Proceedings of the

SUFFOLK INSTITUTE
of
ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY

Volume XXXIV
1980

THE ST NICHOLAS OR 'BOY BISHOP' TOKENS

by S. E. RIGOLD, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.HIST.S.
COIN-LIKEPIECES,cast in lead-alloy and bearing legends or types referring to St Nicholas, are
peculiar to East Anglia. Indeed, they have been regarded solely as products of Bury St
Edmunds, which has yielded the overwhelming majority of known specimens and the only
known mould for casting them, the publication of which, at the request of Miss Elizabeth
Owles, Curator of Moyse's Hall Museum, has prompted this reconsideration of the whole
subject. It will be shown that they were manufactured in at least two other places, Ely and
Ipswich, and that their distribution, though mainly in Suffolk, is even more extensive. Bury,
notwithstanding,
may well have been the example for them allall, that is, of the English
kind; from the first study of them, by Daniel Haigh in 1844, they have been compared with
other series, especially from Picardy and Flanders, with legends mentioning other patrons
beside St Nicholas and explicitly connecting them with the 'Bishop of the Innocents' or 'Pope
of Fools'.1 Hence Haigh produced the hypothesis (for hypothesis it rtmains, however plausible
and attractiveneither
'undoubted', as he put it, nor self-evident from the legends) that the
English pieces played a part in the rites and customs of the 'Boy Bishop', 'Child Bishop' or
'St Nicholas Bishop', the subject of several investigations (see especially Evelyn-White, 1905).
The rreign' of each year's Boy Bishop lasted from St Nicholas day to Childermas, or Holy
Innocents, when he preached a sermon and resigned. The custom is widely attested from the
time of Edward I onwards and by no means only in East Anglia, though there has been a
special study of it in these parts (E.A.N.Q., 1885-6, 169-72). Most of the evidence comes
from great churches with established choirs, but parochial instances are known, again
particularly from East Anglia.'
Before suggesting for what precise purpose the Boy Bishop might have used the tokens, or
how relevant to the hypothesis is their limiteddistribution
and very late date in the regime
of the medieval church, it is worth noting, as was sensed by Haigh and subsequent writers
on the tokens abd enlarged upon by Evelyn-White, a subtle difference in 'tone' between
what was expected of an English Boy Bishop and of some of his continental_ counterparts.
Whereas at Amiens, for instance, there is an inescapable element of burlesque, even of
impiety, and an assimilation of 'innocence' to foolery, the English 'Bishop', though no doubt
the occasion of a good time, especially for the children, was exhorted to be serious, decorous,
uplifting. 'Innocence',
tempered by good manners, was judged to be lucid and potentially
wise. There is no need to invoke an incorrigible insular Pelagianism; it is scriptural enough,
though nothing about childlike virtue occurs in the quotations on the tokens.
The author accepts the Boy Bishop hypothesis as useful and likely, but not necessarily as
providing the whole explanation. The first commentary on a St Nicholas token was by
Blomefield (18o6, 523-4)3 in the context of a fishermen's chapel near Norwich and concerned
with the Saint as patron of seamen rather than of children. Blomefield cites the story of a
miraculous rescue from the GoldenLegend, whence the words put into the Saint's mouth
appear on some of the tokens, and suggests that they served as amulets for sailors. This is
likely enough, but probably a secondary use. The prime datum about the pieces, especially
the earlier ones, is that they closely resemble contemporary groats and pence; they are much
more like coins than are any other lead tokens or religious medalets and must, in some
fashion, represent money.

87

S. E. RIGOLD

PREVIOUS STUDIES

Haigh's note of 1844was followedby the longer works of C. Golding '(I868, 14-19) and of
J. B. Caldecott, forthrightly called 'The money of the Boy Bishop at Bury St Edmunds'
(Caldecott, 1936).The last two are closelydependent on their predecessors,and Caldecott,
who had long been interested in lead tokens (cf. Caldecott and Yates, 1908),acquired Golding's collectionand ultimately presented it to the British Museum. Thus, the main body of
material usedfor theseearlierstudiesis intact. I have soughtto expand this bodywith material
from other sourcesin the British Museum and from the museumsat ISurySt Edmunds, Ely,
Ipswich, Norwichand, above all, the FitzwilliamMuseum, Cambridge.
FINDS AND DISTRIBUTION

The first examples to be described, though apparently made in Bury, were not found there
but recorded by the antiquaries Blomefield,4from Norwich, and Gardner, from Dunwich
or nearby (Gardner, 1754, 112). It may be of negative significancethat Thomas Martin
recorded none from Thetford (Martin, 1779) nor have extensive recent excavations there
produced any. Nevertheless,the sudden appearance of large numbersfromBuryitselfbrought
them to the attention of Haigh and the numismaticworld at large as 'somethingnew'. Haigh,
not a local man but writing from Yorkshire,implied that 'a few' had been found about 1838,
more around Christmas 1842and, citing a Mr Wire of Colchester,that the total recovered
over fiveyears or so was about a hundrednot, as somehave misread it, that a cache of 100
ws found in 1838.By Golding's time the days of abundance were over but they were still
sometimesfound. This account must be set against the prosperity of Bury in the last days of
the Corn Laws, with intensive building works, such as the Market on Cornhill, two new
churches, St Edmund's and St John's, and above all, between 1840and 1843,Cottingham's
restoration of St Mary's, where many 'groats' and 'pennies' were found in 1842-3under the
flooringof the chancel aisles(Evelyn-White,1905,247),which must be the find of 'Christmas
1842'(Haigh, 1844).In the earliestvolumesof Proc.Suff. Inst. Arch. (1, 151;II 95) it is recorded
that twelvewere exhibitedand presentedto the Societyas early as 1840,all, it would appear,
from St Mary's, and over the next few years, but nonelater than 1853,at least three or four
more from Bury, one from the Abbey grounds. These 15or 16,giveor take a lossor addition
or two, must surely be the 15 or 16 that form the ancienfonds of the present Moyse's Hall
collection.The onlysix obviousand wellprovenanced additions have been given or exhibited
there very recentlysince 1975. Two more have come from excavations on the Abbey
precinct by the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments. Four 'groats' in Ipswich, given by Miss
Nina Layard, and a 'groat' and a 'penny' in Cambridge have a Bury provenance, as by
, implication does most of the Golding-Caldecottcollection.Many, no doubt, stem from the
finds of C. 1840,but examplesturn up everyyear or two and the originalrourid hundred may
possiblyhave doubled over the following140years. Of these at least 8o are in public collections. Finds in Bury extend to the fringes of the town, but Bury productions have a much
wider distributionnotonlyDunwichand Norwich,whence a secondexampleis nowknown,
but Exning on the SuffolkCambridgeborder and as distant as St Neots.
Those both found and produced in placesother than Bury are extremelyfewbeside these
and were unsuspected until I &ciphered the legends. From Ipswich there are two, one
explicitlymade there; from Ely five, of which one, perhaps two, give the 'mint' name. But
the style of all these is distinct from that of the Bury pieces,which are numerous enough for
us to forma generalidea ofit in all its phases.The profile'groat' fromLavenhamis unmatched
by anything from Bury arid might conceivablyemanate from Sudbury. No other place seems
,

