Full Text of "Waterproofing Engineering
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Full text of "<a href="/details/cu31924015370400">Waterproofing engineering for
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<pre>
3tt)aca, S^eto lack
Cornell University
Library
BY
JOSEPH ROSS, B.S., C.E.
WATEBPROOFING ENGINEER
FIRST EDITION
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1919
COPTHIGHT, 1919
BY
JOSEPH ROSS
PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH & CO.
BOOK MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN, N. Y-
PREFACE
IV . PREFACE
materials of waterproofing; investigate their efficiency; draw
helpful, if not perfectly exact conclusions, and, where possible,
estabhsh standard methods and materials for general waterproofing;
and lastly, to emphasize the value of careful study of the whole
subject by engineers, especially those engaged in design.
In the hope that it will engender new thought and investigation,
and in the behef that waterproofing engineering is now coming into
its own, this book is dedicated to the engineering profession.
It has been found impracticable in many cases to acknowledge
due indebtedness, for material used, to those writing in technical
and engineering society journals on waterproofing; I herewith extend
to all my grateful thanks.
Most kind acknowledgment for valuable assistance and sugges-
tions are due and gratefully given to Mr. Percy S. Palmer, C.E.,
Mr. William F. Holzschuch, C.E., Mr. Samuel G. Margies, C.E.,
Mr. Max Miller, C.E., and particularly to Mr. Raymond J.
Reddy, who, besides contributing information gained from practical
experience, has been of great assistance in the preparation of the
manuscript and drawings. I also take pleasure in acknowledging
my indebtedness to and esteem for Mr. George L. Lucas, General
Inspector of Materials of the Public Service Commission, 1st Dist.
of New York, in whose department the opportunity and material
for writing this book were secured.
Joseph Ross.
New York,
November, 1918.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Need and Function of Watehproopinq
PAOS
Introduction 1
Conditions Creating Necessity of Waterproofing 1
Waterproofing — The Universal Structural Bodyguard 2
Density for Watertight Concrete 3
Source and Location of Ground Water, and Its Effect on Concrete 5
Waterproofing and Drainage as a Protection against Ground Water 5
Ineffectiveness of Weep Holes in Preventing Cracks in Masonry 6
Causes and Effects of Porosity in Concrete 7
Effect of Freezing Water on Concrete 7
Effect of Sewage and Sea Water on Concrete 8
Destructive Effect of Electrolysis on Concrete . . . ' 9
Elimination of Electrolytic Effects 10
Effect of Temperature Changes on Concrete 11
Effect of Expansion Joints in Masonry 12
Effect of Uneven Settlement on Masonry 13
Hygienic Need of Waterproofing 13
CHAPTER II
Systems of Watehproofing
Progress of the Art of Waterproofing _ 17
Surface Coating System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and
Development '■ 18
Methods of Applying Surface Coatings 19
Preparation of Masonry Surface Prior to Application of Coating 21
Application Of Slush, Scratch and Finishing Coats 22
Materials Used for Surface Coatings 23
Application of Cement Mixtures 23
Use of Lean and Rich Mortars 25
Application of Powdered Metal 27
The Sylvester Process 28
Application of Paraffin 28
Application of Bituminous Compounds 29
Membrane System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 31
Surface Preparation Prior to Application of Membrane 33
Necessity of Continuity of Membrane 34
Protection of Membrane 35
v
vi CONTENTS
PAOB
Methods of Applying Membrane Waterproofing 40
Making Membrance Mats 42
Connecting New and Old Membranes 42
Placing Membranes around Projections- and in Vicinity of Steam Pipes. . . 43
Use of Special Membranes 45
Considerations for Selecting Membrane Reinforcement 46
Storing and Unrolling Felt and Fabric 48
Precautions when Heating Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt 49
Proper Use of Kettles and Fuel when Heating Pitch or Asphalt 50
Differentiating between Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt in the Field 51
Coal-tar Pitch Versus Asphalt for Waterproofing 51
Mastic System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development . . 52
Applying Mastic Waterproofing 53
Precautions when Joining New and Old Brick-in-Mastic 57
Placing Mastic around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam Pipes 57
Preparation of Wall Surfaces for Brick-in-Mastic 58
Precautions for Setting-up, Filling and Stripping Forms for Brick-in-Mastic
Walls 59
Settlement and Bracing of Brick-in-Mastic Walls 61
Materials for Making Mastic — Their Properties and Proportions 62
Hand Versus Machine-made Mastic 63
Brick-heating Methods '. 65
Weather Conditions Governing Waterproofing Operations 66
Integral System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 66
Limitations of the Integral System of Waterproofing 68
Integral Waterproofing Materials and Their Application 69
Use of Hydrated Lime 69
Use of Inert Fillers 70
Use of Active Fillers 72
Use of Proprietary Cements 72
Use of Integral Liquids 74
Use of Integral Pastes 75
Self-densified Concrete: Definition, Purpose and Development 76
Methods of Making Dense Concrete 77
Scientific Proportioning 78
Grade of Workmanship and Supervision Necessary for Watertight Concrete 81
Grouting Process of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 82
Application of Grout for Waterproofing 84
Cement and Sand for Grouting 85
Equipment for Grouting Process 86
Steam Pressure Concrete Mixing and Placing Machine 89
CHAPTER III
Impervious Roofing
Impervious Roofing Defined gi
Properties and Application of Shingles 92
Wood Shingles 92
Slate Shingles 93
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Tile Shingles gg
Prepared Shingles 100
Asbestos Shingles 101
American Method of Applying Asbestos Shingles • 103
Hexagonal and French Methods of Applying Asbestos Shingles 103
Tin Roofing IO5
Properties and Application of Tin Roofing 105
Felt (or Composition, or Built-up) Roofing 108
Applying Felt Roofing 108
Varieties of Prepared or Ready Roofings 112
Applying Ready Roofings lU
Roof Flashings 116
Roof Gutters 118
Functional Roofings 120
Definition, Use and Varieties of Functional Roofings 120
CHAPTER IV
Waterproofing Expansion Joints in Masonry
Function and Properties of Expansion Joints 124
Monolithic Construction Obviates Expansion Joints 125
Design and Spacing of Expansion Joints 126
Joints in Brick Masonry 126
The Slip-tongue and Plane-of-Weak-Bond Joints 127
Illustrations of Expansion Joints 128
Cut-offs in Expansion Joints 134
Physical-acting Expansion Joint Fillers 140
Chemical-acting Joint Fillers 143
CHAPTER V
Waterproofing Materials
Selection and Adaptability of Materials 145
Materials for Different Systems of Waterproofing 145
Nature of Materials Acting Chemically as Waterproofing Agents 147
Nature of Materials Acting Mechanically as Waterproofing Agents 153
CPIAPTER VI
Waterproofing Implements and Machinery
Applicability of Tools and Machinery for Waterproofing 166
Varieties of Mastic Mixers 166
Varieties of Heating Kettles 170
Sundry Waterproofing Implements 176
The Cement Gun 184
The Grouting Machine 18S
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
Technical and Practical Tests on Waterproofing
PAGE
Necessity of Testing Waterproofing Materials 188
Significance and Description of Technical Tests on Bitumens 189
Specific Gravity 190
Flash Point '. 191
Solubility in Carbon Bisulphide 192
Solubility in Carbon Tetrachloride 194
Solubility in Petrolic Ether 194
Penetration Test 195
Methods of Determining Melting-points of Bitumens 197
Ductility Test on Bitumen 209
Evaporation Test on Bitumen 212
Determination of Free Carbon in Coal-tar Pitch 214
Ash Test ■ 217
Fixed Carbon Test 217
Paraffin Test 218
Dimethyl Sulphate Test 219
Tests on Treated and Untreated Cement Mortar and Concrete 219
Standard Instructions for Permeability Tests 220
Description of Standard Apparatus 221
Method of Testing Permeability of Waterproofed Concrete 222
Results of Permeability Tests on Waterproofed Concrete 224
Results of Permeability Tests on Plain Concrete 227
Description and Results of Practical Tests 229
Test on Absorption of Concrete 229
Test on Concrete Floor Hardeners 231
Comparison of Melting-points of Bitumsms 235
Effect of Heat on Various Pitches Mixed with Linseed Oil 236
Flowing and Bonding Properties of Pitch Containing Small Quantities of
Asphalt or Linseed Oil 238
Effect of Asbestos Filler on the Physical Properties of Bitumen 238
Ductility of Asphalt Containing Coal-tar Pitch 240
Effect of Temperature on Penetration and Ductility of Asphalt and Coal-
