CHAPTER 5

Howard R. Kessler

The Bedside
Neuropsychological
Examination

Neuropsychological assessment at the bedside provides a variety

of unique challenges in comparison to more extensive assessments performed with outpatients. Hospitalized patients typically present with an acute rather than a chronic or progressive
illness. Their acute infirmities are often accompanied by a number of factors that can compromise the examination, including
fatigue, depression, medical and postsurgical side effects, and
significant sensory or motor changes. They may be referred for
assessment for a variety of reasons, including issues relating to
capacity (competency) for informed decision making, capacity
for independent living versus the need for assisted living, or an
elucidation of cognitive strengths and weaknesses for purposes
of treatment planning (be they medical, rehabilitative, pharmacological, or other). Perhaps the most difficult and challenging
of referral questions is the differential diagnosis among depression (or some other functional etiology), delirium, and dementia. In this climate of escalating health care costs, patient stays
continue to shorten, necessitating brevity and economy in the
utilization of diagnostic procedures. By virtue of these factors,
the neuropsychologist is placed in the unenviable position of
having to perform diagnostic procedures rapidly, efficiently,
and economically, while ensuring an examination of adequate
breadth and depth. The purpose of this chapter is to provide
75

76

Howard R. Kessler

the practitioner both guidelines and a clinical template for performing such an examination at the bedside.
I. DISORDERS OF COMMON
REFERRAL POPULATIONS
Patients possessing a number of different conditions may be
referred for bedside assessment, each presenting unique barriers
to the evaluation. These conditions include the following.
A. Stroke

Patients with middle cerebral artery strokes may suffer from

hemiparesis (which limits the use of tests requiring significant
motor, visual, or sensory function), may be aphasic (limiting
the use of any task requiring language for a response or for
comprehension of task demands), or may present with hemispatial neglect or hemi-inattention (requiring changes in the
manner in which test materials are presented in space). Patients
with posterior circulation strokes may suffer from hemianopsia,
requiring presentation of test stimuli in the unaffected field.
Patients experiencing anterior circulation strokes maybe anergic
or akinetic, limiting their capacity to respond and to expend
sufficient effort during testing. These limitations frequently necessitate major alterations in the test battery, as well as in the
mode of stimulus presentation.
B. Traumatic Brain Injury

Patients experiencing the acute effects of traumatic brain injury

(TBI) likely suffer from posttraumatic amnesia, and accompanying agitation or inattention may interfere with test administration. Because these patients may perform at an artificially depressed level, formal tests should not be administered until they
are sufficiently alert and well oriented in all spheres. These patients may also change or progress rapidly over the course of
only a few days, so the examiner must determine the optimal
time for formal test administration. This will be dictated largely
by the goals stated in the referral question.
C. Dementia

A wide variety of diseases, both systemic and neurological, may

result in progressive cognitive decline. A differential diagnosis
often needs to be made among various classes of dementia,

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

77

between delirium and dementia, or between dementia and depression. A variety of systemic diseases, such as brittle hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease, can cause progressive neurological decline, owing to vascular insufficiency. Patients receiving
chemotherapy or cranial irradiation can also experience cognitive decline as treatment side effects (see review by AndersonHanley, Sherman, Riggs, Agocha, & Compas, 2003). Because the
genesis of the disorder is often a crucial diagnostic marker, the
clinician may need to go to great lengths to acquire accurate
historical information from family members. In the case of the
differential diagnosis of dementia, this may not prove to be
entirely helpful. For example, the traditional literature on the
differential diagnosis of vascular versus Alzheimer's type dementia depended heavily on the "stepwise" decline observed in vascular (or what was previously called multi-infarct) dementia,
compared with the gradual decline noted in Alzheimer's disease.
However, the newer nomenclature involving "vascular" dementia recognizes the fact that decline can be more gradual, because
of chronic vascular insufficiency, which provokes a more gradual course of small vessel ischemic disease, mimicking the course
seen in cases of Alzheimer's. This renders it more difficult to
identify discrete episodes of onset of cognitive impairment. Depression can also be either a complicating or a clarifying factor
in the diagnosis of vascular dementia. On the one hand, patients
with depression clearly can appear to suffer from a dementia,
despite the fact that their cognitive impairment is functionally
determined. On the other hand, however, is the fact that depression is often an early symptom in cases of vascular dementia.
This differential diagnosis thus requires an interpretation of
qualitative aspects of performance. Both groups may manifest
similar overall levels of performance on tests of attention, memory, and executive function. However, the patient with vascular
dementia will be more likely to manifest pathognomic signs
such as perseveration or confabulation.
D. Delirium
Delirious patients may demonstrate a fluctuating level of consciousness, as well as fluctuating levels of orientation and cognitive capacity. These patients often need to be examined across
a number of days, and at various times of the day, for an accurate
diagnostic impression to be obtained. This may necessitate the
addition to the test battery of a very brief, repeatable measure
that may be sensitive to such fluctuating levels of cognition and
awareness. Further complicating the diagnosis is the fact that

78

Howard R. Kessler

the variability in cognitive functioning that characterizes delirium can often mask the presence of other underlying disease
states, such as dementia. The presence of an etiology provoking
delirium can often be ascertained by reviewing the medical
record for evidence of electrolyte imbalance or medications that
might provoke cognitive side effects. Further, the delirious patient will be more likely than, for example, patients with progressive dementia to have some degree of awareness that something
is amiss.
E. Postsurgical Deficits

