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CHAPTER 1

Evidence for the origin of life

Analysis of the oldest sedimentary rocks provides
evidence for the origin of life

1.1

Origin of organic molecules on early Earth

identify the relationship between the conditions on early

Earth and the origin of organic molecules

The age of the Earth

The approximate age of the Earth,
based on geological, magnetic,
radiographic and palaeontological
studies, is 4.5 billion years. During
the Hadean eon (approximately
4.5 to 3.8 billion years ago) was
the formation of the Earth as it was
transformed from a gaseous cloud into
a solid body. The heavier molten iron
sank down to become the core, while
the lighter rock rose to the surface,
becoming the crust. As a result of the
high temperatures at the centre of
the Earth and due to volcanic activity,
there was an emission of gases, or
outgassing, of volatile molecules
such as water (H2O), methane (CH4),
ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2),
nitrogen (N2), and carbon dioxide
(CO2). The atmosphere was anoxic
meaning it had no free oxygen (O2),
as all oxygen was bound within
compounds such as water and carbon
dioxide. This meant that there was no
ozone (O3) layer, exposing the Earths
surface to ultraviolet radiation. Most of
the hydrogen gas escaped into space,
as happens today, whereas the other
gases accumulated and remained in the
atmosphere.

Forming the first organic

molecules
Early Earth, with an atmosphere of
water vapour, hydrogen, methane and
ammonia, provided an environment
in which the production of organic
carbon-containing molecules would
be fairly easy. The energy for driving
these reactions could have come from
a number of sources, in particular the
sun. Ultraviolet light would easily have
reached the Earths surface because
no ozone layer existed. Other possible
energy sources could have been
lightning, hot springs and volcanoes,
radioactivity in the crust, and impact
from meteorites. At this stage, organic
molecules would have most likely
formed in the lower atmosphere or the
Earths surface. The stages of change
thought to have occurred in early Earth
are listed below:
Dense clouds formed in the steamy
atmosphere. These clouds were
formed of water from meteorites
and hydrated minerals. These clouds
then formed a reflective shield from
the suns penetrating heat.
Eventually, meteorite impacts
declined (approximately 500 million
years later) due to the protective layer

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EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

of the atmosphere and the friction

caused on entry, the Earth cooled
and the temperature fell below
1000C, forming a stable rocky crust.
The release of gases from volcanoes
in turn increased air pressure in the
atmosphere. When the temperatures
cooled, this assisted in causing the
immense clouds of water vapour to
condense into liquid and fall as rain.
Rain would have washed organic
molecules into lakes and ponds rich
in dissolved minerals and created
an environment for reactions to
occur producing new organic
molecules. In turn this would have
created an environment for further
reactions forming other molecules
and compounds and so on (see
Table 1.1).
Carbon dioxide dissolves readily
in water to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3 ). It would have been
flushed out of the atmosphere by
the rain and into the oceans where it
reacted with calcium to form calcium
carbonate (CaCO3 ).
At first, the rain evaporated as it
fell on the hot rock surface but
the evaporation gradually cooled
the crust until the water could
accumulate in the lower regions of
the Earths surface forming oceans.
The first rivers were created on
the continents where the water,

dissolving and transporting minerals

along the way, eventually ran back
into the oceans.
The dissipation of heat into space
cooled the Earth, causing crust
fragments to become numerous
enough to form a first thin, solid
cover.
Over the next 3.5 billion years,
the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere was reduced as
it became incorporated in rocks
(e.g. limestone). The main gas
remaining in the Earths atmosphere
was nitrogen. The composition
of Earths atmosphere today is
somewhat different to that proposed
on early Earth: 78.1 per cent
nitrogen, 20.9 per cent oxygen, and
1 per cent consisting of small traces
of different gases such as carbon
dioxide, water vapour, methane,
hydrogen and ozone.
There is much known about the
composition and conditions of early
Earth; however, there are a lot of
questions remaining unanswered.
Scientists continue to search for more
evidence reflecting the conditions
of early Earth that may have existed
when life began. If these conditions are
known then we may perhaps discover
more about the building blocks from
which life began.