tar Pitch 241
Comparative Tests on Coal-tar and Asphalt Mastics 247
Volume Reduction of Asphalt Mastics 248
Mastic Bond Affected by Surface Condition of Bricks 249
Relative Compression of Plain Brick, Brick and Mortar, and Brick-in-Mastic 249
Effect of Temperature of Saturants on Waterproofing Fabrics 251
Relative Amount of Saturant and Coating Material on Treated Water-
proofing Felts and Fabrics 252
Effect of Drinking Water on Waterproofing Fabrics 254
Effect of Ground Water on Waterproofing Fabrics 255
Relative Absorption and Strength of Raw and Treated Waterproofing Felts
and Fabrics 256
Immutability Test on Various Wnterproofing Felts and Falirics 260
Compressibility of Treated Jute-fabric Waterproofing Membranes 260
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER VIII
Waterproofing Specifications
PAGE
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Specific Gravity and Coefficient of Expansion of Various Materials 387
Weight and Thickness of Burlap, Felt, and Cotton Fabric Membranes with
Coal-tar Pitch Binder 388
Thickness of Waterproofing Materials Required for Different Water
Pressures 389
Volumes and Weights of Ingredients Used in Brick-in- (Asphalt) Mastic
Waterproofing 390
Pressure Exerted by Water Beneath Floors and against Walls 392
Approximate Weights and Thicknesses of Various Sheet Metals for Roof,
Gutters and Flashings 393
Weights of Roof Coverings 395
Square Feet Covered by 1000 Wooden Shingles 396
Number of Slates and Pounds of Nails Required for Roofing £97
Size, Length, Gauge and Weight of Roofing Nails 397
APPENDIX I
Explanation of Mechanical Analysis for Grading Concrete Aggregates 399
APPENDIX II
Concrete in Sea Water 403
APPENDIX III
Report on Waterproofing — ^American Society for Testing Materials 408
APPENDIX IV
Glossary of Terms Used in the Waterproofing Industry 413
APPENDIX V
References : 423
Index 428
WATEEPROOFINCt ENCxINEEIMNa
CHAPTER I
NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING
Introduction
The art of waterproofing, while having passed its infancy, is
not yet in its adult stage of development. That it has developed
from a crude understanding and practice is evident from the fact
that the ancient Romans would waterproof their structures by
building foundation walls so thick that water could not possibly
percolate through them.
Searching through both ancient and modern annals for a his-
tory of the subject, we are consistently confronted by the scarcity
of reliable literature on waterproofing; but it is quite well ascer-
tained that the early Egyptians used asphalt * to waterproof the
foundations of the pyramids, that they waterproofed the ground
floors of some houses by internal and external applications of bitu-
minous material, and used it also in the construction of cisterns,
silos, and other works where waterproofing was necessary: that the
Romans were among the first to apply successfully the early prin-
ciples of waterproofing and were the first successful manufacturers
of hydraulic cement. This cement was a natural cement similar
to our present day puzzolan cement. Of course, waterproofing
engineering as practiced by both the Egyptians and Romans must
be taken in a restricted sense, for the art, as now developed and as
we comprehend it to-day, was quite unknown then.
Conditions Creating Necessity of Water roofing. It has been
quite definitely proven that water is practically a universal
solvent; i.e., given time and water, especially sub-surface water,
very few things will resist the deteriorating effect of the latter. At
* For earliest history of asphalt, see : " Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred
Industries " by Livache and Mcintosh, Vol. 2, p. 33.
2 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
certain distantes below ground surface, varying both seasonally
and locally, water is nearly (within several feet) at the same level
(called ground-water level) ' throughout the year. All engineering
structures, of course, have their foundations in earth or rock (which
is the same thing so far as water pressure is concerned) and may be
partly or entirely submerged by ground water; consequently they
are subject to considerable water pressure and to the disintegrating
influences of the acids or alkalies usually present in ground water.
It is also evident that due to uneven settlement and continual
variations of temperature, cracks may develop in superstructural
and subsurface masonry, foundation walls, etc., through which water
will seep regardless of how minute these cracks may be; hence
waterproofing in some form becomes essential to the life and sta-
bihty of the structure. What this form of waterproofing should be
is a problem not susceptible to precise mathematical solution, but
by a careful study of conditions and with the help of past and present
experience, and a knowledge of the chemical and physical properties
of waterproofing materials, a form or method can be devised suitable
for any special condition. Therefore, a knowledge of all manner of
waterproofing systems and the properties of suitable materials
becomes indispensable, at least to the engineer and architect, who
usually specify how and what should be used under given conditions
or for particular structures.
Waterproofing — The Universal Structural Bodyguard. Our era
has rightly been designated the " Concrete Age." In fact, the
growth of our civilization might be measured by the quantity produc-
tion of cement, and the commercial progress of a community might
be measured by the number and size of the concrete structures
within its boundaries. In the not distant past, most solid struc-
tures were composed of ordinary brick or stone masonry, and to-day
not a few are similarly constructed, but these are rapidly being super-
seded by concrete and steel. Even for dwellings concrete is becoming
more adaptable and is being used more every day, and the prediction
is made that the future will see a predominance of concrete buildings
of all varieties.
But co-ordinately with the use of concrete, or nearly so, is the
provision of a " body guard " in the form of waterproofing. For,
as iron and steel must be protected from corrosion, so must concrete
be protected from disintegration, but unlike the former, concrete
must also be made impermeable. Water, by its capacity of alternate
freezing and thawing, reacting upon concrete as ordinarily made,
with its inherent porosity, wherein water may lodge and exert its
4 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
some manner not yet definitely known, and is one of the chief causes
for the disintegration of concrete. This is especially true of the
action of sea water on concrete. Other causes tending to disintegrate,
or in some manner to disrupt concrete, are electrolysis, temperature
changes and uneven settlement. A brief review will be made of each
of these causes and their effects.
TABLE I.— AVERAGE WEIGHTS, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, AND AB-
SORPTION OF VARIOUS STONES AND CONCRETES
Stone
Kind of Stone.
Weight,
Lb. per
Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity.
Water
Absorbed,*
Lb. per Cu. Ft.
Trap
Marble
Slate
Granite
Limestone. . .
Conglomerate
Sandstone . . .
Brick
Gravel
Cinders
180
170
168
168
162
162
150
125
100
95
2.92
2.72
2.70
2.70
2.60
2.60
2.40
1.85
2.65
1.50
Max.
1,
1
2.
2.
6
3
11
03
04
10
77
62
71
60
18.75
■ Mill.
0.23
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.60
0.02
Concrete
Kind of Aggregate.
Weight,
Lb. per
Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity.
Water
Absorbed,
Lb per Cu. Ft.* t
Trap
155
150
150
148
144
143
112
2.48
2.40
2.40
2.34
2.30
2.29
1.79
3 13
Conglomerate
Gravel
Limestone
Marble
Sandstone
Cinders
3.66
3.47
2.48
9.61
* For exact method of determining absorption of water per cubic foot of rock, see
American Society of Civil Engineers Transactions, Vol. 82, p. 1437 (1918).
t The figures in the last column were estimated from testa made on 6-inch cubes of 1 : 2 :
concrete.
6 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
An underground system of drainage is often included even where
a complete system of waterproofing is called for and provided, as in
the above cited subway specification, to wit: " Every part of the
railroad must, so far as possible, be so arranged that saiy water
finding access thereto will be led away automatically to the city
sewers. Where the railroad is on an inclined gradient, and is con-
structed in dry, porous soil, the floor of the railroad may be depended
on to act as a conduit. At the bottom of the inclined gradient
connection must be made with a sewer or with subdrains lying
beneath the railroad and draining into the sewers.