88

'BOY

BISHOP'

TOKENS

to have produced anything like the St Nicholaspieces, but a pOssible,though much earlier
parallel from Hampshire was shown at Winchester Museum in 1967 and is here put on
record (Pl. X,k). It is in high relief and well executed, showing a mitred head between a
star and crescent and a shield with emblems of St Peter and St Paul and two six-pointed
stars in chief. The high relief is reminiscent of some earlier leaden pieces from Northern
religioushouses,5but it is not necessarilyEnglish.
THE MOULD

This has been in Moyse'sHall Museum for a long time; there is no record of its acquisition
but it may be safelyassumed to have come from Bury or its closevicinity. It is made froma
slab of grey calcareous mudstone, about 2omm thick, cut from a pebble showing natural
weathering at the end. It is 44mm wide and the survivingfragment preserves48mm out of
an original length of at least 6omm (Pl. VIII,a, enlarged). The break shows a conchoidal
fract radiating from the point of intersectionof the runnels.
It is the reverse mould of a pair and was finished as far as the engraving goes (see the
positiveimpression,Pl. VIII,b) but may have been broken beforeit was ready for use, since
the slight round 'mortise' in one corner and the marking for another in the other corner were
hardly enough to hold it to the correspondingobverse mould. Pegging of dies is sufficient
for striking under pressure, but moulds for casting are usually drilled obliquely and laced
together to resist the thrust of the molten metal; on the other hand, the pair could have been
peggedand then bound round the outside.No piecesare known cast from this mould, though
they are known from a very similar one. In any case, the runnels which were to lead the
metal into the individual matrices and radiate from one point have been roughly deepened
so as to defacethe matrices of the individual piecesat one point and the blow that broke the
mould seemsto have occurred after this defacement.
The matrices are for one 'half-groat' (diam. 22mm), two complete 'pennies' (diam.
14-15mm) and segments of two more 'pennies'. The legends, which differ slightly from
'penny' to 'penny', are givenwith thoseof actual piecesin AppendixI, under SeriesI,B. The
larger matrix and a closelyrelated piece are the only known 'half-groats' among the neat,
inscribedseriesand may possiblyrepresent the earliest phase of them all. The cross-endsare
broad and triangular, as on coins before the middle of the i5th century and the lettering
includes Roman Ns, which disappear from normal coinage under Henry V. On the other
hand, the obverseof the related 'half-groat' hardly suggeststhat it is in fact as early as this
and circumstantial evidence about other pieceswith plain cross-endspoints to a deliberate
archaism towards the end of the t5th century.
FABRIC AND TYPOLOGY

Ignoring the non-Burypieces,which seem,however,to followBury prototypes,and the other

unusual categories(II and III in AppendixI), the body of tokensdividesitselfinto a reasonably neat and legible inscribed series (I), the apparently transitional series (VI and VII),
the uninscribed series (X) and the crude, heavy productions (IX). Of these I and X are
numerous enough for generalization: they are relatively thin for cast pieces, and generally
rigid enough to indicate a hardening alloy in the lead. The high SpecificGravity of lead
allowsone, as in the caseofgold, to estimatethe proportionofalloywithout identifyingit, and
measurementstaken in the Ancient Monuments Laboratory with a 'groat' and a 'penny' of
SeriesI and a smaller-sizedpiece of SeriesX show a significantproportion of alloy, but not
enough, if the secondmetal is tin, for it to qualifyas 'pewter'. An alloy of about this density
seemsto be around the averagefor 'lead' tokensof later date, accordingto analysesmade by
89

S. E. RIGOLD

Mr B. R. Osborne with tokens from Bury, viz: between 75% and just over 90% lead, or
slightlylessif the alloy is with antimony rather than tin. Of two SeriesI piecesbelongingto
Mr Mernick the 'groat' (4.48g.) would indicate approximately 90% lead, the 'penny'
(1.98g.)approximately77% lead; of twosmall-moduleSeriesX pieces,that from the Norman
Tower excavationat Bury (2.43g.)showsapproximately80% lead, one from Moyse's Hall
(2.7 g.), tested by Mr Osborne, slightlyover 9o% lead. Thus it seemsthat both the principal
serieshave a similar variation in alloy and that this factor, rather than volume or condition,
may affect the range of weightsfor otherwisecomparable piecesin the British Museum: for
Series I 'groats' from 3.74g. to 5.08g., with no obvious 'peak'; for 'pennies' from 1.56g.to
2.00g.,
with 'peaks' around I.65g. and I.95g.; for smaller Series X pieces from 2.18g. to
2.93g.6
The diameters of the Series I pieces are close to those of the denominations of coins
they obviouslyrepresent, as in the late i5th century; the reversedesignis identical with that
of coinsin the traditional 'Sterling' pattern of three pelletsin each quarter, as used with two
circlesof legend on groats and half-groatsdown to 1504and on pence, with a single circle,
down to 1493-4.As on the coins, the head, or the unaccompanied mitre on the 'pence', is
frontal, or nearly so. All but the earliest 'groats' show some versionof the forkedcross-ends
that firstappeared on the reversein 1488and continued,with more elaborationon the 'shield'
reverseafter 1504,but only the unique SeriesIII piececopiesthis reverseand the accompanying profile. There is nOneed to expect these changes to be immediately reflected on the St
Nicholas pieces: the old types predominated in circulation down to the 'Wolsey' coinage of
1526and disappeared slowly.By the time of Series X, however, we may assume the single
circle on groats and half-groats to be the most familiar. This series, though generally consistentwithin itself,is lesscoin-likein designand approximateslessto the diametersofactual
coins, yet it keeps the obsoletepattern of three pellets.
Most of the remainder can be described as slight deviationsfrom these models in fabric
and design. The reversesof the 'CongregacioDusse' piece (II in Appendix I), now untraced,
and the 'ship' piece from Ely (VIII, 2) are original, although the secondis suggestiveof an
Angel or of a common type of Nurembergjetton. Series IX, however,though equally coinlike in type may be much broader and thicker in fabric, with a `do it yourself' quality; some
may be local productions to save the trouble of sending to Bury for them. Dr G. C. Brooke
(1922, 139-40)claimed that impressionsor moulds of a St Nicholastoken had been used on
the inscribedcircle of a bell in the church of Shelley,Suffolk,much as impressionsof genuine
groats were sometimes--used.7I am grateful to Mr David Sherlockfor kindly examining the
bell.The fourimpressionsare all ofthe reverse,and thereforewith no indicationofSt Nicholas.
They are groat-like,with unforked cross-ends,illiterate as any Series IX piece, not very
circular but of large size (3o-33mm) (Pl. XI,b). There is no reason to think of tliem as
other than parts of bell-founders'moulds, copying real groats, but they may give an indication of the origin of some of the larger and cruder SeriesIX pieces,in a bell-foundry.
SYMBOLISM AND LEGENDS

