and their pre-defined responsibilities; this should lead to increased
efficiency and job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction will attract and retain good staff, which is the best guarantee of
good work.
Administrative tasks are simplified when the entire property is managed by a single
landlord. In some circumstances, ownership of all the properties could be the
long-term objective of the Site Commission. Although this would make management simpler, there may be social costs implicit in changing ownership, such as
the possible disruption ofcommunity life and use patterns; the alternative of strong
town planning controls and public education could be more beneficial.
Control must be delegated to one competent person after the policy has been
decided by a multidisciplinary group of experienced experts.
31
32
The State Party possesses an internal network for communication and the flow of
documentation within the responsible ministry, headquarters staff of the Site
Commission, regional and local planning offices and the site staff. It is desirable
to develop an interface between State Party professionals, site staff and an
international consultancy body. As has already been suggested, senior professionals of the State Party might be incorporated into the Site Commission. It is
important that this body come under one ministry with an assigned mandate to
deal directly with the World Heritage Convention, and that other relevant ministries be kept informed.
Constant two-way communication between the Site and the World Heritage
Committee should include reports on:
status and current condition,
planning and action documents,
requests for funds and technical assistance, and
reports of threats , either current or expected.
4.4
BUDGETING
The formulation of a budget entails knowledge and experience of similar operations. Local conditions and salary scales vary greatly , but, in general, conservation
of cultural heritage is labour intensive and demands special knowledge and
dedication. For the first five years after the establishment of the Site Commission
it will be difficult to formulate the budget accurately, so generous provision by the
State Party will be necessary to establish the Commission and initiate its activities.
For efficient execution of its programme, the Site Commission must be able to
plan five years ahead in confidence, and to retain any surplus funds that may accrue
from one year to the next, since development and research projects tend to run
more slowly than planned. This fiscal provision is essential in order for the skilled
labour available to be kept in full employment.
4.4.1 Annual budget
Annual budgeting should be established within a longer-term financial plan. The
budget will be divided into several parts , with sub-headings according to tasks . To
manage such a complex operation and monitor the implementation of the budget
by quarterly or monthly and even spot checks, an efficient system of accounting
is essential. It pays to introduce modem accounting equipment and qualified
33
personnel. The accountant should report to the Director. Annual accounts should
be audited by independent accountants who will report, through the Director, to
the Site Commission. Heads of departments will manage such funds as are
delegated to them by the Director, and will be accountable for their correct use. If
any budget item is likely to be exceeded the Director's sanction must be obtained
before expenditure is incurred or committed. It should be remembered that
planning, programming and budgeting is a continual process that must be reviewed
and updated at regular, pre-determined intervals.
4.4.2 Unesco's role
Unesco's World Heritage Centre acts as the secretariat to the World Heritage
Committee, which can provide, from the World Heritage Fund, financial assistance to States Parties for various purposes. This can include assistance in training,
in technical missions and equipment. The procedure for the application has been
determined by the World Heritage Committee and publicized accordingly. Funds
are provided by the World Heritage Committee for technical assistance or treatment only if management plans have been approved, and a professional report on
the condition of the site is submitted at regular intervals according to the instructions of the World Heritage Committee.
The international bodies recognized by the World Heritage Convention are:
The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM);
The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) for cultural
heritage sites, and
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (mcN) for natural heritage sites.
In collaboration with the Unesco World Heritage Centre, these bodies will collaborate with the States Parties on issues related to the management of their sites.
Having accepted the Operational Guidelines, the World Heritage Committee
intends to re-evaluate and update them every five years in order to keep abreast of
current management and operational requirements.
An important issue in relation to the management of World Heritage Sites is to
establish a process that gives a solid basis for international collaboration between
those responsible for the site management and the various international bodies,
such as the World Heritage Committee, Unesco, ICCROM and ICOMOS. This process
may include cycles of technical meetings to discuss management issues, systems
of reporting on progress, and also participation in training activities either within
the context of the site itself or in regional or international courses and seminars,
such as those organized by ICCROM in Rome.
34
4.5
35
Chapter 5
5.1
The preparation of a management plan for a World Heritage site implies the
consideration of all its resources. A resource constitutes an identifiable part of a
World Heritage site. Some sites may possess only one resource , such as primitive
rock carvings, whereas others may have several; the resources of a large building
include its fabric , carving, glass, furnishings, textiles , etc.
5.1.1 Procedure
The following steps are involved in preparing a management plan:
initial survey of the site
site description and boundary definition
identification of resources
evaluation of resources
formulation of objectives and consideration of constraints
definition of projects
work programme and annual plans
execution of works
recording, reporting and review of results
storage of information and data
revision of site description and re-evaluation
formulation of revised objectives and reconsideration of constraints
definition of further projects
revised work programme and next annual plan
5.1.2 Requirements
The first requirement of site management is the conservation and protection of its
cultural resources and, where possible, the enhancement of features of special
interest. Once this requirement is fulfilled, the site can be used for a number of
other purpo ses such as education, research , tourism and even occupation; it goes
without saying, howe ver, that the integrity of a World Heritage site must be
maintained.
36
37
sites), to two years (in the more complex large sites and cities). As previously
mentioned, however, it is possible to proceed with the management of the site on
the basis of a partial plan .
5.2
REPORTING
38
A further advantage of a standard format is the relative ease with which statistical
and other information can be extracted as required for particular purposes. The
format recommended here has three distinct parts: (1) a description of the site;
(2) evaluation and objectives; (3) prescription, together with a mandatory preface
summarizing the status and context of the site. More specifically , as a working
basis, the format below is recommended.
2.2
2.3
Preface
General information
Location, summary description , tenure
Cultural information
Anthropological , ethnograph ic, archaeological , historical,
art historical , architectural , technological , scientific
1.3
Environmental information
Projects
Project identification, title, classification
Project descriptions
3.2
Project register
Interests
Land use and resource use history
1.5
Appendices to Part 2
List of references for Part 2
Work schedu le
Annual work plan .
Relationship of the annual plan to the medium- and long-term plans
3.3
3.4
Part 2:
2.1
39
40
41
Chapter 6
MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Maintenance should use natural forces to enhance the beauty of the cultural
resource, but over-maintenance can destroy its beauty. Maintenance planning is
an art which needs cultural and ecological sensitivity. Climate and the causes of
decay control the appropriate degree of maintenance, together with the users'
needs, but maintenance policies and programmes should also take into account the
specific nature of every culture, aiming at a balance with natural forces.
42
Maintenance Programme
Accountancy procedures, which identify recurring trouble spots in maintenance work , contribute to preventive maintenance, allowing the causes ofthe
trouble to be identified and corrected.
43
Concerning historic buildings, suggested norms for an experi~nced conservation archi~~ct a~e4~
hours site work for a small building, 10 hours for a more complicated ~n~ and between
an
hours for a difficult or large one. Particularly complex monumental bUildings, such as cathedrals,
may. however, require much more time - over 1000 work-hours.
44
Maintenance Programme
Experience has proved that if a maintenance plan is followed for ten years, the
amount of annual maintenanc~ required decreases dramatically. Although it has
be~n demonstrat~d that managing the conservation ofhistoric sites on a preventive
maintenance basis saves money, many administrators fail to understand this and
are reluctant to commission regular inspections and organize a maintenance
programme because of the cost of professional services and the necessary staff.
45
blind ignorance and undirected energy that is often the cause of vandalism. Other
potentially dangerous activities, such as wandering into restricted areas to pick
wild flowers or lighting picnic fires , should be prevented by introductory lectures
and circulation of suitable codes of behaviour. In buildings, vandalism and theft
can be reduced or eliminated by the use of television cameras that can record under
very low ambient light conditions using infra-red. Radio links between staff and
the control centre enable the actions of a suspect to be monitored effectively.
The theft of art and archaeological material has become a major international
industry. Experience shows that none of numerous sophisticated systems devised
to prevent it are absolute. Since thieves are concerned about their getaway, the
control of site access and the prohibition of vehicles near sensitive spots assists in
security. Security is the responsibility of the site managers and should not be left
only to hired guards who will merely cause security costs to escalate. Specialist
advice is desirable, however, but it should be considered together with the needs
of fire protection and the safety of the occupants of buildings.
Fires caused by humans are usually preventable. Forest fires, however, are another
matter and require careful consideration. Lightning could be a major hazard if a
proper protection system is not installed and maintained annually. The destruction
of irreplaceable cultural property by fire should be prevented through the introduction of such measures as taking appropriate security precautions to reduce the
risk of arson, and prohibiting smoking except in designated areas.
One of the worst fire hazards is faulty electrical installation. The electrical
installation should be tested at yearly intervals and will probably need renewal if
it is over twenty years old; it may be possible to re-plan it in such a way that only
essential services are kept live at night.
6.3
Fire-detection systems are set off by the presence of flame, smoke or heat. Since
they can be subject to frequent false alarms, sensors should be wired together, so
that if one fails there is no false alarm, and two are activated if there is a fire.
Generally, fire-detection systems are designed for commercial buildings and their
performance may be limited in historic buildings, so management should be aware
of their limitations. If possible, two independent systems should be installed, since
one of them might fail at the vital moment. It is advisable to link the detection
system directly to the fire station. Hand extinguishers (powder or appropriate type
of gas - such as C02 - are safest for cultural property), hose reels and fire hydrants
should be carefully located on the site, and clearly signposted. Local sources of
water for firefighting should be identified and recorded.
46
Maintenance Programme
It is imperative that all staff receive basic training in fire prevention, fire fighting
and first aid, with regular drills in work hours to practice emergency procedures.
A Fire Prevention Officer should be appointed by the Director.
If a fire cannot be controlled in three minutes, it may be a total disaster in five
minutes. This means that, in the case of remote historic buildings, it is desirable
to install an automatic fire protection system, which at least will prevent a total
loss. The experience gained in Norway, Japan and the United Kingdom could
provide valuable guidance (see Fire Protection Association, no date; and Larsen
and Marstein, 1992, in the bibliography).