" Along such parts of the work where the soil is not porous, or
where the floor of the railroad cannot, in the judgment of the engineer,
be used as a conduit there shall be laid, beneath the rail level and on a
continuous descending gradient, drain pipes of vitrified tile. Each
drain shall be laid in the concrete or directly in the soil with tight
or open joints, as directed, and in such manner and in such position
as, in the opinion of the engineer, local circumstances require."
Ineffectiveness of Weep Holes in Preventing Cracks in Masonry.
Concrete retaining walls and abutments, but more especially the
former, are, as a rule, provided with weep holes to take care of the
water at their backings. The practice adhered to is to let one weep
hole 3 or 4 inches in diameter suffice for every 3 or 4 yards of wall
front. But experience has demonstrated that such weep holes
do not always suffice to protect a wall against water pressure (in
so far as it affects percolation), still less against deteriorating agencies
in the water, and least of all do they prevent surface disfiguration
due to efflorescence. Neither do weep holes prevent subsequent
and uneven settlement with consequent cracking of the masonry.
The reason is quite obvious; for weep holes too often and too easily
become clogged, and are in consequence unable to carry o£f the
storm water rapidly, which is their main function, consequently the
water accumulates in the backfill and backs up behind the wall,
causing, with the aid of head and frost, the damages referred to
above.
While waterproofing would not overcome all of these defects,
it would undoubtedly eliminate to a marked degree their effects.
In fact, the tendency in present-day construction is to ehminate
weep holes and substitute a type of waterproofing meeting the
purpose and need of the structure. Thus it is seen that ground
water is the elemental cause against which concrete structures must
be protected by the application of some waterproofing material or
drainage system, or both.
NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 7
Causes and Effects of Porosity in Concrete
Cement mortar and concrete, even when made under laboratory
conditions, are far from being dense enough to completely pre-
vent the percolation (independent of absorption) of water through
them if time is reckoned as a factor. The volume of total voids
in mortars averages about 26 per cent, and in concrete, of pro-
portions commonly employed in practice, the voids range from
13 to 17 per cent. That this is a common as well as a serious
condition follows from the fact that many laboratory tests show
that 70 to 80 per cent of the tempering water evaporates,
leaving behind it the cells that it formerly occupied, and as these
cells are more or less connected, a system of ducts through the
entire structure is established. This cellular condition creates
a natural capillary passageway for water to enter and be absorbed
in the mass. But the permeability of mortar or concrete is
practically independent of that form of porosity wherein the voids
form an unconnected system, but the freezing effect is quite different,
and is referred to below.
At this point it is probably well to remind the reader not to
confound porosity with either permeability or absorption, for con-
crete may be porous and yet absorb little water, and it may be
absorptive, and yet not permeable.
Porosity of concrete may be defined as the net-work of uncon-
nected voids or honeycombing of its mass by the entrained air and
water.
- Absorption of concrete is the property of drawing in or engrossing
water into its pores or voids by capillary action or otherwise.
Permeability (or percolation) of concrete may be defined as that
quality, due to cracks or connected voids, which permits the flow of a
liquid through it.
Efifect of Freezing Water on Concrete. All three states, that is
porosity, permeability and absorption, are alUed, and each one in
some way is detrimental to concrete, for, whether water is entrained
in the mass * or flows through it, or is absorbed by the concrete,
when it freezes some form of damage is done. There are but few
bonds strong enough to resist the expansive force of freezing water.
It increases its bulk approximately 10 per cent, and the consequent
expansive force is probably more than 10,000 pounds per square inch.
A section of concrete 100 feet long, under 100 deg. Fahr. (55.5 deg.
Cent.) change in temperature, will contract or expand ^ of an
* See striking example in Engineering News, Vol. 77, No. 9, p. 356.
S WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
inch. This change is infinitesimal in comparison to the volumetric
change in freezing water; hence the need for eliminating the porosity
of concrete and also preventing the percolation of water through it.
For evidence of the effect of the expansive force of freezing water,
one need but observe the physical condition of natural stones exposed
to the elements for a more or less protracted period of time. Even
mountains, with their proverbial strength, are crippled by this agency.
A very striking example of the effect of this tremendous mechanical
force is seen in the crumbhng of the exposed portions of the rocky
Palisades on the New Jersey shore of the Hudson River.
Effect of Sewage and Sea Water on Concrete.* That the dura-
bihty of concrete is materially impaired by its porosity is strikingly
illustrated by the easy prey it falls to the action of alkali waters,
sewage and sea water.
The alkalies contained or formed by or in these waters, which
are most active in causing disintegration of concrete, especially
when allowed to penetrate into the interior of the mass, are the
sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium.
Disintegration of concrete in sewers and sewage disposal works,
whether due to the use of poor materials, poor workmanship, or lean
mixtures, each of which tends to decrease the density of concrete,
has been found to take place above the normal surface of the liquid
contained. This action probably results from the fact that quanti-
ties of hydrogen sulphide are evolved from the sewage. This sul-
phide is produced in two ways: (a) By the bacterial decomposition
of sulphur-containing proteins and related compounds, and (6) the
reduction of sulphates which are contained in unusual amounts in
some water supplies. Of the two, the second seems to be more
important. The hydrogen sulphide which escapes as gas from the
sewage is partially dissolved in the moisture on the under side of the
roof and concrete walls. Here it is oxidized to sulphuric acid partly
by atmospheric oxidation and partly by bacterial action. The
sulphuric acid acts upon the calcium compounds in the concrete,
forming calcium sulphate, thus breaking down the concrete.
Where the effect of sea water on concrete has been other than
mechanical, it is probable that disintegration is caused by the sub-
stitution of magnesium oxide (MgO) from the sea water in the place
of the calcium oxide (CaO) of the cement, as well as to the decrease
in the proportion of silica and the increase in sulphuric anhydride
(SO3). Interesting examples of these processes will be found in
Engineering and Contracting, Vol. 57, No. 26, p. 580. The United
States Bureau of Standards, after some extensive tests on the " action
* American Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 14, p. 834. '
10
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
creates more cracks, thus permitting more water to enter and attack
the reinforcement, whence the action is further enlarged until there
arises serious danger that rupture may ensue.*
Elimination of Electrolytic Effects. Partial elimination of elec-
trolysis is possible by the selection of courses of masonry or con-
crete of a, high specific resistance and their careful distribution about
the structure. As an illustration: If blocks of granite are inter-
posed between the footings of a building and the soil, the tendency
of the building to pick up stray currents is materially reduced because
of the high electrical resistance of the granite. It may be impractic-
able to take these precautioris, but it is nearly always possible to
surround the footings with a waterproofing membrane which will
accomplish the desired end. See Fig. 1.
Various proportioned concrete aggregates offer greater or less
resistance to electrolysis with a showing in favor of what would
ordinarily be called a poor concrete.
Table II f shows the specific resistance of concrete made of Old
Dominion cement, river sand and crushed trap. The specific resist-
ance of concrete will, of course, vary greatly with the aggregate,
method of making, etc., and the values given below are indicative
only of the order of magnitude of the specific resistance that may be
expected.
TABLE II.— ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF MORTAR AND CONCRETE
Proportion
of Mortar.
Resistance
in OhmR cm. 3
Proportion
of Concrete.
Resistance
in Ohms cm.^
Neat cement
1 :2
1 :4
3500
2300
2100
1 : 2i : 4
1:3 :5
1:4:7
8000
8200
9900
11
12 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
the coefficient of expansion of concrete as .0000055 per deg. Fahr.,
and its modulus of elasticity as 2,000,000 pounds per square inch,
then the stress due to temperature is 11 pounds per square inch per
degree change of temperature, or, for 60 deg. Fahr. it is 660 pounds
per square inch, which is double the ultimate unit tensile stress for
concrete. A temperature difference between summer and winter of
twice 60 deg. Fahr. is not uncommon in certain parts of the United
States.* Fortunately, in this country, tensile strength of concrete
is neglected. It must not be supposed, however, that steel rein-
forcement, however efficiently placed, does more than diminish
the size and distribute the cracks which are caused by temperature
changes. But this result is sufficient to materially increase the
impermeability of the structure.