The fidelity to coin-typesleaveslittle room for special attributes of St Nicholas beyond the
mitred head or bust, or single mitre, variously ornamented, and one or two croziers. In a
sense the three 'Sterling' pellets could be seen as an attribute of the Saintthreeballs or
bezantsand the ship of his tutelage of sailors. More significant is the insistence on the
episcopalinsigniaand the title of Episcopus,as though St Nicholaswere the only bishop-saint.
This, perhaps, is the strongest evidencefor associatingthe pieces with the Boy Bishop; he
was St Nicholas'sbishop, and he was a 'bishop' (not an abbot, dean, or any other kind of
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TOKENS

'BOY BISHOP'

president), whose duty was to move about his 'diocese' and not to preside in one place. Once
elected he was a 'bishop', not by consecration, but by virtue of his pontificals alone. Mitra

fecit episcopum.
The obverse legend generally invokes the prayers of St Nicholas, as sometimes also does
the reverse. This would be unusual on coins, where the image of a saint is normally simply
labelled as such, and it strengthens the amuletic aspect of the pieces. The reverse legends, as
often on larger late-medieval coins, include quotations from Scripture, from at least two
liturgical hymns in the metre of a 'prose' or sequence, and from the GoldenLegend.The exact
relevance of all these citations to St Nicholas, the Childermas or the Christmas liturgy is not
yet clear. The first is from the Apocalypse: (et dixit qui sedebatin throno)'Eccenovafacio omnia'
'Behold, I make all things new'.8 The second, and most prevalent, combined with the others
and used on all Series I 'pennies' comes from an antiphon sung at a visit to Bury Abbey by
Henry VI,8 honouring St Edmund but applicable also to the living king: 'Ave rex gentis
Anglorum,miles Regis angelorum''Hail, king of the English (or Anglian) people, soldier (or
knight) of the King of angels'. This text is the only internal indication that the Series I
pieces originate in Bury, but it does not concern St Nicholas. The third is from an untraced
sequence : 'Sospitati dedit egros''He gave the sick unto security' (One might have expected
`Sospitatemdeditegris'). It is relevant to almsgiving, including that of St Nicholas, but does not
appear in any 'prose' in his honour in the Sarum use or ascribed to Adam of St Victor. The
last, as even Blomefield knew, is from the GoldenLegend, in the context of an apparition of
St Nicholas himself to sailors in distress: `Vos vocastisme: ecceadsum''You have called me:
behold, here am I'. 10
Ely, which had never had a mint, and Ipswich, which had long ceased to have one, are
named in their proper place, in the inner circle, as a civitas and a villa respectively. So is
Villa Buri, on a specimen of Series VI, whether or not, as has been suggested, the Abbot was
making a gesture to assert the mint-rights that he had enjoyed until the i4th century. On
Series VII it is St Nicholas `de Bury', or 'Burii', and the reference is to a cult, chapel or
image, rather than to the mint.
CHRONOLOGY

AND PURPOSE

It is useful to apply the tests of 'pure' archaeology or 'pure' numismatics to the entire 'coinage'
before venturing into its historical setting. The exact order of the Series I pieces, as given in
Appendix I, is open to revision (some of I,B may precede I,A), but it is hard to escape the
general sequence of the several series taken together, viz : that Series X is the last, and derives,
via VI and VII from Series I, and that it is virtually impossible to reverse the order. InSeries I, apart from the pennies, only the 'groats' of I,A and the 'half-groats' of I,B have the
cross-ends plain, not forked in the fashion introduced on Henry VII's second issue. Only these,
therefore, could possibly be earlier than 1488. The lettering may in some cases be oldfashioned, but the compactness of the later part of the series gives no ground for extending it
too far backwards. Fortunately a I,A 'groat' from St Neots is one of the two excavated
examples with plentiful stratigraphic associations. These include a latten jetton from early
in the i 5th century, but this is worn and chipped while the vulnerable lead piece is in good
condition and the overwhelming bulk of the pottery, in Mr J. G. Hurst's view, is late 5thcentury or even later. The associations of the I,C 'groat' from the 'Maypole' at Norwich
were of comparable date. On balance, therefore, none of Series I, and afortiori none of the
other series, is likely to be before the last quarter of the i5th century.
'Groats' of Series I,C and 'pennies' of Group I,F have pure Lombardic lettering, still
compatible with a date around 1500, but I,D, with its 'mixed' letter (experimented with at
9I

