Professional Documents
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Chapter 1 Science
Chapter 1 Science
Chapter 3
ChapterZ
Chapter 1
Cells and More Cells
Concept Check
1. Decide whether each statement about the cell
water
a. nucleus
d. vacuole
b. cell membrane
e. mitochondria
c. cell wall
f. cytoplasm
solute
particles
a. light source
b. stage
c. eyepiece
ii
d. objective
lens
iii
lv
Inquiry Check
5. Identify In your notebook, list as many
IPlant,
Animal, I Unicellular or I
Organism
or Protist?
Multicellular? Observations
A
I Number of Bacteria
20
40
60
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At the end of this unit you will have an opportunity to apply what you have
learned in an inquiry or research project. Read the Unit 1 Projects on pages
126-1 27. Start a project folder now (either paper or electronic). Store ideas,
notes, news clippings, website addresses, and lists of materials that might
help you to complete your project.
I
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Inquiry Project
organ systems
organism
tissues
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An Issue to Analyze
Research and form an
opinion about organ
donation.
origins of cancer
explain major cell technologies
Procedure
1. Your teacher will begin by whispering a message to a student so that no
one else can hear. This st udent should then whisper t he message to the
next student and so on until the message reaches t he last person in
the class. You are not allowed to repeat the message. The last person
should write down what he or she heard.
Questions
1. How did the original and final messages compare? What might have
caused the differences?
2. Was one message less scrambled at the end than the other? What might
explain any differences?
3. How do you think this game might reflect what goes on inside
your body?
Study Toolkit
These strategies will help you use this textbook to develop your understanding of science concepts and skills.
To find out more about these and other strategies, refer to the Study Toolkit Overview, which begins on page 560.
e oo
EG CD Q.
eoo
EG CD - Q.
Reading Effectively
Visualizing
headings
subheadings
main body text
Other text features include
definitions of key terms
activities
Steps
case studies
1 . Start with an
sidebars
eoo
EG CD Q. Word Study
Word Families
Graphic organizers can help you remember the meanings
of unfamiliar words. The graphic organizer on the right
shows words that contain the word part cyto, meaning
cell. Any word that contains this word part is related to
cells. For example, cytoskeleton means a network that
controls cell shape.
Key Terms
cell
1.1
microscopy
nucleus
organelle
micrograph
cytoplasm
Cell Structure
Figure 1.3 Here you can see a diagram of a nucleus. as well as an electron micrograph
of the nucleus in a human liver cell. magnified 2730 times.
10
Figure 1.4 Micrograph A shows many red blood cells and two white blood cells,
magnified 210 times by a light microscope. Micrograph B shows a single white blood
cell, magnified 2500 times by an electron microscope. The nucleus of the cell is
shown in green.
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1 Senseof
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.
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.........................................
:
:
The first of these ideas is fairly easy to understand. The third idea refers to
cell reproduction, which you will learn about in Section 1.3. The second
idea means that to understand how living things function, you must know
what is going on inside cells: In other words, all of an organism's body
functions, such as eating, breathing, and eliminating waste, are designed
to supply the needs of its cells. This section will help you understand the
normal structure and function of cells. Later in this unit, you will learn
more about how cells form the smallest unit of all living organisms.
Some organisms, such as humans, are made of millions of cells, each with
a specialized function.
Contents of the Cytoplasm
The fluid material between the cell membrane and the nucleus-the
cytosol- is filled with many specialized organelles. Together, the cytosol
and the organelles it contains are called the cytoplasm.
11
The organelles of a cell are like the organs of a body-each plays a role
in the proper functioning of the "body" that contains it. Figures 1.5 and
1.6 illustrate typical animal and plant cells. Of course, not all plant and
animal cells look exactly like those illustrated here. As you will see in
this unit, there are many different kinds of cells, even within the same
organism. Yet even cells with very different functions can have the same
kinds of organelles.
As you study these diagrams, you may notice that a number of
the organelles are involved in the production, storage, or transport of
proteins. All cells in your body depend on proteins, which allow the cells
to carry out the life processes that keep you healthy. Proteins are essential
nutrients for the growth and repair ofbody tissues. You will learn more
about proteins in the sections that follow.
Typical Animal Cell
C) nucleus
cytoplasm
G mitochondrion
vacuole
( ) cell membrane
C)
()
nucleus
endoplasmic
reticulum
vesicle
12
Suggested Investigation
( ) vesicle
vacuole
O cytoskeleton
nucleus
Go to scienceontario
to find out more
(l) ribosome
mitochondrion
endoplasmic
reticulum
0
nucleus
0
mitochondrion
C)
vacuole
cell wall
13
Learning Check
3 . What are the three main ideas in the cell theo ry?