Table 1.1
Bioelements

Biomolecules

Water: hydrogen (H), oxygen (O)

Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose), polysaccharides (e.g. starch),

glycoproteins and proteoglycans

Organic: hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),

phosphorus (P), sulfur (S)

Triacyglycerols (e.g. animal fat, seed reserves), phospholipids,

glycolipids, polyisoprenoids

Ionic: sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium

(Ca), chlorine (Cl)

Amino acids (20)

Proteins, glycoproteins and proteoglycans
Nitrogenous bases (4); ribose or deoxyribose phosphate
Nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)

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LIFE ON EARTH

1.2

Implications of the existence of organic molecules

discuss the implications of the existence of organic

molecules in the cosmos for the origin of life on Earth

There is very little evidence towards

the existence of organic molecules in
the universe or cosmos. The finding
of the 100 kg Murchison meteorite in
Victoria, Australia in 1969 was significant
in providing evidence that organic
molecules from outside of Earth are
similar to those we have today. Nineteen
of the 92 amino acids identified in the
meteorite were found on Earth. This
suggests that the source of organic
molecules needed for the origin of life
on Earth may in fact have originated
from outside of the Earth. Theories

1.3

presented by Haldane and Oparin (1923)

did not provide much evidence for the
existence of organic molecules until the
supporting experiments of Urey and
Miller (1953). Urey and Miller created the
conditions thought to be those of early
Earth and these conditions resulted in
the change from inorganic molecules to
organic molecules. Although this theory
is commonly supported, there is no
evidence to support the mechanism for
complex organic compounds changing to
early life forms. The question still remains
unanswered and quite controversial.

Evolution of chemicals of life: theories and their

significance to the origin of life

describe two scientific theories relating to the evolution

of the chemicals of life and discuss their significance in
understanding the origin of life

The major theories accounting for the

origin of life on Earth are:
steady statelife has no origin
spontaneous generationlife arose
from non-living matter on numerous
occasions
special creationlife was created
by a god or supernatural event at
a particular time
cosmozoan/panspermialife arrived
on Earth from elsewhere
biochemical evolution or
chemosynthetic theoryorganic
compounds are produced from
inorganic molecules, leading to early
life forms.

Spontaneous generation theory

Steady state theory

Special creation

This theory suggests that the Earth and

its species had no origin; they always
existed. The Earth has always been able
to support life and has changed very
little over time.

This theory is upheld by most of the

worlds major religions and civilisations
and attributes the origin of life to a god
or supernatural event at a particular
time in the past. Since the process of

This theory by Aristotle (384322 BC)

suggests that life arose spontaneously,
assuming that certain particles of matter
contained an active principle which
could produce a living organism when
conditions were suitable. He was correct
in assuming that the active principle
was in a fertilised egg, but incorrect
to extrapolate this to the belief that
sunlight, mud and decaying meat also
had the active principle. Louis Pasteur
(1861) later demonstrated the theory
of biogenesis and finally disproved the
theory of spontaneous generation.

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EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

special creation occurred only once and

therefore cannot be observed, this is
sufficient to put the concept outside the
framework of scientific investigation.
Science concerns itself only with
observable phenomena and as such
will never be able to prove or disprove
special creation.

Cosmozoan/panspermia theory
This theory suggests that life could
have arisen once or several times, at
various times and in various parts of
the universe. Russian and American
space probes have provided evidence
that the likelihood of finding life within
our solar system is remote but cannot
look outside the solar system. Materials
found in meteorites and comets have
revealed the presence of organic
molecules which may have acted as
seeds falling onto early Earth. There
is as yet no compelling evidence to
support or contradict it, particularly
due to the challenges of survival and
transport in space.

Biochemical evolution theory

This theory suggests that certain
conditions of early Earth (see
Section 1.1) generated the organic
compounds and the right environment
for the first production of a living
organism.

