A

GUIDE
TO
CAPE PHYSICS
UNIT # 1
2014

UNIT ONE FORMULAE AND DEFINITIONS

1

MODULE 1: MECHANICS
BASE QUANTITY

Mass
Length
Time
Thermodynamic
temperature or
absolute temperature
Electric current
Luminous intensity
Amount of
substance

BASE UNIT

m
l
t
T

Kilogram
Metre
Second
Kelvin

kg
m
s
K

I
lv
n

Ampere
Candela
Mole

A
Cd
mol

NAME

SYMBOL

MULTIPLE

Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo

T
G
M
k

NAME

SYMBOL

Centi
Milli
Micro
Nano
Pico

c
m

n
p

1 x 1012
1 x 109
1x 106
1x 103
SUB-MULTIPLE
1x 10-2
1x 10-3
1x 10-6
1x 10-9
1x 10-12

MODULE ONE: FORMULAE

COMPONENTS
x component vx = v cos
y component vy = v sin

Angle of resultant = tan-1

N.B. If the angle is made with the horizontal

ytot
Xtot

(Do not take sign into account)

Sign of X and Y totals determine direction

Y
= tan-1 x
2
+ ytot 2)
Resultant magnitude = square root of (xtot

MOTION
2

velocity = Distance/time
constant velocity

(n.b. This formula however is only valid for

motion!!!!!! i.e. ZERO

acceleration).
= TOTAL DISTANCE
TOTAL TIME
AVERAGE VELOCITY = TOTAL DISPLACEMENT
TOTAL TIME
acceleration = a = v - u
t
v = u + at
u-: initial velocity
2
s = ut + at
v-: final velocity
s = (u+v)t
s-: displacement
2
2
v = u +2as
a-: acceleration
AVERAGE

SPEED

t-: time

Projectile Motion
Projected horizontally
X-Displacement

vx = s/t
Y-Displacement

y= - gt2

vy = -gt
Trajectory

y= - (g/2u2) s2

Projected at an angle to the horizontal

X-Displacement

vx = s/t
Y-Displacement

y= tv sin - at2

vy = usin - gt
Trajectory

y = - (1/2 g/v2cos2 )s2 + (tan )s

Projectile formulae for projection at angle and coming back to same horizontal level
Time of flight = 2usin
g
2
2
Maximum height = u sin
2g
Time to reach maximum height = vsin
g
NEWTONS LAWS
F = d(mv)
dt
If
m
is
constant,
F = m(dv) = ma

dt
F = ma
If velocity is constant, F = v(dm)
dt
law of conservation of linear momentum :m1 u1 + m2u2 +m3u3= m1 v1 + m2v2 +m3v3
IMPULSE
since F = p
I = p = mv mu = F t
t
Impulse = force x time
I = Fdt
ELASTIC COLLISIONS
The relative speed of approach = The relative speed of separation
For elastic collisions only (w.r.t. velocity
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22 (1)
u1 u2 = v2 v1 (2).

CIRCULAR MOTION
o
2 radians = 360
o
radians = 180
angular displacement = s/r (s = arc length of circle)
s= r ( must be radians)
To convert degrees to radians =(/360) x 2(where is in degrees and is in radians)
0
i.e. 1 radian = 57.3

Angular velocity, =
v = r
= 2/T
= 2f
a = v
a = r2
a = v2/r
T = 1/f

d
dt

F= m v
F = mr2
F = mv2/r

Horizontal Circular motion

T = mv2/r
Vertical Circular motion
At the top of the motion
2
T = mv2/r W
T + W = mv /r
T is a minimum
At the bottom of the motion
2
T = W + mv /r
T is a maximum
At the side
T = mv2/r
Conical Pendulum
2
Tsin = mv /r where T = tension, W = weight of pendulum,
v = velocity, r = radius
W= Tcos
2
tan = v /rg