Patients may demonstrate acute neuropsychological deficits immediately after invasive, nonneurological surgery. A determination needs to be made as to whether changes in cognitive function are due to the effects of anesthesia, medications (especially
narcotics), or an intraoperative or postoperative event such as
stroke during or after coronary artery bypass graft (CABG). This
may be an extremely difficult differential diagnosis because of
the acuity of these patients, and there is also a high false-positive
rate of diagnosis. For example, although CABG may result in
stroke, the vast majority of patients demonstrating acute cognitive deficits after such surgery spontaneously remit. The timing
of the evaluation is thus crucial in such cases, and it would be
prudent to wait at least 24 hours before performing comprehensive neuropsychological testing while monitoring the patient's
level of consciousness in the interim.
F. Systemic Illness

Chronic conditions such as diabetes mellitus and hypertension

can result in neurological disease (small vessel ischemia), particularly if poorly controlled. Patients with liver or kidney disease
may present with symptoms of encephalopathy or delirium,
whereas patients undergoing renal dialysis may demonstrate a
fluctuating course, depending on where they are in their dialysis
schedule. In these patients, it is important to discriminate between transient and relatively permanent impairments. The clinician will need to be sensitive to the presence of comorbidities,
which can often be helpful in diagnosis. For example, patients
experiencing vascular insufficiency will be far more likely to
have cognitive impairment possessing an organic basis if they
also present with evidence of peripheral neuropathy.

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 79

II. REVIEWING THE MEDICAL RECORD

A. History and Physical Examination
As stated earlier, it is always important to look for comorbid
conditions or factors that may have an impact on neuropsychological presentation. This will assist the examiner in identifying
the etiology underlying deficient test performance. Conditions
provoking vascular insufficiency are one such example, among
many. Documented histories of alcohol or drug abuse, neurodevelopmental disorders, seizure disorders, or prior central nervous system insults are all important factors to look for in the
record. However, the clinician must also be aware of the fact
that such information is often lacking in the clinical record,
often necessitating more information gathering from the patient, family members, or the patient's primary care physician.
B. Relevant Laboratory Findings
An examination of particular laboratory test findings can be
useful in rendering differential diagnoses of, for example, delirium or acute confusional states. Electrolyte levels, for example
sodium or potassium, should be examined. Levels that are
grossly outside of the normal range (which can be found in
many basic medical textbooks) are often sufficient to provoke
delirium. It is important, however, to keep in mind that many
of these "normal" levels are for early to middle-aged adults
rather than for the elderly. In the elderly, a delirium can be
provoked in the presence of a more minor departure in electrolytic levels. Measures of kidney function (e.g., uric acid, blood
urea nitrogen [BUN], creatinine), liver function (bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, LDL cholesterol), and protein status (protein,
albumin) should also be reviewed. Abnormal electrolytes, in
combination with a disorder with sudden onset or a fluctuating
course, would be strongly suggestive of the presence of a
delirium.
C. Neuroimaging Results
The three imaging procedures most commonly used in the tertiary care setting are electroencephalography (EEC), computed
tomography (CT) scanning, and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). A variety of newer scanning techniques, as well as more
sensitive experimental MRI modeling techniques, are also available but generally are not used in most hospitals. EEC may be
useful in identifying the presence of seizure disorders or space-

80

Howard R. Kessler

occupying tumors. Most commonly, however, EEC-noted abnormalities are such things as "slowing of the background
rhythm" or "diffuse bifrontal slowing." Such findings often possess little diagnostic value to the clinician, nor are they of localizing value to the neurologist. They are often found in Alzheimer's
disease and in delirium and are not useful in rendering differential diagnoses between such conditions. Furthermore, approximately 50% of healthy people have abnormal EEGs, so there
can be a high false-positive rate. Alternatively, there might be
a high false-negative rate when using EEG in cases of seizure
disorder, in that the EEG is not a useful measure unless the
patient is actively convulsive during the administration of the
procedure, showing what is commonly referred to in the report
as clinical correlation.
CT scanning, though progressing in its utility, nonetheless
remains relatively insensitive to disorders affecting subcortical
white matter, for example, vascular insufficiency. Similarly,
most CT scanning techniques remain insensitive to the effects
of concussion. CT scans are useful in identifying the presence of
space-occupying lesions (e.g., tumors) or cerebral hemorrhages.
MRI scans are more sensitive to white matter disease. T2-weighted images are sensitive to the chronic effects of ischemic demyelination (small vessel occlusive disease), whereas Flair and gadolinium-enhanced scans are sensitive to active white matter
disease, for example, as seen in active multiple sclerosis. When
reading the interpretations of MRI or CT findings, it is important
to note whether the pathology observed represents abnormality
or simply normal variation. For example, cortical atrophy is
global and nonlocalizing, and can often be noted to be "appropriate for age." Similar statements may be found in the interpretation of white matter lesions. It is important to be able to
correlate the MRI or CT abnormalities with clinical findings as
well. For example, white matter changes, noted on MRI T2
weighted images, are not uncommon in normal aging. Such
findings, in the absence of objective cognitive impairment,
should not be used to infer the presence of neurological disease.
Furthermore, one pitfall in MRI administration and interpretation is that the examination is often geared toward the referral
questions. Hence, an abnormality related to, say, multiple sclerosis, may not be revealed if the referral question is one of
concussion or headache.
D. Medications
It is particularly important to account for the effects of a variety
of psychoactive medications on test performance. This is