Evidence leading to the

support of the biochemical
evolution theory
Oparin (1923)

Aleksandr Oparin suggested that

organic compounds could have formed
in the early Earth oceans from more
simple compounds, the energy for
these reactions probably being supplied
from the suns strong ultraviolet
radiation before the formation of the
ozone layer which now blocks out most
of it. Oparin argued that, considering
the amount of simple molecules in the

oceans, the energy available and the

time scale, it was conceivable that
the oceans would gradually accumulate
organic molecules to produce the
primeval soup in which life could have
arisen. J. B. S. Haldane independently
arrived at the same idea as Oparin
in 1929. Oparins hypothesis was
not tested until the 1950s by Urey
and Miller.
Oparins theory has been widely
accepted; however, major problems
remain in explaining the transition
from complex organic molecules to
living organisms. This is where the
theory of a process of biochemical
evolution offers a broad scheme which
is acceptable; however, there is no
agreement as to the precise mechanism
by which it may have occurred.
Oparin considered that protein
molecules were crucial to the
transformation to living things and
through a possible sequence of events
it would have produced a primitive
self-replicating organism feeding on
the organic-rich primeval soup. While
this is supported by some scientists,
others such as Sir Fred Hoyle argue that
the probability of random molecular
interactions giving rise to life is as
ridiculous and improbable as the
proposition that a tornado blowing
through a junk yard may assemble
a Boeing 747.
Urey and Miller (1953)

In a series of experiments, Stanley

Miller (a student of Harold Urey)
simulated the proposed conditions of
early Earth. He successfully made many
substances including amino acids and
simple sugars. More recently, Leslie
Orgel succeeded in making a simple
nucleic acid molecule in a similar
experiment. Recent experiments using
Millers equipment but using mixtures
of carbon dioxide and water and only
traces of other gases have produced
similar results to those of Miller.

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LIFE ON EARTH

Urey and Millers experiments

SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION

BIOLOGY SKILLS
P13
P14

gather information from secondary sources to describe

the experiments of Urey and Miller and use the available
evidence to analyse the:
reason for their experiments
result of their experiments
importance of their experiments in illustrating the
nature and practice of science
contribution to hypotheses about the origin of life

Aim
To describe the experiments of Urey and
Miller.
To analyse the result, reason for, importance
and contribution of Urey and Millers
experiments.

Background information
In the early 1950s, Harold Urey and his student
Stanley Miller carried out the first experiment
simulating hypothetical conditions present on
early Earth in order to look at the chemical
reactions that may have occurred. Using the
equipment set up in Figure 1.1, Urey and
Miller placed water, methane, ammonia and
hydrogen into sealed glass tubes and flasks

Figure 1.1 Millers

spark discharge
reaction apparatus

electrodes

spark discharge

gases

CH4
NH3

H2
H2O

to vacuum pump

Method

water out
condenser

Read the background information provided and

gather information from a variety of secondary
sources on the experiments of Urey and Miller.
Select the relevant information that is needed
to address each aim and complete the two
parts below.

water in

Description of Urey and Millers

experiments

water accumulating
organic compounds
boiling water
trap

connected by a loop. One flask was half-filled

with liquid water and the other contained a
pair of electrodes. The water was heated to
cause its evaporation into steam. Sparks were
created between the electrodes in the other
flask to simulate lightning storms in a steamy
atmosphere. The steam then cooled and
condensed back into liquid trickling back into
the first flask, simulating an atmosphere that
was cooled. This was continuously repeated
simulating a cycle in the early atmosphere.
After a week, they observed that as much
as 10 to 15 per cent of the carbon was now in
the form of simple organic compounds, with
two per cent forming amino acids. Of the amino
acids formed, 13 of the 22 were those used to
make proteins in living cells.
This experiment tested Oparin and
Haldanes hypothesis that conditions on
early Earth were favourable to chemical
reactions producing organic compounds
from inorganic precursors. Urey and Miller
demonstrated through these experiments
that organic compounds such as amino acids,
which are essential to cellular life, could
be made from inorganic substances under
conditions hypothesised as being present
on early Earth.

1. Write a one-page description (including a

simplified diagram of the equipment used)
of Urey and Millers experiments.

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EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Analysis of Urey and Millers

experiments
2. Write a paragraph for each of the following:
(a) the reason for their experiments
(b) the result of their experiments
(c) the importance of their experiments in
illustrating the nature and practice of
science
(d) the contribution of Urey and Millers
experiments to hypotheses about the
origin of life.