4. What might be some disadvantages of electron microscopes?
Some types of organelles are found in both plant and animal cells, while
other types are found only in one or the other. For example, chloroplasts
are found only in plant cells. Mitochondria, however, are found in both
plant and animal cells-most cells cannot survive without the energy that
mitochondria release from glucose. The process by which this occurs is
common to most cells, and it is called cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration, shown in Figure 1.7, requires oxygen in order to
occur. This is why we must breathe in air, which contains oxygen. As well
as releasing energy, the process of cellular respiration produces carbon
dioxide as a waste product. We get rid of carbon dioxide and water vapour
when we breathe out.
CsHizOs
glucose
-
602
6C02
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
6H 20
wat er
energy that
can be used by
living things
Figure 1.7 This is a very simplified version of the cellular respiration process. It shows
the inputs and outputs. There are actually many steps between these inputs and
outputs. For example, glucose gets broken down in a series of chemical reactions that
release energy bit by bit.
Section Summary
Developments in microscopy (microscope
technology) have made it possible to look at the
internal structures of cells.
Cells contain a variety of organelles, each of
which has its own structure and function. Some
Review Questions
crf1!) 1. Why are electron microscopes more useful than light
Number of Mitochondria
in Human Body Cells
--
250
200
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a.>o 150
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Eu
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50
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0
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skin
cell
muscle sperm
cell
cell
Type of Cell
15
KeyTerms
---------------------------====::~~~~~~~~~~~~~
chromosome
DNA
gene
1.2
DNA screening
transgenic organism
cloning
mutation
mutagen
The nucleus contains the master set of instructions that determines what
each cell will become, how it will function, and how long it will live before
being replaced. These instructions are carried in chromosomes. Every
plant and animal species has a specific number of chromosomes in the
nucleus of each cell. In the cells of most plants and animals, chromosomes
come in pairs-one of each pair comes from each parent when an egg and
a sperm unite to produce a fertilized egg. Humans, for example, normally
have 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of each body cell, 23 from the
mother's egg and 23 from the father's sperm. As shown in Table 1.1, other
species have their own specific number of chromosomes.
Table 1.1 Comparison of Chromosome Numbers in Various Organisms' Cells
Organism
Chromosome
Number (per cell)
Organism
Chromosome
Number (per cell)
Human
46
Corn
20
Cow
60
Butterfly
80
Fruit fly
cytosine
17
Protein Production
:
Sense of
Our genes are estimated to
represent only 3 percent of
the DNA in our chromosomes.
The function of the other
97 percent is currently
unknown.
......................................... :
As you have just read, the job of genes, and thus of DNA, is to control
the manufacture of proteins. Each protein is designed to do a specific
job. For example, some proteins help build parts of your body. Others
are like couriers, carrying materials short or long distances within your
body. Some pick up or transfer signals from one body part to another. Still
others, called enzymes, catalyze (speed up) various chemical reactions in
your body, such as those that help you digest food. All of these various
proteins get their "orders" from DNA .
Learning Check
4. How do you think it is possible for a genetic code with only four
DNA Screening
On page 16, you learned that babies are commonly tested for a genetic
condition called PKU. Testing for the presence of genetic d isorders is
referred to as genetic screening, or DNA screening. Some types of genetic
disorders can be observed by looking at a person's chromosomes.
Down syndrome is one of these disorders-it can even be detected
/
in a fetus. Using a technique called amniocentesis, a needle is inserted
through a pregnant woman's abdominal wall to withdraw a sample of
fluid from the amniotic sac (which surrounds the growing fetus). Cells
from the fetus are isolated, and a micrograph of the chromosom es in
these cells is taken.
Although this micrograph, called a karyotype, cannot show errors
in individual genes, it can show if a person has too many or too few
chromosomes, or if any are broken. To diagnose Down syndrome,
technicians look specifically at chromosome 21. Individu als with Down
syndrome, such as the girl shown in Figure 1 .11 , h ave three of these
chromosomes instead of the usual pair (two).
Testing for PKU
1
eo o
Study Toolkit
Previewing Text Features
Notice the two heading
styles on this page. What do
these different styles tell
you about the relations hip
between the information in
each section?