Gravitational fields
g=F/m2
2
F = GMm2/r
2
(where g is the gravitational field strength)
g = -GM/r
2
2
2
Gravitational Force and Circular motion GMm2/r = m2v /r = m2r
2
2 3
T = 4 r / GM
= -GM/r
Geostationary Satellites
= 2 / (24 x 60 x 60 ) = 7.27 x 10-5 rad s-1 (where T is the period of
= 2 T
seconds)

the earth in

UPTHRUST/VISCOUS DRAG
where = density of FLUID, g = gravitational force, A = area
U = gV = gA(h2 h1)
(h2 h1) = height difference
At limiting friction P = Fmax (where P => force applied, F => frictional forces)
Limiting Friction = N ( => coefficient of friction, N => normal reaction force)
Along an Incline
N = W cos
F = N= W sin
2
Viscous drag, F = 6rv = kv ( for a sphere falling through a viscous liquid)

MOMENTS
Moment of F = F x d
The principle of moments states that
For a system in equilibrium
SUM OF CLOCKWISE MOMENTS = SUM OF ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOMENTS
The second law of equilibrium states that
SUM OF FORCES IN ONE DIRECTION = SUM OF FORCES IN THE EXACT OPPOSITE DIRECTION
Torque of a couple = F d
ENERGY
W = Fs cos
Work done = Energy converted
2
Ek = m v
Ep= mgh
2
Elastic potential/strain energy = kx
Efficiency = Useful work done /total work done x 100
P = Fv
P = E/t
ERRORS
When X = A B
Absolute error = A + B
Fractional error = A + B
A B
% error = A + B
A B

x 100%

When X = AB or A/B

% error = A + B
x 100
A
B
absolute error = X x %error

When X = AnBm or An/Bm

% error = [(n x A/A) + (m x B/B)] x 100%

MODULE ONE : DEFINITIONS

A base quantity is one which cannot be expressed as a combination of other

quantities
A derived quantity is one which can be expressed as a combination of base
quantities e.g. speed=distance/time
An equation is homogeneous if the base units on either side of the equation are the same
The relative atomic mass or the r.a.m. of an element is the mass relative to carbon- 12 where the mass
of 1 carbon-12 atom is exactly 12
Avogadros constant is the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon -1
i.e. NA = 6.023 x 1023 atoms per mole
One mole of a substance is the r.a.m in grams
A scalar quantity has magnitude only it obeys an arithmetic law of addition
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction it obeys a geometric law of addition
The equilibrant is the single force required to close the polygon (The magnitude of the resultant but in
the opposite direction.
The displacement is the distance travelled in a specific direction ( vector )
The speed ( v / m/s) is the distance travelled per unit time (scalar )
The velocity ( v / m/s ) is the distance travelled per unit time in a specific direction (vector ) .
Uniform speed means that in every second the body is travelling the same distance
The average speed is the total distance divided by the total time.
Average velocity is the total displacement divided by the total time
The acceleration ( a / m/s2 ) is the rate of change of velocity with time. (vector )
Uniform or constant acceleration means that the velocity is changing by the same amount in every
second
A deceleration is another way of saying a negative acceleration i.e. when the velocity is decreasing
Newton's first law states that a body will remain at rest or moving with constant velocity unless
constrained to do otherwise by some resultant force
Newton's second law states that the rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the resultant
force
A Newton is the force acting when a mass of one kilogram accelerates at 1 ms-2
When more than one force is acting , the F in the equation F=ma is the resultant force
When a body has no net force acting it is either stationary or moving with uniform velocity
Newton' third law states that when a body A exerts a force on a body B, then body B exerts an equal and
opposite force on body A
The linear momentum (p/kgms-1) of a body is the product of the mass and the velocity of a body. It
quantifies the ease or the difficulty to change the state of motion of a body.
The law of conservation of linear momentum states that the total momentum in a system remains
constant once no external force is acting
The impulse is the change in momentum
A collision is perfectly elastic if kinetic energy is conserved
The angular displacement in radians is the angle moved through by the object
Angular Velocity (/rads-1) is the rate of change of angular displacement.
The gravitational field is the region around a mass (m1) in which another mass
(m2) experiences a force.
Newtons law of universal gravitation states that