Discussion/conclusion
1. Why were the experiments of Urey and
Miller important?
2. How did they contribute to the idea of the
origin of life?
3. What other scientists and their research
were affected by Urey and Millers
experiments?

Results
Once you have answered and addressed
the two parts above, now summarise that
information. You may choose to do this in
table form and use Table 1.2 below to assist
in structuring your answer, or you may prefer
another method such as using point-form under
subheadings.

Description

Reason

TR

Answers to Table 1.2

Result

Importance in
illustrating nature
and the practice of
science

Urey and Millers experiments

discuss the significance of the Urey and Miller experiments

in the debate on the composition of the primitive
atmosphere

Support for Urey and Millers

experiments
Urey and Millers experiments provided
the first experimental evidence that it
is possible for inorganic substances to
produce living (organic) substances.
This has been called the theory
of biochemical evolution (or the
chemosynthetic origin of life). The
experiments have been replicated
successfully to provide a similar
outcome each time. Although some
scientists have argued that electrical

Table 1.2
The experiments of
Urey and Miller

Contribution to
hypotheses about
the origin of life

1.4

energy might not have efficiently

produced organic molecules in the
atmosphere of primitive or early Earth,
other energy sources such as cosmic
radiation, high temperature impact
events and even the action of waves
on a beach could have been quite
effective. Some scientists replicated
experiments that have been modified
using ultraviolet light instead of
electricity to produce nitrogen bases and
nucleotides (genetic material) as well as
amino acids. In 1961, Juan Oro found

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LIFE ON EARTH

that amino acids could be produced

from ammonia and hydrogen cyanide
solution. His experiments produced
a significant amount of the nucleotide
base, adenine, which is an organic
compound found in DNA (deoxyribose
nucleic acid). It is also a component
of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The
results of the experiments indicate
that the building blocks of life could
have originated on the primitive Earth,
changing from inorganic molecules to
organic molecules. Scientists concluded
in the 1950s that this was the significant
first step in the evolution of life on
Earth, and they were optimistic that the
origin of life would be solved in a few
decades. However, these discoveries
have created a stir in the scientific
community as the origin of life has
not been solved.

Recent debate
There has been recent doubt
concerning Urey and Millers
experiments as it is now believed that
the atmosphere of early Earth did not
contain free hydrogen and was not
a reducing atmosphere. There is
geological evidence for the existence
of an oxidising (not free hydrogen)
atmosphere in the precipitation of
limestone (calcium carbonate) in great
quantities, the oxidation of ferrous iron
in early rocks and the distribution of
minerals in early sedimentary rocks.
There is also evidence to suggest
the existence of an oxidising, (not
free hydrogen) atmosphere in the
composition of volcanic gases and
the destruction of molecules by UV
radiation. To the contrary, however,
there is strong evidence to support
an oxygen-free primitive Earth
atmosphere in fluvial uranium sand
deposits (1999) and banded iron
formations documented in 1998 and
2000. In 1994, Holland documented the
paleosols (ancient soils) as a source to
determine atmospheric composition
suggesting very low oxygen levels

2.1 billion years ago. There is also

2001 data from mantle chemistry
suggesting oxygen was essentially
absent from the earliest atmosphere.
In 2005, simulations conducted by the
University of Colorado indicated that
the early atmosphere of Earth could
have contained up to 40 per cent
hydrogen, implying a more favourable
environment for the production of
organic molecules, and supporting
Urey and Millers experiments.
Another objection is that these
experiments required a significant
amount of energy. It is argued that
although lightning storms were
common on primitive Earth, they did
not occur continuously as portrayed
in Urey and Millers experiment. This
means that amino acids and organic
compounds may have only formed
in smaller amounts.

