Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Env Flows Water v2 PDF
Env Flows Water v2 PDF
E N V I R O N M E N T
D E PA R T M E N T
Environment Department
THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20433
Telephone: 202-473-3641
Facsimile: 202-477-0565
PA P E R S
April 2009
4/16/2009 4:56:49 PM
Environmental Flows
in Water Resources
Policies, Plans, and
Projects
Case Studies
April 2009
Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discussion. The use and citation of this
paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Copies are available from
the Environment Department of the World Bank by calling 202-473-3641.
4/9/09 12:44:47 PM
4/9/09 12:44:47 PM
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Acronyms
ix
Summary
xiii
vii
59
31
81
93
iii
4/9/09 12:44:48 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Tables
A.1 Characteristics of Case Studies
4
11.1 Condition Ratings for the Berg River
102
11.2 The Yield, Cost, and other Implications of Environmental Release Scenarios
16.1 Value of Floodplain Production under Pre-dam Conditions
147
108
Figures
A.1 Location of Case Studies
4
2.1 Status options for water bodies in the WFD
22
13.1 Total Fish, Prawn, and Crab Landings in Chilika Lagoon, 19952005
122
Boxes
A.1 Assessment Criteria for In-Stream Flow Programs in the United States
5
A.2 Drivers for Environmental Flows
7
A.3 Drivers for Water Resource Policy Reform and Inclusion of Environmental Flows
8
1.1 ARMCANZ/ANZECC National Principles for the Provision of Water for Ecosystems
1.2 Interpreting Environmentally Sustainable Levels of Extraction
15
2.1 Wetlands and Environmental Flows in Spain
27
3.1. Development of Environmental Flow Methods in South Africa
34
4.1 Tanzania Water Management Conflicts
42
5.1 Minimum Flows and Levels
52
6.1 Transboundary Water Management
61
6.2 Instream flow Requirements and the Building Block Methodology
63
7.1 The Tonle Sap Ecosystem
71
8.1 Water Use Conflicts in the Pangani Basin
81
11.1 The Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)
104
12.1 The Stlatlimx First Nation
116
iv
12
4/9/09 12:44:48 PM
Foreword
4/9/09 12:44:48 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
vi
4/9/09 12:44:49 PM
Acknowledgments
vii
4/9/09 12:44:49 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
viii
4/9/09 12:44:49 PM
Acronyms
ANC
ASBP
BC
BBM
BWP
CC
CDA
CCT
CIS
CMAs
COAG
CSIRO
DANIDA
DWAF
IWMI
DEP
DFO
DRIFT
EA
EF
EFA
EFI
EIA
EMC
EMP
ESW
EU
FAME
GEF
GEP
GES
HES
HMWB
IBFM
ICWC
ix
4/9/09 12:44:49 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
IFR
IWRM
ISP
KNP
KNPRRP
KST
LAS
LHWP
LHDA
LKEMP
LKHP
MDBC
MFLs
MRC
MTAC
NAS
NAWAPO
NCC
NGO
NSW
NWA
NWC
NWI
NWRCS
NYM
OMVS
OWRCP
PAD
PASIE
RBWO
RFOs
ROP
RSA
RWRA
SANParks
SDN
SEA
SFN
STAR
TANESCO
TAP
TBMB
4/9/09 12:44:50 PM
TBWRC
TCTA
TNC
TRC
TRMB
TTL
UNEP
UK
UNDP
WCD
WCWSS
WCSA
WFD
WMA
WMDs
WRB
WRP
WRVs
WSP
WUA
WUP
WUP
WWF
XUAR
YRBC
Note: All dollars are U.S. dollars; all tons are metric tons.
xi
4/9/09 12:44:50 PM
4/9/09 12:44:50 PM
Summary
xiii
4/9/09 12:44:50 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
4/9/09 12:44:51 PM
Summary
xv
4/9/09 12:44:51 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
xvi
Mainstreaming Implications
The science underpinning EFAs has advanced
considerably. There are now many more methods for
estimating environmental flow requirements, and more
information is available on the ecological response to
different flow regimes. There is also growing experience
in integrating information from across a range of
physical, ecological, and socioeconomic disciplines.
In addition, a wide variety of EFA methods have been
developed, backed by considerable field experience,
to suit a variety of levels of environmental risk, time
and budget constraints, and levels of data and skills.
The Banks support for the Lesotho Highlands Water
Project has contributed to the development of a
method known as Downstream Response to Imposed
Flow Transformation (DRIFT), which systematically
addresses the downstream biophysical and
socioeconomic impacts. There is also a growing body
of experience in implementing environmental flows,
including monitoring and adaptation of management
procedures.
Mainstreaming Achievements
Developed countries, including parts of the United
States, Australia, New Zealand, and the countries of
the European Union, together with South Africa, have
accepted the need to develop and implement catchment
4/9/09 12:44:51 PM
Summary
Challenges
xvii
4/9/09 12:44:52 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
xviii
4/9/09 12:44:52 PM
Summary
xix
4/9/09 12:44:53 PM
4/9/09 12:44:53 PM
4/9/09 12:44:53 PM
4/9/09 12:44:53 PM
4/9/09 12:44:53 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Bridge River,
Canada
Tarim Basin,
China
Florida Water Policy,
USA
Chilika Lagoon,
India
Senegal,
West Africa
Lower Kihansi
Power Project,
Tanzania
DECEMBER 2008
Pioneer Catchment,
Australia
Berg River,
South Africa
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information
shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank
Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any
endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Pangani Basin,
Tanzania
Kruger National Park,
South Africa
Mekong Basin,
South East Asia
4/9/09 12:44:57 PM
Institutional Setting
Sector
Purpose
Federation of States
Multisectoral
Union of countries
Multisectoral
2000
Environment,
agriculture,
biodiversity
Multisectoral
Multisectoral
but environmentfocused
Multisectoral
Date Completed
1972; subsequent
amendments
1997
2002
Planning and
operations
On-going
Planning
Planning
On-going
On-going
Planning
2002
Infrastructure Projects
Aral Sea
Central Asia
$260$5,060
Transboundary
Environmental
Re-operations
GEF project 2003;
Restoration
and restoration.
World Bank project
Dyke upgrading
still active
Berg River
South Africa
$5,390
Catchment
Water supply
New dam
In progress
Bridge River
Canada
$36,170
Sub-catchment
Hydropower
Re-operations
2001
Chilika Lagoon
India
$820
Sub-catchment
Irrigation
Restoration and
2004
Flood control
re-operations
Lesotho Highlands
Lesotho
$1,030
Transboundary
Inter-basin
Reconstruction
2006
Water Project
transfer
of outlet structure
(water supply)
in old dam, and
new dam
Lower Kihansi Power Tanzania
$350
Sub-catchment
Hydropower
Reconstruction of In progress
Project
outlet structure in
new dam
Senegal
West Africa
$750
Transboundary
Multi-purpose
Reoperation and
Regional
restoration
Hydropower
Development
Project completed
2005
Tarim Basin
China
$2,010
Sub-basin
Irrigation
Irrigation canal
2005
reconstruction and
re-operations
Note: *GDP per capita is from World Bank Doing Business 2008 site, accessible at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/EconomyCharacteristics.
aspx
4/9/09 12:44:59 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Box A.1. Assessment Criteria for In-Stream Flow Programs in the United States
A number of U.S. states introduced instream flow programs, but there was little information on how well the programs worked.
There were a number of reasons why these programs had not been evaluated; one was the lack of evaluation criteria. To remedy
this deficiency, Lamb proposed five criteria: (1) public confidencea good program was one that enjoys public confidence that
the program will work; (2) certaintyif the in-stream water use is guaranteed for a long period, the program can be judged to
be successful; (3) proper administrationthis criterion covers a number of factors, including setting of goals and measurement
criteria, systematic implementation process, and appropriate authorization; (4) expensea measure of the budgetary expense,
but not including measurement of the benefits of the program; and (5) outcomesboth the extent of stream protection and the
quality of the protection.
Source: Lamb (1995).
4/9/09 12:44:59 PM
Institutional Drivers
The basin/catchment and project-level case studies
were analyzed to identify the drivers that initiated and
sustained them (Box A.2). The six drivers describe the
mechanisms that can initiate an EFA and maintain
the momentum for its completion. They are based
on drivers originally identified for project-level EIAs
(Ortolano, Jenkins, and Abracosa 1987) and have been
modified here to incorporate the additional drivers that
can lead to the inclusion of environmental flows in
water policy and basin planning.
However, the drivers that lead to the inclusion of
environmental flows into water resources policies
4/9/09 12:45:00 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Box A.3. Drivers for Water Resource Policy Reform and Inclusion of Environmental Flows
Policy Reform
Convening. In a federal systemsuch as the EU, the United States, or Australiathe federal government can use its influence
to convene and lead policy reforms even when the responsibility for the policy implementation lies at a subsidiary level. This
convening power is sometimes supplemented with financial assistance from the federal level to help the subsidiary levels of
government implement the policy reforms.
Singularity. A singular eventsuch as a droughtcan precipitate policy reforms if it is clear that the current water policy is
inadequate to handle the event. While such events act as triggers for reform, there is often a backlog of issuesincluding
provision of water for the environmentthat need to be incorporated into the new policy beyond the particular deficiency that
triggered the reform.
Public. Public pressure, because of perceived deficiencies in water resources management, can act as a powerful stimulus for
reform.
Environmental Flow Inclusion
Institutional. Water managers and other professionals within government can support the inclusion of environmental flow
provisions in policy because they are aware of the benefits that these flows confer on downstream environments and
communities.
Evaluative. A specific organization can be identified in the policy with the oversight of environmental flow provisions to ensure they
are implemented. The organization is typically at least partially independent of government since it is overseeing the performance
of government agencies. This driver acts to implement the environmental flow provisions rather than to introduce them into policy.
Public. Where the public is concerned about the decline in downstream environments because of water abstractions and other
developments, they can exert considerable pressure for environmental flow provisions to be included in policy reforms.
Scientific Professional. Scientific organizations and individual scientists can use their standing in government and in the
community to highlight the issues arising from disruptions to downstream flows and to propose policy provisions to help restore
downstream environments.
International Developments. The proclamations from major international conventions, such as the 1992 Rio Summit, can exert
considerable influence on the content of new policies.
4/9/09 12:45:00 PM
4/9/09 12:45:00 PM
4/9/09 12:45:00 PM
11
4/9/09 12:45:01 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Box 1.1 ARMCANZ/ANZECC National Principles for the Provision of Water for Ecosystems
Principle 1. River regulation and/or consumptive use should be recognized as potentially impacting on ecological values.
Principle 2. Provision of water for ecosystems should be on the basis of the best scientific information available on the water
regimes necessary to sustain the ecological values of water-dependent ecosystems.
Principle 3. Environmental water provisions should be legally recognized.