(i) the force of attraction between two given masses is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance apart
(ii) the force is proportional to the product of the mass
The geostationary satellite is one that remains over a fixed point on the body it is
orbiting and thus has the same period as the body
Archimedes principle states that a body wholly or partially submerged experiences an upthrust equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced. The upthrust originates from the pressure difference occurring at
different depths in the fluid
Friction is a force that opposes motion.
Gravitational field strength the force that a unit mass would experience at that
point in the gravitational field.
Viscous or drag force is the frictional force which exists due to the relative
motion between the fluid and the body moving through it (viscous drag ).
Terminal velocity is the constant velocity at which a body falls when there is no acceleration since net
force is zero because the viscous drag equals to the weight .
A body is in equilibrium when :
1.
The linear acceleration of the centre of gravity is zero and no resultant
force is acting on the c.g
2.
The angular or rotational acceleration of the c.g. is zero and there is no resultant torque
The Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force
The Centre of gravity is the single point through which the weight appears to act
When a body is uniform the centre of gravity is in the middle
The reaction force always acts at the pivot
A couple is a pair of forces equal in magnitude but anti-parallel and separated by a
distance d
Work is the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the force
Energy is the capacity to do work
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion
Potential energy is energy a body possesses by virtue of its position or state
Gravitational potential energy is energy a body possesses due to its position in a
gravitational field
Electrical potential energy is potential energy due to a charged bodys position in
an electric field
The elastic potential energy or strain energy is the p.e. stored in a wire due to
deforming forces
Internal Energy (U) is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of molecules in a
substance .

Power is the rate of doing work

A thermistor is a device whose resistance varies with temperature.
A systematic error causes a set of measurements to spread a bout a value other
than the true value.
A random error is one that has an equal chance of being positive or negative
A reading is accurate if it is close to the true value of the reading

A reading is precise if it there is a small degree of uncertainty with the answer being given too many
significant figures.

MODULE 2 : WAVES
MODULE TWO: FORMULAE
f = 1/T frequency
v = f- speed

PHASE DIFFERENCE

= 2

= 2

t
- phase difference where t is the time difference between particles
T

x
- phase difference where x is the path difference between particles

For constructive interference

= 0, 2, 4
x = , 2, 3.n
For destructive instructive interference
= , 3, 5
x = /2, 3/2, 5/2(2n+1) /2
I = P/A = E/At- intensity
I = ka2 - intensity

WAVES IN STRINGS
L = /2
L=
L = 3/2

f0 = v/2L
f1 = 2f0 = v/L
f2 = 3f0 = 3v/2L

fundamental/first harmonic
1st overtone/second harmonic
2nd overtone/third harmonic

WAVES IN PIPES

One end open

L = /4
L =3/4
L = 5/4
Two ends open
L = /2
L=
L = 3/2

f0 v/4L
f1 = 3F0 = 3v/4L
f2 = 5F0 = 5v/4L

fundamental/first harmonic
1st overtone/second harmonic
2nd overtone/third harmonic

f0 = v/2L
f1 = 2f0 = v/L
f2 = 3f0 = 3v/2L

fundamental/first harmonic
1st overtone/second harmonic
2nd overtone/third harmonic

correct determination of with end-correction

L1 = /4 + e
L2 = 3/4 + e
L2 - L1 = /2

2d
= v depth mapping formula
t

v1 1 sin 1 n 2
=
=
=
= 1n2
v 2 2 sin 2 n1

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Absolute refractive index n= cv/cm

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 refraction equation
materials

(where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the respective

For sound:
Total internal reflection occurs going from air to material
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
sin c = ng/na
sin c = ang
For light:
Total internal reflection occurs going from material to air
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
sin c = 1 x sin 90
sin c = 1/ ang
DIFFRACTION
SOURCE INTERFERENCE
For Constructive interference
For 1st order
= d sin
For 2nd order
2 = d sin
For nth order
n = d sin

N.B. DIFFRACTION FORMULAE APPLY FOR TWO

where n = order of diffraction

d= slit spacing
angle made with zero order

For destructive interference

(n - 1) = dsin
INTERFERENCE
If a is small and D is large.
=

ax
- interference formula
D
where a => distance between apertures, x => separation between adjacent bright (or dark) fringes,
D => distance between two screens.