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

81

particularly crucial in testing elderly patients, in whom polypharmacy can present a hindrance to test performance and
interpretation. It is also important to look at interactions between drugs and their side effects, within the context of a particular patient's medical condition. For example, patients with
hepatic disease may experience heightened side effects of neuroleptics (such as Haldol) because they are metabolized by the
liver. Similarly, because benzodiazepines are metabolized by the
kidneys, they may provoke increased side effects in patients
with renal disease or those undergoing renal dialysis. Anticholinergics, such as amitryptiline (which is often used as a sleep
aid or for pain), may have heightened side effects in patients
experiencing cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease, hence
provoking increased sedation or memory impairment. Similar
findings might be noted in patients taking beta-blockers. This
is because both classes of medication may inhibit vascular flow.
Side effects found in commonly prescribed medications can be
found in Table 5.1 (excerpted from Ellsworth, Witt, Dugdale,
& Oliver, 2003).
III. CONDUCTING THE BEDSIDE EXAMINATION
A. Background History and Clinical Interview
The interview and history taking should be a standard part of
the bedside assessment. Formats for history taking can be found
in many sources and are not reviewed in depth here. (One
of the best sources is Strub & Black's [1993] The Mental Status
Examination in Neurology.) In the case of the bedside assessment,
certain background factors are particularly critical and often
require that a reliable informant (other than the patient) be
identified to provide corroborating information. These factors
include the following:
1. GENESIS OF THE DISORDER
A number of questions need to be asked to ascertain information regarding both the onset and progression of a given
disorder. For example, was the onset rapid or progressive? Was
the onset associated with some medical, psychosocial, or environmental event or stressor? Has the downward progression
been relatively linear, or has it occurred in a relatively stepwise
or variable fashion? Does the disorder represent a qualitative
change in the patient's functioning or an exacerbation of a
preexisting condition?

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The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

85

2. SELF-CARE
Has the patient been compliant in taking his or her medications? If hypertension or diabetes is present, how stable or brittle
has the condition been? If the patient suffers from diabetes,
how often has the patient tested his or her blood glucose levels?
Has the patient conformed to dietary restrictions? How cognitively and physically active and stimulated was the patient prior
to hospital admission? Has there been risk of inadvertent selfharm at home (e.g., from falls or burns)?
3. PRIOR CNS INSULTS
Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) often goes unnoticed and
is rarely found in the patient's medical record. Many physicians,
in fact, generally do not address the issue in the standard history.
It is important to question the patient regarding the history of
such events. It is crucial to look for evidence of not only incidents accompanied by loss of consciousness and anterograde
or retrograde amnesia but also more subtle events accompanied
by some "alteration" in consciousness. Because whiplash injury
can present with cognitive impairment, the history of such episodes must also be ascertained. Additional questions should be
posited, looking for a history of things such as near-drowning
episodes or a history of toxic exposure. Has the patient experienced episodes of brief interruptions in consciousness (e.g.,
fugue, or frank loss of consciousness), which may indicate some
ongoing or episodic process, such as cerebrovascular disease or
seizures? Is there a history of excessive alcohol, drug, or tobacco
use, which may contribute to or provoke neurological disease?
The literature on alcohol and drug effects on cognition is fairly
specific with regard to the effects of various agents. It is important to be aware of the reversibility or permanence of cognitive
impairment provoked by these substances. It is also important
to note that withdrawal from some substances may provoke
temporary alterations in cognition.
4. INSIGHT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND CONCERN
During the course of the clinical interview, it is important
to determine the patient's level of awareness of his or her medical state and insight into cognitive and physical limitations.
Lack of awareness alone is not necessarily pathognomic of cognitive decline. For example, it is not unusual for a patient to be
unaware of medical subtleties because the condition has not
been explained adequately to him or her. Poor awareness, in
combination with neuropsychological deficits, is, however,
helpful in neuropsychological diagnosis. For example, some

86

Howard R. Kessler

research suggests that patients with vascular dementia possess

better insight than those with Alzheimer's disease, so that the
cognitive test profile, in combination with the level of awareness, can be helpful in differential diagnosis. Patients experiencing TBI, various right-hemisphere syndromes, or frontal lobe
disorders may present with varying degrees of anosagnosia. Further, when presenting with good awareness, some patients may
manifest a rather striking lack of concern (anosodiaphoria). Such
a lack of concern, in combination with relatively normal neuropsychological test performance, might be reflective of a psychiatric syndrome such as conversion disorder. However, a lack of
concern accompanying noteworthy cognitive impairment will
often indicate the presence of a neurobehavioral syndrome. It
is also important to look for awareness of excessive complaints
or concerns, which may appear in the absence of major cognitive
impairment. This may reflect the presence of a primarily psychiatric etiology, such as depression, somatoform disorder, or, in
a rare case, malingering.
5. MOOD