II
II
Automatic gas and water-sprinkler fire protection systems are a good investment,
but like all modem technical apparatus, their design requires sensitivity when they
are to be installed in historic buildings. Previously, Halon gas systems, although
expensive, were considered the best form of protection, as low concentrations do
not directly endanger human life or cultural property. It has recently been realized,
however, that these gases destroy the earth's protective ozone layer, and so should
not be used. The problem with sprinklers is that water usually damages the building
and often leaves behind it the threat of fungal attack to its fabric and contents.
Whether using gas or water, it is essential to eliminate false alarms to avoid costly
waste of gas or damage to the cultural resource.
o
o
Staffpractices in fire drills and using fire extinguishers are essential and the
fire-fighting corps should also make practice runs at least once a year and be
provided with special entry and control points.
In the case of an historic town, there should be a strategic fire-fighting plan
allowing duplicate access to all buildings in case one way is blocked, and
ensuring sufficient supplies ofwater for fire fighting.
Practice runs will show up weaknesses which can then be corrected. Access for
fire fighting must be planned and improved in order to allow heavy fire engines
to reach key points. A copious supply of water from hydrants , tanks or other
sources must be ensured.
Passive fire protection - such as fire-resisting doors (closed at night but not
locked), fireproof partitions and sub-divisions of roof spaces - is always on duty
and helps to limit the spread of fire. On natural sites, fire breaks come into this
category.
II
47
Chapter 7
STAFFING AND PERSONNEL SERVICES
7.1
SITE COMMISSION
The world's cultural property can be saved and properly maintained only if
adequate numbers of properly trained personnel- starting at the highest political
or administrative levels down to craftspersons, site supervisors, guardians and
guides - are available at the site. In addition, it has been recommended that a
commission, which would function as the guardian of sites belonging to the world
cultural heritage, be established for each site or group of sites. The professional
and administrative structure of this Site Commission may vary according to the
situation in each country or the character of the site, but its members should be
experienced specialists from various professions (architects, archaeologists, planners, lawyers, etc.). Also, it is in the interest of the World Heritage site that the
Site Commission's relation to the national government should be such that it has
sufficient freedom of action. The Site Commission should maintain close contact
with the World Heritage Committee, which can offer it support when required.
The role of the Site Commission involves informing the public of the importance ofthe World Heritage site, whether it be an isolated monument, historic
building, historic city nucleus or industrial complex. Its duty is to accept and
apply international conventions and charters while taking into consideration
local and internal laws and customs, determine and oversee the implementation ofthe most acceptable ways ofmaintaining, using and protecting the site
under its control.
When it comes to World Heritage sites, local interests are frequently opposed to
national and international aims. The Site Commission's responsibility is to reconcile the legitimate interests of the local inhabitants with those of the visitors who
come to their site. One of the most important issues to be addressed is the level of
tourism: intensive tourism can upset the lives of the local population and provoke
the devaluation, or even the collapse, of their culture.
48
7.2
administrators
anthropologists
antiquarians
archaeologists
architects
architectural
conservators
archivists
art historians
biologists
botanists
building surveyors
chemists
conservators
(of collections)
craftspersons
curators
documentalists
ecologists
economic
historians
engmeers
(all sorts)
entomologists
ethnologists
geographers
geologists
heritage recorders
historians
hydrologists
landscape
architects
legislators
mineralogists
museologists
petrologists
politicians
property managers
seismologists
sociologists
surveyors
urban planners
valuers
vulcanologists
others
The list above is by no means complete. It indicates, however, the range of skills
involved and demonstrates to young persons that there are opportunities in the
developing field of conservation of cultural property.
The selection of experts can be difficult. Learned societies or professional institutions are one source of names. It is recommended that experts should serve for at
least seven years to ensure continuity, and no more than twelve years unless an
awareness of new thinking and practice is demonstrated. As in the field of
medicine, the conservation expert should always agree to receive a second, or even
a third, independent opinion.
49
The Site Commission should establish its own salary grades. Skilled
craftspersons should be graded as technicians, not as building operatives.
There should be an agreement with the State Party to review the funds
available for salaries at regular intervals because needs may expand and new
fields ofactivity be developed.
It is best to start by appointing key personnel and then adding support as necessary.
Initially staff can be given fixed-term contracts for a probationary period, followed
by firm appointments where appropriate.
Many governments may want to manage the site directly for reasons of political
prestige and patronage during their term of government. This can act against the
interests of interpreting the inherent cultural values of the site, since their approach
may lack the sensitivity and flexibility and speed of decision-making that can be
the hallmark of a well constituted Site Commission at arm's length from government. This is not to deny the government's legitimate interest in the management
of the site, for it will be responsible for appointing the members of the Site
Commission and renewing their appointments in due course.
7.2.3 Need for qualified personnel
The need for qualified personnel ought to be self-evident when considering that a
World Heritage site is truly irreplaceable. Although monetary values should not
be taken as an absolute criterion, the cost of saving cultural resources from decay
and destruction can be seen in better proportion when the cost of a replacement is
considered.
Administrators in the field of conservation should possess a special understanding
of the strengths and weaknesses of different types of personnel engaged in
conservation activities. One aspect of administration which leads to totally disproportionate frustration on the part of conservators are the obstacles in their way to
obtaining small amounts of special products and services. These controls may be
necessary for political or economic reasons when dealing with large sums of
money but, in the interest of efficiency, conservators should be allowed to purchase
these small amounts by direct order as there is often only one supplier in the world.
The difference is not only in time - say 1 month against 2 years - but also in terms
50
51
of the damage that may occur during the delay. The cost of producing the
paperwork to process such small requests often considerably exceeds the cost of
the item itself.
should examine the possibility of a specialized labour force for the Site with proper
project and budgetary control; it may be possible to produce higher quality
workmanship more economically.
7.3
Infact, skills are gained by time, experience and training. Guidance by trade
masters is essential to ensure continuity; site workshops can promote this.
Conservation craftspersons should understand the history of technology of
their craft and be able to analyse how historic work was set out and produced.
Samples ofpast workmanship should be collected and used for reference (as
is done in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and at Torun, Poland).
52
53
7.4
Recruitment into the whole field of conservation generally comes after a first
academic degree, but technicians and craftspersons should also be admitted if they
have the necessary potential and are prepared to study. Distance learning training
courses - such as those of the Open University in the United Kingdom - could
widen the number of entrants.
Although there are vast, still-unquantified amounts of conservation work to be
done (250 work-years was an estimate for just one national museum), some
conservators have no work because of lack of funds and some work is not
commissioned because the appropriate conservator cannot be found. This confused situation arises because governments (with some notable exceptions, such
as Poland) have not addressed the question of financing conservation, and a career
structure for conservators has not developed. As it takes at least twenty years for
a conservation service to become truly operational, it is advisable to set up a central
committee, such as the United States Advisory Committee for Conservation, to
guide progress. The former Soviet Union had an interesting career structure for
both academics and artisans in the conservation field.
Conservators should rank equal with the museum curator or keeper and, if
interested in management, should have an equal opportunity to fill directorial
posts; such is the case in the United Kingdom. The challenges produced by the
need to manage World Heritage sites should stimulate States Parties to review the
whole question of recruitment and careers in conservation. Normal procedures
should apply to appointments. Practical ability, initiative and an ability to improvise should rank highly.
54
7.5
CONSERVATION FACILITIES
55
56
57
Some contractors are very dilatory and even irresponsible about submitting their
reports, so it is wise to withhold at least one third of their fee until the report is
received. After receipt of the report there should be a debriefing session with
face-to-face discussion.
58
professionals. When government service salaries are considered too low, there is
an advantage in having a site commission at arm's length from government, so
that it can set salary scales that are sufficient to retain staff of the required calibre.
In training, the first priority should be to impart the principles and ethics of
conservation so that professionals have standards by which to evaluate proposed
actions. Second, the role of the professional should be examined and, if necessary,
training in making inspections and reports should be provided. Third, the nature
of materials and both traditional and present-day technology should be studied so
that the appropriate solution for a project can be developed with special attention
to traditional skills and materials. Finally, legislation, documentation and planning
procedures should be studied.
59
Chapter 8
TREATMENTS AND AUTHENTICITY
8.1
AIM OF TREATMENTS
During the past two centuries, restoration principles have evolved into a coherent
approach to the treatment and management of objects. This is especially true when
one considers collections and monuments. However, the management of other
types of heritage resources, such as historic ensembles, historic towns or landscapes, is more complex. Rather, one can see a convergence of principles in
methodologies, and the cumulative experience is being reinforced through research, training, technical cooperation and the exchange of resource management
experiences. Treatments inevitably involve some loss of certain cultural property
values, but this loss can usually be justified in order to preserve the essential
integrity of the cultural properties for future generations.
The treatment strategies for cultural heritage sites should be conceived according
to the following principles:
They must assure reversibility, i.e.,
if technically possible, use materials whose effect can be reversed,
not prejudice a future intervention whenever one may become necessary,
and
not hinder the possibility of later access to all evidence incorporated in the
object.
They must maintain authenticity, i.e.,
. allow the maximum amount of existing historical material to be retained
(authenticity in material),
ensure harmony with original design and workmanship (in colour, tone ,
texture, form and scale),
do not allow new additions to dominate over the original fabric, but respect
its archaeological potential, and
meet the test of authenticity in design, material, workmanship or setting and
in thy case of cultural landscapes their distinctive character and components.
8.1.1 Preparedness
The treatment of cultural heritage resources is a complex undertaking that requires
expertise in the principles and international guidelines of conservation. Conserva-
60
61
8.1.3.1 Protection
Protection is understood in legal terms as the action required to provide the
conditions for a monument, site or historic area to survive. The term is also related
to the physical protection of historic sites to ensure their security against theft or
vandalism, as well as environmental attack and visual intrusions. Buffer zones also
provide protection to historic areas.
Legal protection, which is based on legislation and planning norms, aims to
guarantee defence against any harmful treatment, provide guidelines for proper
action, and institute corresponding punitive sanctions.
Physical protection includes the addition of roofs, shelters, coverings, etc., or even
removing an endangered object to safety.