Principle 4. In systems where there are existing users, provision of water for ecosystems should go as far as possible to meet the
water regime necessary to sustain the ecological values of aquatic ecosystems while recognizing the existing rights of other water
users.
Principle 5. Where environmental water requirements cannot be met due to existing uses, action (including reallocation) should
be taken to meet environmental needs.
Principle 6. Further allocation of water for any use should only be on the basis that natural ecological processes and biodiversity
are sustained (that is, ecological values are sustained).
Principle 7. Accountabilities in all aspects of management of environmental water should be transparent and clearly defined.
Principle 8. Environmental water provisions should be responsive to monitoring and improvements in understanding of
environmental water requirements.
Principle 9. All water uses should be managed in a manner that recognizes ecological values.
Principle 10. Appropriate demand management and water pricing strategies should be used to assist in sustaining ecological
values of water resources.
Principle 11. Strategic and applied research to improve understanding of environmenta water requirements is essential.
Principle 12. All relevant environmental, social, and economic stakeholders will be involved in water allocation planning and
decision making on environmental water provisions.
4/9/09 12:45:01 PM
13
4/9/09 12:45:02 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
The COAG and NWI agreements were the formal
drivers of the water reforms, including the increased
prominence of environmental water. However, these
formal drivers were underlain by other influences. There
was widespread public concern about the deteriorating
state of Australias water resources, and politicians at
the state and national levels were sensitive to these
concerns. Scientifically credible studies on the state
of the aquatic environment provided legitimacy to
these concerns; these studies had been commissioned
by governments seeking factual advice. In addition,
government officials at the state and federal levels
recognized the importance of reforming water resources
management and added their active support to the
reform program. Through these multiple influences, the
strength of concern was strong enough and enduring
enough to lead to the two rounds of national water
reforms over 13 years, together with other reforms to
water management, both within the Murray Darling
Basin (MDBC 2004; Independent Audit Group 1996)
and nationally (Council of Australian Governments
2007; Australian Government 2007).
Since 2003, many parts of Australia have undergone
the most severe drought in over 100 years. Many
irrigation districts in the Murray Darling Basin are
receiving only minimal water allocations. Urban areas,
including six of the countrys eight capital cities, are
on water restrictions. These water shortages have
heightened public awareness of the need to ensure that
the countrys water resources are managed carefully and
given support to the water reforms.
The financial and convening authority of the federal
government was also an important driver. The initial
COAG agreement relied on implementation by the state
governments, initially with oversight from a high-level
steering group and then with periodic assessments by
the NCCan institution without specific expertise in
water management. Within a few years it was clear that
some components of the reforms, including provision
14
Assessment
Recognition. Environmental flows were a central
component of the 1994 COAG agreement: States
would give priority to formally determining
allocations or entitlements to water, including
allocations for the environment as a legitimate user
of water and subsequently the NWI. The National
Principles (Box 1.1) were developed through
negotiation between all Australian governments
specifically to provide a framework for incorporating
environmental considerations into water planning.
Both the COAG agreement and the 2004 NWI
agreement explicitly recognized that water for
environmental purposes provided public benefit
outcomes and that it underpinned the sustainability of
other water uses. A central plank of both agreements
was returning water to rivers that were overallocated in
order to ensure their environmental sustainability.
While neither agreement assigned an explicit priority
to water for the environment, the NWI implies
that water for the environment should have a high
priority by stating that consumptive water uses
must be restricted to environmentally sustainable
levels of extraction. This requirement is echoed
in state-level legislation. In New South Wales, the
Water Management Act (2002) requires that water
abstraction must (a) protect the water source and its
dependent ecosystems, and (b) protect basic landholder
rights. This implicitly assigns environmental water
equal priority with landholder rights. However,
determining the environmentally sustainable levels of
extraction has proven to be very difficult in practice,
partly because there is a lack of agreement about the
meaning of the term and partly because there is a lack
4/9/09 12:45:02 PM
Three out of the 51 water management areas had a consumptive use greater than sustainable yield.
Seventeen water management areas had a high level of consumptive use as a proportion of inflows.
Eleven water management areas had a high level of consumptive use as a proportion of the total water resource.
Two groundwater management areas had a consumptive use greater than the total annual inflow.
While this independent assessment was based on data for just 200405, it indicates that the 2005 self-assessment by the states
significantly underestimated the level of overallocation. State and territory governments need to agree on a consistent set of definitions
and assessment procedures before the environmental sustainability of the countrys water resources can be properly determined.
Source: National Water Commission (2007).
15
4/9/09 12:45:03 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
16
4/9/09 12:45:04 PM
states, in some cases being represented on the decisionmaking committees. In spite of some disputed decisions
about the adequacy of environmental water allocations
(leading to a court challenge in one NSW catchment),
environmental views have generally been represented in
decisions.
Review and Enforcement. Progress with implementing
the 1994 COAG agreement was monitored annually
by the National Competition Council between 1999
and 2004. From then, the NWC assessed progress of
initially the COAG agreement and subsequently the
NWI. The 19992005 assessments included sanctions;
the NCC and NWC could recommend that the federal
government withhold payments to state governments
where the latter had not met the requirements of the
COAG agreement. For example, $28m was withheld
from NSW in 2004 for inadequate scientific backing
for environmental flow allocations and for lack of
transparency in determining these allocations; half
these funds were paid in 2006 and the remainder
returned in 2007 because of progress with these aspects
of the reforms. The NWC biennial assessments,
commencing in 2007, are not backed by these
financial penalties. However, the federal government
has recently decided to reinstate payments to state
and territory governments that meet achievement
criteria in areas of reform, including water resources
management.
17
4/9/09 12:45:04 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
18
Lessons
1. Even in a complex federal system, it is possible to
make substantial progress toward water reform,
including provisions for environmental water, if
there are strong, mutually reinforcing drivers.
2. Widespread concern about environmental
degradation and overallocation of water resources
recognized in the 1990s was one of the principal
drivers for water reform. Regular, public assessments
of environmental health by independent authorities
served to maintain the impetus for the reforms,
ultimately leading to a new round of more
comprehensive reforms in 2004 when it was clear
that environmental health was not improving.
3. The public nature of the reviews of progress in
implementing the water policy was an important
driver for maintaining impetus. It is probable that
the financial sanctions contained in the COAG
reforms were effective motivators for change.
4. The initial focus on surface water management led
to potential environmental problems, as demand
quickly shifted to groundwater and interception of
overland flows. The whole water cycle needs to be
included in the reforms.
5. Institutional aspects of environmental water
managementmaking laws and regulations,
restructuring institutionshave largely progressed
satisfactorily, but actually providing the
environmental water has proven more difficult.
Water allocation plans have taken much longer
to produce than anticipated; the recovery of
environmental water in overallocated systems
has been slow, contentious, and expensive; states
have been slow to establish environmental water
managers; and the framework for monitoring of
environmental outcomes has been slow to establish.
6. Scientifically credible information has played
an important role in supporting the reforms,
establishing the initial extent of environmental
degradation, assessing environmental water
requirements in catchment plans, and monitoring
progress with improvements.
4/9/09 12:45:05 PM
References
Agriculture and Resource Management Council of
Australia and New Zealand and Australian and New
Zealand Environment and Conservation Council.
1996. National Principles for the Provision of Water
for Ecosystems. Sustainable Land and Water Resources
Management Committee Subcommittee on Water
Resources Occasional Paper SWR No 3. Canberra:
Australian Government.
Australian Government. 2007. A National Plan
for water security. Canberra: Department of Prime
Minister and Cabinet.
Australian State of the Environment Committee.
2001. Australia State of the Environment 2001.
Independent report to the Commonwealth Minister
for the Environment and Heritage, CSIRO. Canberra:
Department of the Environment and Heritage.
Council of Australian Governments. 2000. Our Vital
Resources: A National Action Plan for Salinity and Water
Quality. Canberra: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forests.
19
4/9/09 12:45:05 PM
4/9/09 12:45:06 PM
21
4/9/09 12:45:06 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Reference Conditions
1
(nearly) totally undisturbed
high
slight alterations
good
moderate alterations
OK
moderate
major alterations
poor
severe alterations
bad
measures
needed
22
4/9/09 12:45:07 PM
Drivers
Harmonization of legislation, policies, and practices was
a major driver for the establishment and development
of the European Union. Since the 1970s, EU-wide
directives have been drawn up that require member
states to change their national legislation in line with a
common European goal. The EU has many international
rivers, and it is within the spirit of the EU that guidance
is issued to promote transboundary basin management.
Until the WFD was initiated, water issues were covered
under many separate EU directives and sectoral policies
covering, for example, drinking water, bathing water,
flood protection, and river pollution. A key turning
point occurred in 1988, when those responsible for
management of ecosystems proposed an ecological
directive on the basis that the ecosystem was the best
indicator for sustainable development. The idea was
supported by sectors such as domestic water providers,
who felt that their water treatments costs were increased
because of degraded surface and groundwater.
Many NGOs supported the introduction of the
WFD because it recognized the importance of natural
ecosystem functions that provide services to humans.
Some ecological advocates supported the concept
of reference conditions that were broadly natural.
Furthermore, some environmental protection agencies
Assessment
Recognition. The WFD is concerned with river
protection and river restoration and is not focused
on environmental flows specifically. Consequently,
hydrological modification is not used to assess
ecological status, except for HES. Thus, even if the
flow regime is significantly altered in a water body
downstream of an impoundment or abstraction, unless
the biology is impacted, it could be rated as GES.
Even though the WFD only explicitly requires
environmental flows in relation to maintenance of
HES, appropriate flows are still accepted as a basic
requirement of a healthy river. The flow regime is
included as a supporting quality element for GES and
other lower status levels. This recognizes that GES is
unlikely to be reached in a water body with significantly
altered flows, as this will result in changes to the river
ecosystem through modification of physical habitat
and alterations in erosion and sediment supply rates.
Consequently, restoring a more natural flow regime
may well be a necessary measure in a river that fails
GES, and so environmental standards have to be set
for abstractions and for releases from impoundments as
part of river management to restore or maintain GES.
23
4/9/09 12:45:07 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
24
4/9/09 12:45:08 PM
25
4/9/09 12:45:08 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
26
4/9/09 12:45:08 PM
4/9/09 12:45:09 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Lessons
1. Overcoming the major variations in legislation,
customer law and civil rights, assessment
techniques, and data availability to achieve a
uniform water management framework within the
EU requires investment in major R&D programs
costing many millions of dollars. Establishing a
consistent environmental flow policy across such a
diverse region is expensive and time consuming.
2. For the legislation to be effective, many technical
concepts need to be clearly defined and procedures
need to be defined for implementing these
concepts. The problems arise partly because
scientists do not agree on some biological,
ecological, or hydrological issues, and partly
because the implications of implementing the
directive will create political problems.