EAR AND EYE

intensity intensity level
intensity level = 10 lg I/I0 [intensity level measures in decibels (db)]

1/f = 1/u + 1/v lens formula (f = focal length, u = object distance, v = image distance)
Magnification=image height/object height= image distance/ object distance

power of lens in dioptres =

______1_________
focal length in metres

Radius of curvature/2 = focal length

Near point: 25cm
Far point: infinity with respect to the length/size of eye

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

x0 max displacement
x displacement
v0 max velocity
v velocity
angular frequency
a acceleration
a0 max acceleration
T period
l length of period
g gravitational acceleration
m mass
k spring constant
density of fluid

Simple Pendulum

T=

Mass on Spring T =

m
k

Oscillating in a fluid T =

m
Ag

For all SHM

a= 2x

v = (x02 x2) (formula for an eclipse)

v0 = x0

a0 = x02

Ekmax = Epmax = m2x02

Ek = m2x02 m2x2

Ep = m2x2

Etotal = Ek + Ep
[Dont assume that halfway through the motion Etotal = Ek + Ep]

When t = 0, x = 0 (eqm. position, sine graph)

x = x0sint
v = x0cost
a = -x02sint
Ek = m2x02cos2t
Ep = m2x02sin2t

When t = 0, x = x0 (max position, cosine graph)

x = x0cost
v = - x0sint
a = -x02cost
Ek = m2x02sin2t
Ep = m2x02cos2t

MODULE TWO: DEFINITIONS

Simple Harmonic motion Motion of a body such that the acceleration is proportional to the
displacement and opposite in direction
Damped oscillations A system is damped when energy of the system is lost to its surroundings
resulting in a reduction in amplitude
Critical Damping when displaced, the system returns to equilibrium in the shortest time possible. A
heavily damped system never returns to equilibrium position
Resonance is the maximum amplitude response of a specimen when the driver frequency is equal or
close to the natural frequency of the specimen.
A forced oscillation is one that is being supplied with energy from an external source (called a driver)
A wave is a means of transferring energy from one point to another through the vibration of some
system.
Mechanical waves are ones which require a medium e.g. sound, water
Displacement is defined as the distance moved (in a specified direction) by a particle from its mean
position.
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle in the direction of the vibration.
Wavelength ( ) is the distance between 2 consecutive points that are vibrating in phase.
Period (T) refers to the time taken for a particle on the wave to make 1 complete vibration or for the
wave to travel a distance of 1 wavelength.
Frequency (f) refers to the number of vibrations completed by the particle in 1 second or the number of
wavelengths travelled by the wave in 1 second. (f = 1/T)
Frequency does not change unless the source changes
Speed (or velocity) refers to the rate at which the wave energy is travelling in the direction of
propagation. i.e. a distance of m in T s. This yields speed
v = /T , hence v = f
The Phase of a wave that which determines the displacement of a wave relative to the amplitude
The Phase difference between 2 particles is the fraction of a cycle by which one particle is vibrating
after (behind) the other.
When two points are in phase they have the same displacement at any given point in time.
When two points are antiphase they have the same magnitude of displacement but opposite direction
Two waves are said to be coherent if there is a constant phase difference between them at a specific
location where the waves meet. i.e. one wave is always ahead/behind the other by the same fraction of
a cycle at that point.
The intensity I of a wave is defined as the power distributed per unit area. The intensity of a wave is
also proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
A transverse wave is defined as one in which the displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
travel.
A longitudinal wave is defined as one where the vibration of the source or responding medium is
parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
A polarized wave is defined as one in which there is only ONE direction of vibration perpendicular to
the direction of travel. (This leads to the wave motion being constricted to one plane, leading to the
term plane polarized wave)
A progressive wave is one where energy travels outward from the source.)
A stationary wave is formed when two coherent progressive waves travel in opposite directions in the
same medium at the same time
In a stationary wave, the energy is confined to the area between 2 points