S. E. RIGOLD

the beginning of the Volsey' coinagein 1526),or evennear-Roman letter, would be happier
in the 15208or 15305.A terminus for them all at the Dissolutionin 1539is likely from the
legendsreferringto the cult of St Edmund, but those that merelysay 'Nicolaus' could well be
later, still more so the anepigraphic Series X. They may be intentionally 'safe'; any 'style'
they have is vestigial.
There wasin Burya confraternityof twelvethat claimedgreat antiquity, called Congregacio
Duodena,hence 'Douze', or 'Dusse'. It worshippedin St Mary's, but, like everythingin Bury,
was ultimately dependent on the Abbey, and was devoted to St Nicholas. It may have had
an 'outer' (clerks') Guild of St Nicholasattached to it, the actual 'twelve' probably being an
elite of rich burgesses." Its precise relationship to the quire school,which had a monopoly
of teaching in the town, and to the Hospital of St Nicholasoutside the East Gate is hard now
to define,but was close.The names of both the 'Dusse' and the St NicholasGuild appear on
the lost SeriesII piece,which may perhaps have been the archetype of them all. These bodies
in connectionwith the quire schoolwould certainly have had a part in organizing the local
Boy Bishop,who existed at least as far back as 1418," and we can be sure that the Abbey
would see that there was only one of him. The situation is thus entirely consistentwith the
idea that the BoyBishopused the pieces.He receivedalms, as wellas givingthem and playing
a part not unlike that of the guizer 'St Nicholas' in the Netherlands todayin fact, Santa
Claus without a white beard. But it is hard to believethat if, in fact, he distributed the pieces
as largesse they were mere toy money, without value. Children and bedesfolkare harderheaded than that ! They fit rather among the mreaux,'tickets' or immediately redeemable
tokens,usually of lead, that were fairly familiar in religiousinstitutionsfor alms or payments that had to be made in church. It is likelyenough,especiallyin viewof their closeresemblance
to coins, that they were redeemable for sweetmeatsand the like by the Guild, the Abbey
almonry, or perhaps by any tradesman charitable enough to enter into the scheme.At what
value one might only guesshardlyat a 'groat' for a groat's worth; more likely in terms of
farthings, like the copper monetapauperurnof Scotland and Ireland (the Irish farthings bear
a mitred head). A 'hand-out' so managed is understandable in other urban situations:
Dunwich, Ely, Ipswich, even the nouveau-richeand ambitious Lavenham, and possibly St
Neots. With or without a major religioushouse, but with the backing of a charitable lay
guild, such practices would suit the late medieval atmosphere of religious emulation, and
they would be missedwhen the charity was suppressed.
The amuletic aspect of the tokenshas already been mentioned in the context of Norwich
and Dunwich, where the negative evidence is probably enough to say they were not issued.
But there is the wider possibilitythat, if accepted for exchange, they might have remained
in use outside the Christmasseason.The numbers found in Bury, which also produced other
lead pieceswith Es, crossedarrows and devicesmore germane to the Abbey (Golding, 1868;
specimensin Moyse'sHall) might support this, and it is around the turn of the t6th century
that we firsthear of Englishleaden piecesin circulation,which were to trouble the authorities
for a hundred years to come," though few that are known today can be placed so squarely
in this period. Certainly in Bury the move from well known mreauxto general tokenswould
have been easy.
The Douzeguild wasso dependent on the Abbey that it seemsto have collapsedbeforethe
general suppressionof chantries. In 1548there was no schoolwithin the town.14If Series I,
with its acknowledgementof St Edmund can be spread, as is likely,over the period from the
147osor '8os to the Dissolution,the transitionalserieswould go well in the followingdecade,
with the disoriented townsmendoing their best for the children. This might force Series X
into the time of Queen Mary; she is known to have had a weak spot for the BoyBishop,who
is even referred to as 'Queen Mary's Child', and she doubtless had a harmless cause for
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'BOY BISHOP' TOKENS

popularity thereby. In fact much of the documentation of the practice dates from her reign,
including a sermon preached by the 'Bishop' at Gloucester, a section in a Sarum use printed
at Rouen (not entirely for the English market) and accounts from Witchingham, Norfolk
(Evelyn-White, 1905, 44, 232, 243, 249). I know of no archaeological evidence that contradicts this late date for Series X. Some reformers had attacked the practice in the I54os, but
without complete success; it still prevailed at Winchester College in 1552, and such a light
cause would bend rather than break before enactments. However, by 1589 it was remembered
almost as a joke and almost with affection (Evelyn-White, 1905, 39).15I approach the subject
archaeologically, but perhaps Mr Tebbutt (1960, 104-5; 1966, 33, 53) was right in publishing
his piece from St Neots in Folklore. In approaching it archaeologically I must reiterate that
this last section is based upon a hypothesis.
APPENDICES

Appendix I is an enlarged classification under eleven 'Series', with a concordance referring the
pieces, where mentioned by them, to ate lists of Haigh, 1844 (H), Golding, 1868 (G) and
Caldecott, 1936 (C). Representative examples are cited from the British Museum (B.M.,
whether ex-Caldecott (C), or not), Ely Museum, Ipswich Museum (I.M.), Moyse's Hall
Museum, Bury St Edmunds (M.H.), Norwich Castle Museum (N.C.M.) and the Fitzwilliam
Museum, Cambridge (Fitz.). 'Seaby' = B. A. Seaby's, Coin & Medal Bulletin; `i.m.' = initial
mark.
Appendix II gives as detailed as possible a list of known find-spots.
APPENDIX
I.

I: CLASSIFICATION

NEAT, INSCRIBED BURY SERIES

Groats and half-groats, all with Mitred bust, except type C (mitred head), inclined right,
and with two circles of legend on reverse. Classification by outer reverse legend.
'Ecce novafacio oninia' ; good, well-spaced Lombardic.
24-25-mm. S on crozier 1., N on crozier r. ; i.m. Knopped I ( ?), or Cross, double
annulet stops, obv. only. Cross-ends plain.
SANCTE : NICHOLAE : ORA : PRO NO ECCE / NOVA / FACIO /
OMNIA / / AVE / REX / GEN / TIS
Variants : obv. ends NOM, with no stops.
H, i; G, 4; C, 2. Examples : B.M., 2, ex-C (Pl. IX,a, larger) ; Fitz. from St Neots
(Pl. IX,b).
`Sancte Nicholae ora pro nobis; rougher, well-spaced Lombardic, Roman N.
I . 22MM. (half-groat). S 1., N r.; colon i.m. and stops, Lombardic N. on obv.
Cross-ends plain.
ORA PRO' NO (BIS ?) : NI CHO (LAE) . E :SANC :/TENI :/ :CHOL/AE
OR//APR/ONO/BIS/ :III.
Examples : the mould in M.H. (rev. only) (Pl. VIII) ; B.M., ex-Parkes-Weber
(Pl. IX,1).
2. 27MM, thick fabric. S on crozier 1., N r.; 4-pellet i.m., colon stops; Lombardic
E in EPI and on rev. reversed. Cross-ends tulip-shaped. On this and the
following, Os sometimes lozenge-shaped.
-:-ORA : PRO : NOBIS B : ATE NICHOLAE : EPI : SANC T : NIC /
HOLA / E : ORA // : PRO /: NO / : BIS / : AGL (or :AGG)
H, 7; G, 7; C, . Examples : Fitz., from Bury (Pl. IX,c) ; Seaby, 1958, no. 3899.