Effect of Expansion Joints in Masonry. In steel, a change of
temperature of 1 deg. Fahr. causes a stress of about 200 pounds per
square inch if resisted. In concrete a change of 18 deg. Fahr. causes
an equal stress if likewise resisted; that is, if expansion joints are
not provided to take care of the expansion and contraction, the
resulting stresses may cause cracks in the structure, with the usual
result of disfigurement due to efflorescence and damage due to seepage.
But, on the other hand, these very expansion joints create one of the
most urgent needs for waterproofing a concrete, or for that matter,
any form of masonry structure.
Expansion and contraction in a structure and their resulting
stresses are due to changes in atmospheric temperature or change
in temperature of the concrete while it is setting and hardening.
This latter temperature change may be as high as 150 deg. Fahr.,
depending on. the thickness of the masonry, f With steel rein-
forcement to take care of stresses resulting from temperature
change, the cracks are kept small, but not entirely prevented. The
expansion joints necessary to relieve the atmospheric temperature-
change-stresses require special study. Their form and location in a
structure not only have a great bearing on the stresses set up in it but
also on their effectiveness. ■ While expansion joints tend to relieve the
effects of these stresses, they are not always effective in preventing
hair cracks or cracks at angles in the structufe, or leakage through
the joints themselves as commonly constructed. Hence the need of
an efficient type of waterproofing, in conjunction with well-designed
expansion joints, which together will most effectively overcome
these defects.
* American Civil Engineers' Poclcet Book, 2d Edition, p. 1255.
t Taylor and Thompson, "Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," 2d Edition, p. 285.
14
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
CHAPTER II
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
Progress of the Art of Waterproofing. The progress that the art of
waterproofing has made since it began to receive serious consideration
is quite notable. It is difficult to affix any definite date to the adop-
tion of scientific waterproofing, but even as late as 1870 waterproofing
engineering, in the broad sense we are now considering it, was more
speculative than experimental. About this time the " Sylvester
Process " of waterproofing (originated in England) came into vogue
among American engineers, and while it still is sometimes employed,
it has, in the main, been superseded by better methods and materials.
Not that asphalt was unused prior to this date for waterproofing
purposes, but there seems to have been no certainty of results con-
nected with its use.
Since this period and up to comparatively recent times there were
developed four distinct systems of waterproofing, namely, " Mem-
brane," " Mastic," " Siirface Coating," and " Integral." In the
last decade, a fifth system — one that will often obviate the need
of any of the first four — has received wide experimentation with
very good and consistent results. This system is applicable only to
concrete structures and is designated ' " Self-densified Concrete."
Another recent system of waterproofing is known as the " Grouting
Process," which is especially applicable to subsurface structures
such as tunnels and cutoff walls either in rock or earth. Both of
these systems will be considered in due order.
The modern systems of waterproofing then, if arranged in the
order of their development, appear to be as follows:
(1) " Surface coating." (4) " Integral." t
(2) " Membrane." * • (5) " Self-densified concrete."
(3) "Mastic." (6) " Grouting process."
* Mr. E. W. DeKnight claims to have introduced this term in 1902; but
this term as appUed to waterproofing has only been used extensively in the last
decade
t This term as applied to waterproofing was used as far back as 1875 but not
extensively until the last decade.
17
18 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Surface Coating System of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The surface coating
system of waterproofing refers to the appUcation of: (1) In imper-
vious coating of plastic or Uquid bituminous materials; (2) various
liquid hydrocarbons, and chemical salt solutions forming, usually,
water-insoluble compounds; (3) a wash or plaster coat of neat
cement or cement mortar, the former varying in thickness from
Y2 inch to ^ inch, used principally on brick walls, and the latter
from J inch to 2 inches; both applied either to an interior or
exterior surface of concrete or other masonry. The cement
mortar coating, again, may be composed of: (a) cement, sand
and water mixed in any efficient proportion that will produce
a dense and impervious coating; (6) cement, sand, water and a pow-
der, paste or hquid waterproofing compound (usually of a proprietary
nature) which is mixed in specified proportions for the purpose of
producing similar or more impervious coatings.
The surface coating system of waterproofing is adapted to water-
proof structures either during construction or after erection. It is
apphcable either to the external or internal surfaces of the structure,
depending on the physical condition of the surface to receive the
waterproof coating, the water pressure behind the surface, the kind
of material used and the thickness of the coating to be apphed. This
method is comparatively cheap and has a wide application in spite
of the few materials (other than proprietary ones) adapted for such
coatings.
Amongst the oldest preserving processes in construction work
are plastering and painting. Since paint forms an impervious coat-
ing easily and cheaply applied, it was utihzed not only for decorative,
but also for dampproofing purposes. It was a matter of general
knowledge that hnseed oil paints and varnishes, besides serving
other obvious purposes, were also a dampproofing medium; that
lime plaster and cement mortar, especially the latter, apphed in
comparatively thin coats, performed the same function. Hence the
next step in the development of this system of waterproofing was to
apply a coat of bituminous paint or a mortar coat, thick and dense
enough for each material to act also as waterproofing. Eventually
there came into use proprietary waterproofing compounds employed
directly as surface coatings or incorporated in the plaster or mortar
coat to increase its imperviousness.
The surface coating system of waterproofing is in common prac-
tice to-day, especially the mortar surface coat, because with it the
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
19
20 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
either with a trowel or with the cement gun. When the plaster,
neat cement, or mortar surface coatings are applied with a trowel,
as on the back of a retaining wall, the outside of a brick sewer or
manhole, the inner face of a tunnel or swimming pool, they should
be finished off to bear a smooth or granolithic face. The granolithic
surface on these coatings, produced only by careful troweling,
materially increases their imperviousness. The coatings should
not be made too thin, as peeling, bhstering, and cracking inevitably
follow, especially if used where they are subject to atmospheric
changes.
When mortar is applied with the cement gun, the coat can be
made a very efficient waterproofing medium, provided the materials
are properly used and proportioned. In no case should a leaner
mixture than 1 : 3 be used and the best results will follow the use of
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
21
22 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
acid treatment has reached a satisfactory stage. This slushing,
which should be done with perfectly clean water, should continue
until all the salts (formed by the chemical action of the acid on the
cement) are removed and the surface is free from acid. All holes,
large or small, should be plastered up independently of the surface
coating unless the coating is a waterproofed mortar.
Application of Slush, Scratch, and Finishing Coats. If the wall
or other surface is not washed with acid it should at least be chipped
and brushed, and just before the mortar coating is to be applied,
the surface should be thoroughly drenched and soaked to its full
absorbing capacity. Then, before the walls or other surfaces show
marked signs of drying, a " slush coating " should be applied over
the entire surface. To prepare this slush coat some of the mixed
ready-for-use coating material may be thinned with water to the
consistency of cream. It is then applied with a. stiff brush, with a
scouring effect, care being exercised to fully cover the inner surfaces
of all crevices and holes.
Before the slush coating has dried, the first application of the
regularly mixed coating material should be applied as a scratch coat,
from J to J inch thick, and pressure brought on the trowel to push
the coating on, and so obtain a uniformly thick layer, well bonded.
The best practice is to trowel the scratch coat to a fairly good sur-
face, and then to scratch criss-cross over the entire surface before it
hardens. This insures a better bond for the finishing coat.
Upon the scratch coat, and before its final setting, a finishing
coat of sufficient thickness to obtain the required thickness of mortar
coat should then be applied. If this required thickness is more than
IJ inches, the thickness of the scratch coat should be increased
accordingly. The finishing coat, too, should be pushed on hard and
uniformly troweled and floated to a true surface, free from pits,
pin holes, sagging cracks, projections or other defects. The floating
of the finished surface is best done from the bottom of the wall up.
These instructions are applicable whether the coating contains a
waterproofing compound or not.
In general, also, the surface of masonry to be waterproofed by
the surface coating system of waterproofing should be cleared of
any interference from timbers and temporary struts, because the
presence of such false timbering interferes with the proper and con-
tinuous application of the waterproofing. If such false timbering
is not readily removable, then the locations of struts and posts, etc.,
resting on or against the surface to.be waterproofed, require very
careful workmanship and close inspection to insure the proper and
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 23
Complete waterproofing of holes left by removal or shifting of such
false work on the completion of the construction in hand. This
is especially true when such timbering is situated in poorly illumined
and cramped areas. A method of overcoming these difficulties is
explained in the article on the membrane system of waterproofing.