8.1.3.2 Preservation
Preservation aims to take the measures necessary to keep the site in its existing
state. In Latin languages, the word indicates preventive action. In the United States,
"historic preservation" coincides with the British usage of "conservation" in
relation to historic buildings.
Preservation measures include regular inspections and cyclical and routine maintenance. It implies that repairs must be carried out as required to ensure resource
integrity. In practice, this means that dama ge and deterioration (such as that caused
by water, chemicals, insec ts, rodents or other pests, plants and microorganisms)
must be arrested and reversed when discovered.
1'1
62
8.1.3.3 Conservation
Conservation implies keeping in safetr or preserving the existing state ofa heritage
resource from destruction or change, i.e., the action taken to prevent decay and
to prolong life (Feilden, 1982: 3). The general concept of conservation implies
various types of treatments aimed at safeguarding buildings, sites or historic
towns; these include maintenance, repair, consolidation, reinforcement.
8.1.3.4 Consolidation
Consolidation is the physical addition or application of adhesive or supportive
materials to the actual fabric ofthe cultural property in order to ensure its continued
durability or structural integrity,
Consolidation treatments can have a negative impact if not carried out with a clear
understanding ofthe short-term and long-term physical implications of treatment,
the likelihood of changes in the original object and the principle of reversibility.
8.1.3.5 Restoration
Restoration has had several meanings in the past; the most commonly accepted
definition was to return to an object its lost form or appearance.f In North America,
the term is often linked to "period restoration," i.e., the re-creation of the aesthetic
design concept of a building in a given period, In England, "restoration" was
considered as a negative or destructive treatment, following the debates led by
John Ruskin during the second half of the nineteenth century. In Latin languages,
"restoration" has often been used as a general term related to the conservation of
the built cultural heritage.
1
2
63
8.1.3.6 Reconstruction
Reconstructi?n means building anew.' The term may be used in reference to work
e~ecuted, usmg modem or old material, or both, with the aim of rebuilding
dismembered or destroyed elements, or parts of them. Reconstruction must be
based on acc~rate archaeological and architectural documentation and evidence
never on conjecture.
'
Although rec~nstruction may prove to be an appropriate strategy following disasters such as fire, eart?quake or war, its validity is more questionable when it is
used as a measure to I~prove the presentation of heritage sites. The relocation of
a ~on~n:ent or part of It to a new SIte would also require reconstruction; this might
be Justified when deemed ne,cessary in order to protect a resource from environm~n,tal ha~ards such as floodmg and pollution. The moving of a resource from the
?ngmal. SIte ~hoUld not be allowed except "where it is justified by national or
mternational mterests of paramount importance.,,4
8.1.3.7 Anastylosis
Anastylosis, the Greek for "restoration" or "re-erection of columns" has co
t
"h
b'
, ,
,
me 0
mean t e re-assem ling of existing but dismembered parts ,,5 A
t 1 ' ,
,
'
nas y OSIS IS
generally used when refemng to structures consisting of clearly identifiable
com~onents,sU~h as dry masonry or timber.i' and not to monolithic structures such
as bnck walls WIth mortar.
ibid.
The definition.of an~stylosis refers mainly to blocks of stone (e.g., the restoration of Greek tem les
but anastylosis of timber structures (e.g., the restoration of oriental temples) is also valid.
p ),
64
site. The work must be guided on the basis of the same rules as restoration and
supported by firm archaeological evidence. Generally this is the only form of
reconstruction acceptable on World Heritage sites.
Preventive maintenance should in most cases forestall the need for major
interventions, and it has been well documented that good maintenance reduces
the cost of conservation ofhistoric resources.
The prescribed actions are determined by the physical condition, the causes
of deterioration and the anticipated future environment of the individual
cultural resource.
65
Decisions concerning the treatment of World Heritage sites must be based on the
balanced judgements of a multidisciplinary team. The objectives of the Convention serve as a reference in establishing priority goals and recommendations, and
the final management objectives and the general principles of good conservation
and restoration practice must be kept in mind, namely:
o
understanding the objectives,
o
communicating the prescribed tasks, and
o
supervising their implementation.
The ruined state, however, may possess significance and represent specific cultural
values. Because of their lost physical integrity, historic ruins are subject to
particular problems of decay, and therefore merit special treatment and care. Even
in.the case of relatively simple physical features without complex ornamental or
"That which remains after decay and fall." "The remains of a decayed and fallen building or town."
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.
66
structural characteristics, the appropriateness of conservation or restoration treatments and the quality of workmanship in repairs will determine the success of the
end result.
The extent and the location of any new work must be carefully considered, since
it may have a significant effect on the historical character of the site. Even when
these interventions are aimed at the stabilization, protection, or interpretation of
the ruins, the issue of new construction is often controversial, and requires both a
sensitive and sensible consideration of conservation objectives.
67
The interpretation and evaluation of ruins depends on the quality, location and
extent of the losses of material and structural integrity, on the know ledge and
reliable documentation of lost features, and on the cultural significance of the
ruined state in the definition of the monument and its setting.
Aim of
treatment:
Anastylosis should be considered only if original elements still exist on the site in
sufficiently pristine condition to justify it, and if the work to be undertaken will
not unbalance the overall setting and the values of the heritage resource. An
historic site with its setting may possess an important archaeological potential. On
the other hand, the relationship of the site to the contemporary social and economic
context may override cultural values, and thus justify adaptive uses and treatments.
However, there must be awareness ofthe danger that such action may compromise,
or in extreme cases destroy, its status as a World Heritage site.
8.2
According to the principles ofthe World Heritage Convention (art. 4) the primary
aim of cultural resource management is to guarantee that the values for which the
site has been listed are maintained and appropriately presented to the general
public. A comprehensive maintenance strategy that includes regular inspections
is necessary to achieve this objective. The designation of the resource as a World
Heritage site in itself exacerbates management pressures due to increased tourism,
which can accelerate wear and tear and introduce commercial activities which can
be destructive or undesirable. Designation may also lead to ill-conceived proposals
for restoration, anastylosis or even reconstructions stimulated by either political
or commercial motives. Great caution in site management is therefore essential,
and care must be taken that all action be carefully considered according to the
requirements of the Convention.
According to the Operational Guidelines of the Convention, a monument or site
that is nominated to the World Heritage List must meet the criteria of authenticity
To respect the design intentions of the original structure, architecture, urban or rural complex.
68
Authenticity in setting:
Evidence:
The site or setting of the resource related to the periods of construction; historic park or garden; historic or cultural landscape; townscape value; and group value.
Aim of
treatment:
69
The treatment itselfshould be properly testedfor effectiveness, and its appropriatenessfor the material in question must be proven over an exte nded test
per iod before embarking on large-scale application.
70
71
The testing period must be long, since failures sometimes occur even after ten or
fifteen years. It is important to keep an accurate record of all treatments in historic
buildings and ancient monuments, and to make regular inspections of their
behaviour, followed up by written reports. Research on conservation treatments
should refer to these historical records.
repair or restoration of worn or decayed parts. The preservation of design intentions and details is just as important as the preservation of original materials. In
many cases, it is advisable to use temporary measures in the hope that some better
technique will be developed, especially if consolidation would diminish resource
integrity and prejudice future conservation efforts.
Concerning the fabric of an historic area, one should carefully identify and defme
what should be conserved in order not to lose authenticity. The historical value of
towns or traditional settlements lies in their structures and fabric. Therefore,
conserving only fronts or elevations of historic buildings, and replacing the fabric
with new constructions means a loss of authenticity and historical continuity. The
aim should be conservative rehabilitation of the original fabric whenever possible.
The aim is to preserve original material and structures in which the design is
manifest, and, when feasible, to carry out restorations or other appropriate
treatments that will reveal values that may have been obscured through
alterations, neglect or destruction.
72
Anastylosis. Where dismembered original elements still exist at the site, anastylosis can be an acceptable treatment if it is based on reliable evidence regarding the
exact original location of these elements. This may contribute to making the
original design intent and artistic significance of the monument clearer to the
observer. It should be kept in mind, however, that disassembled elements that have
weathered on the ground are often decayed to the extent that they have lost their
delineated form and are not suitable for an anastylosis.
Accurate anastylosis is difficult to achieve, as experience on many important sites
will confirm. Such works should therefore be limited in extent; they should also
be reversible and fully documented. If taken too far , anastylosis can make an
9
The theory of treatment of losses or lacunae in works of art has been developed at the Istituto
Centrale del Restauro, Rome. See Mora, Mora and Philippot, 1977, in the bibliography.
10 See Brandi, 1963, in the bibliography; the Venice Charter of 1964; and relevant Unesco
Recommendations.
11 Venice Charter, Art. 12.
73
historic site look like a film set and will diminish its cultural value. Reconstruction
using new material implies that the result is a new building, and this means that
the historical authenticity is lost in this regard. Reconstructions, particularly when
extensive, may result in misinterpretation.
There are, however, cases when renewal is part of a traditional process which in
itself has acquired special significance. This is the case with the periodical
redecoration or even reconstruction of Japanese Shinto temples. Such ceremonial
renewal should be understood to be outside the modern restoration concept. While
the aim of conservation is the mise -en-valeur of historic monuments, ensembles
or sites as part of modern society without losing their significance or meaning.
This does not mean going against living cultural traditions, if these have been
maintained in their authenticity as part of society.
Concerning historic areas of special significance (and in particular World Heritage
towns), priorities need to be clearly established in order to guarantee the protection
and conservation of the entire fabric and infrastructure of the area. Any changes
and eventual new constructions that need to be carried out as part of rehabilitation
processes should make clear reference to the historical and architectural continuity
of the areas concerned.
74
8.3
75
CONCLUSION
.I Have the values been clearly described in a document, which has been
made available to the inhabitants and users of the heritage site?
Guidelines for the treatment of historic landscapes are being developed by the US National Parks
Service.
76
77
Chapter 9
URBAN PLANNING AND
WORLD HERITAGE TOWNS
INTRODUCTION
The value ofan historic town is embodied in the material testimony ofits stones
and its structures, and often lies beneath their visible surface. This historical
stratigraphy - the evidence and marks brought by chan ges in use over time ,
as well as the connections and continuity that make an individual building part
ofthe urban context - constitutes the basis for establishing the criteria for its
conservation.
