Losses in Pipe

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics
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PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
LOSSES IN PIPES
1.0 OBJECTIVE
1.1 To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity
for flow of water through smooth bore pipes.
1.2 To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of
water through a smooth bore pipe
1.3 To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through standard fittings
used in plumbing installations
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

CO1 : Ability to analyze the essential parameters describing a fluid system and
recognize the common devices used in measuring pressure and flow rates,and turbo
machineries.
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This apparatus is designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head losses
which occur when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, bends, valves and pipe
flow metering devices. Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be
investigated over a range of Reynolds numbers from 103 to nearly 105, thereby covering
the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes. In addition, an
artificially roughened pipe is supplied which, at the higher Reynolds numbers, shows a
clear departure from the typical smooth bore pipe characteristics. Pipe friction is one of
the classic laboratory experiments and has always found a place in the practical
teaching of fluid mechanics. The results and underlying principles are of the greatest
importance to engineers in the aeronautical, civil, mechanical, marine, agricultural and
hydraulic fields.
4.0 THEORY
1
4.1 Fluid Friction in a Smooth Bore Pipe
2
Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
1
i. Laminar flow at low velocities where head loss, h velocity, u
2
ii. Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h un
4.2 Head Loss due to Friction Through Pipes
For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH 2O) may be calculated
from the formula:
where,
L = length of pipe between tappings (m) = 1 m for all pipes

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d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s2)
f = pipe friction coefficient (British)
4f = (American)
Having established the value of Reynolds number Re for flow in the pipe, the value of f
may be determined from a Moody diagram.
= molecular viscosity = 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15C

= density = 999 kg/m3 at 15oC
A simplified Moody diagram is included in Table C in Appendix .
4.3 Head Loss Through Fittings
A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows, tees and valves
that form obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity
head of the fluid flowing through the fittings.
where,
H = Head loss across fittings (mH2O)
K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/s2)
4.4 Flow Measurement Using Differential Head
The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures fluid velocity by converting
the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at the
stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (Figure 1). A pressure higher than the
free-stream (i.e. dynamic) pressure results from the kinematics to potential conversion.
This "static" pressure is measured by comparing it to the flow's dynamic pressure with a
differential manometer.
Figure 1: Typical Pitot Static Tube

For incompressible fluid, the Bernoullis Equation describes the relationship between the
velocity and pressure along a streamline,

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Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
= Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head
Evaluated at two different points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation yields,
4.4 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi
tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and
lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus
developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The
diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and
convert velocity head into pressure head.
Figure 2 : Venturi Tube

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, in Equation (3.5) becomes
( 3.6)
( 3.7)
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that
given by Equation 3.10 because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between
inlet and throat. Therefore,

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( 3.8)
In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally

determined discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With
Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
( 3.9)
4.5 Orifice Plate
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric squareedged circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as
shown in the figure below.
Figure 3 : The orifice plate
( 3.10)
The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that
for the case of a venturi meter.

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5.0 EQUIPMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Figure 4: Fluid Friction Measurement Apparatus

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Unit Assembly
The test circuits are mounted on Formica laminated backboard strengthened by a deep
frame and carried on tubular stands. There are six pipes arranged to provide facilities for
testing the following:
1
i. Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (6mm, 10mm and 17mm)
2
ii. An artificially roughened pipe
3
iii. A 90o bend
4
iv. A 90o elbow
5
v. A 45o elbow
6
vi. A 45o Y
7
vii. A 90o T
8
viii. A sudden enlargement
9
ix. A sudden contraction
10
x. A gate valve
11
xi. A globe valve
12
xii. An in-line strainer
13
xiii. A venturi made of Perspex
14
xiv. An orifice meter made of Perspex
15
xv. Pitot Static Tube
Note: Hydraulic bench in included

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6.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
6.2 Procedures
Procedures: Experiment 1: Fluid Friction in Pipes and Head Loss due to Pipe
Friction
Test Section:
1
i. 6 mm Smooth Bore Pipe
2
ii. 10 mm Smooth Bore Pipe
3
iii. 17 mm Smooth Bore Pipe
1. Start-up the apparatus according to general procedures stated in the Standard
Operating Procedure (SOP).
2. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of water through the
required test pipe.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control
valve.
4. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping using the mercury manometer or
pressurised water manometer as appropriate.
6. Repeat the testing with different flowrate and obtain readings on test section.
7. Record your data .

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7.0 RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

1. Complete your data in an organize table. Show your calculations.
2.Plot a graph h versus u for each size of pipe. Identify the laminar, transition and turbulent
zones on the graphs. Confirm that the graph is a straight line for the zone of laminar flow (h
u).
3.Plot a graph of log h versus log u for each size of pipe. Confirm that the graph is a straight
line for the zone of turbulent flow (h un). Determine the slope of the straight line to find n.
4.Estimate the value of Reynolds number (Re = ud/) at the start and finish of the transition
phase. These two values of Re are called the upper and lower critical velocities.
is the molecular viscosity = 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15oC.
is the density = 999 kg/m3 at 15oC.
5. Compare the values of head loss determined by calculation with those measured using
the manometer.
6. Confirm that the head loss can be predicted using the pipe friction equation provided the
velocity of the fluid and the pipe dimensions are known.

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8.0 APPENDIX
Table A: Moody Diagram

Losses in Pipe

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ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

= molecular viscosity = 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15C

Figure 1: Typical Pitot Static Tube

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

4.4 Venturi Meter

Figure 2 : Venturi Tube

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally

Figure 3 : The orifice plate

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

5.0 EQUIPMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Figure 4: Fluid Friction Measurement Apparatus

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

Note: Hydraulic bench in included

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

7.0 RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

ERT 215- Fluid Mechanics

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