3. A tool-kit of environmental flow procedures
is needed to implement the legislation, so that
assessments can be conducted for different issues
and river types. Look-up tables provide a simple
means of setting environmental flow requirements,
but are inflexible and uncertain at any individual
site. Techniques, such as BBM, combine explicit
knowledge of the hydrological and ecological
system to provide a site specific solution, but are
costly to employ.
4. Stakeholder participation is a key requirement if
true community involvement is to be achieved.
This is particularly important when water users
may have to give up some rights, as experienced
in Spain. The WFD is weak on specifying
participative requirements. Consultation under the
28
Acknowledgments
The case study was drafted by Professor M. Acreman
and reviewed by Dr. A. J. D. Ferguson.
References
Acreman, M.C., M.J. Dunbar, J. Hannaford, A. Black,
O. Bragg, J. Rowan, and J. King. 2005. Development
of environmental standards (Water Resources). Stage
3: Environmental Standards for the Water Framework
Directive. Report to the Scotland and Northern Ireland
Forum for Environment Research. Wallingford and
Dundee: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology and
University of Dundee.
Acreman, M.C. 2007. Guidance on Environmental
Flow Releases from Impoundments to Implement the
Water Framework Directive. Final report to SNIFFER
Project WFD82. Wallingford, UK: Centre for Ecology
and Hydrology.
Acreman, M.C., and A. de la Hera. 2007. Case Study:
the upper Guadiana, Spain. On Wetlands and River
Basin Management. Gland, Switzerland: Ramsar
Convention.
Bromley, J., J. Cruces, M.C. Acreman, L. Martinez,
and M.R. Llamas. 2001. Problems of sustainable
groundwater management in an area of overexploitation: the Upper Guadiana catchment, central
4/9/09 12:45:10 PM
29
4/9/09 12:45:10 PM
4/9/09 12:45:10 PM
31
4/9/09 12:45:11 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
32
4/9/09 12:45:11 PM
33
4/9/09 12:45:12 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
4/9/09 12:45:13 PM
Drivers
The transition from apartheid to a democratic regime and
the consequent need to redress inequities in the access to
and allocation of South Africas water was the key driver
for the reform of water management. While the apartheid
government had recognized the issue of environmental
flows for, at least, key ecosystems, it took the now
government to embrace the concept wholeheartedly and
incorporate it into policy and legislation.
There were a number of drivers for including an
environmental water reserve within the new policy.
Firstly, it ensured that the basic human needs reserve
was sustainable in the long term, particularly for those
on subsistence incomes who were highly dependent
on the resource. Secondly, it was part of a wider set of
components of the water reforms, designed to redress
the degraded state of a number of the countrys water
resources. Thirdly, it was a response to a number
of international developments that emphasized the
importance of maintaining the aquatic environment
because of the ecological services provided by the
environment.9 Finally, it was driven by a need to be a
good neighbor with countries with which South Africa
shared water resources, which, in turn, was driven by
the higher level political changes following the end of
apartheid.
In addition, a number of professional societies, such
as the Southern African Society of Aquatic Scientists,
worked with officials from the DWAF to provide the
foundations for environmentally sustainable water
35
4/9/09 12:45:13 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Assessment
Recognition. The need for maintaining environmental
flows, including the setting of water objectives through
the classification system and the provision of an
environmental reserve, is a central part of the water
policy and its supporting legislation and strategy.
The policy is recognized internationally as setting a
benchmark for incorporating environmental water
considerations into national water policy. The policy
discusses the concept of environmental sustainability
at length, recognizing that the concept includes the
provision of ecological services that support beneficial
uses of water, while maintaining enough resilience in
the system to allow recovery from shocks.
The ecological reserve is assigned an equal first priority
with the basic human needs reserve in the policy and the
act. These quantities have to be established before any
other water use permits are allocated (although there are
temporary water allocation mechanisms available until
the new catchment strategies are established).
Although the environmental water focus in the policy
is on the establishment of the ecological reserve
and its inclusion in the catchment strategies, the
policy also includes provisions for protecting the
environment as part of project-level developments.
Developments require an assessment of the possible
impacts of a proposed project, and the design of
measures to reduce negative impacts and enhance
positive impacts. However, it does not specifically
identify environmental flows within this broader
36
4/9/09 12:45:14 PM
10
37
4/9/09 12:45:14 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
38
11
Appendix F of the Water Resource Strategy lists the extensive
consultations carried out.
4/9/09 12:45:15 PM
Lessons
1. A progressive policy and legislation, a strong
scientific knowledge base and capacity, and a wide
commitment and energy for change, are important
but are not necessarily sufficient to bring about
fundamental redistribution of water resources,
including allocations for environmental purpose.
There also needs to be widespread social support for
the change, and this has been difficult to generate
in the polarized world of water in South Africa.
2. Scientists can play a key role in introducing
innovative ideas such as an ecological reserve if they
are well-organized and able to seize opportunities
when there are major water reforms under way.
3. It is difficult to introduce an ecological reserve in
catchments where the water resource was already
fully allocated under the old riparian doctrine. This
usually means reducing the allocations to water
users who have held entitlements for long periods.
4. Introducing the ecological reserve has proven to
be difficult because there is little acceptance that
the reserve is intended to provide the goods and
services on which poorer segments of society
depend. There is a perception among some poorer
communities that allocations of water to the
environment frustrate their opportunity for access
to water resources, which they had previously
been denied under the apartheid regime. But it
has also been easier to explain to the poorer and
rural communities than to established farmers the
benefits of the ecological reserve, because of their
Acknowledgments
The following assisted with the preparation of this case
study: Dr. Stephen Mitchell, Dr. Dana Grobler, Dr.
Paul Roberts, Dr. Mark Dent, and Dr. Harry Biggs.
Drs. Delana Louw, Marcus Wishart, Tally Palmer,
Kevin Rogers, and Professor Jackie King provided
helpful reviews of the case study.
References
Biggs, H.C., C. M. Breen, and C.G. Palmer. In press.
Engaging a window of opportunity: synchronicity
between a regional river conservation initiative and
broader water law reform in South Africa. International
Journal of Water Resource Development (accepted April
2008)
Burt, J., D. du Toit, and D. Neves. 2006. Participation
in Water Resource Management: Book One. Learning
about Participation in IWRM: A South African
Review. Report No. TT 293/06, Gezina, South Africa:
Water Research Commission.
Burt, J., D. du Toit, D. Neves, and S. Pollard. 2006.
Learning about Participation in IWRM: A South
39
4/9/09 12:45:15 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
40
4/9/09 12:45:16 PM
Case Study 4.
Tanzania National Water Policy
Background
Until the early 1990s, water supply planning and
management in Tanzania was based on administrative
regions and was focused on provision of urban and
rural water supply, while irrigation and energy planning
were carried out at the national level. At the end of
the Water and Sanitation Decade, water supply targets
were far from being met and even investments in urban
and rural supplies were facing serious problems related
to the sustainability of those supplies. At the same
time, there were growing conflicts over access to and
utilization of the water resource in some of the more
heavily used river basins. A review of the water sector
in 199394 revealed that more emphasis needed to be
placed on (a) full involvement of beneficiaries,
(b) involvement of the private sector, (c) a strengthened
legal and institutional framework, and (d) the
management of the basic water resource.
Through the 1990s, a series of well-publicized water
management conflicts between hydropower and other
uses of waterincluding irrigation, environment,
and livestockunderscored the need to improve the
management of the countrys water resources (Box 4.1).
These examples and subsequent analysis illustrate how
the countrys economic performance is both vulnerable
to climate variability and closely linked to good water
resources management (World Bank 2006).12
The government of Tanzania (GoT) responded to these
issues with parallel reforms that were loosely linked in
the water resources sector and water related subsectors.
The first track focused on the management of water
41
4/9/09 12:45:16 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
42
4/9/09 12:45:17 PM
43
4/9/09 12:45:17 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
44
Drivers
NAWAPO was initiated by the Tanzanian government
because of the clear policy failure of previous attempts
to provide urban and rural water supply without
adequate attention to protecting the water resource
base and address the pronounced water use conflicts.
Although funding for NAWAPO preparation was
supported by donor agencies, the policy development
process was largely driven locally and was highly
consultative. There was a combination of local and
external factors that may have contributed to the
policy and its requirements for environmental flows.
The RWRA, which initiated the water reforms
including the new policy, was a result of rising local
awareness of water resources issues and management
limitations that became evident during the nationwide
drought and water crises in the Pangani and Rufiji
basins. Although some of these issuesthe drying of
the Great Ruaha River, the desiccation of the Kirua
4/9/09 12:45:18 PM
Assessment
Recognition. The policy has a solid basis in sustainability.
It recognizes that environmental flows and levels are
necessary for riparian biodiversity, wetland systems, and
freshwater-seawater balance in deltas and estuaries.
The reasons for maintaining these aquatic environments
include both protection of biodiversity (including rare
and endangered species) and the provision of ecological
goods and services such as flood control, sediment
retention, nutrient recycling, and microclimate
stabilization.
The policy requires that integrated, multisectoral river
basin plans are drawn up. After basic human needs, it
assigns second priority to water for the environment
in these plans. Development of both surface and
groundwater resources must conform to these plans.
In particular, large water schemesdams, large rainfall
harvesting schemes, water intakes, groundwater
abstraction, and interbasin water transferswill be
subject to a permit and an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA). The Tanzanian Environmental
Management Act (2004) has provisions to support this
policy.
In spite of these clear provisions in the policy and
the draft legislation, there are varying levels of
understanding of the importance of environmental
water allocations within Tanzanian institutions.
As a result of the experiences of the Lower Kihansi
hydropower plant, and the Mtera and the Pangani
Falls hydropower plant crises, there is now a good
appreciation within the Ministry of Water and
Irrigation regarding the importance of integrating
45
4/9/09 12:45:18 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
46
16
The EFA in the Pangani Basin is supported by IUCN; the
proposed EFAs in the Mara River catchment and the Wami-Ruvu
basin are supported by WWF and the USAID GLOWS program;
and the proposed EFA in the Ruaha Basin will receive DANIDA
and WWF support.
4/9/09 12:45:19 PM
47
4/9/09 12:45:21 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Lessons
1. The crisis brought about by inadequate water
supply planning and enforcement in the
early 1990s led to water reforms throughout
the remainder of the decade. Although the
environment was part of, but not a major sector
in this crisis, environmental water needs became
increasingly more pronounced once the reform
program commenced, in part due to the problems
with providing water to Ruaha National Park and
the international publicity given to the Lower
Kihansi Gorge issue (Case Study 16). The lesson
is that sometimes a crisis can precipitate positive
action, even if environmental-flow-related issues
are not central components of the crisis, they
can be incorporated into the crisis response
mechanism.