A full survey of the patient's mood should routinely be

undertaken. This should include investigation of the patient's
subjective emotional experience and of particular sources of
emotional stress. Neurovegetative symptoms not only need to
be surveyed but also need to be confirmed by a chart review (e.g.,
checking nurses' notes for information on nutritional intake and
sleep patterns). (In the case of sleep, it is important to note that
temporary alterations in the patient's sleep pattern would not
be unusual in the hospital setting, so premorbid information
needs to be ascertained as well. Similarly, the quality of hospital
food needs to be factored into the judgment of appetite!) Mood
also needs to be assessed within the context of the patient's
degree of insight, as this relationship has ramifications for the
source of the depression (reactive vs. endogenous), which gives
the clinician additional information for differential diagnosis.
As previously stated, bear in mind also that depression can be
an early presenting symptom of neurological disease, not just
vascular dementia but, for example, demyelinating diseases
such as multiple sclerosis. Mood can exert a significant effect
on cognitive functions requiring significant effort (attention,
memory, executive functions), particularly in the elderly. The
elevated base rate for depression in hospitalized patients, especially the elderly, reflects the necessity for close attention to
mood in the neuropsychological assessment. Finally, questions

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

87

should address the possibility of a psychiatric history, including

issues related to both depression and anxiety.
B. Behavioral Observations

Inferences regarding observations of behavior are generally no

different from those generated in other types of neuropsychological assessment. In the special circumstance of bedside assessment, the most common concern is with fatigue, which is very
common in acutely hospitalized patients, and which may be
attributable to a variety of factors, including sleep deprivation,
fever or infection, and medication side effects. Fatigue by itself
could be sufficient to provoke impaired performance. Whereas
most outpatients can be counted on to inform the examiner of
subjective feelings of fatigue, inpatients are not necessarily as
reliable. Inpatients may also be less likely to push themselves
to their absolute level of tolerance because of their infirmities,
so they may require more prodding and encouragement from
the examiner. There is also a greater possibility that the examination will need to be performed across multiple, brief sessions,
which will affect the particular choice and mode of presentation
of various test instruments, as well as possibly bias the interpretation of test results.
A second observational factor, which may be more helpful
in differential diagnosis, is that of identifying emotional lability
(i.e., emotional incontinence, pseudobulbar palsy). Lability possesses a unique quality, separate from a primarily psychological
disturbance, in that it is easily provoked and is not necessarily
tied directly to an emotional stimulus. Furthermore, it has an
impulsive quality, best described as "turning a faucet on, then
suddenly off," and tends to be more stereotyped than are more
purely emotionally laden expressions. Lability can be helpful
in differentiating between depression and an acquired neurological syndrome, as well as in the diagnosis of a specific neurological syndrome, such as stroke. In stroke, the swelling occurring
in the brain during the first few months postinjury appears
to provoke lability, which may remain in a more subtle form
postrecovery. In the case of lability, it is important to determine,
typically by eliciting it from the patient, whether the symptom
is associated with an underlying emotional experience such
as dysthymia.
C. Approach to Assessment

Because of the acuity of the patient's medical status, the principles of bedside assessment differ from those used in less acute

88

Howard R. Kessler

environments. Steps need to be taken to ensure both economy

and an examination of adequate breadth. The means of accomplishing this will differ based on the patient population. For
more comprehensive outpatient assessments, limit testing is an
integral part of the examination. It is not unusual to begin
by administering more complex tasks; if these are performed
adequately, it is unnecessary to administer separate tasks to
identify the particular mechanisms involved when the patient
has failed (at which time limit testing becomes integral). The
luxury of such an approach is often unavailable in bedside assessment, because of significant time constraints as well as limitations imposed by the patient's condition. This makes qualitative and pattern interpretation of results that much more crucial.
Furthermore, the classic limit-testing approach is ill suited for
certain hospitalized patients, especially the elderly, in whom
failure on more complex instruments is far more likely. In such
cases, it is often more fruitful to begin with an assessment of
basic abilities and move upward toward the more complex. By
so doing, less time is wasted, and the emotional effects of failure
on the patient are minimized.
It is also important to keep in mind the stated reason for
the examination. Prior to the advent of neuroimaging techniques, the neuropsychologist was often asked to provide an
opinion as to simply the presence or absence of "brain dysfunction." Today, it is far more important for the neuropsychologist
to attempt to provide more definitive information, with regard
to not only the presence or absence of dysfunction but also the
specific factors and etiologies provoking those findings. As a
result, the assessment needs to be sufficiently lengthy so as to
provide a comprehensive survey of cognition, within the context of an increasing need for economy. It is not sufficient to
simply report whether the test findings reflect abnormality; one
must also to provide the referral source with definitive etiological statements that can help to guide subsequent treatment.
Clearly, then, the use of the "pathognomic sign approach" becomes somewhat limited, thereby affecting one's choice of test
instruments. Finally, the choice of appropriate test instruments
needs to take into account the risks of false positives and negatives. If subsequent treatment recommendations are for noninvasive or easily reversible treatments (e.g., medication administration), it is preferable to minimize the risk of false negatives,
hence increasing the false-positive risk. Alternatively, if subsequent treatment is more invasive or can lead to more permanent
change, false positives can be potentially far more damaging and
hence need to be limited in number. Quite frankly, if subsequent