Other means of procuring a continuous surface so as to avoid leaving
unwaterproofed areas will suggest themselves as the occasion arises;
the important point to remember is that every temporarily unsur-
faced spot constitutes a weakness in the waterproofing system.
Materials Used for Surface Coatings. The materials generally
used for surface coatings are: (1) neat cement, cement mortar,
and proprietary cements, i.e., ordinary cements containing void-
filling or water repelling substances; (2) finely powdered metals, as,
for instance, powdered pig iron; (3) mixtures of soap and alum;
(4) paraffin, either in hquid form, or in sohd form, but melted, or in
solution with petroleum oil or coal-tar naphtha; (5) patented bitu-
minous products, i.e., mixtures of asphalt, hnseed oil or wood oil
and resin with some form of inert filler, as powdered or shredded
asbestos; (6) proprietary hquid hydrocarbons, i.e., solutions of
paraffin in benzine or benzol, or emulsions of petroleum oil and fat
oil. Some of these can be appUed to a wet or submerged surface
(varieties of the patented bituminous products), but a dry surface is
always preferable. The general properties of some of these materials
are treated in Chapter V.
Practical but simple illustrations of the manner and method by
which coatings are appUed are shown in Figs. 4, 7, 8. Fig. 4 shows
a brick wall below ground surface, coated with a liquid bituminous
paint which in turn is surfaced with a treated (i.e., waterproofed)
mortar. This process is most effective as a dampproofing rather
than as a waterproofing. Fig. 7 shows a culvert arch waterproofed
with a plastic, bituminous compound. Fig. 8 is a cross-section of a
swimming pool waterproofed with a cement mortar coating. To
this mortar was added a definite amount of a proprietary powdered
metallic compound to increase its imperviousness.
Application of Cement Mixtures. In applying either neat cement
or cement mortar, the engineer is not handicapped by lack of knowl-
edge of the materials or results. The required information is readily
obtainable with considerable certainty. However, when patented
cements are used this is not true to the same degree. Experiments
and experience have proven the waterproofing qualities of the former,
but the same cannot be said of the latter. In fact, in many instances
ordinary well-made and applied mortar will be more effective.
24
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
But where a good hold can be secured for the mortar and if made
thicker than f of an inch, it may be applied to the other side. In
Table XXXII are given suitable thicknesses apphcable to varying
heads of water. Where imperviousness is desired both ways, both
sides should, of course, be coated. Increased watertightness will be
secured under all conditions, whether the mortar coat be applied
by hand or machine, by troweling the surface to a granolithic finish.
However, this granolithic finish must be produced with the greatest
care, otherwise it will vitiate its purpose.
* Taylor and Thomp,son, " Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," 2d Edition.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
25
Use of Lean and Rich Mortars. The use of lean or rich mortar is
mainly dependent on the purpose each is to be put to. Mortar
contracts on drying and expands on wetting, hence cracking invari-
ably results. This is greatly reduced by reducing the proportion
of cement, which alone is affected and causes the cracks. In stucco
work or on other superstructural applications the leaner mortar
is most advisable. The sand should be graded so that the pro-
portion of medium-sized grains is small, and the coarse and fine grains
are about equally mixed.
Experience shows, for instance, that a plain 1 : 3 stucco, prop-
erly appUed, remains free from cracks, but is rather porous. A 1 : 2
stucco, however, while less porous, is subject to considerable crack-
ing, unless well protected during the setting period. But such pro-
tection (i.e., protection against freezing, or exposure to the sun and
quick drjdng out) besides being a good deal neglected, is often
impossible.
12 Concrete
26 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
particular purpose is wasting his clients' money and hazarding his
own reputation. The many worthless and the few worth while
compounds on the market make it imperative to search most con-
scientiously for a material that will not wash out after a few rain
storms; that will not discolor or disintegrate, or induce disintegra-
tion; that will prevent hair checks and remain cementitious while
creating imperviousness in the stucco, and that will not induce
peehng or blistering of the stucco. Service and practical tests are
the best, and in fact, the only means for determining the effectiveness
of any of these materials.
In connection with the use of a large proportion of cement in
mortar or excess cement in concrete, it must be borne in mind that
the practice is wrought with many dangers for vitiating its ostensible
purpose, i.e., increasing the density of mortar or concrete. For
underground construction this practice is entirely warranted and
efficacious, but for superstructural work of any sort this practice is
successful only on the performance of the work with the most pains-
taking precautionary measures for curing, drying, and seasoning the
structures.
Only a few of the many patented cements and bituminous paints
on the market for waterproofing by the surface coating system
possess the requisite properties for efficient usage. In general, these
properties are: (a) That -absolute dampproofness or waterproof ness
be effected by their use; (6) reasonable cheapness; (c) appUcability;
(d) durability. Experience and experiment have shown that only
a very few of these special dampproofing and waterproofing com-
pounds possess the same effectiveness as a moderately thick coating
of neat cement or cement mortar, the latter of a maximum thickness
of about 2 inches for the most adverse conditions.
Cement mortar, as ordinarily mixed, can be made practically
impervious by the addition of alum and potash soap. One per cent
by weight of powdered alum added to the dry cement and sand and
thoroughly mixed, and about 1 per cent of any potash soap (ordinary
soft soap) dissolved in the water used in mixing the mortar will make
it remarkably impermeable, but the results are not lasting. A dry
clay mixed with cement in equal proportions and applied as a coat-
ing is also effective as a waterproofing agent, provided any form of
cracking is prevented.
A surface coat of cement mortar of a thickness and proportion
best judged from requirements at hand, is sometimes used for
creating a dry surface upon which to apply a different system of
waterproofing.
Systems of waterproofing
27
Proportion by
Volume of
Portland Cement
to Meramic River
Sand.
Ago in Weeks
wlien Tested.
1 :2
1 :4
1 :6
1 :8
4
8
26
26
26
26
1.0
31.2
.8
1.9
149.0
90.5
9.0
1.0
24.0
17.0
2.0
5.0
.8
.5
324.0
749.0
132.0
126.0
9.0
43.0
28 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
labor. Quantities and rules for applying powdered metal are usually
issued by the manufacturers of these materials, and should be care-
fully followed.
The Sylvester Process. The use of soap and alum solutions for
coating a masonry surface is known as the Sylvester Process of damp-
proofing and waterproofing. It is applicable alike to concrete and
other masonry. It does not, however, form a permanent water-
proofing, and is not much used at the present time. In using these
materials the following precautions must be observed: (a) Each
should be perfectly dissolved before being apphed. (6) The masonry
surface should be dry and clean before apphcation. (c) The air
temperature at the time of application should be between 50 and 60
deg. Fahr. (10 and 15.5 deg. Cent.), (d) The soap solution should
be boihng hot and applied first, using a flat brush for this purpose.
The alum solution is then brushed on at a temperature between 60
and 70 deg. Fahr. (15.5 and 21 deg. Cent.), thoroughly covering the
first coat. An interval of one day should elapse between the apph-
cation of each set of coats. The number of coats is dependent
on local conditions, including water pressure and exposure to the
elements.
The proportion of soap and alum giving the best results is f pound
of castile soap to 1 gallon of hot water; J pound of common alum
to 4 gallons of lukewarm water. The action is chemical. The two
materials combine to form a stearate of aluminum, which fills the
voids in the concrete and is insoluble in water. A solution con-
sisting of 1 pound of concentrated lye, 5 pounds of alum, and 2
gallons of water, applied while the concrete is green and until it
lathers freely, has been successfully used. A cheap and effective
substitute is a mixture of 1 part of aluminum sulphate and 3 parts
of hard soap, by weight. This may also be used as an integral
compound, in proportions determined by experiment, for mass
mortar or concrete.