A look at the case for and against genetic testing for Huntington disease
reveals some of the ethical issues at stake in DNA screening. Huntington
disease is a genetic disorder that affects nerve cells. Symptoms, which
normally appear in a person's 40s, include loss of muscular control and
brain function. The symptoms worsen for 15 years or so before the disease
causes death.
Scientists have identified which gene causes this disease, which helps
researchers such as Nancy Wexler, shown in Figure 1.12. Individuals have
a 50 percent chance of having the gene that causes this disease if one
of their parents has it. Someone who has the gene will, with certainty,
develop the disease. Therefore, finding out if the gene is present in a
person's body leads to a definite diagnosis.
Should Individuals at Risk Get Tested?
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Procedure
1. Choose the perspective of a stakeholder in the debate
about testing for Huntington disease. Suggested rol es
include the following:
You are a 30-year-old who has one parent with the
disease. You are wondering whether to be tested.
You have just tested positive for the disease. You
have a two-year-old child.
You are the owner of an insurance company
considering a new client's application.
You are an employer. Your company invests heavily
in employee training and generally counts on people
staying with your company for many years or
even decades.
_
~ You
reach a consensus on
each question.
( Ques ions
l. ~hou ld employers or insurance companies be allowed to
require people to test for Huntington disease, or should
taking the test be a matter of personal choice? Explain
your answer.
2. Should people be required to reveal a family history of
Huntington to a potential employer or insurance
company? Or should such a matter be private?
3. Should children with a risk of Huntington disease be
allowed to have the test? Why or why not?
PKU, Down syndrome, and Huntington disease are not the only
conditions that can be identified using DNA tests. For example, women
can be screened for the presence of certain genes associated with breast
cancer. Although only a small proportion of all breast cancers are due to
genetic factors, the test could help women with the gene take preventative
measures. Other conditions that can be determined with DNA screening
include cystic fibrosis and spina bifida.
21
Much of the research into treatments for various diseases, including PKU
and Huntington disease, is carried out by drug companies. Such research
can be very costly and take years, if not decades. Once a company
develops a drug that is effective and safe in lab conditions, it applies to
carry out a clinical trial on humans. In Canada, approval for drug trials
is given by Health Canada, a department of the federal government. The
financial risks for a company involved in this type of research are very
high, since the drug might not work as well outside the lab. As discussed
in Figure 1.1 3, companies may try to recover the costs of research and
development by putting a high price on their product.
Critics sometimes suggest that clinical trial results can be biased.
Companies are sometimes accused of presenting their trial data as more
positive than they really are. The ethical issues get even more troublesome
if you think about what might happen if a company discovered an
effective, but extremely expensive, cure for cancer or diabetes. Does the
company own the cure and therefore have the right to sell or control it
in any way it chooses? Or does the company have an ethical obligation
to make life-saving cures available to everyone who needs them?
These ethical questions are frequently debated by scientists, medical
professionals, drug companies, and concerned members of the public.
learning Check
5. What is a karyotype?
6. Describe two techniques used to screen a person's DNA.
Go to scienceontario
to find out more
transgenic organism an
organism whose genetic
information has been altered
with the insertion of genes
from another species
22
The genetic code is universal. This means that the same four DNA
building-block molecules (A, C, T, and G) produce the code for proteins
in all types of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals.
Theoretically, this means that the genetic code in one type of organism
could be "read" by any other type of organism. If a particular gene could
be transferred between two different types of organisms, one species could
then make proteins usually made only by the other species.
In fact, scientists have been combining the DNA from different species
for a number of years in a process called genetic engineering. The species
whose genes are altered are often called genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) or transgenic organisms.
Transgenic Organisms
Table 1.2 shows some of the common kinds of transgenic organisms
today. Many people see the manipulation of genes as a way to solve various
problems. Others, however, worry about the effects of causing rapid change
in species that have taken thousands, if not millions, of years to evolve. They
feel that we know too little about the long-term consequences. For example,
some people ask how GMO plants might affect the organisms (including
humans) that eat them. Others worry about the effects of GMO plants on
the ecosystem, especially if the GMO plants spread to new areas.
Some people ask whether transplanting organs from transgenic animals,
such as the pigs you saw on page 4, is a good idea. They worry about various
viruses that are carried in pigs without harming them, but that are not
naturally found in humans. If these viruses moved with the transplanted
organs, they could cause viral diseases that could spread quickly in the
human population.