2. It is not necessary to wait for supporting
legislation; progress can be made in
institutionalizing EFAs and water resource
management plans and building experience
in EFA if there is sufficient political and
administrative will, resources, and technical
support.
3. Support from NGOs and international agencies
can be valuable in supporting EFA studies, but
the timing and structure of these EFAs should be
determined by the governments implementation
strategy rather than by relying on the initiative
of basin water offices or the objectives of external
development partners. The separate EFA initiatives
need to be reviewed so that lessons are learned for
broader, more cost-effective applications.
4. There are mutually supporting environmental
requirements in the NAWAPO (and the
draft water resources bill) and in the 2004
Environmental Management Act. This policy
harmonization provides for a coordinated
approach across institutions when the
environmental flow provisions are being
implemented.
48
Acknowledgments
Mr. Sylvand Kamugisha, Mrs. Josephine Lemoyane,
Mr. Hamza Sadiki, Mr. Saidi Faraji, and Mr.
Washington Mutayoba provided helpful comments on
a draft of this case study.
References
Acreman, M., and J. King. 2007. Capacity Building
to Undertake Environmental Flow Assessments in
Tanzania. Annex E in: World Bank. 2006. Tanzanian
Water Resources Assistance Strategy: Improving Water
Security for Sustaining Livelihoods and Growth. Report
No. 35327-TZ. Washington, DC: World Bank.
4/9/09 12:45:21 PM
49
4/9/09 12:45:21 PM
4/9/09 12:45:22 PM
Case Study 5.
Florida Water Management Policy
Background
Within the United States, state governments have
responsibility for water resources management.
Unlike some other federated systemssuch as the
European Union and Australiathere is little national
coordination of this management, so that different
water management approaches have developed within
regions within the country. These approaches, however,
are still subject to national legislation that affects water,
such as the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act
and the 1972 Clean Water Act.
Florida, particularly southern Florida, has experienced
rapid growth since the 1940s as a result of urban and
industrial development, the expansion of recreation and
tourism facilities, and agriculture. Unlike many rapidly
developing areas of the United States, Florida as a
whole has extensive water resources. The northern part
of the state contains the largest collection of springs in
the United States. However, there are serious spatial and
temporal distribution problems. Seasonal fluctuations
result in large quantities of water when demand is low,
and less water in winter months when demand is high.
In addition, the available water is frequently in the
interior of the state, not on the coast where the demand
is greatest.
A system of aquifers supplies 90 percent of the states
urban water uses and half its agricultural needs. South
Floridas development also depends on draining surface
water from places it is not needed through hundreds
of kilometers of canals, dikes, and levees. Developing
this flood-control and drainage system has damaged
51
4/9/09 12:45:22 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
52
4/9/09 12:45:22 PM
Drivers
The legislation was passed because of the need to manage
both the rapid growth in demand for water and the
need to protect important ecosystems, somesuch
as the Evergladesof international significance. The
severe drought of 197071 had demonstrated that the
existing water resource management arrangements were
inadequate and that reforms were needed. Representative
stakeholder groups also played an important role; urban
development, agriculture, industry, and environmental
interests were all represented by organized groups who
ensured that the legislation protected their interests as
far as possible. These same groups have remained active
in promoting changes and improvements since the
legislation was first passed.
Assessment
Recognition. The protection of natural ecosystems
through environmental flows (and groundwater
levels) was central to the 1972 legislation and the
implementation rule, making this an early inclusion
of environmental flow requirements in legislation.
Despite this, no significant progress was made by the
districts to set MFLs for nearly 20 years after the 1972
act. It was not until a series of lawsuits and subsequent
legislation in the mid-1990s that the districts began
to set MFLs. The MFLs and the water reservations
are intended to protect water-dependent ecosystems.
In the 1972 act, there was recognition of 10 water
resource values (WRVs),17 which are effectively
ecosystem goods and services. The maintenance of
minimum flows for surface water systems is intended
to protect both the water resource and the ecology of
the area, but the maintenance of minimum levels in
groundwater systems is linked only to protection of
17
These WRVs include recreation; fish and wildlife habitat and
passage of fish; estuarine resources; transfer of detrital material;
maintenance of freshwater storage and supply; aesthetic and
scenic attributes; filtration/absorption of pollutants; sediment
loads; water quality; and navigation.
53
4/9/09 12:45:23 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
54
4/9/09 12:45:23 PM
55
4/9/09 12:45:24 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
56
Lessons
1. It took a crisis in the form of a severe drought to
trigger the development of legislation that provided
a framework for equitable water allocation. The
heightened environmental awareness of the
population meant that the legislation incorporated
the need for environmental water allocations.
2. While devolving planning and management
responsibility to districts, such as river basins, has
many benefits, it can also impede the resolution
of transboundary issues such as inter-district water
transfers. State agencies need to retain sufficient
authority to coordinate actions and make decisions
on transboundary issues.
3. Restoring overallocated systems to sustainable
flows and levels is inherently difficult. It seems
unlikely that this can be achieved through just
water conservation and development of additional
water sources (which may add further stress to
other water bodies). Policies to restore these
systems would be stronger if there was clear
authority for districts to revoke or buy back water
abstraction permits on an equitable basis.
4. The policy is proactive in that it requires that
potentially stressed waterbodies be identified
4/9/09 12:45:24 PM
5.
6.
7.
8.
Acknowledgments
Doug Shaw, TNC, Florida reviewed a draft of this case
study and provided helpful comments.
References
Flannery, M.S., E.B. Peebles, and R.T. Montgomery.
2002. A Percent-of-flow Approach for Managing
Reductions of Freshwater Inflows from Unimpounded
Rivers to Southwest Florida Estuaries. Estuaries
25(6B): 13181332.
Fletcher, C.R. 2002. Florida Water Resource
Development: A Call for Statewide Leadership.
J. Landuse and Env Law 18(1): 113144.
Melville, D. 2005. Whiskey Is For Drinking: Recent
Water Law Developments In Florida. J. Land Use
20(2): 493506.
Wade, J., and J. Tucker. 1996. Current and Emerging
Issues in Florida Water Policy. Florida Water Law and
Policy Program, University of Florida College of Law.
Boca Raton, FL: Florida Center for Environmental
Studies, Florida Atlantic University.
57
4/9/09 12:45:25 PM
4/9/09 12:45:25 PM
4/9/09 12:45:25 PM
4/9/09 12:45:25 PM
Case Study 6.
Kruger National Park and Catchments
Background
The Kruger National Park (19,633 km) is famed for
both its biodiversity and its record of early human
settlement, from San rock paintings to archaeological
sites with evidence of early hominids. It is an important
tourist destination and source of foreign income for
South Africa.
The Sabie Game Reserve, the precursor of the park,
was proclaimed in 1898. In 1926, the Kruger National
Park (KNP) was formed from the merging of the Sabie
and Shingwedzi Game Reserves under the National
Parks Act. More recently, the KNP has been joined with
Mozambiques Limpopo National Park and Zimbabwes
Gonarezhou National Park into the Greater Limpopo
Transfrontier Park.
The KNP is located in the northeast of South Africa,
abutting Mozambique to the east and Zimbabwe to the
61
4/9/09 12:45:25 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
The rivers rise in the high veldt to the west of the park.
These rivers are heavily utilized and suffer from water
depletion and pollution from urban runoff, industry,
and mining. These rivers already have a number of
impoundments to provide water for irrigation and
urban use power generation, and the construction of
dams is continuing. The Injaka Dam was completed on
the Marite tributary of the Sabie River in 2002, and the
De Hoop Dam is planned for the Steelpoort River, a
tributary of the Olifants River. Dam developments also
are under way downstream of the park. Mozambique
is planning to raise the walls of two major damsthe
Massingir and Corumana dams. These projects will
flood environmentally important gorges on the Olifant
and Sabie rivers within the park.
Meeting water demand is the key issue in the
catchments feeding the park (Department of Water
Affairs and Forestry 2004a). This demand arises from
multiple sources, including (a) a huge demand for
additional water-use licenses by emerging black farmers;
(b) rapid population growth in parts of the Inkomati
and Olifants basins, including urban and semiurban development; (c) international obligations to
Mozambique to provide minimum flows at the border
from rivers of the Inkomati Basin; and (d) social water
requirements (beyond the basic human needs reserve),
which place water demands on the rivers above the park,
particularly those in the Inkomati and Olifants basins.
Water quality is an issue in some of the catchments.
Water quality in the Inkomati is threatened by the
presence of coal mines and large coal reserves. There are
salinity, eutrophication, toxicity, and sediment problems
in areas of the Olifants Basin and, in the Lower Olifants
sub-area, water quality is influenced by discharges from
the mining complex around Phalaborwa in the Ga-Selati
River. The water quality of the groundwater resources
in the Steelpoort area of the basin is under threat from
mining and agricultural activity.
Adequate, good quality flows in these rivers are vital
to the ecological integrity and biodiversity of the park.
62
18
The Waterwheel (January/February 2007). Pretoria: Water
Research Commission.
4/9/09 12:45:26 PM
Box 6.2 Instream Flow Requirements and the Building Block Methodology
The Building Block Methodology (BBM) was developed specifically to provide a relatively rapid, scientifically reliable method for
determining instream flow requirements (IFR). The first workshop on the development of an environmental flows method was held
in 1987 (Ferrar 1989). The BBM was initially applied to rivers within South Africa where dams were being considered, including in
the KNP. It has subsequently been used to determine the ecological reserve as required in the 1998 National Water Act.
The method is based on three main assumptions: (1) riverine biota can cope with naturally variable flow conditions, but
atypical flow conditions constitute a disturbance and could cause fundamental changes; (2) management of the most important
components of the natural flow regime will contribute to the maintenance of natural biota and ecosystem functions; and (3) flows
that most strongly influence channel geomorphology should be included in the managed flow regime.
The BBM approach involves the following sequence:
Current and historical geomorphology, water chemistry, and biotic data are collected.
This information is presented at an IFR workshop together with descriptions of the virgin and present daily flow regimes. The
workshop is attended by specialists in relevant disciplines.
Habitat availability, together with the sediment-moving capacity of various flows, form the basis for a recommended modified flow regime built in monthly blocks of water. Each volume of water is characterized with a description of the biological,
hydraulic, or geomorphological function it serves.
Hydrological modeling research provides techniques to translate IFR recommendations into reservoir release operating rules for
both low flows and flood events.
Source: Palmer 1999.