Nodes Points on a stationary wave where the net displacement is always zero
Antinodes Points of maximum amplitude on a stationary wave
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency of sound possible for a system
End-correction (e) is the distance between tuning fork and the top of tube
First harmonic is the fundamental frequency. Overtones are multiples of the fundamental frequency.
1st Law of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal
2nd Law of reflection states that the incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal are all in the same
plane.
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it crosses the boundary between two media due to change in
wave speed
Laws of Refraction:
o 1. The incident wave, the refracted wave and the normal are all in the same plane
o The ratio of bending as a wave travels from one fixed medium to another is a constant (for
those media) and is given by speed in medium 1 / speed in medium 2, called the refractive
index.
The Refractive Index (n) is the ratio of the velocities as it travels between two media.(This is a constant
for wave energy travelling towards this specific boundary)
The Refractive Index of a material (n) is the ratio of the velocity in air/vacuum to the velocity in the
material.
A medium is defined as being rare if it allows a wave to pass through quickly, and dense if it slows
down the wave.
Conditions for total internal reflection are:
1. The wave must be travelling from dense to rare therefore refractive index < 1.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Diffraction is the spreading of the wave energy (over a larger area) as the wave encounters a gap
comparable to that of its wavelength in the medium in which it is travelling.
A diffraction grating consists of a material with many openings or slits. Diffraction occurs at each slit
changing plane waves to circular waves. Interference occurs between circular waves to produce
diffraction pattern
1st order diffraction is produced by secondary waves in phase by virtue of being 1 wavelength out of
phase
2nd order diffraction occurs when the 1st and 3rd wave fronts of adjacent slits reinforce each other and
have a path difference of 2
Interference is the superposition of wave trains from coherent sources resulting in re-enforcement of
the waves at some points and cancellation at others.
The principle of superposition which states: the resultant displacement at any point in a medium
where two or more waves interfere, is given by the vector sum of the individual displacements of
each wave at that point is used to predict the effect of the waves.

Conditions for interference

Without pattern
1. Waves must be of same type
2. They must meet at a point
3. Waves must be unpolarized or polarized in same direction
With pattern
1. Coherence
2. Same Frequency

E.M. Waves (of which light is a member) are defined as waves constituted by electric and magnetic
vectors vibrating perpendicular to each other.
All of these waves have a speed of 3 108 m/s in a vacuum.

Increasing
Frequency

R
O
Y
G
B
I
V

increasing

wavelength
Increasing
wavelength

X
G
U
V
I
M
R

increasing frequency

Visible spectrum

Electromagnetic spectrum

Intensity of sound is the power per unit area being delivered by a source of sound
Frequency Response is the audible range of frequencies detected by ear, taking into consideration the
threshold intensities.

Subjective
pitch

objective
frequency

loudness

intensity

quality

number of overtones (depends on the harmonics)

The threshold of hearing is the smallest sound intensity which can be heard by the ear and is generally
taken as 1.0 10-12Wm-2 at 1kHz. (The threshold of hearing varies with frequency. For low frequencies,
much below 1kHz, higher intensities are required.)
The sensitivity of the ear is its ability to detect the smallest fractional change I of the intensity I. Thus,
sensitivity depends on the ratio

I
and a smaller discernable relative change in intensity implies a
I

greater sensitivity.
Loudness is the subjective response of the ear to intensity and changes in intensity. Loudness is not
proportional to intensity.
Noise is disturbance caused by discordant or disagreeable sounds. Again this is subjective. One mans
noise is another mans music
Principal axis is the line which passes through the centre of the lens of Curvature of the lens surface. It is
the point that is equidistant from any two points on lens surface.
The Principal focus is the point on the principal axis of lens to which rays of light which are parallel
converge after refraction on the surface of the lens.
The near point of the eye is the closest position to the eye at which the eye can focus the image on to the
retina. Normal near point has a value of 25cm.
The far point of the normal eye is taken to be at infinity, i.e. very distant objects may be focused with the
normal eye.

Accommodation The ability of the eye to focus on objects of both near and far distances by changing
the focal length of power of the eye lens
Depth of field-Range of distances for object by which we can see image clearly
Depth of focus- Range of image distances where the image is seen clearly

Short sight (myopia) is caused either by the inability of the eye to allow the lens to relax enough to
become sufficiently low powered, or by the eyeball being too long so that the distance from the lens to
the retina is too large. When a person is said to be short-sighted, it means that only objects which are
close to the eye can be focused.
Long sight (hypermetropia) is caused either by the inability of the eye to make the lens thicker and
hence more powerful, or by the eye being too short such that the distance from the lens to the retina is too
short. A person having long sight is a person who can only focus clearly on objects which are a long
distance away from the eye.
Converging/convex lens lens thicker in middle than at edges. Converges rays to a point.
Diverging/concave lens thicker around edges than in the middle. Refracts rays so that it appears to
have come from a point.
A person with astigmatism has difficulty in focusing light rays from objects in different planes at the
same time.
Cataract- The clouding of the lens as it gets too stiff to accommodate.