Application of ParafSn. The application of paraffin is universal
and adapted to all classes of masonry above ground. If apphed
cold it is specially treated, e.g., it is boiled to rid it of water, the
presence of which renders it difficult to apply, and dissolved in a
highly volatile compound. Being an almost colorless, translucent
liquid, it does not change the color of the surface to which it is
apphed. It is easily apphed with a stiff flat brush, and the best results
are obtained by thoroughly rubbing it into the surface, using three
coats if the surface is rough. If the surface is clean and smooth,
two coats are sufficient, because the solvent has a high penetrating
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 29
capacity, by which function it leaves the pores filled with paraffin
after the volatile matter has evaporated. Most paraffin compounds
are prepared for use by the manufacturer, who usually issues direc-
tions for their apphcation, but ordinary commercial products
may. be used. In general, however, the following precautions should
be observed: (1) The surface treated should be made smooth
and dry, the first by chipping all projections and rubbing with a
stiff wire brush if necessary, the second by doing the work after a
dry period. (2) No fire should be near the material when applied,
because the volatile solvent is very combustible.
If the parafl&n is to be applied hot, it is merely melted and
thoroughly rubbed into the surface, which has been previously pre-
pared and warmed, to be waterproofed. The latter is most economic-
ally done with improvised salamanders, using charcoal as fuel. If
dissolved in the proportion of one-third paraflBn and two-thirds
kerosene, it remains soft longer and penetrates the stone further.
Paraffin is the very best waterproofing material for exposed work
of all kinds, but needs to be applied by men experienced in this work.
With a sufficient penetration, durability and effectiveness is assured
because of the natural inertness of the paraffin.
Application of Bituminous Compounds. There are many bitumi-
nous paints, pastes, and enamels offered by manufacturers for use in
the surface-coating system of waterproofing. Compounds of this
nature are also used for dampproofing. When used for this purpose,
the film or coat is usually applied somewhat thinner than for water-
proofing. For the latter purpose, the film or coat does not exceed
J inch, except when the material is a bituminous mastic, in which
case it is applied in thicker form. If employed as dampproofing for
exposed walls of buildings or other superstructures, these bituminous
compounds are usually applied on the interior or between wall sur-
faces. As waterproofing, these compounds are applied either on the
exterior or interior surfaces of underground works, depending on
conditions. In structures already erected some of these compounds
are well adapted to remedy leaky conditions because they can
be applied on the inside and sometimes to a moist surface.
This obviates the expense of excavating around the foundation.
Allowing bituminous waterproofing materials to remain in direct
contact with earth or other backfill, i. e., unprotected, is poor practice
because the acids or alkalies present in the backfill will eventually
destroy such materials. Bituminous coatings are sometimes applied
to the inner surface of foundation walls and tunnels even where a
water pressure exists, but they are not dependable to withstand
30 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
this condition unless backed up with an inch or two, or more, of
cement mortar or concrete, and the work done with care.
A priming coat should always be used before applying liquid
bituminous surface coatings to waterproof a structure, and in this
connection field engineers and inspectors will do well to guard against
the following practices: (1) Failure to apply a continuous priming
coat; (2) the use of a viscous material as a priming coat. On cer-
tain construction work, especially municipal work, it is often to the
advantage of the manufacturer or his agent to supply material of
the same consistency for the priming coat as for the other coats,
because very much more of it is required for the first than for the
succeeding coats on account of the usual roughness of the surface.
The waste of material, however, is the least objectionable in this
case. The serious nature of such practice lies in the failure to utilize
the priming coat for what it was intended to accomplish, namely,
to enter the surface pores of the concrete or other masonry, to find
every little depression or small hole and coat it, and to assure the
adhesion of the coats which follow. These objects are not well
accompHshed by using a viscous material for a priming coat. The
right consistency of a priming coat is one as liquid as water or milk,
in which state it can penetrate deeper below the surface.
The composition of most surface coating compounds is kept
secret by the manufacturer, and the only real safeguard one has in
purchasing them discriminately is to observe the results on structures
already waterproofed with any of these products. In general, the
following precautions should be observed when buying and applying
such materials: (1) Chemical test on a representative sample of
the material should show (a) preponderance of bitumen, (6) resistance
to acids and alkalies, (c) strong adhesion to concrete or other ma-
sonry, (d) toughness at low temperatures. (2) Results of tests on
representative specimen should be checked with material as received
and then applied according to the manufacturer's directions. (3)
The surface to be waterproofed must be made clean and dry,
applying not less than two coats; the first coat, usually a primer
(that is, the same material, or ordinary asphalt or tar, thinned to a
more liquid consistency) is allowed to become dry or nearly so,
before the second is applied. (4) Great care is required (a) to
obtain a continuous film of coating, (6) to fill all corners, recesses and
depressions, (c) to leave the final surface roughened, yet coated,
if a plaster or mortar coat is to be applied directly on the film, (d)
not to injure the film in applying these coats, and (e) not to expose
the applied material unduly.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 31
Straight-run coal-tar products are often and successfully used
in the surface-coating system of waterproofing. For example, in
protecting abutments and retaining walls from disintegration due
to their natural permeability, various dampproofing bitumens are
successfully and cheaply made and applied, of common creosote oil
and coal-tar pitch. The creosote oil is applied first and penetrates
the wall to a degree depending on its quality and the density of the
masonry, and this is followed by at least two moppings of the coal-
tar pitch. In some instances where the concrete is very porous, a
third and fourth mopping may be required in order that the entire
surface may be well- covered. Dull spots on the surface are evi-
dence that the pitch has only penetrated into the pores of the con-
crete but the outer surface is not completely coated. A mixture
of coal-tar and powdered slate of the consistency of molasses is often
used for similar purposes. Occasionally, a 2 or 3-ply felt- and pitch-
membrane is applied to such structures.
Instead of the tar products, refined asphalts of good grade may
be also used. Where a first or priming coat is required, and it is
practically always advisable to apply one, this usually consists of
asphalt diluted in naphtha or gasolene. Of course, both the pitch
and asphalt must be of a consistency and melting-point to withstand
the local climate or special condition of the work. Either of these
materials will be benefited by a protective coat of some form, especi-
ally when this waterproofing is in the form of a felt or fabric mem-
brane. A bituminous paste composed of chinawood oil, asbestos
and pine tar is well adapted for such and similar purposes, but its
consistency and appUcation must be carefully watched. Coating the
surface with boiled linseed oil until the oil ceases to be absorbed is
another method that has been used with success. In Chapter IX
are to be found various formulae of compounds usable for damp-
proofing and waterproofing purposes.
32 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
tubes* wherein the ipetal lining is protected within and without by-
masonry. (3) Any method or material which permits the more or less
complete enveloping of a structure to prevent the passage of water
through its exterior parts, but which is itself not in direct contact
with the water, that is, which is itself protected by some other cover-
ing. Such protective covering may be of concrete, vitrified hollow
tile, or brick in cement mortar and sometimes a layer of mastic.
The purpose of the membrane system of waterproofing is princi-
pally to waterproof structures in course of erection, particularly those
below ground surface, such as subways, tunnels and building founda-
tions; but it applies equally well to retaining walls, arches, reser-
voirs, etc. It is not so well adapted to the waterproofing of structures
already erected or to remedy leaky conditions developing subsequent
to erection, owing to the fact that the membrane must be appUed
to the outside of the structure, thereby usually necessitating con-
siderable excavation.
In the very earliest times, asphalt was used simply as a surface
coating, that is, to serve as dampproofing. In this condition it was
not well adapted to resist water pressure, even when placed between
two masonry surfaces. To overcome this defect, fibrous paper was
introduced between these surfaces, with a coating of bitumen on
either side. For greater water pressures, the number of plies of
paper was increased, each being coated with bitijmen as applied.
Paper was gradually superseded by waterproofing felt; this was
largely composed of rag and wool, or pulp. The wool variety of
felt has had until comparatively recent times a very extensive use,
but because of the unreliable quality of wool purchasable now, and
to an extent, its high cost, rag felt and pulp felt are now more com-
monly used. These felts are now in sharp competition with cotton
and jute fabric. Commercially, refined asphalt and coal-tar pitch
have been used for a long time in connection with the treatment of
paper, felt, jute and cotton fabric, and also as a binder for forming
waterproofing membranes of these materials. Now there is some-
times incorporated in these bitumens mineral fillers, such as shredded
asbestos for instance, for the purpose of increasing their plas-
ticity and substantiality
Applying the felt or fabric membrane to a structure calls for
certain precautions which can ill afford to be neglected. These pre-
* Metal linings or castings may be used anywhere, but especially where
great stresses are anticipated or where it is practically impossible to apply the
ordinary membrane. This type of construction, however, requires special
design for each case.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 33
cautions are embodied in three fundamental requirements to be care-
fully observed in order to insure good waterproofing by the membrane
system. These are (1) surface preparation; (2) continuity of
membrane; (3) protection of membrane.