63
4/9/09 12:45:26 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
64
4/9/09 12:45:27 PM
Drivers
The drought of the early 1990s was the principal
driver for the establishment of IFRs for the parks
rivers. The drought highlighted the vulnerability of the
rivers to upstream developments, including land use
changes (such as increased forestry plantations in the
upper catchments and increased human settlement)
and the development of dams upstream and
downstream of the park. The upstream developments
within South Africa had reduced flows in the rivers
to the point where only one major river, the Sabie,
remained perennial. The downstream proposals to raise
the dam walls on the Massingir and the Corumana
dams in Mozambique acted as an additional driver,
because these proposals would cause additional loss of
riverine habitat by flooding gorges on the Olifants and
Sabie rivers.20
SANParks was deeply concerned about the potential
loss of biodiversity from these developments, given that
maintenance of biodiversity was the major objective of
SANParks. Loss of this diversity would not only be an
issue in its own right, but it would lead to reductions in
Assessment
Recognition. SANParks clearly understood from an
early stage the need to maintain river flows to provide
the basic ecosystem functions that supported the parks
biodiversity and tourism industry. They supported
research under the KNPRRP to provide the factual
basis for the initial establishment of IFRs for the parks
rivers. The South African Water Research Commission
also recognized the need to establish environmental
flows in the park and funded much of the biophysical
research carried out during the 1990s in the park, as
well as the development of planning and management.
There was also strong support from sections of the
DWAF, where there was recognition of the need for
environmental flows.
Other parts of DWAF were slower to accept the
need to conserve the parks river flows. The DWAF
had traditionally focused on the development of
the countrys water resources and has taken time to
adjust to its new role under the National Water Act
20
The raising of the Massingir Dam wall has gone ahead and the
water has backed up and flooded the gorge within the park.
65
4/9/09 12:45:27 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
66
21
Subsequent comprehensive determinations of the reserve, such
as that undertaken in 2004 in the Thukela River catchment of
the Kwazulu/Natal province, pioneered the incorporation of
stakeholder involvement, user needs, and social aspects such as
goods and services into EWR methodology.
22
An exploration of the value of understanding stakeholder
mental models for management of water resources in the
Crocodile Catchment, Mpumalanga South Africa. Preliminary
Findings of the Mental Models Working Group. Report
provided by S. Pollard, February 2008.
4/9/09 12:45:28 PM
Lessons
1. Even though there was no policy or legislation in
the early 1990s that legitimized environmental
flows, the concern of park officials for quantifying
the flow needs of rivers in KNP ultimately
contributed to both national legislation and to the
implementation of the reserve for the rivers flowing
through the park.
67
4/9/09 12:45:28 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Acknowledgments
Thomas Gyedu-Ababio, Sharon Pollard, Delana Louw,
and Steve Mitchell provided documents as well as
comments for incorporation into this case study. Dr.
Jackie King, Dr. Kevin Rogers, and Dr. Niel van Wyk
also provided helpful comments. Dr. Kevin Rogers and
Delana Louw reviewed a draft of this case study.
References
68
4/9/09 12:45:29 PM
69
4/9/09 12:45:29 PM
4/9/09 12:45:29 PM
This section is drawn from World Bank 2000 and World Bank
2006.
23
71
4/9/09 12:45:29 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
72
4/9/09 12:45:30 PM
73
4/9/09 12:45:30 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
74
4/9/09 12:45:31 PM
The IBFM was seen in some quarters as antidevelopment because it was seen to be focused on
maintaining the natural flow regime (Johnston 2007).
This undermined its credibility with some development
advocates, even though it is intended to provide an
objective and scientific framework enabling the best
triple bottom line outcomeseconomic, social,
and environmental returnsfrom water resources
development. These concerns have impeded the
implementation of the third phase of the program to
the point where a number of reports on environmental
water needs have not been published and consultations
with stakeholder groups have not proceeded.
Drivers
A number of pressures drove the development of an
environmental flows program in the Mekong River.
While all basin countries had economic development
plans that used the water of the Mekong River,
Chinas ambitious plans for dams was seen by the
downstream countries to pose a particular threat to
their use of the rivers water. The downstream countries
were concerned that Chinas development plans did
not limit their use of the Mekong for development.
Vietnam and Cambodia, in particular, were concerned
about disruptions to their fishing activities, which are
important sources of protein for their people. Lao PDR
had a particular reason to support an environmental
flow assessmentthey were keen to establish an agreed
envelope within which they could develop dams to
export electricity and generate foreign income.
However, environmental flow concerns were not
dominant issues for any of the countries, even those
downstream within the basin. The requirement
of development partners for environmental flow
assessments was the primary driver in this case. The
World Bank and GEF supported the development
of flow rules through project funding. Bilateral
assistance agencies also promoted environmental flow
assessments.
75
4/9/09 12:45:31 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
76
4/9/09 12:45:32 PM
77
4/9/09 12:45:32 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
4.
5.
Lessons
1. The term environmental flows can be
misunderstood to mean the protection of the
environment at the expense of development and
human needs. This can bias development agencies
and the private sector against the concept to the
point where the EFA is ineffective.
2. Technically thorough and scientifically credible
EFAs are not sufficient to bring about decisions
and implementation of flows for truly sustainable
development if there is not strong political and
senior managerial support. This is especially true
for transboundary rivers, where there is a need
for trust among the riparian countries, along with
technical competence and a mandate for decision
by the transboundary authority.
3. The Mekong Agreement included the
maintenance of just two components of the
flow regimeminimum dry-season flows and
78
6.
7.
Acknowledgments
Dr. Robyn Johnston, Dr. Jackie King, and Mr. John
Metzger provided comments on a draft of this case study.
4/9/09 12:45:33 PM
References
Dore, J. 2006. Response by IUCN to river flows and
development in the Mekong River Basin. Mekong
Update and Dialogue 9(3): 5. Australian Mekong
Resource Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney,
Australia.
Guttman, H. 2006. River flows and development in
the Mekong River Basin. Mekong Update and Dialogue
9(3): 24. Australian Mekong Resource Centre,
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
Johnston, R. 2007. Integrated water resource
management in the Mekong. Paper presented
at A Greater Mekong? Poverty, Integration and
Development, Australian Mekong Resource Centre,
University of Sydney, September 2627, 2007.
ILEC. 2005. Managing Lakes and their Basins for
Sustainable Use: A Report for Lake Basin Managers
79
4/9/09 12:45:33 PM
4/9/09 12:45:33 PM
81
4/9/09 12:45:34 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
82
27
The dialogue is being financially supported by InWent, an
international NGO.
4/9/09 12:45:34 PM
Drivers
The study resulted from a conjunction of an existing
policy requirement, an impending legislative driverthe
Water Resources billand the opportunity for financial
and technical support by an international NGO.
IUCN, as part of its Water and Nature Initiative, was
looking to undertake a demonstration EFA study
in a basin where there was considerable pressure on
water and environmental resources, biodiversity and
ecosystem goods and services were threatened, people
and institutions were willing to act, and there was a
capacity to support the implementation of an EFA.
The government of Tanzania was keen to support the
project, given that it was seeking to build its capacity
for undertaking EFAs as part of its basin-level water
resources planning.
There was also strong institutional support from
the PBWO for the EFA, given the need to include
environmental water allocations in the proposed basinscale water resource plans.
Assessment
Recognition. Environmental flows are recognized as
an important part of the river basin planning process
in both the National Water Policy and the draft
legislation. The Ministry of Water supported the
development of an EFA in the Pangani Basin, even
before a water resource management plan process
was commenced, in an attempt to develop an e-flows
methodology for use in other Tanzanian river and lake
basins. Both the water management agency (Ministry
of Water and Irrigation) and the environment
management agency (National Environment
83
4/9/09 12:45:34 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
84
4/9/09 12:45:35 PM
Lessons
1. The National Water Policy and proposed
legislation provide a firm foundation for
Acknowledgments
Mr. Sylvand Kamugisha, Ms. Josephine Lemoyane,
Mr. Hamza Sadiki, Mr. Saidi Faraji, Mr. Washington
Mutayoba, Dr. Jackie King, and Dr. Cate Brown
provided helpful comments on a draft of this case
study.
85
4/9/09 12:45:35 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
References
IUCN. 2003. The Pangani River Basin: A Situation
Analysis. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
86
4/9/09 12:45:36 PM
87
4/9/09 12:45:36 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
Assessment
88
4/9/09 12:45:37 PM
Pioneer Catchment
89
4/9/09 12:45:37 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
90
4/9/09 12:45:37 PM
Pioneer Catchment
Lessons
1. This case study illustrates how multiple drivers
operate at different time scales and different levels
of visibility. Thus, the formal procedural drivers of
intergovernment agreements and legislation were
actually driven, in turn, by public pressure and,
to a lesser extent, by professional recognition that
action needed to be taken on environmental water
management.
2. The Water Act 2000 legitimized the inclusion of
environmental flows in the WRP.
3. While the EFA was a competent, focused and
well-reported activity in its own right and there was
a legal requirement for the minister to consideer its
findings when drawing up the WRP and ROP, and
the flow management rules in the ROP are clear,
there is no easily discernible link between these
rules and the environmental outcomes identified in
the WRP.
4. The EFA does not need to be participatory to
provide acceptable input to the plannning process.
However, the EFA feeds into a highly participatory
planning and decision-making process and this
may compensate for the absence of stakeholder
input to the EFA.
5. The monitoring and public reporting requirements
of the Water Act provide drivers that promote the
environmental outcomes of the WRP.
Institutions and Governance Series
Acknowledgments
Dr. Satish Choy of Queensland Department of Natural
Resources and Water provided comments on an earlier
draft.
References
Brizga, S.O, A.H. Arthington, B.J. Pusey, M.J. Kennard,
S.J. Mackay, G.L. Werren, N.M. Craigie, and S.J. Choy.
2002. Benchmarking, a top-down methodology for
assessing environmental flows in Australian rivers. In:
Environmental Flows for River Systems. An International
Working Conference on Assessment and Implementation,
incorporating the 4th International Ecohydraulics
Symposium. Conference Proceedings. Cape Town, South
Africa: Southern Waters.
Cottingham, P., G. Quinn, R. Norris, A. King, B.
Chessman, and C. Marshall. 2004. Environmental
flows monitoring and assessment framework.
Canberra, Australia: CRC Freshwater Ecology.
Department of Natural Resources and Water. 2005.
Pioneer Valley Resource Operations Plan: Community
Consultation Report. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia:
Department of Natural Resources and Water.
Department of Natural Resources and Water. 2007.
Water Resource Plan Annual Report. Brisbane, Australia:
Department of Natural Resources and Water.
Technical Advisory Panel. 2001a. Environmental
Conditions Report. Pioneer Valley Water Resource
Plan. Brisbane, Australia: Department of Natural
Resources and Water.
Technical Advisory Panel. 2001b. Environmental Flow
Report. Pioneer Valley Water Resource Plan. Brisbane,
Australia: Department of Natural Resources and Water.
Technical Advisory Panel. 2001c. Hydrology
Assumptions Report. Pioneer Valley Water Resource
Plan. Brisbane, Australia: Department of Natural
Resources and Water.