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

89

treatment is to be particularly invasive or serious, abbreviated

assessment probably ought not be performed, unless the condition is straightforward and has been reliably diagnosed or the
referral question is more one of rendering prognostic statements
or providing rehabilitative recommendations rather than definitive diagnostic statements.
D. Choice of Test Instruments/Test
Battery Design
Performing the bedside examination usually requires a good
deal of flexibility on the part of the examiner. It is useful to
have some instruments in one's armamentarium that are administered to nearly every patient, unless extraordinary circumstances (e.g., aphasia) intervene. This allows for comparisons
among patient populations and serves to minimize the possibility of confirmation bias. Although the examiner might want to
tailor the examination to the specific referral question being
asked, choice of test instruments should not depend, for example, on the working diagnosis. Such "searching for deficits" will
invariably result in a large proportion of judgment errors. Those
tests that best lend themselves to bedside assessments are those
that tap a variety of abilities, possess good normative data, and
have demonstrated discriminant validity. Certain abilities
should be tested routinely. For example, orientation to time,
place, and circumstance maybe helpful in differentiating a temporary state such as delirium from a more permanent neurological state. (Comments in the medical chart regarding orientation,
e.g., "alert and oriented x 3" should not be trusted unless they
are clearly explained. Medical personnel will often write that
the patient is "A and O x 3" if the patient is simply alert and
reasonably responsive.) It is also useful to have some kind of
omnibus test, or standard set of procedures, available; these can
often be administered with brevity and yield overall summary
scores that are useful in test-retest comparisons. They also may
allow time for the administration of more specialized tests to
hone in on the abilities that appear to be particularly compromised. The clinician also needs to decide on an appropriate test
battery, ideally for use across participants. It may be seductive to
choose procedures that have demonstrated utility in identifying
the "presence or absence of brain impairment" (e.g., many of
the pathological indicators in the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery [HRNB]) or tests with established hit rates
for defining normality versus impairment). Many practitioners
might thus choose those tests from their standard battery that

90

Howard R. Kessler

possess the best discriminant validity in that regard. The use of

such measures must be balanced against the need to identify
not simply impairment but the precise nature and etiology of
the disorder. The reader would be advised to include a few such
measures (e.g., Trail Making, Digit Span) in the test battery but
to rely more heavily on historical data, pattern analysis, and
clinical acumen in rendering a final diagnosis.
1. TEST BATTERIES AND OMNIBUS TESTS
Many broad-based batteries and omnibus tests exist for use
in neuropsychology, as well as in psychological assessment more
generally. Some, for example the HRNB, are poorly tailored for
bedside assessment, because of their length and unwieldy test
stimuli. Some HRNB subtests, however (such as the Short Form
Booklet Category Test, Trail Making, and Seashore Rhythm) can
be useful portions of a bedside battery. Other omnibus tests,
such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleIII (WAIS-III) or
the Wechsler Memory ScaleIII (WMS-III), are geared toward
broadly assessing one area of function. These have the advantage
of providing detailed information with regard to specific cognitive realms. The advantage inherent in the depth with which
omnibus tests tap abilities also represents their downfall in bedside assessment, in that they need to be supplemented significantly with tests of a wide array of other neurobehavioral functions, which renders them almost unwieldy from the perspective
of time. The WAIS-III does, however, possess a number of advantages: Because it has been considered to be the "gold standard"
for psychological assessment tools for decades, there is a vast
array of studies to which to refer in interpreting test findings;
it possesses excellent reliability; and it lends itself easily to the
use of short forms, either by administering a limited number
of subtests or by administering the entire test using short forms
of the individual subtests (e.g., the Satz-Mogel short forms).
Both approaches provide useful information regarding the prorating of IQ though Satz-Mogel is potentially more useful in
performing pattern analysis. A further technique for obtaining
an estimate of IQ is the use of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale
of Intelligence (WASI), though research suggests that this test
may not estimate the WAIS-III IQ as well as can be accomplished
by simply using the original four subtest versions (Block Design,
Matrix Reasoning, Similarities, and Vocabulary) in the actual
WAIS-III (Axelrod, 2001). There is also an extensive body of
scientific data summarizing the performance of clinical populations on the WAIS-III. Finally, the WAIS-III administration
can also be tailored more specifically toward neurological

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 91

populations, by using the Boston process version (WAIS-R as

a Neuropsychological Instrument), and would be particularly
useful when short forms are being used in assessment. The
WMS-III has excellent norms and allows the examiner to choose
those subtests that might be most useful in performing the
bedside assessment. This limits the estimation of the summary
quotients, but one can nonetheless examine a variety of stages
of the memory process. Again, there is a vast body of data
examining WMS-III performance in clinical populations.
Alternatively, brief batteries such as the Mattis Dementia
Rating Scale (MDRS; Coblentz et al., 1973) or the Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status Examination (NCSE; Kiernan, Mueller,
Langston, & VanDyke, 1987) are geared toward brief, broader
surveys of multiple functions. When brevity is of the essence,
these batteries tend to be more useful than are omnibus tests,
because they survey a wide array of functions in a relatively
brief time. Their disadvantage, however, is that they do not
necessarily do so in sufficient depth, or at a sufficiently complex
level, to allow for finer variations in performance. This would
pose particular problems when patients are presenting with evidence of more subtle impairment, hence increasing one's falsenegative rate. Both can, however, be useful as a foundation for
building upward toward a more complex evaluation. Furthermore, the diagnostic utility of the MDRS has been improved
with the publication of the Dementia Rating Scale2 (DRS-2;
Mattis, Jurica, & Leitten, 2001), which incorporates not only
the body of research using the test but also the Mayo Older
Americans Normative Studies (MOANS) scaled scores by age
group. The use of age norms should vastly improve the test's
diagnostic utility. Both the MDRS and the DRS-2 also allow
for eliminating the administration of easier test items if more
difficult items have been passed. Clinical experience suggests,
however, that the test should be administered in its entirety.
This might be particularly useful when using pattern analysis,
in particular when assessing the influence of functional factors
on test performance. Many of these comments are germane
to the use of the NCSE as well. A number of other brief yet
comprehensive test batteries have been developed more recently. These include the Kaplan-Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment (Leach, Kaplan, Rewilak, Richards, & Proulx, 2000), the
Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological
Status (RBANS; Randolph, 1998), and the Brief Neuropsychological Cognitive Examination (Tonkonogy, n.d.). All are normed
for use with both adults and geriatric patients. The Neuropsychological Assessment Battery is a brand new, comprehensive