78
on the other hand, demonstrate how individual buildings form the continuity of an
urban pattern which is made up of residential quarters with services and public
areas , and principal commercial areas with facilities such as souks or bazaars. The
urban fabric of towns that have been built over a long period of time consists of
elements and functions that are closely linked and intermingled.
Authenticity in design is expressed by a number of different aspects in an historic
town. This expression is found in the design of the overall town plan , as well as
the architectural, artistic, engineering and functional design of individual buildings, and their relationship to each other and to their setting.
D The harmony created by traditional building materials and methods of construction is part of this authenticity, and should be respected.
Traditional colours based on natural pigments or lime paints should continue to
be used. In addition, the texture and scale of the city must be respected and new
intrusions avoided. It is the genius loci or character of a place that makes it unique
and gives it specific quality.
79
Modem planners have often failed to understand the cultural value of historic
centres, and the unquestioning acceptance of motor traffic has in many instances
led to the creation of wide, straight streets through sensitive historic centres,
destroying their human scale, the refined traditional structure of their urban fabric,
and their narrow winding streets, as well as the relationship between their public
and private spaces. The insensitive insertion of modem buildings lacking both
cultural roots and good environmental performance is equally damaging to historic
centres.
Declining historic areas can be made into attractive livable foci for all social
categories by reinstating a mixture of residential, commercial, small-scale industrial and leisure activities. Urban management should aim to create harmony, avoid
undesirable uses and maintain the existing scale of buildings, as well as their
functional and cultural values. The methodology of this approach is called integrated conservation.
9.2
OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING
80
The historic centre is a constituent ofa larger whole and should be studied as
part ofthe present-day dynamic reality, not as a static object ofcontemplation
and tourist attraction.
Historically, the wealth generated in a town was invested in buildings for worship,
monuments, mansions, gardens, etc. Today, the problem is wise control of the
continuing wealth that can be generated in a town where private uses at times have
to be changed to collective ones. Actions to promote conservation are therefore
related to dynamic political instruments rather than statistical or technical means .
Thus, the programming of the social and economic use of the town and its region
is of the utmost importance.
Considering that World Heritage towns are recognized for their "outstanding
universal significance," it is crucial to guarantee that their authenticity and cultural
values are appropriately preserved. Integrated conservation involves the conservation and rehabilitation of historic buildings and areas and the provision of
appropriate public services that respect the criteria according to which these areas
have been built. In order to be successful in the long term, this process should
generally be carried out in collaboration with the inhabitants, using planning
legislation and norms as a tool.
The basis for any planning and intervention in an existing fabric is the
knowledge and understanding of the resource concerned, in terms ofboth its
history and its present condition.
Recent constructions .can be understood on the basis of the norms and standards
according to which they have been built. The older fabric is generally not
understood as well and therefore needs to be carefully studied in order to identify
the criteria and technology of its construction. This reading of the fabric is best
done through a systematic analysis of the architectural, structural and functional
typology of these buildings and their respecti ve urban areas. It should be the basis
for conservation planning, which aims to optimize the use of the potential of the
historic areas.
81
Different historical periods have had differing laws and customs according to
specific technical, social, political or economic motives. Identification of these
reasons and the methods of their application (e.g., by study of contemporary
manuals) will help to understand the logic behind the construction and positioning
of buildings, as well as in the design of public spaces.
Consequently, it is possible to identify the presently existing historic structures
and spaces, as well as demolitions and modem additions. These analyses will assist
in the physical definition of the existing significant historic areas and eventual
buffer zones, and in the preparation of planning norms for their appropriate
conservation.
The study of the forces driving growth in the economy of urban areas as a whole
could help to ensure the self-preservation of historic areas. It is up to the planners
to control development by preventing large intrusive buildings, undesirable traffic
flows and out-of-scale functions from disrupting the balance of the city. Tall office
blocks should be sited away from the historic centre; even water towers, industrial
buildings, and some services can be disruptive if not carefully sited.
Some historic areas are designed in a manner that makes them form a natural
barrier to motor traffic (e.g., streets that are narrow or stepped) . In any case, the
demands of motor traffic will need to be met according to the essential needs of
specific areas. Large vehicles should be prohibited since they harass occupants
and accelerate the decay of historic buildings. While guaranteeing internal transportation, motor traffic is best diverted by bypass or ring roads with access spurs
into appropriate areas in the historic town.
The Unesco proposal for the conservation of the Old City of Aleppo (Bianca et
al., 1980) recognizes all these threats, and provides a basic plan and recommendations for further studies. One of the most significant remarks is repeated here:
Fundamental structural features of the Islamic fabric such as the
introverted layout of its architecture, the integration of single buildings into larger clusters, the coherence of the urban texture and the
special character of the pedestrian network were not taken into
account [in previous plans]. The specific constraints of the old town
in terms of scale and architectural typology allow for only a limited
amount of activities directly related to vehicular traffic.
82
Many historic areas, including even World Heritage towns, are run-down, consisting of almost derelict areas and housing with no proper infrastructure; their traffic
problems demonstrate the conflict between the needs of pedestrians and motor
vehicles. Due to their long history, they often have complicated patterns of divided
ownership. There may also be economic problems, and if the values of their site
exceed the value of their building fabric, they are threatened by redevelopment.
The integrated conservation of such centres implies joining all political and
technical forces and bringing together the skills ofthe archaeologist, ethnographer,
sociologist and historian with those of the architect and engineer in an interdisciplinary collaboration, under the leadership of a conservation-conscious, qualified
town planner.
One ofthe objects ofurban conservation is to control the rate ofchange in the
urban system. We therefore need to comprehend the life fo rces ofthat system
and the potential causes of its decay.
The urban fabric tends to last a long time because of the relative durability of
construction materials. By contrast, the human activities which have to be accommodated within the fabric change more rapidly (such as living standards, sizes of
families, modes of production, changes introduced by technology such as the
motor car and television, dislocation through war or natural disaster). With time,
there is a possibility for conflicts associated with real or apparent obsolescence of
buildings and infrastructures. If appropriate precautions are not taken , this may
lead to a planning blight that will further degrade the existing structures.
There are two major types of obsolescence:
physical-cum-structural or functional, and
locational or environmental, caused by noise, traffic or air pollution.
Planning blight is an economic disease caused by lack of decision or overly
ambitious failed attempts to speed up modernization. It can also be caused by
failure to provide a disaster plan in seismic or flood-prone zones. On the basis of
a well-prepared typological-functional analysis and ofa rehabilitation programme,
urban conservation management should be able to absorb these changes, relieve
the conflict and promote a gradual improvement in derelict areas. Besides,
experience demonstrates that minimum interventions at key points in time are best
for the community.
The urban and regional systems of cities, towns and villages have evolved over
the centuries under the stimulus of forces within which private or public sector
entrepreneurs and landowners can make decisions. In most communities this
action has been controlled by governmental or local conditions which have
imposed some constraints. In the past, the use of consistent building technology
83
and style created harmony, and the scale of operations was limited. Only in the
twentieth century has urban and regional planning been introduced as a means of
dealing with the conflict between unrestrained, self-interested market forces and
community goals and objectives.
Such planning has become a governmental function ~ith its .own laws, administrative machinery and financial adjustments. The function typ~cally embrac~s plan
preparation, plan implementation, and pl~n revie~ . T~e generic process obviously
varies from country to country and from time to time; It should relate to the c~lture
and customs of each individual country and to the professional resources available
within that country. It is a mistake to borrow ready-made systems, as t~ey may not
correspond to the needs or wishes of the people themselves. World .Henta~et~wns
should be places in which people dwell, pursue their work, and enjoy their leisure
time; they are not museums.
9.3
PLANNING PROCEDURE
While being aware of the difference between general physical pl~ning. and
planning in areas distinguished by specific cultural values, one can Identify a
model for a town planning process which has been adopted throughout the world
with varying degrees of emphasis and adaptation. The process Involves:
. identification of the current situation;
some prediction of future events without the planning intervention;
formulation of optional future possibilities which would arise with the
planning intervention;
assessment of such options for feasibility and desirability;
detailing of the options selected;
formulation of a programme for implementation of the options with the
necessary means -legal, administrative, financial, etc.; and
review ofsuch options, in the light ofexperience, following implementation;
this requires monitoring of events on a regular basis.
A typical master town plan for an urban area has two basic components. ~he first
consists ofthe current and future profile ofthe users of the plan area (that IS, those
resident in or making use of it in their everyday activities). The second, c?~ponent
is providing them with the appropriate mix of land uses fo~ those ac.tiVItieS, such
as industry, shopping centres and schools, so that appropnate physical development will occur.
In the case of historic cities and towns of World Heritage status, the normal urban
planning techniques - such as studies of demographic trends, population move-
84
In many ways the problems encountered in World Heritage towns are related
to more general environmental issues and control ofdevelopment.
These issues were clearly expressed in the report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1987 (United Nations, 1987), and in the Tokyo
Declaration of the same year and published in that same report. While these reports
recognize poverty as a major source of environmental degradation, they stress the
need for international collaboration to change the quality ofgrowth and to conserve
and enhance the resource base. This will mean reorienting technology and managing risk factors, as well as integrating environmental concerns and economics
into the decision-making process. In terms of cultural heritage, this new approach
will strengthen the demand for integrated conservation planning, with realistic
management and sustainable development of our existing cultural resources.
National and local authorities often have conflicting views about town planning
priorities. These can only be resolved by starting from the existing situation and
using a systematic inspection approach to identify the exact state and condition of
the resource.
85
The conservation planner tends to work upwards, assessing the values ofan
object, site or historic centre; first documenting its history and present
condition, then proposing the minimum intervention needed to prevent decay.
Decay can have economic and cultural causes as well as physical causes.
Conservation can only delay deterioration from physical causes but, by
encouraging public awareness of the value of the site, it can change cultural
attitudes and, with the help ofplanning, remove the economic causes ofdecay.