Table 1.2 The Uses of Some Genetically Modified Organisms
GMO Organism
Benefit
Example
23
Cloning
cloning the process of
Go to sclenceontarlo
to find out more
pieces of
carrot root
Figure 1.14 In A, you can see the
cloning process used by Fredrick
Steward. In B. you can see a
process used to clone a mammal,
which was first accomplished
in 1996.
plantlet
1. Scientists
3. A jolt of electricity
causes the two
cells to fuse.
egg
cell
from adult
sheep cell
begins dividing
to form an
embryo.
Your Turn
1. Survey the other students in your class. Ask them, "If
you eat meat, would you consider eating the meat of a
cloned animal? Why or why not?" Calculate the
percentage of "yes" and "no" answers you receive.
Learning Check
9. Why is the genetic code described as being universal?
1 0. In what way are organs from certain kinds of transgenic
Mutations
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26
As you have learned, the specific protein that a gene codes for depends on
the order of the DNA building blocks in the gene. A change in the usual
order of the A, C, T, G building blocks is called a mutation. A mutation
in a gene can alter the structure of the protein it produces. Such a change
can then affect how well the protein does its job. For example, people who
have a condition called sickle cell anemia have a mutation in the gene that
codes for hemoglobin, a type of protein in red blood cells. As discussed in
Figure 1.15, the mutation changes the protein in such a way that it is less
able to perform its function, which is to help the blood carry oxygen to
body cells.
mutagen a substance or
factor that can cause a
mutation in DNA
27
Section Summary
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes,
which are composed of DNA and divided
into segments called genes. Genes control a
cell's structure and function by controlling the
production of proteins.
There are many ethical issues related to
technological developments in DNA screening,
Review Questions
Ol!) 1. Why is the nucleus of a cell so important?
Australia
Brazil
Canada
7 001 000
China
3 804 000
India
6192000
Mexico
Paraguay
Philippines
South Africa
100 000
2 590 000
300 000
1 78 1 000
Spain
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Uruguay
486 000
United States
57 708 000
Key Terms
cell division
1.3
mitosis
cytokinesis
DNA replication
There are tens of thousands of d ifferent proteins in your body, and the types
of proteins you have are determined by your genes. If a gene is missing
or damaged, the protein it codes for may be missing or non-functioning.
Thus, ali 46 chromosomes you see in Figure 1.18 are important.
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
ce ll plate
Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is the process by which new cells are formed. An
important difference between cell reproduction and the reproduction
of a multicellular organism (one with a body consisting of many
cells), however, is the number of"parents" involved. As you can see in
Figure 1.19, when body cells and most single-celled organisms reproduce,
there is only one parent: one cell divides to produce two new cells, which
are called daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to each other
and to their parent cell, at least in the genes they contain.
In sexual reproduction, two parents mate and the offspring receive
half of their genes from each parent (one chromosome from each pair of
chromosomes). Therefore, although offspring share genetic material and
may look alike, they are not exactly the same. For example, not all of the
kittens in a litter look the same. Each kitten receives half of its genes from
each parent, but does not get exactly the same combination of genes as
other kittens in the litter.
Figure 1.18 This karyotype shows
the 46 chromosomes (magnified
1000 times) present in the nucleus of
every cell in t he body of a male human.
Cell Division
cell division the process by
which a parent cell divides
into two daughter cells
Figure 1.20 When you cut your skin, blood flows to the area until a scab forms. This
scab restores the skin's continuity, preventing bacteria from entering the body. Then the
skin cells underneath can undergo cell division to produce new cells that fill in the gap.
Once the skin layer is restored, the scab f alls off.
Cells also divide when they grow too large to perform efficiently the
functions necessary for their survival. The cell membrane plays a
significant role in these functions. For example, when you eat food, it
gets broken down into smaller and smaller molecules by your digestive
system. These molecules-as well as the oxygen molecules in the air you
inhale- then get delivered to every cell in your body. Once there, these
substances must cross the cell membrane to get inside the cell, where they
are needed. The cell's waste materials must also cross this membrane to
exit the cell.
The cell membrane is, therefore, a barrier through which everything
must pass on its way into or out of the cell. Much of this passage of
materials occurs through the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the
movement of molecules from areas where there are higher concentrations
to areas where there are lower concentrations. Water crosses through the
process of osmosis.