92

Howard R. Kessler

test battery that includes both a comprehensive examination

and a screening module. This has the advantage of tailoring the
examination to the bedside patient, and it also lends itself well
to follow-up with a more comprehensive examination. It has
also been normed for use with both adults and geriatric patients.
Recently, the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) has been
marketed for use by neuropsychologists. This test ought not to
be used for diagnostic purposes, however. Rather, it can provide
a useful tool for tracking patients over time, regarding especially
their baseline level of consciousness, for example, in cases when
delirium is suspected.
2. SPECIALIZED TESTS
There is, of course, a wide array of tests available for assessing individual neuropsychological functions. Care needs to be
taken in choosing those that are best tailored for, or that lend
themselves most easily to, evaluating bedridden patients. In
general, tests chosen should be sufficiently brief so as to allow
for economy, while still yielding meaningful diagnostic information, by allowing for the assessment of finer gradations in
performance. Clinicians can find such tests in many realms of
neuropsychological assessment. For example, most neuropsychological assessments of memory incorporate the use of verbal
list learning tasks, such as the California Verbal Learning Test,
Second Edition (CVLT-II) or the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning
Test (RAVLT). Although extremely useful in outpatient assessments, such techniques are likely too difficult for use with hospitalized patients, because of the number of test stimuli involved
(16 and 15 words, respectively). Rather, the clinician would be
advised to use either the Buschke Selective Reminding procedure
or the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test. Both tests have 12 stimuli
and also have alternate forms, lending themselves to ease of
repeatability. Further, there are also norms for a shortened 6trial (as opposed to the more traditional 12-trial) version of the
Buschke. Using such a test selection strategy may not appear
appreciably to affect economy in testing a given function; however, when one considers the use of such a strategy across many
tests and abilities, the time saved becomes appreciable. Furthermore, the use of briefer tests helps to minimize the effect imposed by interruptions, which can occur frequently in acute
care settings. (It is unlikely that the attending surgeon and his
or her residents will want to return later during their walking
rounds because the neuropsychologist is busy with the patient!)
It is often inadvisable to use tests that are heavily multidimensional in nature (e.g., the Tactual Performance Test [TPT]),

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 93

because such instruments may result in floor effects, as well as

necessitate a great deal more limit testing, thus increasing the
time investment. Similarly, tests such as the TPT will be unwieldy to administer at the bedside. Finally, when short forms
of some tests are unavailable, it is possible that they can be
designed and used with relative reliability. Indeed, what might
be most advisable is for clinicians to develop short forms of those
tests they use most commonly, to develop a unitary battery for
use with inpatients. The advantage of such an approach lies in
the familiarity of the battery to the individual clinician. Rather
than utilizing an unfamiliar battery, or one that is not necessarily tailored to one's individual needs, the utilization of one's own
short forms allows the clinician to extrapolate from a wealth of
personal experience with a particular battery approach, hence
further improving diagnostic accuracy.
By way of example, I have developed the Neuropsychological Function Examination (NFE; Kessler, 1998a, 1998b). This
abbreviated test battery was developed specifically for assessment in the hospitalized inpatient and depends heavily on the
useof shortformsofpreviouslypublished, normed, andvalidated
test instruments. I developed two alternate short forms of many
tests and performed both normative/alternate forms reliability
and validation studies (Kessler, 1998a, 1998b). The battery is brief
enough (administered in approximately 60 minutes to normal
control participants, 60-90 minutes to hospitalized patients)
that it allows for additional testing if needed or if time allows.
The memory tests (with delays) are embedded in the middle of
the battery to allow for administration in two or three separate
testing sessions. The examiner can hence administer these tests,
with prescribed interpolated activity, in a separate session, to
minimize against the effects of fatigue or to allow for limitations
in the amount of time. Two alternate forms were generated for
each subtest. Both alternate forms of reliability and validation
studies were performed, the latter comparing samples of 10
normal control participants, 10 mildly brain-injured inpatients,
and 10 moderately to severely brain-injured inpatients. The
participants were matched for age and education. The test battery components are summarized in Exhibit 5.1. Alternate forms
reliability coefficients (generated using 56 normal control participants) ranged from -.01 for Orientation to .79 for dominanthand performance on the Grooved Pegboard. (Nonsignificant
correlations, e.g., in Orientation, were generated because of a
severe restriction of range, limiting variance and hence the
resulting correlation coefficients.) Nineteen of 25 correlations
were statistically significant at p < .01, with nonsignificant