86
The planner should respect not only historic buildings and spaces, but also
the intangible elements ofcultural heritage expressed as community values or
folk life. The aim ofplanning should be to see that the planned change avoids,
as far as is practicable, the disruption of traditional and contemporary
community patterns. While it is not feasible to freeze folk life in time, it is
desirable to facilitate change by respecting the choices of the people concerned.
87
The report and the plan would consist of surveys and documents, namely:
Maps: the basic maps showing the town as a whole and the historic centre
in particular.
Ownership: maps showing ownership and present use of historic properties.
History: illustration of the general historical development of the overall
urban area, with particular attention to core areas. A survey showing the
ages and historical phases of the existing building stock should be prepared.
Typology: (a) surveys of the architectural, structural and functional typology of buildings; (b) the typology of public and private open spaces;
(c) townscape and landscape analyses.
Condition: a survey of the physical condition of individual historic properties, and the infrastructure and services in the respective conservation areas.
Conservation Plan: consisting of a map to define the proposed conservation policy and the degrees of treatment, as well as of the norms and
regulations for implementation.
Maps and Ownership: A series of maps are needed as a basis for work, showing
the whole town and the historic areas to a scale that allows individual properties
and their boundaries to be identified (i.e., 1:500 or 1:1 250). A map is required that
shows ownership and users of properties (i.e., private, social, commercial, industrial, religious, etc.), and such a map could effectively combine land registry
information and cadastral survey data through cooperation with the local authorities. It is useful to compare present ownership with a previous stage in order to
identify the impact of modem development. In a more advanced stage, it may be
desirable to prepare maps showing the floor plans of the fabric. The survey should
also provide information on infrastructure and geological conditions in the area.
History: A series of maps should be prepared to illustrate the historical development of the overall urban area with particular attention to core areas. The causes
of development or decline in different periods should be identified. This survey
should be accompanied by a complete bibliographical study and a collection of
historic drawings, engravings, maps and earlier town plans. It is important, as part
of the analysis, to verify the extent to which town plans have been implemented,
and which elements in the present urban fabric relate to each phase. This survey
is essential for establishing not only the criteria for the construction of existing
physical structures, but also for identifying their functional areas as a basis for
eventual rehabilitation. The ages and historical phases of buildings should be
identified, and a map should show buildings and areas that are under special
protection by the authorities. 2
2
The criteria for listing buildings should be agreed upon, but, at the very least, all buildings over 100
years old should be included, as well as many 80 years old; more recent buildings should be listed
when there are special reasons. Listed buildings may be graded (e.g., Grade 1: National Interest;
Grade 2: Provincial or District Interest; Grade 3: Local or Townscape Value). Although the grades
88
Typology and Condition: Surveys and the resulting analytical maps will indicate
the typology of historic buildings, and of public and private open spaces. These
are based on a recording and survey of historic buildings aiming at a clarification
of the criteria for their design and construction. Different building elements should
be recorded and referenced to contemporary manuals when possible in relation to
their function, materials, and methods of construction (e.g., layout, floor structure,
roofs, courts, position of staircases, doors, windows). Properties can be categorized
according to their type and function (e.g., public buildings, community or religious
complexes, palaces, residential row houses, courtyard houses, etc.) .
This
89
town planner should know whether an historic centre area is deficient in any type
offacility - e.g., a library or school- and the architect should be aware of suitability
of buildings and the surrounding areas for the proposed uses. The estate manager
can find the user and arrange legal details of tenure. By the combination of these
skills, but most especially that of the estate or property manager, it is possible to
raise an historic centre from dereliction to prosperity.
9.3.5 Degrees of intervention
For the built environment, the conservation role stems from the existing physical
stock ofbuildings. Where use values predominate, there may have been continuous
changes to meet changing socio-economic conditions. Furthermore, in any particular year the relative proportion of development that is carried out is generally
small compared with the total existing urban fabric.
From this, it follows that the conservation plan should consider the current stock
of buildings as it evolves over its life cycle, as well as the changes planned for the
future. Conservation by rehabilitation is a major feature in planning the future of
an urban area; the conservation option must always take priority over the development option.
9.3.6 Mai ntenance
o Regular maintenance is necessary to preserve the fabric of buildings.
Buildings made of earth need annual attention to roofs and walls; in Africa, lime
plaster on walls needs renewal every 2-3 years. Metals need protection from
corrosion, wood from insects and fungal attack; in humid climates, repainting is
essential maintenance. In many countries, it is considered good practice to keep
the paint work of all houses with their outbuildings in good condition and renew
it regularly. This creates an environment which is typical and expressive of local
attitudes; such traditions may have gone out of practice in some countries due to
rapid socio-economic changes interrupting maintenance traditions, or the architecture may consist of more durable building materials that have led to a different
approach to patinated surfaces (such as in Italy).
Any repainting should be done with due respect for the original colour scheme and
type of paint, as based on historical study supported by technical research. In
Nikko, Japan, there is a temple that is re-lacquered every 25 years while a nearby
seventeenth-century tomb has all its original decoration in slightly faded condition;
both are appropriate in their context, as tradition has established certain procedures
that are compatible with the function of the building. Nowadays, traditional
pigments and paint vehicles are difficult to obtain. Lead has been banned as a paint
component in most countries and present-day pigments are ground much finer.
Contemporary paints designed for concrete or similar surfaces are often unsuitable
90
91
for historic buildings as they do not breathe; they form an impermeable vapour
barrier that can be destructive when it traps moisture. Not only do these paints fail
to age gracefully, but they are also difficult to repaint. It is recommended that the
management of a World Cultural Heritage Site lay down a policy for painting and
redecoration. There may be a need to revert to traditional techniques and prepare
paints using traditional recipes. If necessary, special dispensation may have to be
obtained for specific use of materials otherwise excluded from normal trade, as
has occurred in the United Kingdom with regard to Grade I listed buildings.
9.3.7 Rehabilitation
In the urban planning context, revitalization means the planning measures that
are necessary to improve the social and economic activities of an historic area or
an historic town, which has lost its original functional vitality and, as a consequence, historic buildings and urban spaces have become redundant and dilapidated. The aim of revitalization should be an appropriate balance between
conservation and development.
The closer the new use of the rehabilitated building is to its original use, the
less the work will cost and the better it is for the urban plan as a whole .
Often superficial blemishes and lack of maintenance persuade people that buildings should be pulled down. However, if the foundations, walls and floors are in
reasonable condition, a house can generally be rehabilitated, even if this means
giving it a new roof together with all the amenities of modern hot and cold water
and electrical and mechanical services.
While the partial rebuilding of a single structure that has been seriously
damaged (e.g., by an earthquake or neglect) may be done responsibly, attention needs to be paid to the quality of such treatment and its impact on the
scale of the historic town fabric as a whole.
In such cases, any substantial parts ofthe building, such as standing walls, should,
if possible, be maintained in situ, and new construction should be carried out in
compatible materials and using appropriate technology. It has been observed that
a coherent structure is safer and more resistant (e.g., to seismic action) than a mixed
Ifadditions are required, they should be built in materials that are compatible
with those ofthe existing structure. If traditional materials are not available,
new materials should be utilized in a manner that does not undermine the
conservation of the original structure.
Conservation should not restrict the living standards of the occupants of an historic
area. However, there is a challenge implicit in meeting the rising expectations of
present-day life-styles. If the occupants are to have cars, for example, provision
must be made for parking that does not interfere with the existing fabric. In
addition, needs for water, electricity, and possibly gas should be met, and sewage
and rainwater disposal should be dealt with. Consideration must also be given to
acoustic privacy; sources of noise - especially restaurants and clubs - must be
contained.
New services should not be introduced into an historic area without a clear
understanding of its ability to absorb, use and maintain them. Present-day
standards may not be compatible with the inhabitants' way of life or the
existing infrastructure (e.g., availability ofwater, electricity, means of waste
disposal).
Specific guidelines for the rehabilitation of an historic area should be worked out
according to its local cultural and physical conditions. Examples can be found in
the Standards and Guidelines adopted by the United States Department of the
Interior (Anon. 1983), or in the guidelines prepared for the master plan of Lamu
in Kenya (Siravo and Pulver, 1986). Such guidelines should comply with international recommendations and, in the case of World Heritage sites, with the requirements of the Convention.
92
93
94
9.4
The Site Committee will be faced with many specific questions, such as:
95
tage?
if Have all financing options been explored? Will private foundations and
trusts assist? Can revolving funds be applied? Are the difficulties of
finance insuperable?
.I What are the plus values of a World Heritage town and how are these
so, by whom?
exploited?
97
Chapter 10
VISITORS TO WORLD HERITAGE SITES
10.1
INTRODUCTION
The tourism industry is now part of our culture and international economy, second
only to the oil industry in financial terms. Tourism is dynamic but should not be
developed too quickly; rather, it should be allowed to grow provided the capacity
of the site and the supporting infrastructure are not exceeded. As stated in the
Manila Declaration of the World Tourism Organization, economic gain is not the
sole aim of tourism. Tourism should improve the quality of life of the local
population without compromising the indigenous culture.
D Visiting a World Heritage site can be an intellectual experience; visitors who
are prepared will benefit the most.
Most visitors to World Heritage sites are seeking an outing, a change of scene, or
an experience to relate to the folks back home. Some are interested in their cultural
heritage, others in the archaeology or architecture. Part of the manager's task is to
make the visit enjoyable and interesting for everyone; this will help to generate
political support for conservation, foreign currency, jobs and income. Hopefully,
some people will go away more interested in their culture than when they came.
If schoolchildren do not enjoy their visit, they may avoid all World Heritage sites
for many years and not introduce their own children to them. They are a difficult
group to keep interested, but it is not in the long-term interest of conservation for
them to come and then to be disappointed; better for them not to come at all.
Making visits enjoyable and interesting is achieved by thinking about the interests
and attitudes of the visitors before thinking of the resources, and this can be
difficult for heritage site managers, many of whom consider the visitors only as
an afterthought. Experts in tourism, visitor management, presentation and marketing will be of great assistance; surveys of visitors will help to identify their
interests, where they come from, how long they are staying , whether they will
come back again and how much money they might spend.