93

S. E. RIGOLD

3. 27mm.Nimbed bust, nothing in field;4-pelleti.m. and stopson obv.and before

NOBIS (?), otherwisecolons. Cross-endstulip-shaped.
: SOSPI : TATI :. DEDIT : EGROS
SANC / TE NI / CHO :/:
LAE ://: ORA / PRO / : NO :/: BIS
Example: M.H. (Pl. IX,d).
C. Vos vocastisme, Eccead(sum)'; heavier, closely-spacedLombardic.
25mm. S 1.,N r.; 4-pelleti.m., colon or singlestops, both sides. Cross-endsforked
(U-shaped).
: PIE : NICHOLAE : ORA.PRO.NOB' : VOS.V0 / CASTI / S : ME'E /
CCE : AD. //. AVE. / REX. / GEN / TIS:
Variants: .PRO : NOB', : PRO : NOB', ME : ECCE :, no stops in AVE and
4,EX.
G, 4; C, 1. Examples: N.C.M., Norwich, 'Maypole' excavation; I.M., ex-Layard
(Bury); B.M., 2, ex-C.and Baldwin, 1898(Pl. IX,e).
D. 'Ave Rex gentis Anglorum,miles Regis angelorum'; 'mixed' lettering, with Roman H
and N, usually_RomanE and lozenge-shaped0. All have 4-pelleti.m., colonstops
and cross-endsforked.
I. 24mm. Heavy lettering, close to that of type C. S, reversed, on crozier I.,
knopped N on crozierr.
: SANCTE : NICHOLAE : ORA : PRO : NO : AVERE :/ XCNTIS / :
ANGLO :/ R +MILE :// REGES / ANGE / LOR'I / 0 ECCE
G, 5; C, 4. Example: B.M., ex-Franks (Pl. IX,f).
2. 25mm.Finer lettering; S, reversed,on crozier1.,knopped N, without crozier,r.
:.SANCTVS:NICHOLAUS:ORA PRO NOBIS :AVEREX/GENTIS/
ANGLO/RVM.(?)//MILES/REGE/SANG/LORVM
G, 6; C, 3. Example: B.M., ex-C(Pl. IX,g.).
3. 28mm. Lettering of uniform thickness; bust with high mitre, almost full face;
N1., S, reversed,on crozierr.
.:.SANCTVS NICHOLAVS ORA:PRO :NOBIS :AVERX:/ :GENTIS
A/NGLORV :/MINGES//REGES:/:0 NICH/ :OLAE/:EPISCO
G,"; C, 5. Examples: B.M., ex-C. (Pl. IX,h); I.M., ex-Layard (Bury).
Pennies, all with mitre, usually inclined right but often frontal and rarely inclined

left. Classificationbythe single reverse legend and the lettering. All are between
Ignm and 16mm in diameter.
`SancteNicholae'; rough, well-spacedLombardic with Roman H and N. Shares the
mould in M.H. with the half-groatB, 1.Rare.
:ORA PRO NOB' BEATE NI ( ?) SAIST/CTE
:/NIC:/HOL
Variants, rev, only, on mould: :SAN/CTEN/ICHO/LAE, :SAN/CTE/NICH/
OLAE
Examples: apart from the mould, one in B.M. (Pl. IX,i).
'Ave rexgentis'; generallygood lettering, allied to type C groats: E, which may be
reversed, and-H Lombardic; N often Roman. Normally 4-pellet i.m. and colon
stops. Common.
:.SANCTVS:NICHOLAVS AVE/REX/GEN/TIS: (Pl. IX,j).
Variants: annulet i.m., no colon on rev.; no colon on either side; cross i.m. and
annulet stop on obv. and beforeAVE. Obv. legend may begin at '8 or io o'clock'.
H, 3, 4, 5; G, (14); C, 12. Examples: numerous, including those from Bury Vineyard and-Recreation Ground (M.H.) and Exning (Fitz.).
94

'BOY BISHOP'TOKENS

'Averexgentis'; 'mixed' lettering, allied to type D groats: H, N and sometimes E

Roman, but E may be reversed Lombardic and 0 lozenge-shaped.
Normally
4-pellet i.m. and colon stops. Common.
-:-SANCTVS:NICHOLAVS
OA (for ora) :AVE :/:REX/ :GEN/:TIS : (Pl.
IX,k).
Variants: NICOLA (without OA); no obv. colon (E in AVE reversed); no colon
before, or after AVE; colon after GEN; no initial colon in quarters (E in REX
reversed). (Pl. IX,m).
H, 6; G, 14; C, 14. Examples: numerous, including that from Bury Abbey (Bradfield Hall). Of types F and G together there are to in M.H. and 20 in B.M., half
of them ex-C.
'Ave rexgentis'; all Es reversed Lombardic; H and N Lombardic; mitre inclined
left.
:-ORA :PRO NOBIS SNT NCH :AVE/ :REX/GEN/ :TIS:
C, 13. Example: B.M., ex-C (Pl. IX,n).
'Averexgentis'; lettering closest to type B or A groats; E, H, N, X Lombardic.
.INTERCEDAT.PRO.NO
AVE/REX/GEN/TIS.
H, 2; G, 16 (and 15, misread) ; C, 15. Examples: B.M., ex-C (Pl. IX,o).
SPECIALBURY SERIESFOR DOUZE GUILD
Groat size. Mitred bust; rev. has T (for translatio?)
between S and N in place of normal
groat type. Untraced: lettering unrecorded.
SIGNVM.GILDE.SCI.NICHO.
CONGREGACIO.DVSSE.
G, I I.
PROFILE SERIES: ORIGINUNCERTAIN
Groat,inspired by the 'profile' groats of Henry VII, with single circle of legend round
shield on reverse.
24mm, neat fabric. Mitred bust in profile to 1., nothing in field; shield, quarterly:
i, letter S; 2 and 3, mitre; 4, letter N. Cross-ends forked with cusps. Good Lombardic
letter with slight adinixture (Roman H) ; 6-pellet i.m.; rev, legend reads outwards.
-Y. ORA PRO NOBIS PIE NICHOLAE
SAN/CTE/NICH/OLAE
Example: B.M. from Lavenham churchyard (Archibald, 1967) (Pl. X,a).
NEAT, INSCRIBEDELY SERIES
Groat,apparently related to series I,B; two circles of legend on reverse.
28mm, thickish fabric. Mitred bust, full-face or slightly 1., N 1., V r.; cross i.m.,
colon stops, rather heavy Lombardic letter.
+ORA :PRO :NOBIS :BEAT :NICOLAE ORAPR/ONOBIS/SANCTE/NICOLA
//CIVT/ASEL/IENC/ISII
(for CivitasEliensis)
Example: Fitz. (Pl. X,b).
FAIRLY NEAT, INSCRIBEDIPSWICHSERIES
Gr-Oats,
bearing head with tall mitre; two circles of legend on reverse.
27mm, thick fabric. Head inclined 1., W ( ?) 1., h, or N, r.; cross-ends
(U-shaped). Large, more or less Lombardic lettering.
.S-A NICOLAIVS
0(RA)/PRO/NOB/ISBA?//VILL/AIPP/ESVI/CH
..IPP/SWI/CH
( ?), for. VillaIppeswich).Inner begins at 'six o'clock'.
Example: I.M., from Ropewalk, Ipswich (Pl. X,c).
95

forked
(or

S. E. RIGOLD
2.

24mm. Mitred bust full-face, crozier r., N ( ?) 1. Almost illegible: there seem to
be pellets for the obv. and outer rev, legends; the inner seems to end ..ICH.
Example: I.M., from Kingsgate Drive, Ipswich (Pl. X,d).