MODULE 3: THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Formulae

empirical formula
XU-XL/ tU-tL = X-XL/ -tL
/ 100 = X-XL/ XU-XL
theoretical scale
= (273.16K/Ptr ) x P where Ppressure
Ptr pressure at the Triple point of water

heat capacity
E = C
specific heat capacity
E = mc
latent heat of fusion
E=mLf
latent heat of vapourization
E=mLv
temperature gradient
(T1 T2)/ L

In doing experiments to determine

specific heat capacity and latent heat,
IVt= mc and IVt=mL

Equivalent thickness
k1/x1 = k2/x2
rate of flow of energy
Q/t =-kA ( T1 T2 ) /L
total energy radiated per second
P= A(T14 - T24)
dQ/dt = P = AT4
(net rate of absorption/emission of
where :
energy)
T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin)
A the surface area of the body
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6696 x10-8 Wm-2K-4.

ideal gas and Thermodynamics

p pressure of a gas in Pa
V volume of a gas in m3
T thermodynamic temperature in K
n no. of moles
N- Number of molecules
NA- Avogadros number
R molar gas constant = 8.31 Jmol-1k-1
k- Boltzmann constant
m- Mass of a molecule
M-mass of entire gas
MM- Molar mass
20

crms -root mean square speed

<c2> - mean square speed

n=N/NA
k=R/NA
pV = nRT
p V = nRT at constant pressure
V p = nR T at constant volume
pV = NkT
<u2>= ( u12 + u22 + u32 + .un2)/N
P = m (1/3 N <c2>) /V
P = (1/3<c2> )
Ek = 3/2nRT (Ek of the whole substance)
Ek =3/2 kT (Ek of one molecule)
Ek = 3/2nR T
<c2> = 3RT/Mm
Crms = (3RT/Mm)
U = Q + W
COMPRESSION
ON +
EXPANSION
ON -

for an ideal gas:

U = nRT = nCVMT
CVM = 3/2 R
CPM = CVM + R
= 5/2 R
= m/v
P = F/A
P=gh
F=ke
E = / = Fl /Ae

for constant volume:

U = Q + W
W = 0
U = Q = nCVMT

For the volume of the gas, i.e.

the
work
BY
- done
BY +

for constant pressure:

U = Q - pV
Q = U + pV
nCPMT = U + pV
nCPMT = nCVMT + pV

21

MODULE 3: THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

DEFINITION SHEET

If two bodies in thermal contact have the same temperature then there is no net transfer of
heat in either direction and the two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
A thermometric property is any physical property which varies continuously with
temperature and can be used to measure temperature.
An empirical centigrade scale is one which is formulated from experimental results. The
scale is divided into one hundred equal parts and numbers are assigned.
Sensitivity of an instrument is the ability of the instrument to respond to small changes
Accuracy depends on how well the instrument can give you a value close the true value.
Response Time is how quickly the instrument (thermometer) responds to changes (in
temperature).
The Triple point of free water is that unique temperature at which water exists in the
solid, liquid and gas phases in equilibrium.
The internal energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy of the molecules in a
system.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
Melting is the process of a solid changing to a liquid and it occurs at one temperature.
The melting point of a substance is a single temperature at which the substance changes
from solid to liquid.
Boiling is the process by which all molecules of a liquid are provided with enough
energy to go into the gaseous state. It occurs at one fixed temperature called the boiling
point.
The heat capacity (C; JK-1) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the body by 1K.
The specific heat capacity (c; Jkg-1K-1) of a substance is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of unit mass of a substance by 1oC/ 1K (unit temperature).
The latent heat of fusion (Lf; Jkg-1) of a substance is the heat required to change the unit
mass, from solid to liquid without a change in temperature.
The latent heat of vaporization (Lv; Jkg-1) of a substance is the heat required to change
the unit mass from liquid to gas without a change in temperature.
Evaporation is the process by which molecules of a liquid escape and go into the
gaseous state without ever reaching its boiling point. Evaporation occurs at all
temperatures below the boiling point.
Thermal waste is the name given to any form of emission that is at a higher temperature
than the atmosphere.
Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of materials in order to deliberately
alter their mechanical properties.