The management plan for the heritage site should state the visitor service
objectives. The objectives will need to be discussed with the Site Commission,
local authorities and tourist bodies to ensure that there is no conflict. This plan will
have to address such issues as income from entry charges, benefit of local tourist
businesses, potential damage to the heritage resource, how to deal with
98
disap~ointed
C!0od visitor management will reduce the needfor expenditure upon promottng and advertising the heritage site: its attractiveness will become known to
- and ~encepublici~edby - the mass media. In many cases, there is a conflict
ofpolicy between site managers who want visitor numbers restricted so that
sites are not damaged, and tourist boards or commercial interests who want
to use the sites to attract visitors to the area.
99
The attitude of staff towards visitors is the single most important factor in
making their visit enjoyable. Each visitor should be welcomed as personally
as possible and there should be an obvious and clearly-marked source ofhelp
in case of accident or difficulty. Any specific dangers should be pointed out,
including dangerous animals or plants, theft, etc .
10.2
SITE MAINTENANCE
The best way to discourage litter is immediately to pick up any that is dropped.
Litter bins should be emptied regularly. In some countries, less litter is dropped if
there are no litter bins at all. In others, fines for littering are a deterrent. Where
part of a heritage site is used for entertainment or special events, it is best if the
organizers are required to remove all litter, special equipment, stands, etc., as soon
as the event is over.
Special uses of the heritage site for making films can be both profitable and bring
good publicity. Nevertheless, film makers and television crews need clear instructions to prevent them from inadvertently damaging the resource. The heat generated by their lighting can damage cultural material and is a fire hazard.
Parking lots should be kept clean, and puddles or mud patches should be filled in.
Warnings against theft should be erected. Large parking areas near heritage sites
should be broken up by mounds, planting and landscaping, or avoided altogether.
Where remote parking lots are used, provision should be made to help elderly and
handicapped persons to reach the site.
100
10.3
~ll World Heritage sites have more than one important story to tell about their
hIstory: the wa?, ~~ey were constructed or destroyed, the people who lived there,
the varIOUS acnvines there and the happenings, the previous uses of the site and
perhaps tales of the notable treasures. In presenting and interpreting the historical
story of the heritage site, it is necessary to be selective and to decide which
elements will be .of most interest to the kind of people that the site will attract:
'
human interest stories are often the most popular.
The aims ofthe interpretation ofthe heritage site need to be clearly established
before work starts, and reviewed regularly in the light of experience and
changing thinking.
The media used to interpret the history ofthe site should be chosen to be as effective
as possible for all visitors, without harming the appearance or ambience of the
heritage site. For instance, the equipment for Sound and Light (Son et lumierei
perf~rmances m~y harm ~n~ient .walls or obstruct the overall setting during
d.a~lIght hou~s. SIgns explammg thmgs may spoil views or cause damage by their
fixings. Media used for interpretation could include:
clearly written notices, didactic panels, plans, leaflets, guidebooks, souvenir
books and reference books in various languages, as required;
human guides or teachers;
101
General tourist information is often provided on heritage sites. This is a useful and
sometimes profitable service, ranging from selling tourist guides and maps to
giving advice, making reservations at hotels and theatres, providing leaflets about
other attractions and advising upon transport. If such a service is extensive, it
should be separated from information about the heritage site proper, so that queues
do not develop. Well-illustrated souvenir books which remind people oftheir visit,
picture postcards and books on various subjects related to the site can provide an
important source of income.
The didactic panels explaining the site will have to be well-designed and made of
durable material, with attractive lettering and carefully chosen colours. They
should all use the same graphic style, which should be clearly distinguishable from
that used for direction or warning signs. Avoid technical language, except in
parenthesis. Since they will often be the most important part of the interpretation
of the site, their presentation should be given high priority. It is advisable to assign
a single, visually-aware person responsibility for the design and siting of all signs;
and also control of the quantity of signs on the site.
Audio-visual presentations have to be of the highest quality, and normally about
10-15 minutes is the maximum acceptable length. Sound and Light presentations
can be much longer, but care must be taken to ensure that the script is dramatic,
historically accurate and without prejudice or discrimination.
Scaled-down or full-sized reproductions can be used to help explain past happenings on the site, and these have the advantage that they can be replaced when they
become damaged or wear out. As far as possible, the same, traditional, materials
of the original should be used, as modem materials, such as plastics, will not
weather in the same way.
Mistak~s are easily made i~ the use.ofmedia: money can be wasted; the appearance
of the SItecan be compromised; guided tours can disturb other visitors' and leaflets
and didactic panels can be poorly written. It is best to start by determining the
message to be conveyed and establishing the audience. Each site is unique, and
what has worked on one heritage site may not be effective for all. A substantial
bu~get ha.s to be allowed, and skilled advice sought for the interpretation of all
hentage SItes of world significance.
Since languages that are widespread (such as English and French) are pronounced
differently throughout the world, it cannot be assumed that they will be understood
by visitors, even native speakers. This factor can affect the use of listening posts
and human guides to the extent that sometimes it is better to use only written
material. Display screens that can be interrogated by push button and give a written
or diagrammatic answer, provide an alternative to listening posts.
Human guides must be well-trained and knowledgeable, and either licensed by the
state or employed by the heritage site management. School parties should be
assembled and briefed about the site in an area set aside for the purpose, preferably
indoors. Staff instructors can help the children's own teachers explain the heritage
site, and it is a help if visiting teachers can be invited to see the site and be briefed
in advance of the parties they are bringing. The availability of educational
materials for teachers would be useful in this context.
102
Children will understand the story of a heritage site better if they can talk to actors
~laying historic roles , watch or even take part in re-enactments of great events,
listen to ballads, or see Sound and Light performances with live actors. The actors
should be present on the right occasions and the performances heavily publicized.
The show should suit the specific audience; the information should be accurate
but some artistic licence may be permitted,
'
10.4
VISITOR MANAGEMENT
Techniques of visitor management can ensure that the sheer number of visitors
do~s not detract from general enjoyment of the site, prevent a proper appreciation
of It or cause physical harm to historic resources. These techniques can also reduce
maintenance costs and increase income.
Excessiv.e vi~itor pressure can be. reduc~d if there are other attractions nearby.
These might mclude a zoo, aquanum, leisure park, beach or live entertainment.
Since the most vulnerable heritage sites are those which are well-known and
promoted, with no other attractions in the vicinity, tourist boards could be discouraged from over-publicizing vulnerable heritage sites. They can also help develop
count~r-attractions or divert attention to lesser-known heritage sites with spare
capacity,
D Peak loadings can be reduced if there is a booking system for coach parties
and a limit to the number of visitors admitted at anyone time .
D Small changes in the times ofarri val can greatly ease the pressures.
D It is useful to have alternative routes for visiting parties so that ifseveral arrive
at once they can be separated, or taken on routes ofdifferent lengths.
Wear on floors can be reduced by putting down strip coverings of carpet, canvas ,
rubber, etc. Grass can be maintained by regularly moving footpaths a meter or so
to one side . It is not so easy to repair the damage resulting from the touch of
t~ousands of hands , or from human breath, and controls to keep people at a safe
distance may be necessary in some cases.
Visit~rs should be allowed to view heritage sites at their own speed. Where, for
s~cunt~ reasons ~r lack o~ space, individual viewing is not possible, the speed of
circulation of guided parties can be varied and visitors given a choice between
103
quick tours and slower, more detailed ones. As crowds inside buildings can raise
the relative humidity to damaging levels, the number of visitors at anyone time
may need to be strictly controlled.
D Visitor routes should allow for the natural tendency ofpeople to turn left on
entering any space.
D Shops should be conveniently located near the entrance and exit of the site .
Entry charges need to be determined such that services for visitors can be improved
without reducing the funds available for conservation work, which must be kept
separate on the budget. Entry charges can be varied from day to day to encourage
a spread of peak loadings, and are the best means of establishing how interesting
and enjoyable a site is. If people are paying to visit the site they will expect value
for their money and make known their criticisms. Additional revenue from
catering or sales of literature, photos, drawings, guides, souvenirs, etc. , can also
help to develop the site and benefit its visitors. There may be complaints when
entry charges are first introduced; in such cases, it may be advisable to give local
people free passes or to allow free entry on one (quiet) day a week, or after a certain
hour. The entrance charge could also be voluntary, with an arrangement that those
not paying still have to go past the turnstile and staff.
Wherever possible, a single charge should allow access to the whole heritage site ,
as this produces the most income with least staff cost. If there are different
buildings to be entered, a single ticket may be marked at each entry point. If the
number of attractions is great, some choices may need to be offered to keep the
overall ticket price reasonable, and, in this case, the options available should be
clear. Generally, visitor management should take into account physical arrangements and persuasion, with regulations, prohibition signs and policing introduced
in a suitable manner.
Visitor management on World Heritage sites involves establishment of a promotion strategy. Attention can be drawn to features that are not likely to be congested,
and the preferred times of day to visit the most popular features can be indicated.
Advertisements addressing the public, as well as local and international tour
operators, can be confined to certain seasons, or to certain, selected categories
within the mass media in order to influence the type of people who come. Reduced
rates can be offered to bona fide groups interested in aspects of cultural heritage,
and special privileges provided for genuinely educational parties.
Long queues for admission to facilities are undesirable since they reduce visitor
sati sfaction and congest the site and parking lots. A maximum capacity for visitors
has to be established and not exceeded. In addition, the feeling of overcrowding
can be greatly reduced by sensitivity in the use of visitor-management techniques.
104
10.4.1 Promotion
Since World Heritage sites constitute important economic and cultural assets, it is
inevitable that they will be publicized, advertised and promoted by those whose
daily duty or interest this is. If the site management does not have the expertise to
do this cost-effectively, it should influence the way it is done in order to gain the
greatest advantage for the site and the least disadvantage for its conservation.
For promotional purposes, the heritage site is a product in the world marketplace
which has to be described correctly, but glowingly, in order to attract visitors, yet
with the type and extent of the facilities available made absolutely clear. Journalistic coverage is much better than advertisements, and hence press visitors should
be encouraged. They need to be assisted by the provision of correct information,
and a press briefing kit should be available to this end.