30 MHR Unit 1
Like the membrane in the beaker shown in Figure 1.21 , the cell membrane
is permeable to certain substances; that is, these substances can cross the
membrane. Materials that the cell needs (such as oxygen) diffuse across the
membrane from outside the cell-where they are more concentrated-to
the inside-where they are less concentrated. A cell membrane is referred to
as selectively permeable because not all materials can cross it; some are kept
out-or in.
particles of dye in water
00 0
Study Toolkit
membrane permeable
to dye
At equilibrium. movement
continues. but at the same
rate in both directions.
Most cells are surrounded by solutions that contain water and dissolved
nutrients and gases. Like other molecules, water moves from areas of
greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration. In Figure 1.22, you
can see how osmosis occurs over a cell membrane to equalize the number
of water molecules inside and outside the cell.
i :
water molecules
molecules of dissolved
substance; cell membrane
is impermeable to this
molecule
Growing Cells
The surface of the cell must be big enough to allow for the entry of all
of the oxygen and nutrients needed by the cell's organelles, nucleus, and
cytosol. As cells use these nutrients, they produce more organelles and
cytosol and thus get bigger. As a result, their volume increases. And,
with more organelles doing their jobs, the cell's need for supplies and its
production of wastes increase.
31
Every cell faces the problem of needing enough surface area to service its
volume. As something gets larger, the ratio of its surface area to its volume
decreases. In other words, there is less surface area per unit of volume in a
large organism than in a small organism. As suggested by Figure 1.23, a cell
cannot get too big, or it will not have enough surface area for the passage
of all the nutrients it needs and the wastes it produces. Therefore, when a
cell reaches a certain size, it must divide to produce smaller cells. Each of
these smaller cells will then have enough surface area to suit its needs.
T
0.6 m
,,
Substances diffuse
rapidly through the
cell membrane (in
less than a second).
.. ' ,.. ..
.~ ','
..
'
Learning Check
1. Using Figures 1.21 and 1.22, describe in your own words how
eo o
Study Toolkit
Word Families Creating a
graphic organizer for words
in this section that include
the word part phase could
help you understand and
remember each word's
definition.
DNA Replication
33
Although some are longer and some are shorter, the average strand of
human DNA is about 5 em long. Yet 46 chromosomes can fit in the nucleus
of a microscopic cell. This is only possible because each chromosome is
incredibly thin. The diameter of each DNA molecule is just 2 nanometres
(0.000 002 mm), so small that it can only be seen with an electron microscope.
For most of a cell's life, its DNA is virtually invisible. This changes when the cell
starts to divide through the process of mitosis, shown in Figure 1.25.
Prophase
During the first phase of mitosis, called prophase (pro
is Latin for "before"), the replicated chromosomes coil in
various ways until they are finally condensed and thick
enough to be visible using a light microscope. In addition,
the membrane around the nucleus begins to break down,
and the nucleolus disappears.
At the same time, two organelles called centrosomes
head toward opposite ends of the cell. Extending from
the centrosomes, thread-like tubules, part of the
cytoskeleton, begin to form spindle fibres. As prophase
progresses, the spindle fibres continue to form and
extend away from the centrosomes toward
the centro meres on each chromosome.
prophase the phase of
mitosis in which sister
chromatids condense and the
chromosomes become visible
Metaphase
Metaphase (meta is Latin for "mid") is the longest phase in mitosis.
During this phase, the centrosomes reach the opposite ends of
the cell and the chromosomes move toward the middle of the cell.
Eventually, the chromosomes all line up along the centre of the
cell. By this point. the spindle fibres stretch all the way from the
centrosomes to the centromeres. Each centromere becomes attached
to two spindle fibres-one from each end of the cell.
metaphase the phase
chromosomes
lining up across the
centre of the cell
34
Anaphase
The next phase of mitosis, called anaphase (ana is Latin for
"back"), is one of the shortest. In anaphase. the proteins
holding the two chromatids together at the centromere
break apart. The spindle fibres had been stretched like elastic
bands between the chromosomes at the middle of
the cell and the centrosomes at the opposite ends of the
cell. Now the spindle fibres retract, each pulling a chromatid
toward one end of the cell. Once the chromatids separate,
each becomes a chromosome in its own right. At this
point. the cell has twice as many chromosomes
as usual.
anaphase the phase
of mitosis in which the
centromere splits apart and
the chromatids are pulled to
opposite sides of the cell by
the spindle fibres
Telophase
During telophase (telos means "end"), the spindle fibres start to
disappear. Membranes form around two new daughter nuclei, one
at each end of the cell. Within each nucleus, a nucleolus appears, and
the chromosomes become less coiled and harder to see. Mitosis, the
division of one nucleus into two identical nuclei, is now complete.