LEGENDS
VI. BURYSERIESWITHSIMPLIFIED
Comprising groatsand pennies:apart from Nos. I and 6,,the obv. type is a mitre, but
the groats (Nos. I, 2 and 3) preserve the layout of the double reverse legend and the
leitering is clear and recognizably Lombardic.
24mm. Mitred bust with pellets on amice, inclined r.
Pellets or strokes for obv. and outer rev, legends; inner, apparently, .*. C .*. /NIC
( ?)/III ID/IR.:
Example: M.H., from Rougham Hill, Bury (Pl. X,e).
24MM. Mitre inclined r.; cross i.m.
N.I.C.O.L.A.V.S, outer rev. unclear (possibly ECCE/NOVA/. . . ); inner,
VI/LLA/BV/RI (Villa Buri, not AVE/REX . . ., as C. has it).
G,i; C, 8. Example: B.M., ex-C (Pl. X, f).
'3. 24mm. Mitre with pellets, inclined r.
Pellets for obv. and outer rev, legends; inner, NI/CO/LA/VS
Recorded by Gardner (1754, 112) from Dunwich.
17mm. Mitre and crozier in bend. Obv. legend, SN:SN:SN:SN, but only the
beginning is clear; scrolls for rev. legends (cf. X,A,2).
C, 19. Example: B.M., ex-C.
15mm. Mitre with or without crozier in bend. A :V :E :A :V :E, rev. :A :/ :V :/ :E :/ :M :
G, 18; C, 17. Examples: B.M., ex-C (Pl. X,1).
4--I5mm. Obv. reversed Roman N, pellet above and below, 3 pellets 1. and r.
Strokes for legends on both sides (Pl. X,m).
G, 17; C, 18. Examples: B.M.; Fitz.; M.H., probably from Bury.
Vn.

LEGENDS
BURYSERIESWITHBLACK-LETTER
I. 25MM. Mitred head inclined r., crozier 1. Despite 'groat' size, the rev, has a single
circle and 'cable' strokes for legend. Obv. legend in rough Gothic minuscule,
auesace(branch as stop) nicholaes de bury.
G, 2; C, 6. Example: one in B.M., clearly that cited by G and C (Pl. X,g).
2. 19mm. Mitre facing. Strokes for obv. legend. Rev, legend in slightly better minuscule, san, or sanctInicollaelburii.
Examples: B.M., 2, one ex-C. but not recorded by him (Pl. X,i). Variant: rougher
work, 18mm, rev, legend mostly strokes but may include bv`-ri(?), M.H., from
Rougham Hill, Bury.

VIII.

LEGENDS
FROMELY WITHGARBLED
SPECIMENS
These have a rough, linear execution, technically like Series X. No. 2 may not be a
local product; it is suggested that with ship and key, it might be more proper to
Ipswich (cf. p. 99).
I. 24mm, thickish fabric. No obv. legend-circle; mitred bust inclined 1.; crozier 1.,
Lombardic E r., or plain staff, rather than crozier, r. Single circle on rev., with
or without pellets in quarters; rev, legend in semblance of Gothic minuscule (cf.
Series VIII) : ElylmulScelnic (?) or :autlf ficl :auel:ieih (?).
Examples: Ely Mus. (Pl. X,h); Fitz., exj. Isaacs, from Ely, near close (A.R.S.F.,
1973, Pl. VIII).
96

'BOY BISHOP'

2.

TOKENS

34mm. Rude mitred bust facing, crozier 1., key r. Quasi-legend in well-spaced
Lombardics, P (reversed) ODEICO...
T I I . . Rev: no legend-circle; ship
much as on Angels, but without shield; man in forecastle and ladder to mast-top.
cf. Series IX.
Example shown at Fitz., from Ely Cathedral close (Pl. XI,a).

IX. CRUDE,GARBLED
IMITATIONS
OFGROATSOFSERIESI ORVI
Very heavy and thick, apparently of lead with little or no alloy. All but Nos. 8 and 9
have a semblance of the double reverse legend and cross-ends usually forked. Were it
not for the mitred obverse, or, in the case of the uniface No. 3, traces of the appropriate legend (the others being unintelligible), they would be classed with the imitation
groats cast on bells and be considered bell-founders' sports (cf._p. 90). PaceCaldecott,
they are not numerous.
I. 35mm. Head in conical mitre, with big 'button' eyes, inclined 1.; S on crozier 1.,
N above, both reversed.
Obv. and outer legend mainly strokes, inner IICN/-I0/.
(M.H.) (Pl. XI,c: obv. only)
35.
Similar, chevrons on mitre, no S or N.
Obv. SA..CNIOL ? -rev. unclear.
(B.M. ex-C.)
30mm. Uniface (no obv.). S (reversed) TO-/ANSA/NIC-/NAVIVHAVE/REX/
GEN/TIS (C,7, reading SACNTVS NICOLAVS)
(B.M. ex-C.)
3omm. Facing head in conical mitre, N over X 1., pellet over, 3 pellets r. Quasilettering, inner rev. as NA/AIN/VICO/VINO.
Illustrated by C. before C,7.
(B.M. ex-C.) (Pl. XI,d).
25mm. Similar, no X; quasi-lettering.
(B.M. ex-C.)
27mm. Tub-like mitre in profile, infulae to 1. and r., crozier 1. 'Legends': obv.
zig-zags; rev, outer, strokes; inner, quasi-letters. (Seaby, 1958, no. 3901).
26-27mm. Thickly drawn mitre in profile to r., infulae reaching edge. Double
rev, circle, but both rings blank or illegible, inner perhaps has pellets.
(M.H.; shown at N.C.M.)
27mm. Obv. as No. 7. No rev, inner circle but pellets for legends on both sides;
cf. Series VI.
(B.M. ex-C.)
3omm. Obv. cross and 4 crude ovals containing pellets, in place of mitre. No rev.
inner circle. Rough scrolls for 'legends'.
(B.M.; shown at N.C.M.)
X. UNINSCRIBED
BURYSERIES
These come in 'large' and 'small' sizes, but the large, though of 'groat' size, do not
have the double-circle reverse, and the small, though of 'half-groat' size (except A,2),
may be intended as 'pennies'. Consistent, fairly thin and neat fabric.
A. Exceptional.
29mm. Finely drawn crocketted mitre in profile to r.; infulae do not reach inner
ring. Rev, cross within inner ring and crowns, with pellets over, in each quarter
(not the arms of Bury). Continuous 'scroll' in border on both sides.
C, it. Example: B.M. ex-C. Illustrated by G. and C.
The 'penny' of A,I ( ?). Mitre in profile to 1. bold scrolls on rev:
15-I6MM.
Example: B.M. (Pl. X,j)
B and C. Normal.
B is the large size (25-28mm), C the small (18-20mm). They all have an outlined
bulbous mitre, usually with a pellet in the centre, in near-profile to the r. or 1. on B
97