91
4/9/09 12:45:38 PM
4/9/09 12:45:38 PM
4/9/09 12:45:38 PM
4/9/09 12:45:38 PM
29
Scientific Information Center, Inter-State Coordination Water
Commission 2002. Quoted in International Lake Environment
Committee, 2004.
95
4/9/09 12:45:39 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
health and environmental damage from windblown salt and sediment from the lake bed into the
surrounding district
soil erosion in the upper basin, which threatens the
operation of the irrigation infrastructure
loss of wetlands and their biodiversity in the deltas
of the inflowing rivers because of greatly reduced
flows, the virtual elimination of spring floods by
the river operations, and the lowering of the NAS
level, which has resulted in river bed erosion and
lowering of river water levels, making diversions
of water for filling of inland delta lakes difficult or
even impossible
declining groundwater levels because of the
falling Aral Sea affecting groundwater dependent
ecosystems
96
4/9/09 12:45:39 PM
An ice cap formed on the Syr Darya during winter and, when it
broke because of fluctuations in flow rates, formed large blocks of
ice that blocked the channel and caused lateral flooding. Once the
upstream dams were rehabilitated, they could be operated to allow
the ice cap to be formed high enough to permit large volumes to
flow at a continuous rate so that the ice cap did not break up.
31
As a Sea Rises, So Do Hopes for Fish, Jobs and Riches, New
York Times, April 6, 2006; Kazakhs get Loan to Save Aral Sea,
BBC, April 9, 2007.
30
97
4/9/09 12:45:40 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
There had been numerous ineffective investigations
and studies prior to the Syr Darya Control and
Northern Aral Sea project. The main driver for
this project came from the determination of the
local populations to restore their livelihoods and
the support of the government of the Republic of
Kazakhstan.
Widespread publicity, led by international NGOs,
about the deterioration of the Aral Sea raised awareness
of the plight of the Aral Sea. However, the NGOs did
little to actually bring about the restoration.
Assessment
98
4/9/09 12:45:40 PM
99
4/9/09 12:45:41 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Lessons
1. The NAS was restored through a mixture of
infrastructure (the Berg Strait dike); improved
operations (avoiding ice blockages and spillage to
the desert); and rehabilitation of dam operating
structures. With a project of this size it is not
possible to provide the volumes of water needed
without combining engineering with improved
efficiency of water use.
2. Success breeds confidence. The successful
restoration of Lake Sudoche and the clear
benefits to the local people have encouraged
the government of Uzbekistan to unilaterally
undertake additional lake restoration projects.
The partial, but rapid, restoration of the NAS has
also encouraged the government of Kazakhstan to
consider other restoration.
3. The environmental restoration of Lake Sudoche
and the NAS has brought about obvious social
and economic benefits and so received strong
support from local populations. The impact from
the degradation of these resources was so profound
that there was no dispute about restoring the
aquatic environmentin fact, the flows were
regarded as economic/social flows rather than
environmental flows.
100
Acknowledgments
Masood Ahmad of the World Bank reviewed this case
study.
References
ARCADIS Euroconsult. 2000. Syr Darya Control and
Northern Aral Sea Project: Environmental Assessment.
Executive Summary. Arnhem, the Netherlands:
Euroconsult.
Global Environment Facility. 1998. Aral Sea Basin
Program (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan). Washington, DC:
Global Environment Facility.
International Lake Environment Committee. 2004.
Lake Basin Management Initiative. Experience and
Lessons Learned. Brief No 1. Aral Sea. Kusatsu, Japan:
International Lake Environment Committee.
World Bank. 2001. Syr Darya Control and Northern
Aral Sea Phase I Project. Project Appraisal
Document. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 2004. Implementation Completion
Report: Water and Environmental Management
Project. Washington, DC: World Bank.
4/9/09 12:45:41 PM
32
The Berg River may be divided into a number of major
geomorphological zones: (1) Source Zone, including cliff waterfalls
and sponges; (2) Mountain Headwater Stream, with steep, rocky
slopes; (3) Mountain Stream, with fast-flowing streams with a
rapid fall; (4) Transitional River, which is an intermediate zone
between mountain stream and upper foothill river; (5) Upper
Foothill River, where the riverbed is less steep, more stable, and
comprises mixed cobble and instream vegetation; (6) Lower
Foothill River, which is similar to the upper foothill river, but has
significantly more sedimentation comprising mainly quartzitic
sand; (7) Lowland River, where the river now adopts a shallow
gradient with cobbled runs being replaced with a soft-bottomed
system made up of sand and/or clay. The Berg Water Project is
located within the source and upper foothill river zones.
101
4/9/09 12:45:42 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
102
Below Dam
Good to Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Fair
Good
Good
CONDITION RATING
Jim Fouche
Fair
Fair
Poor
Fair
Fair
Good
Fair
Paarl
Poor to Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Fair
Hermon
Fair to Poor
Fair
Fair
Fair
Poor
Fair
Fair
Lower Berg
Fair to Poor
Fair
Poor
Fair
Poor
Fair
Fair
4/9/09 12:45:42 PM
33
The term instream flow requirement (IFR) is commonly
used in South Africa, while other international terms such as
environmental flow and ecological flow are also used. All these
terms are used synonymously and refer to the collective amount
of water needed to sustain healthy, natural ecosystems based on
scientific studies.
103
4/9/09 12:45:43 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
Professional drivers were important in both the early
and later stages of planning for the Skuifraam Dam.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there had
been an increasing recognition among water resource
planners and ecologists of the need for scientifically
based approaches to determining environmental flows
(Case Study 4) and this had led to the initial estimates
of instream flow requirements for the upper Berg River.
The political transition in South Africa provided a
unique opportunity for translation of these professional
drivers into legislative provisions that provided stronger
protection for aquatic ecosystems. The 1998 National
Water Act gave legal standing and legitimacy to the
104
4/9/09 12:45:44 PM
Assessment
Recognition. Although there was broad recognition
of the need to provide water for downstream
environments, agreeing on the reserve has not been
easy. Using a scenario-based approach to facilitate
discussion among principal stakeholders, the
preliminary reserve reflects a negotiated agreement
among the principal stakeholders on the allocation of
water to ensure sustainable allocation among competing
demands. This agreement included reductions in
the recommended peak flood flows and increases in
summer low flows intended to facilitate a compromise
among prior established uses.
105
4/9/09 12:45:44 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
106
4/9/09 12:45:45 PM
107
4/9/09 12:45:46 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Lessons
1. The Berg Water Project was implemented
within the framework of renewed focus on the
development of bulk water supply infrastructure
provided by the World Commission on Dams, and
within the inclusive environment of progressive
governance created by the democratic transition in
South Africa.
2. A strong bottom-up process, driven by the scientific
community and progressive technocrats in water
affairs, can provide important professional drivers.
Table 11.2 The Yield, Cost, and other Implications of Environmental Release Scenarios
Urban
Env Release
Effective yield
Equivalent
people
Scenario
(Mm3 a1)
hectares1 provided for
(Mm3 a1)
0
No IFR
88
13,500
800,000
19
Drought IFR every year
73
11,200
667,000
43/19
Damage control IFR
61
9,400
560,000
51/19
Full maintenance IFR
54
8,300
493,000
Source: DWAF 1996b.
108
Years
Additional capital
before next
expenditure
scheme
(ZARm)
5.9
0
4.9
50
4.0
89
3.6
112
Illustrative
water
cost
65
74
85
94
Relative
cost
of water
1.00
1.14
1.30
1.45
4/9/09 12:45:46 PM
Acknowledgments
References
Department of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism.1999. EIA Authorisation for the Skuifraam
Dam and Skuifraam Supplement Scheme in the
Upper Reaches of the Berg River Catchment to the
Riviersonderend/Berg River Government Water
Scheme. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 1993.
Instream Flow Requirements for the Berg River Second
109
4/9/09 12:45:47 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
110
4/9/09 12:45:47 PM
34
For the most part all of BC Hydros water licenses have no end
date and therefore an indefinite approval to use water for the
purpose of hydroelectric generation has been given.
35
The Water Act requires beneficial use of water, which only
recognized power generation, agriculture, and flood control. As
a result, there was a culture shift required within the provincial
Ministry of Water, Lands and Air Protection (now Ministry of
Environment) that would ensure a multiple interest perspective
when considering changes to the water license terms and
conditions.
36
The 1867 BNA Act serves as a base document for the Canadian
constitution, which is not a single document but rather a set of
documents known as Constitution Acts and just as importantly a
set of unwritten laws and conventions.
37
The Fisheries Act dates back to the British North America Act.
However, the focus of much of the departments work up to the
late 1970s was on oceans-related fisheries management (stock
assessment, quotas, fish fleet management, etc.). In fact, British
Columbia did not have a Pacific Office until the early 1990s.
In 1977, Section 35 of the act was passed and was followed by
the departments Policy for the Management of Fish Habitat
(including the no net loss working principle) in 1986. Since
the adoption of the no net loss policy, there has been increased
pressure on BC Hydro to resolve fish/power issues.
111
4/9/09 12:45:48 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
112
4/9/09 12:45:48 PM
38
Fines only highlight a concern/behavior, but do not necessarily
lead to good solutions as the fix is usually short rather than
long term and not necessarily based on good science or a full
assessment of possible options.
113
4/9/09 12:45:49 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
114
39
Participation in the collaborative process was paid for by BC
Hydro, except for government agencies who continued to pay
staff salaries and travel costs. First Nations sat at the same table as
the overall WUP Management Committee and provided strategic
advice and input to ongoing program design and delivery issues
as was necessary.
40
DFOs participation in the process was dependent on their
understanding that some incremental changes and adjustments to
flows would occur in order to improve conditions for fish, thus
allowing them to feel comfortable within the context of their
obligations under the Fisheries Act and meeting requirements of
the national policy for the management of habitat, as previously
noted in the text above.
4/9/09 12:45:49 PM
Drivers
The effects of the spills from the Terzaghi Dam (1991,
1992, 1997) and the impacts on fisheries habitat acted
as the primary drivers for the Bridge River WUP. In
addition, the DFO was either threatening to press
charges or was pressing charges for destruction of fish
habitat at other BC Hydro facilities (Cheakamus, Hugh
Keenleyside, John Hart). BC Hydro had two choices: it
could negotiate or litigate, and decided that the former
was a more productive and cost-effective approach.
Other related drivers include the results from the 1993
Electric System Operations Review;42 1996 Ward
Report;43 the 1994 Stave Falls Minister Order, which
included a requirement for the development of a WUP;
increasing concern over the health of salmon stocks;
increased presence of DFO in British Columbia; a
government with strong environmental policy focus; and
increased activism by environmental groups on waterrelated issues. All these actions occurred in the space
of 5 years and provided the impetus and momentum
necessary for the implementation of the WUP program.
41
The trade-off analysis process focused on flows, not operations.