The rest of the cell is ready to divide.
telophase the phase
nuclear
membrane
Mitosis Is Continuous
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Modelling Mitosis
Understanding the process of mitosis can be easier if you
make a model of it. What kinds of materials would best
model the various parts of a cell during mitosis?
Safety Precaution
Materials
coloured paper
poster paper
markers
various construction materials, such as toothpicks, string,
twist-ties, paper clips, pipe cleaners, tongue depressors,
several colours of yarn, elastic bands, and thread
glue
scissors
Procedure
1. Your teacher will assign you one phase of mitosis.
Make a model of this phase using some of the supplied
materials. Use four chromosomes in your model.
Questions
1. Compare the various models, and discuss why students
may have chosen different materials to represent the
same structures.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Suggested Investigation
Learning Check
In animal cells, a ring of specialized proteins around the middle of the cell
starts to contract. Like pulling the drawstrings on a bag, this contraction
pinches the cell membrane until the parent cell is divided into two parts.
Each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes in a nucleus and its
own share of cytosol and organelles.
cell membrane
pinching in
daughter cells
..
37
vesicles lining up
You have seen that cell division produces two cells from one. Repeated
over and over again, millions of times, this process allows you to grow
from a single cell (after fertilization) into a multicellular fetus and
finally into a full-sized human. The processes of DNA replication and
mitosis ensure that each of your body cells has identical genes and can
theoretically produce the same proteins.
Yet, you know that different cells have different structures and
functions. Although all cells have the same basic set of internal structures,
they make different proteins and contain different numbers of certain
types of organelles. This happens as a result of cell specialization, a process
you will learn more about in the next chapter. When cells specialize, they
use only some of their genes-others are deactivated. In fact, most of the
cells in your body use only about 10 percent of their genes to produce the
proteins they need to do their particular job. So, although all of your body
cells contain the same information, they do not all use it in the same way.
38
Section Summary
When single-celled organisms and body cells
of animals and plants divide, they form two
identical daughter cells. For single-celled
organisms, cell division results in population
growth. For multicellular organisms, cell division
allows individuals to grow or to replace lost or
damaged cells.
Review Questions
t::n!) 1. Give as many reasons why cells divide as you can.
t::n!) 2. Compare prophase and telophase in mitosis.
39
Key Terms
interphase
cell cycle
1.4
tum our
As shown in Table 1 .3 , the life span of different types of cells varies widely.
Some cells live a rough life, exposed to constant abrasion (rubbing) and
chemicals that are sometimes toxic. This describes the experience of the
cells that line your stomach, and those that make up your skin. They have
short lifetimes compared with muscle cells, which last an average of 15 years.
Nerve cells may last even longer. This means that cell division happens
frequen tly in some parts of your body, but is a rare event in other parts.
cancer
Average
life Span
30-50 years
120 days
For your body to function properly, the cell division process must be
carefully controlled. Some types of cells must be "encouraged" to divide,
and others m ust be "encouraged" to remain as they are. This is the job
of molecules, mostly proteins, that carry signals among cells, sharing
information about various cells' abundance and health. These molecules
control the cell cycle. As you can see in Figure 1 .28, the cell cycle-the life
cycle of a cell- consists of two main phases: cell division and interphase.
2 days
200 days
3 days
20 days
i nterphase periods of
growth in t he lif e of a cell;
consists of two growth
st ages and a st age of DNA
replication
1\
I
DNA
1
j
Controlling the timing and rate of cell division in different parts of a plant
or animal is vital to normal growth and development. Too few or too
many cells in any one body part can lead to serious problems. Although
many details are not understood, scientists have a general picture of how
the cell cycle is controlled in many cells.
Researchers have discovered that there are three main points
at which the cell "checks" its growth. Figure 1.29 shows how these
cell cycle checkpoints work. At each checkpoint, specialized proteins act
like stop signs. Unless they receive specific go-ahead signals, they will not
let the cell cycle proceed. In general, cell division will not occur if
there are not enough nutrients to support cell growth
Go to scienceontario
to f ind out more
growth and
DNA replication
For many cells, the first checkpoint after mitosis seems to be the most
important. Many cells leave the cycle at this point, often just because more
cells of that type are not required. The body does not need that cell to
divide, so it does not receive a go-ahead signal. Celis that leave the cycle
enter a non-dividing stage. Most cells in the human body-all muscle and
nerve cells, for example-are in this stage.