Other sources for organic

compounds
Many of the organic compounds made
in the Urey and Miller experiments are
now known to exist in outer space.
There are other sources of organic
building blocks of life, such as
meteorites, comets, and hydrothermal
vents. The Murchison meteorite found
in Victoria in 1969 was found to contain
over 90 amino acids, of which 19 are
found on Earth. The primitive Earth
is believed to be similar to many of
the comets and asteroids found in our
galaxy. In 1997, Douglas C. B. Whittet
published an article in The Astrophysical
Journal on the conditions favourable
to the formation of organic compounds
that exist in interstellar dust clouds.
If amino acids are able to survive the
extreme conditions of outer space
then this might suggest that amino
acids were present when the Earth
was first formed. More importantly, the
Murchison meteorite has demonstrated
that the Earth may have received
organic compounds and amino acids
from outside the planet.

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In 2000, some scientists argued that

organic compounds could have formed
in areas other than the atmosphere,
such as hydrothermal vents and
volcanic aquifers.
Even though we continue to obtain
more evidence towards the composition
of the atmosphere of primitive Earth,
each piece of evidence may support
different ideas and theories. Scientists
may interpret the evidence in different
ways and continue to oppose each

others theories and models. Hence,

the controversy and debate continues.
The experiments of Urey and Miller
remain significant in the advancement
of ideas surrounding the composition
of the primitive atmosphere. They
supported Oparin and Haldanes
proposed theory and led to further
experimental testing of variations
in conditions favourable for the
production of organic compounds.

Technology has increased our understanding of the

origin and evolution of life

TR

Extension activity
class debate

1.5

identify changes in technology that have assisted in the

development of an increased understanding of the origin
of life and evolution of living things

Improved technology over the years

has increased our understanding of
the origin and evolution of living
things. In particular, biochemical
and molecular technologies have
significantly improved in recent times,
therefore having a profound impact
on our understanding of the evolution
of life.

Early technologies
(See Patterns in Nature for revision.)
Early technologies included:
glass jars and cottonused by
Francesco Redi for a spontaneous
generation experiment with flies and
meat, testing the idea that organisms
originate directly from non-living
matter
swan-necked flasks designed
and used by Louis Pasteur in his
experiment for disproving the
spontaneous generation theory
the light microscope (Leeuwenhoek,
1676)allowed us to see organisms
that cannot be seen with the naked
eye.

Recent technologies
Recent technologies have included:
electron microscope development
this led to the understanding of
structures at the molecular level, the
remains of micro-organisms and the
mineral nature of early rocks
radiometric dating (the principle
of superposition, stratigraphic
correlation)developed for dating
the relative ages of fossils and
surrounding rock material
seismologyprovided knowledge
of the structure of the Earth and the
characteristics of earthquakes
geologydetermined the
composition of meteorites and
volcanoes, the fossil record and
geological history of the Earth
geophysicsused the concept
of continental drift and sea floor
spreading (magnetic surveys) to
indicate properties of the Earths
structure and age
atomic absorption spectrophotometry
used to measure the concentration
of metal elements in a rock materials

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LIFE ON EARTH

relative proportions of stable isotopes

used to determine the absolute
age of fossils
X-ray crystallographyused to
determine the structures of an
immense variety of molecules and
compounds
gas and liquid chromatography
(chemical separation technique)
used to isolate molecules for further
study
radioactive tracingused to measure
the speed of chemical processes
developments in engineering have
enabled both space and deep sea
exploration

amino acid and nucleotide

sequencingcomparisons with
ancient organic material and
biological compounds today
biochemical analysis (DNA)
comparative studies of different
organisms
genetic engineeringused to
increase the understanding of
relatedness between organisms
and possible evolutionary
pathways.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. List the atmospheric gases believed to have existed on early Earth.
2. Describe the hypothesised environment and conditions on early Earth.
3. Identify the composition of Earths present-day atmosphere.
4. Describe the contribution of the Murchison meteorite finding to the understanding of the origin
of life.
5. Discuss the implications, to the existence of organic molecules in the cosmos, for the origin of life
on Earth.
6. Describe two scientific theories relating to the evolution of the chemicals of life and their
significance in understanding the origin of life.

SR

TR

7. Describe Urey and Millers experiments (reason, method and result), including a simple diagram
of the apparatus used.
8. Discuss the significance of Urey and Millers experiments in the debate on the composition of
the primitive atmosphere.

Answers to
revision questions

9. Identify three examples of different types of technology that have assisted in increasing the
understanding of the origin of life and the evolution of living things.

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