The design of all promotional material and advertisements must be of a high
standard so as to bring credit to the site and its managers. Before any expenditure
on promotion is incurred, however, the target audience should be carefully defined
and their interests identified.
I
I
105
107
REFERENCES
ANON. 1983. The Secretary ofthe Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation and Guidelinesfor
Rehabilitating Historic Buildings. Revised 1983. US Dept. Interior, National Parks
Service, Washington D.C. [US Govt Printing Office ref: 1983: 0-416-688]
ASHURST, 1. & ASHURST, N. 1988. Practical Building Conservation. Vol. 1: Stone Masonry
[ISBN 0291 39745 X]; Vol. 1: Brick Terracotta and Earth [ISBN 0 291 397468]; Vol. 3:
Mortars, Plasters and Renders [ISBN 0 291 39747 6] ; Vol. 4: Metals
[ISBN 0 291 39748 4]; Vol. 5: Wood, Glass and Resins, and Technical Bibliography
[ISBN 0 291 39776 X]. English Heritage Technical Handbook series. Aldershot, UK :
Gower Technical Press.
BIANCA, S., DAVID,1-C.,QUDSI, A., RIZZARDI,G.,BETON, Y., & CHAUFFERT-YVART, B. 1980. The
Conservation of the Old City ofAleppo. Report prepared by Unesco for the Government
of the Syrian Arab Republic . Unesco report ref. PP/1979-80/4/7 .6/05
FMR/CC/CH/80/139 (Bianca, etc.)
BRANDI, C. 1963. Teoria del restauro. Rome : Ediz. Storia e Letteratura.
CERVELLATI,P.L.,SCANNAVINI,R.,&DEANGELIS,C. 1977. La nuova culturadelle citta . Milan :
Mondadori.
CESARI,C. 1982. Considerations on the Problems ofIntegrated Conservation . Lecture notes,
ICCROM course in Architectural Conservation.
CLEERE, H. (ed.) 1989. Archaeological Heritage Managem ent in the Modern World. [One
World Archaeology series, vol. 9] London: Unwin Hyman.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE. 1975. " Declaration of Amsterdam." The European Charter of the
Architectural Heritage, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe,
26 September 1975, and solemly proclaimed at the Congress on the European Architectural
Heritage, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 21-25 October 1975.
FEILDEN, Sir Bernard M. 1982. Conservation ofHistoric Buildings. Technical Studies in the
Arts, Archaeology and Architecture series. London: Butterworth Scientific.
ISBN 0408 10782 0
- - - 1987. Between Two Earthquakes: Cultural Property in Seismic Zones. Los Angeles,
CA: The Getty Conservation Institute & ICCROM. ISBN 089236128 X
FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION. No date. Heritage under fire: A guide to the protection of
historic buildings. Publ. by the Fire' Protection Assoc., 140 Aldersgate St. ,
London ECIA 4HX, UK, on behalf of the UK Working Party on Fire Safet .
.
Buildings. ISBN 0 90216794 4
"",,\\~"d j )// /',y"
108
References
109
HOLLY, M.A. 1984. Panofsky and the Foundations ofArt History , Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ.
Press.
UNESCO. 1972. Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage.
ICCROM. 1983. [The Unesco, ICCROM & ICOMOS] International Meeting of Coordinators of
Training in Architectural Conservation/Reunion internationale des coordinateurs pour la
formation en conservation architecturale. Rome, 2-4 December 1982 [In English and
French] Rome: ICCROM.
____ 1977 (Revised 1992). Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention.
ICCROM-GCI. 1987. International Index on Training in Conservation of Cultural Prop erty/Repertoire international des institutions donnant une formation pour la conservation
des biens culturals. [In English and French] Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute
& ICCROM.
UNITED NATIONS. 1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press on behalf of the
[UN] World Commission on Environment and Development.
ICOMOS 1971. The "Venice Charter." [International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites .] Adopted at "The Monument for the Man," the 2nd
International Congress of Restoration, Venice, 25-31 May 1964. Padova, Italy: Marsilio
Editori on behalf of ICOMOS.
ICOMOS. 1987. The International Charterfor the Conservation ofHistoric Towns and Urban
Areas. Adopted at "Old Cultures in New Worlds," The [ICOMOS] s'" General Assembly
and International Symposium, Washington D.C. , 10-15 October 1987. Washington, D.C.:
ICOMOS.
JOKILEHTO, J. 1986. A history of architectural conservation: the contribution of English,
French, German and Italian thought towards an international approach to the conservation
of cultural property. D.Phi!. Thesis, Univ. York, UK.
LARSEN,K.E., & MARSTEIN, N. (eds.) 1992. Proc. International Symposium on Fire Protection
ofHistoric Buildings and Towns, Riser, Norway, 12-14 September 1990. Pub!. by Tapir
ForIag, on behalf of Central Office of Historic Monuments and Sites, Norway, and The
Norwegian Institute of Technology, in cooperation with the ICOMOS International Wood
Committee.
MORA,P.,MORA, L., & PHILIPPOT, P. 1977. La conservation des peintures murales. Bologna:
Editrice Compositori, for ICCROM. Published in 1984 in English as The Conservation of
Wall Paintings. London: Butterworths. ISBN 0408 108126
ORGAN, R.M. 1975. The Organisation of an integrated facility for conservation. Bulletin de
l' lnstitut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique, 15: 283-301.
RIEGL,A. 1903. Der Moderne Denkmalkultus, sein Wesen , seine Entstehung, Vienna. English
translation published in 1982 as Modem cult of monuments: its character and its origin .
Oppositions, 25: 20-5 I.
SEASE,C. 1987. A Conservation Manualfor the Field Archaeologist Archaeological Research
Tool s, Vo!. 4. Institute of Archaeology , UCLA. ISBN 0 917956 59 I
SIRAVO, F., & PULVER, A. 1986. Plannin g Lamu: Conservation of an East Af rican Seaport.
Nairobi: The National Museums of Kenya .
STOVEL, H. 1991. Safeguarding historic urban ensemble s in a time of change: A management
guide. Draft distributed as a working document for comment at the International Symposium on World Heritage Towns, Quebec, Canada, 1991.
111
.Appendix A
INTERNATIONAL CHARTER FOR THE
CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION
OF MONUMENTS AND SITES
" The Charter of Venice" (Ven ice, May 1964)
Imbued with a message from the past , the historic monuments of generations of
people remain to the present day as living witnesses of their age-old traditions.
People are becoming more and more conscious of the unity of human values and
regard ancient monuments as a common heritage. The common responsibility to
safeguard them for future generations is recognized. It is our duty to hand them
on in the full richness of their authenticity.
It is essential that the principles guiding the preservation and restoration of ancient
buildings should be agreed and be laid down on an international basis, with each
country being responsible for applying the plan within the framework of its own
culture and traditions.
By defining these basic principles for the first time, the Athens Charter of 1931
contributed towards the development of an extensive international movement
which has assumed concrete form in national documents, in the work of ICOM and
Unesco and in the establishment by the latter of the International Centre for the
Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property. Increasing
awareness and critical study have been brought to bear on problems which have
continually become more complex and varied; now the time has come to examine
the Charter afresh in order to make a thorough study of the principles involved and
to enlarge its scope in a new document.
Accordingly, the 2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of
Historic Monuments, which met in Venice from May 25th to 31st 1964, approved
the following text:
DEFINITIONS .
Article 1. The Concept of an historic monument embraces not only the single
architectural work but also the urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence
of a particular civilization, a significant development or an historic event. This
applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest works of the past
which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time.
112
Appendix A
CONSERVATION
Article 4. It is essential to the conservation of monuments that they be maintained
on a permanent basis.
Article 5 . The con~ervation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of
them for some socially useful purpose. Such use is therefore desirable but it must
not chan~e th~ lay-out or decoration of the building. It is within these limits only
that modifications demanded by a change of function should be envisaged and
may be permitted.
Article 6. The conservation of a monument implies preserving a setting which is
not out o~ scale. W~e~ever the tr~~itional setting exists, it must be kept. No new
construction, demolition or modification which would alter the relation of mass
and colour must be allowed.
Article 7. A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witne ss
and from the setting in which it occurs. The moving of all or part of a monument
cannot be allowed except where it is justified by national or international interests
of paramount importance.
113
Article 11. The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument
must be respected, since unity of style is not the aim of a restoration. When a
building includes the superimposed work of different periods, the revealing of the
underlying state can only be justified in exceptional circumstances and when what
is removed is of little interest and the material which is brought to light is of great
historical, archaeological or aesthetic value, and its state of preservation good
enough to justify the action. Evaluation of the importance of the elements involved
and the decision as to what may be destroyed cannot rest solely on the individual
in charge of the work.
Article 12. Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the
whole , but at the same time must be distinguishable from the original so that
restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic evidence.
Article 13. Additions cannot be allowed except in so far as they do not detract from
the interesting parts of the building, its traditional setting, the balance of its
composition and its relation with its surroundings.
HISTORIC SITES
Article 14. The sites of monuments must be the object of special care in order to
safeguard their integrity and ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly
manner. The work ofconservation and restoration carried out in such places should
be inspired by the principles set forth in the foregoing articles.
EXCAV ATIONS
Article 15. Excavations should be carried out in accordance with scientific standards and the recommendation defining international principles to be applied in
the case of archaeological excavation adopted by UNESCO in 1956.
RESTORATION
Ruins must be maintained and measures necessary for the permanent conservation
and protection of architectural features and of objects discovered must be taken.
Furthermore, every means must be taken to facilitate the understanding of the
monument and to reveal it without ever distorting its meaning.
All reconstruction work should however be ruled out a priori. Only anastylosis,
that is to say, the re-assembling of existing but dismembered parts can be
permitted. The material used for integration should always be recognizable and
its use should be the least that will ensure the conservation of a monument and the
reinstatement of its form.