41
Cell Death
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to find out more
Some cells do not leave the cell cycle to become specialized- they leave
the cell cycle because it is time for them to die. In some cases, this is
because they have been damaged beyond repair, perhaps by physical
forces or by exposure to toxic chemicals. The contents of the cells leak out,
often irritating surrounding cells, causing swelling and redness in that
body part.
Cell Suicide
Other cells carry out a kind of suicide. In this case, a cell breaks down
in an organized way. Its contents are packaged and distributed so that
other cells can use them. Scientists have learned that this type of death is
pre-programmed into cells, determined by what are often called "suicide
genes:' These genes code for proteins whose job is to kill cells in specific
situations. For example, as you can see in Figure 1.30, suicide genes are
responsible for normal finger and toe development in human embryos.
Cells may also ensure their own death when their survival would be
a threat to the organism. This would happen if a cell were infected with a
virus, for example, or if its DNA had been damaged.
Figure 1.30 In various birds and mammals, t he parts of the embryo t hat develop into
hands and feet are solid at first. Separated f ingers or toes are produced through t he
programmed death of the cells between the digits.
42
Some cells start out normally, but are then transformed so that they
ignore the stop signs in the cell cycle. Instead of leaving the cell cycle
to die, they divide repeatedly and excessively, forming a clump of
cells called a tumour, which you can see in Figure 1.31 .
cell stimulated
to divide
blood vessel
normal lung cells
.
In healthy tissue, cell division is
carefully controlled by chemical
messages that pass from cell to cell.
-.
- --
----
tumour
cancer
abnormal cells beginning
to divide more frequently
than required
developing
tumour
. -----..
---
Figure 1.31 Abnormal cell division is responsible for the development of tumours
and cancer.
43
losing Control
Suggested Investigation
Most normal cells are attached to a surface while they divide. If a normal
cell senses that it is not attached, it stops dividing. Many cancer cells,
however, have a mutation that allows them to keep dividing even when
they are not attached to a surface. This mutation encourages the abnormal
cells in a tum our to spread. Still other cancer cells have mutatio ns
affecting the proteins that check and repair any errors made during DNA
replication. These mutations, in turn, lead to more mutations.
Most normal cells can undergo 20 to 30 rounds of cell division.
Any m ore divisions might result in mutated cells that might harm the
organism. At this point, a normal cell carries out programmed suicide.
However, many cancer cells have been found to make an enzyme called
telomerase, which signals they do not have to stop dividing. ln other
cancer cells, mutations do not allow them to produce or recognize
suicide-causing proteins. Thus, they keep reproducing, even if their DNA
has been mutated.
Cancer cells generally must have several mutations before control of
cell division is completely lost. Some mutations occur simply by chan ce
and ar e unavoidable. Others can be inherited from parents. However,
people can also avoid mutations by reducing their contact with mutagens
that can lead to cancer; these types of mutagens are called carcinogens.
Many types of carcinogens are known, such as asbestos, tobacco smoke,
and the human papilloma virus (HPV). More are being discovered all
the time. Cancer prevention- reducing gene mutations-is perhaps the
best way to avoid cancer. However, cancer is a complex disease. Its causes
are varied and our knowledge of how cells are changed by mutations is
still far from complete. Cells still hold lots of secrets-eno ugh to keep
researchers busy for many years.
Making a Difference
Ted Paranjothy's goal is to contribute to the discovery of a universal cure for
cancer. Because he has known several people with cancer, Ted has witnessed
the suffering caused by the disease and the effects of chemotherapy, a cancer
treatment. He wants to develop new, non-toxic alternatives to chemotherapy.
While still in high school, Ted discovered an anti-cancer agent while working
on a science project . He also co-authored scientific papers as a volunteer
researcher at the Manitoba Institute of Cell Biology.
Ted's work has earned him many honours, including a first place in the
Sanofi-aventis International BioGENEius Challenge, a Manning Young Canadian
Innovation Award, and the Canadian Cancer Society Researcher of Tomorrow
Award. Ted has also volunteered with patients at a hospital and won an
award for his community service. In 2007, Ted was named one of
Canada's Top 20 Under 20. He attends the Universit y of Manitoba
and plans to become a physician-scientist. involved in both
patient care and cancer research.
What could you do to help people with cancer in
your community?