Surface Preparation Prior to AppUcation of Membrane. It is
impossible to make a bituminous sheet adhere properly to a wet or
rough masonry surface, but it is advisable to make it adhere to what-
ever surface it is applied. The surface to be waterproofed should,
therefore, be prepared by chipping all projections and smoothing off
with mortar and trowel all depressions; cleaned by sweeping or
scraping off all foreign matter of whatever nature; dried (when water-
proofing must proceed during rainy weather, or before the concrete
has completely dried after setting), by heating the surface, if not
large, with a gasohne torch, by burning gasoline on the surface to
be waterproofed, or by employing salamanders; or again, by pro-
viding a temporary drainage system that will keep the surface dry
during the application of the waterproofing. If these measures are
impracticable or insufficient, then one or two plies of felt, with the
first laid dry, that is, without a bituminous binder on the under side,
and nailed to or against the wet surface, if necessary, will create a
dry area for the application of the waterproofing proper. Where it
is difficult or impossible to apply this dry-ply, as on arches of tunnels,
a thin sheet metal lining nailed to the. masonry, or a cold apphcation
of asphalt dissolved in naphtha, or a reasonably thick plaster coat
of neat cement or mortar, provides a dry surface on which to start
waterproofing. Of course the concrete in all cases must be thoroughly
set before any waterproofing is applied. As an illustration of how
such problems are met in practice, may be cited the following
instance.
In building the east face of the south Manhattan shafts of the
Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels,* preparations were made to place
the felt and coal-tar pitch waterproofing in the ordinary way, but
it soon became necessary to drain away water that was running down
over the face of the wall from the exposed rock above. To accom-
plish this a drain was constructed on the face of the wall near its
top. This consisted of a strip of tin set in a ridge of plaster of Paris
stuck on the face of the wall. The drain had a slight grade down-
ward. It answered the purpose very well, allowing the wall to
dry out below the drain. This type of drain was found useful at
many points, because it could be applied quickly and at small
cost.
* Transactions, American Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 69, p. 80.
34 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERINC
Necessity of Continuity of Membrane. Continuity of the mem-
brane is more important than the preparation of the surface to be
waterproofed, for it is not always necessary to make the membrane
adhere to a surface as long as the sharp projections have been removed
and a reasonably smooth surface obtained; but lack of continuity
creates a condition directly opposed to the purpose of waterproofing;
for water will find the break, large or small, percolate through it,
and be a source of annoyance at first and danger at last.
The continuity of a waterproofing membrane may best be secured
by breaking joints systematically and leaving sufficient lap to form
a good connection with the adjoining section. In applying the
bituminous binder it is necessary to avoid blowholes, " dryspots,"
and other common defects. But these dangers are partly obviated
by the very method of building up a membrane (see Fig. 14). In
using either felt, fabric or cotton drill for this purpose, such defects
will be greatly reduced by lightly pressing into the hot binder, which,
incidentally, prevents " kinks " and also insures better adhesion
between successive plies as well as to the original surface. Where
the fabric is of the open mesh variety, the formation of air pockets
between successive plies is automatically prevented, and pressing
it into the binder will insure the filling up of all the interstices of the
fabric.
Where a connection is made between a wall and roof of a structure,
the lap should be about 1 foot wide. The successive plies of the
membranous mat forming the lap on the wall should be interwoven
with those of the roof mat and stuck fast against the side of the wall
with binder. In joining the floor membrane with that on the wall,
the latter should be interwoven as shown in Fig. 9A, with the lap
ends of the floor membrane turned up an amount depending upon
local conditions, but never less than 6 inches.
One of the most important matters in regard to the continuity
of the waterproofing membrane, and one requiring careful attention,
is the joining of new work to old. The old waterproofed surfaces,
or the old laps, should be cleaned of all foreign matter, and, where
necessary, softened by heating, as explained in " Surface Prepara-
tion." Such laps should receive a coat of bituminous material
before the new strips of fabric are applied and pressed down
as previously explained. Where possible, a mesh joint should
be made of the laps of the old and new fabric as the plies are laid up.
After long exposure of a portion of a membrane or its end lap, as
on an uncompleted portion of work, the felt or fabric may have
deteriorated or have been torn off. It is absolutely necessary to
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
35
provide sufficient lap width to properly join the old and new water-
proofing; hence the safest expedient is to recoat the membrane with
a thick binder film in the first instance, and to cut back at least 6
inches of the concrete or other masonry to secure sufficient lap in
the second instance.
<?^?^3<^(3S^?J^S^^^^<5^S^^^
4 '^^MXi?^kiim¥s^;i?my&0$i
36 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
applied to vertical masonry tends to sag and produce a rippled
surface, especially in warm weather or when a particularly soft
binder is used. In fact, no bituminous membrane, no matter how
well applied or what binder is used, will stand up completely intact
without support of some sort under such conditions.
After construction the waterproofing membrane may be injured
by the impact of stones in the backfilling material, or by the large
aggregate in the protective concrete if this is deposited from an
undue height; or by bulging and running of the bituminous material
due to heat, or cracking and chipping due to cold. Where there is
any considerable hydrostatic pressure behind the membrane it may
be perforated in a weak spot, or where a slight bulge or " ripple "
has occurred in it, the added weight of the water on the bulge may
drag the membrane down.
A- serious menace to bituminous membranes surrounding under-
ground structures arises from leaks in gas mains and sewers in city
streets. All gas mains collect a kind of a pungent oil called gas-drip,
which frequently comes out of leaky joints in the mains, saturating
the ground over considerable areas. This oil will, in a comparatively
short time destroy a portion of a waterproofing membrane by dis-
solving the bituminous binder, and, where felt is used, turn it into
a soft, mushy and worthless material. Then again the membrane
may be attacked by lubricating oil and other solvents from leaks in
underground pipes or from machinery, as for example, where switch
pits for surface railroads are in close proximity to the waterproofing
of the structure.
Nearly all sewers, besides carrying sewage (which is sometimes
acidulated and sometimes alkaline), carry steam and other gases,
and where leaks occur, which happen quite often, the ground becomes
saturated over a considerable area. The deleterious effect on the
membrane in this instance is quite the same as in the case of gas-drip
or oil, but not so marked.
Again, if a membrane is injured in any way, then the worst and
perhaps the only serious drawback of the membrane system of
waterproofing is encountered. The leak in the membrane is usually
inaccessible from the outside without costly excavation, and cannot
be gotten at on the inside except by removing considerable masonry.
But what is still worse, it is almost impossible to tell where to begin
excavation or tearing out the inner masonry, due to the fact that
water is likely to travel a long way between the membrane and the
wall so that the location of the leak or leaks on the inside may be as
much as 150 feet from the injury in the membrane. This, incidentally,
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
37
2 Layers of Brick
Id Asphalt Mastic
UWM::^ 18 I
nil I
mil
I!'! I
II
Fig. 10. — Roof of Ventilating Chamber Waterproofed with Sheet Lead Membrane.
and a protective coat of cement mortar or concrete, 2 to 4 inches
thick, over the rest of the waterproofing. Fig. 10 shows one way
of avoiding these dangers, by substituting a sheet lead trough
for the regular waterproofing between a sewer and the top of a bay
over a subway ventilating chamber. The protective concrete
should preferably be reinforced, though this is not always necessary.
A course or two of bricks, or a wall of fiat or hollow terra-cotta tile
are also good protective mediums. On horizontal surfaces, the
hollow terra-cotta tile should not be used. The 3- or 4-inch concrete
protective coat is the best in most instances because it is the least
pervious. But in all cases the protective medium should be com-
plete and cover every inch of membrane, and not as shown in Fig.