- -
_ ._ -
114
Appendix A
115
PUBLICATION
Appendix 8
Conventions and Recommendations of Unesco
concerning the protection of the cultural heritage
A. Conventions
Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of
Armed Conflict (the 'Hague Convention'), with Regulations for the
Execution of the Convention, as well as the Protocol to the Convention
and the Conference Resolutions,
14 May 1954
Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit
Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property,
14 November 1970
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage,
16 November 1972
The following persons took part in the work of the Committee for drafting the
International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments:
Mr Piero GAZZOLA, Chairman
(Italy)
(Belgium)
(Spain)
(Portugal)
(Yugoslavia)
(Unesco)
(Netherlands)
(Denmark)
(Italy)
(France)
(Mexico)
(Italy)
(Czechoslovakia)
B. Recommendations
Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to
Archaeological Excavations,
5 December 1956
Recommendation concerning the most Effective Means of
Rendering Museums Accessible to Everyone,
14 December 1960
Recommendation concerning the Safeguarding of the Beauty
and Character of Landscapes and Sites,
11 December 1962
Recommendation on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the
Illicit Export, Import and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property,
19 November 1964
.
Recommendation concerning the Preservation of Cultural Property
Endangered by Public or Private Works,
19 November 1968
Recommendation concerning the Protection, at National Level,
of the Cultural and Natural Heritage,
16 November 1972
(ICCROM)
(Peru)
(ICCROM)
(Vatican)
(France)
(France)
(Greece)
(Austria)
(Poland)
(Tunisia)
116
AppendixB
117
Appendix C
World Cultural Heritag e Sites
As of January 1993,378 properties in 86 countries had been included in the World
Heritage List. The 276 cultural sites (c) and 15 mixed cultural and natural sites (m)
are given below. The first dates given are those of the original inclusion; subsequent
dates refer to extensions or other modifications of the site boundaries. Sites in italics
are on the List of World Heritage in Danger.
ALBANIA
BRAZIL
Butrint i, 1992, c
ALGERIA
Al Qal' a of Beni Hammad , 1980, c
Tassili n'Ajjer, 1982, m
M 'Zab Valley , 1982, c
Djemil a, 1982, c
Tipasa, 1982, c
Timgad, 1982, c
Kasbah of Algiers, 1992, c
AUSTRALIA
Kakadu National Park, 1981, 1987, 1992, m
Willandra Lakes Region , 1981, m
Tasmanian Wildernes s, 1981, m
BANGLADESH
The Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat, 1985, c
Ruins of the Buddhis t Vihara at Paharpur, 1985, c
BULGARIA
Boyana Church , 1979, c
Madara Rider, 1979, c
Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak, 1979, c
Rock-hewn Churches ofIvanovo, 1979, c
Ancient City of Nessebar , 1983, c
Rila Monastery , 1983, c
Thraci an Tomb of Svesht ari, 1985, c
CAMBODIA
Angkor, 1992, c
CANADA
L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Park,
1978,c
Anthony Island, 1981, c
Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, 1981, c
Quebec (Historic Area), 1985, c
BENIN
CHINA
BOLIVIA
City of Potosi, 1987, c
Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, 1990, c
Historic City of Sucre, 1991, c
AppendixC
118
COLOMBIA
FRANC E
GREECE
CROATIA
Old City ofDubrovnik, 1979, C
Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of
Diocletian, 1979, c
CUBA
Old Havana and its Fortifications, 1982, c
Trinidad and the Valley de los Ingenios, 1988, c
CYPRUS
Paphos,1980,c
Painted Churches in the Troodos Region, 1985, c
ECUADOR
City of Quito, 1978, c
EGYPT
Memphis and its Necropolis - the Pyramid Fields
from Giza to Dahshur, 1979, c
Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis, 1979, c
Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae,
1979,c
Islamic Cairo, 1979, c
Abu Mena, 1979, c
ETHIOPIA
Rock-hewn Churches, Lalibela, 1978, c
Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar Reg ion, 1979, c
Lower Valley of the Awash, 1980, c
Tiya, 1980, c
Aksum 1980, c
Lower Valley of the Omo, 1980, c
FINLAND
Old Rauma, 1991, c
Fortress of Suomenlinna, 1991, c
GERMANY
Aachen Cathedral, 1978, c
Speyer Cathedral, 1981, c
Wiirzburg Residence with the Court Gardens and
Residence Square, 1981, c
Pilgrimage Church ofWies, 1983, c
The Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust at
Briihl, 1984, c
St. Mary's Cathedral and St. Michael's Church
at Hildesheim, 1985, c
Roman Monuments, Cathedral and LiebfrauenChurch in Trier, 1986, c
Hanseatic City of Liibeck, 1987, c
Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin, 1990, c
Abbey and Altenmiinster of Lorsch , 1991, c
Mines of Rammelsberg and the Historic Town of
Goslar, 1992, c
GHANA
Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central
and Western Regions, 1979, c
Ashante Traditional Buildings, 1980, c
Clarification of the status of these sites, following the formation of the Czech Republic and of the
Slovak Republic in January 1993, was not available at the time of writing.
119
GUATEMALA
Tikal National Park, 1979, m
Antigua Guatemala, 1979, c
Archaeological Park and Ruins of Quirigua,
1981,c
INDONESIA
Borodubur Temple compound, 1991, c
Prambanan Temple compound, 1991, c
IRAN
Tchogha Zanbil, 1979, c
Persepolis, 1979, c
Meidan Emam, Esfahan, 1979, c
IRAQ
Hatra, 1985, c
ITALY
Rock Drawings in Valcamonica, 1979, c
The Church and Dominican Convent of Santa
Maria delle Grazie with 'The Last Supper ' by
Leonardo da Vinci, 1980, c
Historic Centre of Florence, 1982, c
Venice and its Lagoon, 1987, c
Piazza del Duomo, Pisa, 1987, c
Historic Centre of San Gimignano, 1990, c
HAITI
ITALY/HOLY SEE
H OLY SEE
Vatican City, 1984, c
HONDURAS
Maya Site of Copan, 1980, c
HUNGARY
Budapest, the Banks of the Danube with the
District of Buda Castle, 1987, c
Holloko , 1987, c
INDIA
Ajanta Caves, 1983, c
Ellora Caves, 1983, c
Agra Fort, 1983, c
Taj Mahal, 1983, c
The Sun Temple, Konarak, 1984, c
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, 1984, c
Churches and Convents of Goa, 1986, c
Khajuraho Group of Monuments, 1986, c
Group of Monuments at Hampi , 1986, c
Fatehpur Sikri, 1986, c
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal, 1987, c
Elephanta Caves, 1987, c
Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, 1987, c
JORD AN
Old City ofJerusalem and its Walls, 1981,
Petra, 1985,c
Quseir Amra, 1985, c
LEBANON
Anjar, 1984, c
Baalbek, 1984, c
Byblos, 1984, c
Tyr, 1984, c
MALI
Old Towns of Djenne, 1988, c
Timbuktu, 1988, C
Cliff of Bandiagara (Land of the Dogons), 1989,
AppendixC
120
MALTA
PANAMA
MEXICO
PORTUGAL
SRI LANKA
Sacred City of Anuradhapura, 1982, c
Ancient City of Polonnaruva, 1982, c
Ancient City of Sigiriya, 1982, c
Sacred City of Kandy, 1988, c
Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications, 1988, c
Golden Temple of Dambulla, 1991, c
NEPAL
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
MOROCCO
Medina of Fez, 1981, c
Medina of Marrakesh, 1985, c
Ksar of Ait-Ben-Haddou, 1987, c
MOZAMBIQUE
NORWAY
Urnes Stave Church, 1979, c
Bryggen, 1979, c
Roros, 1980, c
Rock Drawings of Alta, 1985, c
OMAN
Bahla Fort, 1987, c
Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm, and
AI-Ayn, 1988, c
PAKISTAN
Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro, 1980, c
Taxila,1980,c
Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bah1ol, 1980, c
Historical Monuments of Thatta, 1981, c
Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore, 1981, c
2
PERU
POLAND
SENEGAL
Island of Goree, 1978, c
SPAIN
The Mosque of Cordoba, 1984, c
The Alhambra and the Generalife, Granada,
1984,c
Burgos Cathedral, 1984, c
The nominations related to the cultural sites marked * were submitted in 1989 by the former Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics.
SWEDEN
Royal Domain of Drottningholm, 1991, c
SWITZERLAND
Convent of Saint Gall, 1983, c
Benedictine Convent of Saint John at
Mtistair, 1983, c
Old City of Berne, 1983, c
THAILAND
Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated
Historic Towns, 1991, c
Historic City of Ayutthaya and Associated
Historic Towns, 1991, c
Ban Chiang Archaeological Site, 1992, c
TUNISIA
Medina of Tunis, 1979, c
Site of Carthage, 1979, c
Amphitheatre of El Djem, 1979, c
121
TURKEY
Historic Areas ofIstanbul, 1985, c
Goreme National Park and the Rock Sites
of Cappadocia, 1985, m
Great Mosque and Hospital of Divrigi, 1985, c
Hattusha, 1986, c
Nemrut Dag, 1987, c
Xanthos-Letoon, 1988, c
Hierapolis-Pamukkale, 1988, m
UKRAINE
Kiev: Saint Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings, and Lavra of Kiev-Pechersk,
1990,c
UNITED KINGDOM
Durham Castle and Cathedral, 1986, c
Ironbridge Gorge , 1986, c
Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of
Fountains Abbey , 1986, c
Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites ,
1986,c
The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward
in Gwynedd, 1986, c
Blenheim Palace, 1987, c
City of Bath, 1987, c
Hadrian's Wall, 1987, c
Palace of Westminster, Abbey of Westminster
and Saint Margaret's Church, 1987, c
The Tower of London, 1988, c
Canterbury Cathedral, Saint Augustine's Abbey
and Saint Martin's Church, 1988, c
AppendixC
122
UZBEKISTAN**3
YUGOSLAVIA
ZIMBABWE
YEMEN
Since the formation of the Commonwealth ofIndependent States, Unesco has not received, to date,
a declaration by Uzbekistan as to whether it is, or is not, a Party to the World Heritage Convention.