Section Summary
Review Questions
trm) 1. The micrograph on the right shows a cell undergoing mitosis.
of a cell.
trm) 3. Give two examples of places in your body where you would find
tm
Skill Check
Safety Precautions
compound microscope
prepared slide of Elodea (or
similar) leaf cells
prepared slide of human
skin cells
Science Skills
Go to Science Skills
Toolkit 8 for
information about
using a microscope
and Science Skills
Toolkit 6 for information
about making a labelled
biological drawing.
Question
1. Predict what cell structures you will see in both the plant and
animal cells.
2. Predict what cell structures you will see in only the plant cells or
Procedure
1. Set up a microscope.
2. Place the slide of the Elodea leaf cells on
the microscope's viewing platform. Adjust
the microscope on low power, and view the
specimen. Do you see one cell, a few cells,
or many cells?
3. Rotate the nosepiece until the medium power
objective clicks into place. Again, adjust the
microscope and view the specimen.
skin cells.
Analyze and Interpret
Skill Check
Plant and animal body cells reproduce by the process of mitosis. You
will observe slides of the tip of an onion root and a whitefish embryo
to see how mitosis in cells allows them to divide, producing new cells .
Safety Precautions
Materials
compound microscope
prepared slide of an onion
root tip
prepared slide of a
whitefish embryo
Science Skills
Go to Science Skills
Toolkit 8 for
information about
using a microscope
and Science Skills
Toolkit 6 for
information about
making a labelled
biological drawing.
Question
How does mitosis produce new cells, and how is mitosis the same and
different in plant and animal cells?
Procedure
1. Set up a microscope.
2. Set your microscope on low power, and examine the onion root
tip. Focus the microscope, and move the slide until you can see
the area just behind the root tip. Carefully turn the nosepiece to
medium power, refocus, and then turn to high power and refocus.
Be careful when adjusting the fine-adjustment knob at high
power. Even slight turns can crack the slide .
embryo slide.
8. Return the nosepiece to low power.
Remove the whitefish embryo slide from
the microscope stage.
Analyze and Interpret
Skill Check
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
./ Analyzing an.d Interpreting
./ Communicating
Normal Cells
Patient Sample
15
30
45
10
60
16
30
75
32
92
90
64
180
Question
What will you report back to the physician who requested the test?
Math Skills
Go to Math Skills
Toolkit 3 for
information about
making graphs.
Draw a line graph showing the rate of cell division of normal cells
and the patient's cells. Put time on the x-axis and population size
on the y-axis.
Analyze and Interpret
1. Compare the rates of cell division in the patient sample and the
normal sample. How would you interpret the graph?
Conclude and Communicate
found in all cells, while others are found only in plant cells
or animal cells.
51
G
Reviewing Key Terms
. (1.1 )
2. A(n)
is a photograph taken
with a m icroscope. (1.1)
. ( 1.2)
4. A change in the usual order of a gene's A, C, T, and
G build ing blocks is called a(n)
. (1.2)
called
, whereas the rest of the cell
divides by the process of
. ( 1.3)
G. The
consists of interphase
and mitochondria.
11. Why do cells divide?
12. Draw and label a diagram to show metaphase
and cancer.
unit of life?
20. How are the cells in your body identical?
52
I Number of Cells
Interphase
82
Prophase
13
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Communication . .
24. BIG ~ Developments in medicine and
medical technology can have social
and ethical implications. Imagine that you are a
journalist writing an article for the magazine
Ethics Today. You have been asked to research
and explain the social and ethical implications
of a new technology related to medicine or
biology. Suggested topics include using
transgenic organisms to supply organs for
transplant into humans, genetic screening for a
specific disease, for-profit companies offering
"personal genotyping" services, and cloning.
Application tDt
27. If a microscope were unavailable, you might be
able to detect the existence of a micro-organism
by its influence on the environment. Give
examples of situations in which you could
know that a microscopic organism was present,
even if you could not see individuals of this
species (that is, if you could not see its cells).
Explain why you would know that the organism
was there.
28. Your home has internal walls that divide it into
rooms, just as most of the organelles inside
a cell are separated from the cytoplasm by
membranes. Compare the walls of a home with
the membranes of organelles. What do they have
in common, and what makes them different?
29. Explain why animals and plants are made of
billions or trillions of microscopic cells rather
than a few large cells.
30. Treatment for bladder cancer often involves
chemotherapy, which uses chemicals to attack
certain cells. Explain how each of the following
methods of chemotherapy will interfere with
the rapidly growing cancer cells. Remember
what you have learned about the checkpoints in
the cell cycle.
a. a chemical that blocks the replication of DNA