S. E. RIGOLD

and always to the 1.on C., and, unlessotherwiseindicated, a crozier to the same side
with its head or crook turned in the same direction; the infulae extend in the other
direction. The classificationis by the treatment of the border-ornaments,in place of
legends,in which B and C more or lesscorrespond.These may be: (a) oblique ('cable'
or 'wreath') strokes; (b) `scrolls'wavylines, singly, in pail%or joined together;
(c) zig-zags; (d) rows of arcs. On the rev, they are always divided by the arms of the
cross and always some form of scroll, one in each quarter on C, usually two on B
(only exceptionsare noted); on the obv. they may be continuous or interrupted by
pairs ofstrokesat the compass-points,formingthe ends of a cross,or by 4 pellets.Other
variants may be found, but the tale of examplesis larger than any other seriesbut I.
B, 1. 26mm. Mitre and crozier r., crook sometimesto 1.; oblique strokes,2 scrollsin
rev. quarters. C, to.
Example: B.M. ex-C.(Pl. XI,e).
26-28MM.
Mitre and crozier as before; 6 or 7 scrolls,2 scrollsor joined scrolls
in rev. quarters. G, to; C, 9.
Examples: B.M. (Pl. XI,f).
28mm. Mitre and crozier 1.; continuous zig-zag,singlescrollsin rev. quarters.
Example: I.M. ex-Layard (Bury) (Pl. XI,g)
25mm. Mitre and crozier 1.; continuous arcs, singlescrollsin rev. quarters.
Example: Salisbury Museum from Suffolk.(Pl. XI,1)
25-27mm. Mitre and crozier 1.; interrupted arcs, 2 scrollsin quarters.
Examples: B.M. ex-C.; M.H.
25mm. Mitre 1.,crozier r.; chevronsand scrollson obv.
Example: B.M. (Pl. XI,k)
C, I. 2omm. Mitre and crozier 1., continuous oblique strokes.
Example: M.H. (Pr. XI,i)
18-20IMIL
As previous but interrupted scrolls,sometimeswith pellets.
C, 20. Examples:Fitz.; M.H. (recent find, N. outskirtsof Bury); D.o.E. (recent
find, Norman Tower, Bury) (Pl. XI,m); B.M. (Pl. XI,n).
18t9mm. As previousbut interrupted zig-zags.
H, io; G, 20; Seaby, 1958,no. 3902.
Example: B.M. (Pl. XI,j)
XI. UNINSCRIBED
ELYSERIES
Similar to, but distinct from, SeriesX. The only provenanceis Ely.
I. 27mm. Mitre in profile,thickly drawn, pellet in centre; border of alternate strokes
and pellets. Rev. as SeriesX (crosswith three pellets in each quarter), border of
radial strokes.
Example: Ely Mus., found 1977 (Pl. XI,h).
APPENDIX II: FINDS

BURY St EDMUNDS. The more preciselylocated find-spotsare:

I. St Mary's church (TL/85664o); 1840,nave ( ?), a dozen or more, mostlySeries I 'pence',

the majority in M.H.; 1842-3,quire-aisles,SeriesI 'pence' and 'groats'.
Abbey precinct (TL/857642); late 1840s,one; 1962,site of Bradfield Hall (Infirmarer's
lodging), Series I 'penny' (Biddle; 1964); 1977,Abbey vineyard, in rubbish-pit, Series I
'penny', in M.H. Both the last near R. Lark.
Abbey gatehouse (Norman Tower) (TL/856641); 1973, Series X small-size. (Drewett,
et al., 1976,252, Fig. 74b.)
Recreation Ground (TL/844656); 1975,Series I 'penny', in M.H.
98

'BOY BISHOP'

TOKENS

No. 7, Gloucester Road, near road to Fornharn

Rougham Hill (TL/869633);
1977, Series VI,

(TL/848662),
I ; VII,

1975, Series X small-size.

2.

DUNWICH, Suffolk, or 'hereabouts'(TM/487o approx.).

Mid 18th-century, Series I 'groat' (broken),
group, I,C. (Gardner, 1754, 112 and fig.).

Series I 'penny',

Series VI 'groat'.

The first is

ELY , Cambs.
Where precise location is recorded it is in or near the Cathedral Close (TL/541802 approx.).
9th century, Series IV 'groat', in Fitz.; early 197os, three Series VIII pieces, one in Fitz.,
two including the 'ship' piece (VIII, 2), in Ely Mus.; 1977, Series XI, in Ely Mus.

EXJVING, Suffolk, on Cambs.border(TL/62o655 approx.).

1969, Series I 'penny',

in Fitz.

IPSWICH, Suffolk
1948, corner of Ropewalk and Bond St. (TM/168444), Series V 'groat',
garden in Kingsgate Drive (TM/178462), Series V 'groat', in I.M.

LAVENHAM, Suffolk
c. 1965, churchyard (TL/91349o),

Series III 'groat',

in B.M. (Archibald,

in I.M.;

1965-9,

1967).

JVORWICH
r8th century, Bracondale, near St Nicholas chapel ( ?) (TG/236075), Series I `groat'"; 1966,
'Maypole', No. 5, Haymarket, in infilled undercroft (TG/230084), Series I 'groat', in N.C.M.
(Wilson and Hurst, 1967). Both are group I,C.

St NEOTS, Hunts. (administrativelyCamlis.)

1958, ditch or pit east of dorter-range of Priory ( ? filled at the dissolution)
Series I 'groat' (group I,A), in Fitz. (Tebbutt, 1960, 104-5; 1966, 33, 53).

(TL/182263).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful for the help of Miss Marion Archibald of the British Museum, Miss Elizabeth
Owles of Moyse's Hall Museum, Bury St Edmunds, Miss P. M. Butler of Ipswich Museums,
Miss Barbara Green of Norwich Museums, Dr J. G. Pollard of the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge, Mr T. R. Volk of Ely Museum, Mr P. H. Mernick and Mr D. Sherlock, who has
contributed keenly to the search, especially for references.

NOTES
1

Haigh cited Rigollot, 1837, from which a selection was published in Wright, 1845, 165, and much more was
gathered in Demailly, 1908. Generally the interest in jettons and allied pieces was at its highest in the midt9th century, including a comparable
series from Paris published by Forgeais and, later in the century, some
from Throuanne.
I know of no recent collection.
Evelyn-White,
1905, cites, directly or indirectly, instances from Norfolk, at Elsing, North Elmham, Norwich,
Witchingham,
etc. and from Hadleigh, Suffolk.