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Thermal Conduction occurs when energy travels through a solid by way of vibrations
through the system. Neighbouring atoms are set into increased vibration one after
another. In metals, free electrons traveling among the atoms also gain extra energy and
travel a little faster as the temperature increases.
Temperature gradient is the temperature difference per unit thickness of block.
The rate of flow of energy is the quantity of thermal energy Q (kilojoules) transmitted
per second and is the same for two bodies in thermal contact
For two bodies with the same rate of heat transfer, the one with the smaller thermal
conductivity has the higher temperature gradient and visa-versa.
Convection is the movement whereby the kinetic energy of molecules increases as more
thermal energy is added to the fluid which then expands and becomes less dense and due
to the effect of gravity, rises up through the more dense fluid which then falls to take its
place.
Radiation- the transfer of electromagnetic waves, generally by infrared radiation, which
carry thermal energy along with it. This thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy and
thus, temperature rises.
Greenhouse effect- the absorption of short-wavelength thermal radiation but prevention
of removing the re-emitted long-wavelength radiation, resulting in temperature rise.
An ideal gas is one which obeys the ideal gas formula pV=nRT.( An ideal gas has no
intermolecular forces, p.e.= 0, behaves as point molecules, collides elastically. Thus
obeys all assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases.)
CM Molar Heat Capacity is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1
mole of a substance by 1K.
CVM is the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1K at
constant volume.
CPM is the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1K at
constant pressure.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the increase in internal energy is equal to
the sum of the heat supplied to the system and the work done on the system.
Work done is the areas under the p against V graph.
Isothermal change temperature remains constant
Adiabatic change no heat is given to or lost from the system
Isovolumetric change volume remains constant, no work done
Isobaric change pressure remains constant
Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume.
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area
Spacing is the relative distance between molecules.
Ordering is the degree or extent to which we can repeat the structure throughout the
body.
Motion of molecules may be of three types
- Vibrational
- Translational
- Rotational
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The load (F) is the force applied that causes the deformation.

The extension (e) is the difference between the new length and the original length.
Hookes Law states that the extension is proportional to the applied force as long as the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
The elastic limit is the point before which the body is elastic (goes back to its original
length when deforming forces are removed) and after which the body has a permanent set
(body does not go back to its original length)
Tensile strength/ stress (/Pa) is defined as the force per unit cross sectional area.
Ultimate tensile stress or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the tensile stress at which
the material breaks. It is also the maximum stress which the material can withstand.
Tensile strain is defined as the extension per unit length (no unit)
Youngs modulus (E) is the ratio of the stress to the strain of a material
When a body is stretched and the stretching force is removed and it goes back to its
original length, then it is said to exhibit elastic behaviour.
When a body is stretched and the stretching force is removed and it does NOT go back to
its original length, it will have a permanent set.
A ductile material is one which has a large plastic region where a small increase in stress
causes a large increase in strain energy, e.g. copper.
A brittle material does not behave plastically (it does not have a plastic region). It
always returns to its original length when deforming forces are removed. i.e. it is elastic
up to its breaking point e.g. glass, iron, concrete. It always obeys Hookes law.
Crystalline solid- one which has a regular arrangement and long range order
Non-crystalline/amorphous- one which has no regularity in its internal arrangement.
Polymers- long molecules of atoms joined together like links in a chain

Polymeric material e.g. rubber. There is no region where Hookes law is obeyed. It is
very elastic and usually goes back to its original length. It can also withstand high strain
stretching to five times its original length. On loading, energy is supplied and since the
unloading curve is lower, the energy recovered is less. The difference causes an increase
in internal energy. There is usually an increase in temperature since the average kinetic
energy of molecules is increased.
Breaking pointthe stress at which the material breaks
Yield Point- the point at which plastic deformation starts

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