As well, the process deliberately looked at dominance objectives
and the costs and benefits of changes that would have the most
positive outcomes at the least possible cost to flows and foregone
power generation. In fact, preferred outcomes were all neutral to
positive with respect to power generation.
42
ESOR was prompted, in part, by historic complaints about
reservoir impacts, primarily from the ColumbiaKootenay
region. Driven by provincial and federal agency concerns, the
province was concerned that BC Hydro was not operating its
system in a manner that gave adequate consideration to nonpower resource values. These non-power resource values included
not only fish and fish habitat but also recreation, flood control,
aesthetic values, wildlife, economic activity, etc.
43
The report concluded that BC Hydro was operating out of
compliance at six of the ten facilities examined.
115
4/9/09 12:45:50 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Assessment
Recognition. While the actual development of facility
WUPs began in 1998, the pre-planning for the WUP
program began in 1993. In the end, the WUP process
generally and specifically was accepted as legitimate by
all participantsat the management and facility specific
level (i.e., stakeholders). However, the process to build
this understanding and support occurred gradually
and required a concerted and considerable effort to
build trust among government agencies, First Nations,
environmental groups, and within BC Hydro over
many years. It was a different approach to the historic
and practiced tradition of an adversarial, position-based
process for resolving natural resources challenges.
In relation to the Bridge WUP, First Nations
participation was the most challenging. The Stlatlimx
First Nation (SFN) (Box 12.1) are very independent
and had been negotiating with BC Hydro for
many years on past grievances. The SFN preferred
government-to-government discussions and at first
saw the WUP process as undermining that more
political relationship. In concluding comments,
however, the SFN were impressed with the results
of the consultative committee. While they did not
sign off for political reasons, they provided positive
reinforcement of the process and outcomes.
respects Stlatlimx cultural traditionsusing the ways (ntakmen), laws (nxekmen) and standards of our people as passed
down through the generations
respects natureputting the health of water, air, plants, and animals and the land itself before all else
is under Stlatlimx authorityletting the people collectively decide how the land and resources of the Stlatlimx territory
will be managed
serves the Stlatlimx communitiesrecognizing that resources continue to provide sustenance in old and new ways to
our people
The SFN have asserted their claim to the ownership of this tribal territory since the signing of a 1911 Declaration of the Lillooet
Tribe in 1920. Three of the SFN communities are currently engaged in a treaty negotiations process and have an agreement in
principle signed and are working toward a final agreement.
116
4/9/09 12:45:50 PM
117
4/9/09 12:45:51 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
118
44
A series of Excel spreadsheets was used to store model
parameter, physical characteristics of the system (e.g., reservoir
surface area as a function of elevation, etc.) and the hydrological
scenarios (e.g., schedules of discharge and reservoir elevations
associated with each alternative). Output, the performance
measures and various diagnostic indicators, are viewed as data
sets, time series graphs, and/or maps.
4/9/09 12:45:51 PM
Lessons
1. A structured decision-making process is important
for ensuring an organized approach to identifying
and evaluating alternatives.
2. Data and information (both science based,
traditional knowledge) and models can provide
a valuable foundation for building agreement in
complex decision-making environments.
3. Adoption of an adaptive management approach
proved crucial to reaching a final decision when
there was inadequate information.
4. Prosecutions, or the threat of legal action, may
initiate action but will not, in the end, result in
effective, long-term solutions.
5. Clarity of scope and a clear understanding of what
issues are inside and outside of the process are
essential for progress.
6. Time is needed for airing concerns.
7. Regulatory requirements are helpful but should
not constrain the deliberations.
8. It was important to have participation of the
traditional owners (First Nations) and to integrate
their ecological knowledge with the scientific
119
4/9/09 12:45:51 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
120
Acknowledgments
This case study was written by Denise Mullen-Dalmer,
DMD Management Ltd., and reviewed by Sue Foster
and Kevin Conlin of BC Hydro.
References
Keeney, Ralph. 1992. Value-focused Thinking. Boston:
Harvard University Press.
Province of British Columbia.1998. Water Use Plan
Guidelines. Province of British Columbia, Canada.
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wsd/plan_protect_sustain/
water_use_planning/cabinet/wup.pdf
4/9/09 12:45:52 PM
121
4/9/09 12:45:52 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Figure 13.1 Total Fish, Prawn, and Crab Landings in Chilika Lagoon, 19952005
Total Landings
16
14
(,000 MT)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Note: The solid line marks the opening of the second channel to the ocean.
122
4/9/09 12:45:53 PM
123
4/9/09 12:45:53 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
There were multiple drivers for restoring in-flows, and
improving oceanic exchange and water quality in the
lagoon. The disastrous effect on the local economy of
the reduced interchange between the lagoon and the
ocean was the primary driver. The social and economic
costs led to pressure from fishermen, tourist operators,
and conservationists for the restoration of the lagoons
ecosystems. The publicity from riots some years earlier
and the deaths of some rioters had put extra pressure on
the government to act45. Local and international NGOs
124
4/9/09 12:45:53 PM
Assessment
Recognition. The need to restore the lagoons hydrologic
regime had been recognized for some years prior to
the OWCRP. However, officers of the Water Resources
Department had an expectation that these flow
requirements could be specified through a technical
exercise that resulted in a precise flow being calculated
through hydrologic modeling. They were unable to
appreciateand found it difficult to understandthat
establishing environmental water needs was necessarily
a social exercise that balanced the conflicting
interests of different stakeholder groups along with
environmental needs.
In addition, calculating and implementing
environmental flows required the collaboration
of government departments that represented
sectors dependent on the services provided by the
environmentagriculture, tourism, fisheries, etc.
However, the state government departments did not
have a culture foror experience inengaging in such
collaborative exercises. Departments were focused on
their sectoral objectives and did not assign a priority to
investigations into environmental flows.
These difficulties were never properly overcome during
the time of the OWCRP and the BNWPP assistance
and were a major factor in the reluctance to implement
environmental flow recommendations.
Participation.The difficulty in getting active
participation from state government agencies,
apart from the CDA and the Department of Water
Resources, is described above. Apart from their silo
mentality, there was a regular turnover of senior staff
within these government agencies. The purpose of the
EFA had to be explained to each new appointee and
it was impossible to build up any momentum for the
study outside of visits by the international consultant.
A stakeholder executive committee (SEC) had
been proposed at the outset of the EFA study. It
was finally constituted toward the end of the EFA
Institutions and Governance Series
125
4/9/09 12:45:54 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
126
4/9/09 12:45:54 PM
Lessons
1. A crisis, such as the severe social disruption and
economic hardship brought about by reduced
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
127
4/9/09 12:45:55 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
128
Acknowledgments
Dr. Bill Young, CSIRO, reviewed the case study.
References
Orissa Department Water Resources and SMEC. 1995.
Orissa WRCP (Revised). Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 1995. Staff Appraisal Report. Orissa
Water Resources Consolidation Project. Annex 12.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Young, W. 2005. Lessons Learned from the Provision
of Advice for the Lake Chilika Environmental Flow
Assessment. Report to World Banks Environmental
Flows window of the Bank-Netherlands Water
Partnership Program. Washington, DC: World Bank.
4/9/09 12:45:55 PM
47
129
4/9/09 12:45:56 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
130
4/9/09 12:45:56 PM
Drivers
The World Banks environmental assessment safeguard
policy was the principal driver for the EFA. Lesotho
did not have policy or legislative requirements for
EFAs and there was no evaluative oversight from a
Lesotho government agency. In fact, the Environment
Ministry from Lesotho was absent from any debate
over downstream effects. The implementation of Phase
1A raised awareness about the need to better define,
understand, and address the downstream issues.
The professional drivers for the EFA in Lesotho were
weak. When the EFA was being designed, there was
no in-house capacity in environmental flows within
the LHDA. The environmental adviser at LHDA
contributed to discussions about the need for an EFA
and supported the preparation of terms of reference
for such an assessment. Although local NGOs were
active in pursuing compensation and resettlement
issues, they were not influential in driving the EFA
process itself.
The other partner in the project, the RSA, on the
other hand, had not only been a world leader in
developing EFA techniques during the 1990s, but had
adopted a progressive water policy and legislation that
recognized and mandated water for environment as
a very high priority in its allocation decision making
(Case Study 3). Further, the professional capacity for
both advancing and implementing EFA was also strong
in RSA. Thus, there were strong procedural as well as
professional drivers for EFA in South Africa.
Although there was, at times, reluctance by LHDA
to provide water for environmental flows in a timely
manner, the implemention of the environmental flow
policy and associated operating rules for the dams have
eventually resulted in good downstream environmental
outcomes, although the social and economic outcomes
are less certain. The latter is in part due to the absence
of adequate socioeconomic data and information on
downstream communities.
131
4/9/09 12:45:57 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Assessment
Recognition. One of the major difficulties in
implementing the EFA was the absence of any policy
or legislative framework in Lesotho for recognizing
environmental flows as a legal use of water.
Consequently, the discussion about the EFA had to deal
with both, not just the immediate issue of the quantity
and timing of water needed, but even the legitimacy of
the concept of environmental flows. Thus, even after
the government of Lesotho had accepted the need to
provide adequate environmental flows, there was some
reluctance on the part of managers and dam operators
to release valuable water, particularly when the benefits
were not obvious and the financial loss associated with
such releases due to reduced export of water were quite
obvious.
Undertaking the EFA concurrently with the
construction of the Phase 1B infrastructure exacerbated
this problem. It proved difficult to alter the earlier
treaty minimum flow release, even when it became
apparent that the treaty minimal flows were inadequate,
because of the costs involved in re-engineering the
dams offtake structures.
Participation. The DRIFT method was developed to
ensure that the effects of flow changes on populations
were measured. Thus, DRIFT included social and
economic studies that identified the populations
dependent on the river and assessed the effects of
different flow scenarios on these populations (or the
populations at risk). In the socioeconomic analyses, the
social implications associated with resource quantity
and quality loss or alterations were translated into
the costs of mitigation and compensation for the
affected population. The impacted population was kept
informed of these decisions, but were not part of this
decision-making process.
The lack of government policy on environmental flows
also meant that there was no in-country guidance on
the purpose or extent of participatory activities. The
132
4/9/09 12:45:57 PM
133
4/9/09 12:45:58 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
case globally. It contains the key steps in the decisionmaking processfrom the science of assessing
ecological impacts under different flow scenarios,
to the integration of biophysical and social issues
with the ecological impacts, the incorporation of
early study findings into the decisions about sizing
dam outlets valve, the economic analyses of the four
flow scenarios, a decision framework that led to the
environmental flow recommendations and policy, and
to implementation and monitoring. The EFA process
(as noted above) was also subjected to an independent
audit which identified important lessons.