99

S. E. RIGOLD

Blomefielddied in 1752 and his work was completed by others. The find may be after his death and the
engraving only appears in the second edition (1805so)of his Essay towardsa topographicalhistog of the county
of Norfolk.

See note 3.
For example, the seriesfrom Rievaulx Abbey, Yorks., of 13th- or early 14th-centurystyle, one with WELB
(Welbeck?)in bold Lombardic letter.
6 I am grateful to Mr Barry Knight of the Ancient Monuments Laboratory for calculating the density of thes
four pieces, and to Mr B. R. Osborne of the Pharmacy, Clare, for kindly putting his calculation of the density
of the 44 lead piecesin Moyse'sHall, including fiveof St Nicholas, at my disposal.
7
Dr Brookenotes, at least, that the bell in question, if properly ascribed to Roger Reve (active in the 1530s)
was still representing the obsoletetype of groat with two circlesof legend.
Revelations, ch. xxI, v. 5.
9
Craven Ord, 1806,65-71, givesan account of the king's visitin 1433,extendingover the Christmasfestivities,
but with no mention of St Nicholasor anything pertaining to him. Golding was aware of this document. See
also King, 1977, 387-91, giving the text and ( ?) origin of the antiphon, with fragments of it preserved in
gl ass-painting.
io Graesse, 1846,24: `Mox quidem in eius similitudinem apparuit dicens, Ecce adsum: vocastisenim me', which is not
exactly as on the tokens.
,
11
V.C.H., Suffolk, II, 310 12; Golding, 1868, 16, citing the will ofJohn Baret, 1463,brother of the guild of the
Translation (whither?; whence?) of St Nicholas, otherwise `Dusgilde'. His tomb is prominent in the south
quire-aisleand he was no doubt typical of the select twelve.
12
Records of the sad customarily given episcopoSancti Nicholai: H.M.C., 1895, 124 (1418), 125 (1429 30), 157
(1520-1); under distribuciopauperum, 125 (1537-8); Citedat V.C.H., Suffolk, II, 312 (also in 1426).
43
Sourcescited by Caldecott and Yates, 5908,318-9.
14
V.C.H., Suffolk, 0, 312, with effortsof Sir N. Bacon and others to refound a schoolin 1550.
5
We are getting near the nostalgic (and premature) tolerance of BishopCorbet.
See note 3.
4

REFERENCES

A.R.S.F., i973. Annual reportof the Syndicateand of theFriendsof theFitzwilliarn Museum.

Archibald, M. M., 1967. 'A Boy Bishop token of profile type', Brit. Numis. Jour., )(XXVI, 195.
Biddle, M., 1964. 'A Boy Bishop token from Bury St Edmunds abbey', Proc. Cambs. Antiq.
Soc., LvtLvII,126-7 and Pl. vita.
Blomefield, F., 18o6. Essay towardsa topographicalhistoryof the countyof Norfolk. 2nd edn. Vol.
Iv, 'The history of Norwich'.
Brooke, G. C., 1922. 'Boy-Bishop tokens', Numis. Chron., 5th ser., II 139-40.
Caldecott, J. B., 1936. 'The money of the Boy Bishop at Bury St Edmunds', Transactionsof
the InternationalNumisnzaticCongress,London,366-71.
Caldecott, J. B. and Yates, G. C., 1908. 'Leaden tokens', Brit. .Arumis.Jour., iv, 317-26.
Demailly, A., 1908. 'Inventaire d'u ne srie inedite des monnaies des eveques des innocents . .
Mimoires de la socitdesantiquairesde Picardie,xxxv.
Drewctt, P. L. et al., 1976. 'Excavations in the Norman gate tower, Bury St Edmunds abbey',
Proc.Suff. Inst. Arch., XXXII4 241 - 52.
E.A.N.Q., 1885-6. 'The Boy Bishop in East Anglia', East Anglian or Arotesand Queries,New.
Ser., I 169-72.
Evelyn-White, C., 1905. 'The Boy Bishop in medieval England', Jour. of the Brit. Archaeol.
Assoc.,New Ser., xt, 30 et seq., 231 et seq.
Gardner, T., 1754. An historicalaccountof Dunwich, Blythburghand Southwold.London.
Golding, C., 1868. The coinageof Suffolk. London.
Graesse, T. (ed.), 1846. Jacobus de Voragine:'LegendaAurea'. Dresden.
Haigh, D., 1844. 'Leaden tokens', .Arumis.Chron.vi, 82-90 (dated 2 May 1843).
,

-100

'BOY BISHOP'

TOKENS

H.M.C., 1895.'The manuscripts of the Corporation of Bury St Edmunds' in HistoricalMSS

Commission,I 4th Report, Appendix, Part vm, pp. 121-58.
King, D. J., 1977. 'An antiphon to StEdmund in Taverham church', ,Armf.Arch., xxxvi,

387-91.
Martin, T., 1779. A historyof the town of Thetford.
Ord, C., 18o6. 'Account of the entertainment of King Henry VI at the abbey of Bury St
Edmunds', Archaeologia,xv, 65-71.
Rigollot, G., 1837. Monnaiesdes vgquesdes innocents.Amiens.
Tebbutt, C. F., 1960.'Boy Bishopcoins', Folklore,Lxxi, 104-5.
Tebbutt, C. F., 1966.'St Neots priory', Proc.Cambs.Antiq. Soc., Lix, 33-74.
V.C.H., Suffolk, 1907.Victoria History of the Counties of England, Suffolk, vol.
Wilson, D. M. and Hurst, D. G., 1967.'Medieval Britain in 1966', Med. Arch., xi, 294.
Wright, T., 1845.Archaeologicaalbum.
l
This paper is publishedwith the aid of a grantfrom
theCouncilfor British Archaeology

101

PLATE VIII

Moyse's Hall Museum; photo D.o.E. Ancient Monuments Laboratory.

Mould for casting St Nicholas tokens, from Bury St Edmunds : a, the stone, enlarged i :2.75;
b, impression, na tural size.
S. RIGOLI)

PIAIT,

IX

I3thish Mmeum; Fitwilliam Museum; Muse's HMI .Museum.

St Nicholas

tokens, Scrici; I (natural

size).
S. Itimmo

PLATE X

British Museum ; Ely Museum ; Fit zwilliain Museum ; Ipswich Museums.

St Nicholas tokens, Series III, IV, V, VI, VII, VII, 1, X, A (j) and parallel from Winchester (k)
(natural size).
S. RIGOLD

P LAIT,

Xl

British Museum; Elv Museum; Ipswich Museums; Movse's Hall .1Iuseum

Salisbury Museum ; Inspectorate qf :laciest Alonuments.
St Nicholas

tokens, Series VIII,

(no. 1), IX (c, obv. only, and (I), X, XI (h) and impression
bell, Shelley (b).

from