94

Howard R. Kessler

Exhibit 5.1. The Neuropsychological Function

Examination
Orientation (time, place, circumstance, last three presidents)
WAIS-R subtests (Satz-Mogel)
Information
Similarities
Picture Completion
Boston Naming (10 items)
Writing (6 words, 2 sentences)
Complex-Ideational Comprehension (6 items)
Following Commands (4 items)
Right-Left Orientation (Benton, 10 items)
Praxis (3 items each for buccofacial, transitive limb,
intransitive limb, modeled after WAB)
Finger Gnosis (Kinsbourne-Warrington, 8 items each hand)
Mathematics Screen (3 items)
Digit Span (WAIS-R)
Buschke Verbal Selective Reminding Procedure (with delayed
recall and recognition)
Rey (or Taylor) Complex Figure, with immediate and delayed
recall
Hooper VOT (10 items)
Benton VFD (8 items)
Verbal Fluency (P, W, and Animals or C, L, Fruits)
Trails B
Grooved Pegboard
Note. WAB = Western Aphasia Battery; WAIS-R = Wechsler Adult
Intelligence TestRevised; VOT = Visual Organization Test;
VFD = Visual Form Discrimination.
correlations likely provoked by either ceiling effects or restriction of range. These latter tests were thus adopted as "screening"
subtests. In the validation study, the following subtests-indices
yielded statistically significant group differences: Orientation,
Picture Completion, Writing, Finger Gnosis, Buschke (Consistent Long-Term Retrieval, Delayed Recall, Recognition), Verbal
Fluency, Trails B Time, and Grooved Pegboard, Dominant Hand
(orthopedic injury cases excluded). In addition, there was a
consistent trend in which control participants performed better
than patients with mild TBI, who performed better than patients
with moderate-severe TBI, on all subtests. Discriminant function
analysis (for normal vs. impaired) yielded correct classification
of all 10 control participants, whereas 17 of 20 TBI patients were
classified as impaired. Three-way classification revealed correct
classification of all control participants, 6 out of 10 mild TBIs
(with 2 classified as normal and 2 as moderate-severe), and 7

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 95

out of 10 moderate-severe TBIs (1 classified as normal, 2 as

mild), for a total of 23 out of 30 correctly classified. Hence, the
utilization of short forms of well-standardized and normed tests,
in the hands of the experienced clinician, may possess promise
as a bedside assessment tool; I have used them in assessing a
number of other clinical populations. Other sample bedside
assessment batteries are found in Tables 5.2 and 5.3.
IV. INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS AND
RENDERING OF THE FINAL DIAGNOSIS
Because the bedside assessment tends to be briefer than officebased evaluations, qualitative analysis of data, along with an
integration of a wide variety of other variables, becomes more
crucial to the diagnosis. The general principles for data analysis
and interpretation are outlined elsewhere in this volume. In
this regard, it is important to determine whether the pattern of
test findings makes sense from the point of view of a neurological syndrome or whether they are inconsistent and thus reflective of a process that is not clearly neurogenic. In the case of
bedside assessment, special attention needs to be paid to the
wide variety of variables mentioned in this chapter. It is important for the clinician to be able to assess neuropsychological test
findings in light of working hypotheses regarding the possible
source of the patient's deficits; the history, pattern of performance, patient's mood and effort, and comorbid conditions are
then integrated to generate a differential diagnosis. On the basis
of these variables, the clinician then uses a set of decision trees
in making the final diagnosis. Sample decision trees can be
found in Exhibit 5.2. Bear in mind that the diagnosis often
needs to be tentative, because the patient's status may be quite
variable. However, by using the many types of information
available, the clinician can usually narrow the differential diagnosis down to one or two prime possibilities, which can then
be the focus of attention for other members of the treatment
team. Because the differential diagnosis may be tentative, it may
be necessary to recommend a reassessment sometime in the
future, or to continue to follow the patient through his or her
hospital course to further elucidate status. Follow-up evaluations
may also be useful in tracking change over time, with special
attention to disease progress or recovery and efficacy of medical interventions.
V. CONCLUSION
The bedside neuropsychological examination presents a number of unique challenges to the neuropsychologist, requiring

96

Howard R. Kessler

Table 5.2. Sample Core Bedside Neuropsychological Test

Battery for Adults
Type of test
Omnibus

General
Cognitive
SpeechLanguage

AttentionMemory

Specific tests
Cognistat/Neurobehavioral Cognitive
Status Examination or Brief
Neuropsychological Cognitive
Examination or Kaplan-Baycrest
Neurocognitive Assessment or Repeatable
Battery for the Assessment of
Neuropsychological Status
WAIS-III Short Form (individual subtests or
Satz-Mogel)
Boston Naming Test
Writing-spelling sample (BDAE CookieTheft, WAB Kite, writing to dictation)
Reading sample (Gray Oral Reading
paragraphs, WRAT-3 Reading short form)
Comprehension (complex ideational
material)
Brief screening of repetition and ability to
follow commands (e.g., Token Test short
form) if any of the above language skills are
impaired
Language-mediated abilities (Benton
Left-Right Orientation, WAB Praxis,
Kinsbourne-Warrington finger gnosis or
HRNB Finger Localization)
Stroop Neuropsychological Screening Test
Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT)
Spatial Span (WMS-III)
Visual Search tasks, if evidence of hemiinattention (letter cancellation)
Verbal list learning (Buschke Verbal Selective
Reminding, Hopkins Verbal Learning, with
delayed recall and recognition)
Figural recall (design recall, such as Complex
Figure or WMS-III designs, with delayed
recall and recognition)
Narrative recall (administer if list learning is
impaired; Babcock-Levy, WMS-III Logical
Memory, with delayed recall and
recognition)
Visual recognition (administer if figural recall
is impaired; CVMT)
Recognition Memory Test (Warrington, if
recall impaired)
Three Words/Three Shapes (Mesulam) for
lower functioning patients
(Continued)