The LHWP experience has also contributed to
environmental flows practice elsewhere, primarily
through the application of the DRIFT method. DRIFT
remains one of the few EFA techniques that integrates
environmental, social, and economic concerns. Thus,
the Mekong Basin and Pangani Basin environmental
flow assessments (Case Studies 7, 8) use modified
versions of DRIFT, and the technique has been applied
within South Africa in establishing the ecological
reserve.
Lessons
1. Without policy and legislative backing, a projectlevel EFA will likely struggle to be readily accepted
by development-oriented managers. Developing
such a policy simultaneously with the project-level
EFA can lead to delays, confusion, and conflict. It
is advisable to have a policy and legal framework in
place to guide EFA.
2. The values of stakeholders should be made as
explicit as possible as early as possible in the
process of assessing and determining EFRs.
This is most easily accomplished if there is a
catchment-level water allocation process or plan in
place where the values of stakeholders are already
defined. This provides a baseline of water sharing
against which the changes resulting from a project,
such as a dam, can be assessed.
134
4/9/09 12:45:58 PM
References
Watson, P.L. forthcoming. Managing the River, as well
as the Dam. Assessing Environmental Flow Requirements-Lessons Learned from the Lesotho Highlands Water Project.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Acknowledgments
This case study drew from Watson 2006. Andrew
Macoun of the World Bank provided additional
information.
135
4/9/09 12:45:58 PM
4/9/09 12:45:58 PM
48
Around 10 percent of Tanzanias population has access to
electricity.
49
Environmental studies found the Lower Kihansi hydro site
preferable to other potential sites because of the smaller size of the
reservoir, and a relatively uninhabited catchment meant that the
project would disturb less land area, and there were not expected
to be serious social and resettlement issues.
137
4/9/09 12:45:59 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
138
4/9/09 12:45:59 PM
139
4/9/09 12:45:59 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Drivers
The Lower Kihansi work has occurred in three distinct
phases. The initial construction of the LKHP and
belated discovery of the Kihansi Gorge ecosystem
occurred under the Bank-funded Power VI project
between 1993 and 2001; the LKEMP project
commenced in 2001 to respond to the emergency
arising from the discovery and stabilize the gorge
ecosystem and safeguard the spray toad population;
and additional funding for LKEMP has extended
the project to 2010 to facilitate the reintroduction of
the spray toad and improve the management of the
catchment above the dam. This section deals with
the last two phases where the environmental flow
assessment and implementation occurred.
Once the Kihansi spray toad was discovered, the
safeguard policies acted as a powerful driver for action,
and the Bank funded mitigation and protection
measures. This instrumental driver was accompanied by
a powerful public driver in the form of pressure on both
the government of Tanzania and development partners
funding the projectincluding the World Bank and the
governments of Norway, Sweden, and Germanyfrom
international environmental organizations to save the
spray toad and its associated ecosystem.
140
Assessment
Recognition. The crisis over the Lower Kihansi
hydropower plant arose from a lack of recognition of
the importance of water needs for the environment
and of maintaining downstream environmental flows.
The environmental assessment carried out at the
time of the Power VI loan, like similar EAs at that
time, concentrated on the upstream impacts of the
development.
Nevertheless, the LKHP lessons have improved the
understanding of the importance of environmental
flows within Tanzanian institutions, partly driven
4/9/09 12:46:00 PM
141
4/9/09 12:46:00 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
142
4/9/09 12:46:01 PM
Lessons
1. Unique and spatially limited ecosystems can easily
be vulnerable to collapse with additional pressure
because they have little resilience.
2. Neglect of environmental flow considerations
at an early stage of project preparation can lead
to substantial monetary costs during project
implementation because of limited options
available to alter the project design and operations,
to retrofit already constructed infrastructure, and
to carry out additional studies.
3. There are significant reputational costs arising
from the omission of or delaying the recognition
of downstream effects from the assessment of
development projects.
4. International obligations (such as the CBD)
provide a means of (and are an important driver
for) protecting unique and fragile ecosystems.
Acknowledgments
Willie Mwaruvanda, Bill Newmark, Jane Kibbassa,
and Fadhila Ahmed provided comments on an earlier
draft.
143
4/9/09 12:46:01 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
References
Acreman, M., and J. King. 2005. Capacity Building
to Undertake Environmental Flow Assessments in
Tanzania. Annex E to Tanzanian Water Resources
Assistance Strategy: Improving Water Security for Sustaining
Livelihoods and Growth. Report No. 35327-TZ.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Channing, A., K.S. Finlow-Bates, S.E. Haarklau, and
P.G. Hawkes. 2006. The Biology and Recent History
of the Critically Endangered Kihansi Spray Toad
Nectophrynoides Asperginis in Tanzania. Journal of East
African Natural History 95(2): 117138.
Mkhandi, S., and B.Z. Birhanu. 2007. Hydrological
Study for Kihansi Catchment. Report to Lower
Kihansi Environmental Management Project
(LKEMP).
144
4/9/09 12:46:01 PM
145
4/9/09 12:46:02 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
146
4/9/09 12:46:02 PM
Value ($/ha)
56136
140
70
266345
147
4/9/09 12:46:03 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
recessional agriculture and irrigation in the midvalley will be improved through the development
of small-scale hydraulic structures and assistance
with irrigation management
148
Drivers
A succession of drivers helped propel the provision
of environmental flows within the Senegal River
basin. The initial driver was the realization by Senegal
that the belated development of the dams would
cause significant economic and social disruption to
the floodplain communities. This was reinforced by
academic research (Horowitz and Salem-Murdock
1990) that emphasized the importance of the
flows to the floodplain agricultural system, as well
as NGO studies that introduced the importance
of environmental flows to the delta ecosystem
(Hamerlynck and Duvail 2003).
Initially OMVS took a water engineering approach
with objectives focused on hydropower, irrigation,
and navigation. Pressure was applied by IUCN to
take a more integrated approach to development that
included conservation of ecosystems that provide
goods and services to local communities and for these
communities to be involved in decision making.
OMVS invited IUCN as an independent organization
to initiate community participation. The Permanent
Water Commission of OMVS, which makes water
allocation decisions, was originally made up of water
engineers, but now includes representatives from local
coordinating committees that provide stakeholder
input and embraces the environmental flow concept.
NGO input is now coordinated under an umbrella
organisation (CODESEN), which was expanded from
its initial membership of Senegalese NGOs to include
those from Mali and Mauritania. Input from national
agencies has also improved.
4/9/09 12:46:03 PM
Assessment
Recognition. OMVS did not initially recognize either
the importance of maintaining either flood flows or
dry season flows to water users downstream of the
Manantali Dam, or the potential environmental
impacts from the exclusion of seawater into the estuary
of the Senegal River by the Diama Barrage. Subsistence
farmers, who did not contribute to the national
economy, were not considered in economic decisions.
The infrastructure development plan was driven by
economic development considerations (Sir Alexander
Gibb and Partners 1987). Once investigations took
place, it was realized that the traditional flood-recession
agricultural practices on the floodplain had significant
economic and social importance. These floodplain
communities were not part of the original plan because
they were considered subsistence farmers who would
not be impacted by the developments.
Environmental flood flows could be provided relatively
easily during the period prior to the installation of
the turbines. It was hoped that, eventually, economic
development brought by the dams would provide
alternative employment for floodplain communities,
such as through intensive irrigation schemes, so that
flood releases would not be required in the long term.
The concept of environmental flows is now accepted
within OMVS, through recognition of the need for
floodplain inundation and for appropriate ecologically
low flows.
Comprehensiveness. Because management of the water
resources of the Senegal basin is coordinated by OMVS,
transboundary issues are automatically included. The
149
4/9/09 12:46:05 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
150
4/9/09 12:46:06 PM
Lessons
1. The structure of OMVS, with its membership
of basin countries, provides an institutional
framework for managing water resources of
the transboundary Senegal basin. The principle
followed is one of sharing the benefits (electricity,
irrigable land, and navigation) rather than the
water itself. It allows for transboundary mitigation
of ecological impacts, such as releasing water from
the Manantali Dam in Mali to support the river
151
4/9/09 12:46:07 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Acknowledgments
Ousmane Dione of the World Bank provided
comments on this case study.
References
152
4/9/09 12:46:07 PM
51
This section was drawn from World Bank (1998) and Hou and
others (2006).
52
In addition to its agricultural importance, the region is
strategically important to China because of its transport links
with Central Asia.
153
4/9/09 12:46:07 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
4/9/09 12:46:08 PM
Tarim Basin
Drivers
The central governments desire to solve the
desertification problemwith its threat to transport
links and attendant production and health costswas
the principal driver for the release of water to the lower
reaches of the Tarim River. One of the objectives of
the Tarim Basin II project was to partially restore
and preserve the green corridor in the lower reaches
of the Tarim River. Environmental flows were not
155
4/9/09 12:46:08 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
Assessment
Recognition. The importance of re-establishing flows
in the lower Tarim River was recognized by the
XUAR government prior to the project commencing.
They specifically sought a mechanism to restore the
downstream riverine environments in the Tarim
Basin II project while also improving the productivity
of irrigation within the basin. However, the WRBs
and irrigation professions and irrigators initially saw
the project, especially the quotas on diversions, as
a regulatory measure that would result in decreased
productivity and production potential. This resulted
in considerable tension at the beginning of the
project.
156
53
The enforcement was through both fines and rewards. The
monetary value of the fines and rewards was quite low; however,
the publicity accompanying them was the main inducement as
there was considerable prestige in being publicly acknowledged
for achieving the quota or public humiliation in being identified
as not achieving it.
4/9/09 12:46:09 PM
Tarim Basin
157
4/9/09 12:46:09 PM
Environmental Flows in Water Resources Policies, Plans, and Projects Findings and Recommendations
158
Lessons
1. The national importance of arresting the spread of
the desert and its threat to strategically important
transport links acted as a powerful driver for the
return of environmental flows to the lower Tarim
River.
2. The project illustrates the importance of
integrating technical (e.g. geomembrane)
improvements with institutional and social
improvements in order to deliver water for
downstream environmental benefit.
3. The projects success in providing environmental
flows was largely due to the delivery of both
tangible benefits to the irrigators, in terms of
improved productivity, and benefits to downstream
populations.
4. Well-designed institutional structures, backed
by legislation, need to be established for major
changes in water management to be effective in
providing the river flows needed for downstream
environmental benefits.
5. When the environmental benefits are readily
apparent and integrated into the project
objectives, the term environmental flows with
its connotations of remedial actions, does not
need to be used.
4/9/09 12:46:10 PM
Tarim Basin
Acknowledgments
References
159
4/9/09 12:46:11 PM
E N V I R O N M E N T
D E PA R T M E N T
Environment Department
THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20433
Telephone: 202-473-3641
Facsimile: 202-477-0565
PA P E R S
April 2009
4/16/2009 4:56:49 PM