The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 97

Table 5.2. Sample Core Bedside Neuropsychological Test
Battery for Adults (Continued)
Type of test
Specific tests
SpatialDrawing (Complex Figure, BVRT-copy, short
Construction
form)
Construction (WAIS-III Block Design,
Satz-Mogel)
Visual discrimination, for patients with poor
constructional performance (Benton tests,
preferably short-forms with proration of
norms)
Visual integration (Hooper VOT short form,
with proration of norms)
Executive
Hypothesis testing and concept formation
(Wisconsin Card Sort, 64 cards, or Booklet
Category Test, short form)
Verbal reasoning (WAIS-III Similarities short
form, proverb interpretation)
Set Shifting (Trail Making from HRNB)
Verbal fluency (abbreviated versions of letter
and category, e.g., one or two trials each)
Design fluency (Delis-Kaplan or Ruff, useful in
lateralizing, or in testing aphasic patients)
Motor programming tasks (Luria Contrasting
Motor Programmes/Go-No Paradigm,
Manual Position Sequencing)
Graphomotor programming (mn, ramparts,
loops)
Sensorimotor
Psychomotor speed and coordination
(Grooved Pegboard)
Psychomotor speed (Finger Tapping)
Strength and effort (Hand dynamometer,
useful in differential diagnosis of depression)
Mood and Affect Beck Scales (Depression,
Anxiety)
Profile of Mood States (POMS)
Note. Standard tests are in bold type; others are optional or for
limit testing. WAIS-III = Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleIII;
BDAE = Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination; WAB = Western
Aphasia Battery; WRAT-3 = Wide Range Achievement Test3;
HRNB = Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery; WMS-III =
Wechsler Memory ScaleIII; CVMT = Continuous Visual Memory
Test; BVRT = Benton Visual Retention Test; VOT = Visual Organization Test.

98

Howard R. Kessler

Table 5.3. Sample Core Bedside Neuropsychological Test

Battery for Geriatric Patients
Type of test

Specific tests

Omnibus

Mattis Dementia Rating Scale-2 or Brief

Neuropsychological Cognitive Examination
or Kaplan-Baycrest Neurocognitive
Assessment or Repeatable Battery for the
Assessment of Neuropsychological Status
SpeechBoston Naming Test
Language
Complex-ideational comprehension
Writing sample (BDAE Cookie-Theft or WAB Kite)
Following commands (up to four steps)
AttentionDigit Span (WAIS-III, longer than Mattis version)
Memory
3 Words/3 Shapes (Mesulam)
Visual search (Mesulam or other)
Stroop Neuropsychological Screening Test
Narrative recall (WMS-III Logical Memory or
Babcock-Levy, with delay and recognition)
Figural recall (WMS-III Visual Reproduction, with
delay and recognition)
SpatialConstruction (Clock Test)
Construction Visual Form Discrimination (Benton VFD, Line
Orientation, Facial Recognition, BVRT-copy trial)
Visual integration (Hooper VOT)
Executive
Hypothesis testing and concept formation
(WCST-64)
Set shifting (Trail Making from HRNB)
Verbal reasoning (WAIS-III Similarities short form)
Verbal Fluency
Sensorimotor Psychomotor speed and coordination (Grooved
Pegboard)
Pathognomonic sign (synkinesia)
Strength-effort (Hand Dynamometer)
Psychomotor speed (Finger Tapping)
Motor Programming (Luria Manual Position
Sequencing)
Sensory
Pathognomonic sign (Double Simultaneous
Stimulation)
Mood-Affect
Yesavage Geriatric Depression Survey
Note. Standard tests are in bold type; others are optional or for limit
testing. BDAE = Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination; Benton
VFD = Visual Form Discrimination; BVRT = Benton Visual Retention
Test; HRNB = Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery; VOT =
Visual Organization Test; WAB = Western Aphasia Battery; WAIS-III =
Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleIII; WCST = Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; WMS-III = Wechsler Memory ScaleIII.

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the integration of a wide variety of variables not necessarily

common to outpatient or broader assessments. This data integration needs to be accomplished with brevity, economy, and
efficiency to account for both the patient's unique status and
the changing demands of the health care environment.
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Anderson-Hanley, C., Sherman, M. L., Riggs, R., Agocha, V. B.,
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Axelrod, B. N. (2001, October/November). Rationale for and application of short forms for commonly used neuropsychological measures. Paper presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the
National Academy of Neuropsychology, San Francisco, CA.
Ellsworth, A. L., Witt, D. M., Dugdale, D. C., & Oliver, L. M.
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Kessler, H. R. (1998a, February). Alternate forms reliability and
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Honolulu, HI.
Kessler, H. R. (1998b, February). Initial validation of the Neuropsychological Function Examination (NFE) in a traumatic brain injury sample. Poster session presented at the annual meeting
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Coblentz, J. M., Mattis, S., Zingesser, L., Kasoff, S. S., Wisniewski,
H. M., & Katzman, R. (1973). Presenile dementia: Clinical
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The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination

101

Leach, L., Kaplan, E., Rewilak, D., Richards, B., & Proulx, G. B.
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Mattis, S., Jurica, P. J., & Leitten, C. L. (2001). Dementia Rating
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Tonkonogy, J. M. (n.d.). Brief'Neuropsychological Cognitive Examination. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.