11 or Fig. 12A. Fortunately engineers are fast learning the folly
of such malpractices as are depicted in these illustrations.
38
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
- Exposed Membrane
bystemS of waterProomng
S9
Line indicated T 1
on drawings .__jV
Line actually // \*
worked to in ^ / \
the field.
Note constmc— -^
tion joint.
M.H.W,
Alternate method of
impeding water which
may enter construction
joints by lowering con-
dtructioQ joint at leaet
to the depth of one brick .
40
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
and was stepped off in bench formation, the plain concrete cover
served its purpose; but in one case, when the backfiUing was advanced
in bank formation close upon the completed construction work,
the concrete cover broke and the waterproofing was damaged,
requiring the removal of much backfilling to effect proper repairs.
After this occurrence, the cover was reinforced with wire cloth and no
further trouble was experienced.
Methods of Applying Membr^e Waterproofing. In applying the
membrane to any masonry surface, the latter is first mopped with
bitumen, then the first strip of felt or fabric is unrolled thereon,
tightly stretched, smoothed, and pressed into the film of bitumen.
This strip is best made continuous over the width or length of the
Fig. 13. — Height from which Protective Concrete Should be Poured on Water-
proofing Membrane.
structure where possible. In this " continuous type " the second
strip is laid to break joint with the first in a manner depending upon
the number of plies usod. The various methods of building up a
waterproofing membrane are shown in Fig. 14. The portion of each
strip of fabric to be lapped should be carefully mopped as the next
strip is laid over it. When several strips have thus been laid, the
second ply is similarly laid, then the third, fourth, fifth and sixth
plies, as required. As each strip is laid or applied, it is important
to seethat no kinks have formed at the lap joints, for this leaves an
opening for water to enter either between or under the membrane.
The top ply should always be mopped completely over the entire
surface, leaving no bare spots or other imperfections. See Table
XXXII for the number of plies necessary to resist various heads of
water up to 42 feet.
SYSTEMS OP WATERPROOFING
41
LAYER TYPE
CONTINUOUS TYPE
One Ply
Two Ply
Three Ply
Four Ply
Five Ply
Six Ply
COURSE TYPE
One Ply
Two Ply
Three Ply
STAGGERED TYPE
Six Ply
Fig. 14.— Four Methods of Building up Waterproofing Membrane. Applicable
to either Felt or Fabric,
42
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
i_i
J_L
SECTION,
the concrete surface is first mopped to receive the mat. Each mat
should lap over the membrane and other mats already in place, at
least 4 inches (see Fig. 15). In no case should the mats be placed
so that the membrane formed has less than the specified number of
plies in the membrane proper. All exposed joints must receive a
final mopping and be made as smooth as possible. When a portion
of the structure being waterproofed is on a gradient, care should be
exercised in making and applying the mats so that the joints lap
each other in the direction of the down grade of the structure. This
precaution applies as well to the application of any built-up mem-
brane, whether vertically or horizontally applied.
Connecting New and Old Membranes. Joints form the weakest
part of a membrane; therefore too much care cannot be exercised
in making a joint between an old and new membrane by a proper
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 43
lap. Joints should be so made as to form as little bulge in the
membrane as possible, but no butt joints should be used on any form
of waterproofing. Laps exposed for any length of time should be
carefully examined for any defects before connecting up, and where
any defects or insufficient lap areas are found, the concrete or other
masonry should be cut back sufficiently to give a proper lap between
the sound membrane in place and the new work. Laps should not
be less than 4 inches wide for each strip of fabric, or in any case not
less than a total of 1 foot.
Timbers and temporary struts interfering with the proper apphca-
tion of waterproofing membranes present peculiar difficulties, and
their locations require very careful worlananship and close inspec-
tion. The best method to insure the proper and complete water-
proofing of the holes left by the removal or shifting of such false
timbering, especially when they are located in poorly illumined
and cramped areas, is as follows: All posts, struts or other tem-
porarj^ supports, whether on a floor or roof, or against a wall, should
be shifted so as to avoid breaking the continuity of the membrane,
otherwise holes are left not waterproofed. Where it is impossible
to so shift these posts and holes must be left in the membrane, then
it is necessary to paint these posts red or white, or otherwise to
distinctly mark them, in order that they may be identified later
when removed and the space occupied by them waterproofed. In
waterproofing the space left by the removal of a post, or other sup-
port, a strip of fabric is cut to a size not merely sufficient to com-
pletely cover the space, but large enough to lap 2 inches on every
side of the waterproofing in place as illustrated in Fig. 16; this total
-area is then mopped and successive phes of fabric are applied in the
usual manner. Each strip should extend with a 2-inch lap over the
one directly underneath it. The entire patch should then be
thoroughly and heavily coated with bitumen. In no case must the
fabric be cut to fit only the space occupied by the opening. Pre-
pared mats fitted into the hole is also poor practice.
Placing Membranes around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam
Pipes. Where pipes or rods project through parts of a structure
that are to receive the membrane waterproofing, it is very important
to make an absolutely watertight joint around these objects. These
joints are best made as follows: As the first ply of felt or fabric is
apphed or laid against the surface, a hole ^should be cut in it. fitting
snugly around the previously cleaned and mopped pipe or other
projection. Then a fairly large strip of felt or fabric, as the case
may be, is placed completely around the object so that half adheres
44
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
-3i
,.-■
1' ~
P&-
<— 7;(F^
\
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 45
to it and the other half slitted radially adheres to the first ply on
the wall or other surface. The successive plies are laid in the same
manner. A finishing ply is then placed covering the slitted fabric
and this plj^ is cut only to allow the pipe to pass through.
Satisfactory and permanent waterproofing in the vicinity of
steam pipes is difficult to obtain. This may be accomplished,
however, by placing a strip of sheet lead of sufficient length and
width, and about |-inch thick, between the waterproofing and the
supporting material of the steam main. It is understood, of course,
that the main itself is first adequately insulated to prevent its radia-
ting heat from affecting the waterproofing. A satisfactory method
for insulating steam pipes is to surround them with a blanket of ten
or twenty plies of untreated asbestos felt, encasing this with large
semi-sections of vitrified sewer tiles, and packing the space between
the two with coarse asbestos fiber. The whole must be well sup-
ported on concrete or vitrified two- or four-way tile ducts or other
suitable non-conductive material, all depending on the size of the
steam main, location and worldng conditions.
The above expositions are general. Modifications will often be
necessary on such structures as railroad bridge floors, reservoirs and
buildings, but the fundamental principles are the same. Hence,
it is not necessary to consider here how each kind of structure is to
be waterproofed. The main point to remember in regard to all
types of waterproofing and all manner of structures is to suit the
waterproofing to the structure, taking all local conditions in to con-
sideration, including climate, purpose and type of structure. In
the majority of cases, it may here be noted, successful and durable
waterproofing depends not only on conscientious labor, but more
particularly on expert supervision.
Use of Special Membranes. A modification of the usual long-
strip, built-up, elastic type of membrane consists of a membrane
made up of small, square layers of cotton fabric,* thoroughly satu-
rated and heavily coated on both sides with a suitable bitumen
and often with a special, that is, a proprietary bituminous compound.
The cotton fabric commonly used has a thread count of 66 by 44 per
square inch, weighing about 4f ounces per square yard. When
treated, the fabric has an average thickness of i inch, and weighs
about 4i pounds per square yard. The operation of saturating
and coating the strips of fabric is done in the field immediately
adjacent to the work because the compound used must possess
considerable adhesiveness so as to stick well to the apphed surface
* Developed in 1907 by Oscar Sheffield, and in practical use since 1909.
46
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Any good quality of cotton or jute fabric is suitable for this type
of membrane, but only a strongly adhesive, tough and elastic
bitumen, and one that will remain plastic at all seasons, can be used
satisfactorily for this purpose. At the present time only one pro-
prietary compound is extensively used for this modified membrane.
This compound consists of several hydrocarbons, each possessing
different phj^sical properties but mixed in proportions to secure the
desired consistency.
Considerations for Selecting Membrane Reinforcement. The
following question often arises in waterproofing design: What
reinforcing material is best adajited for the membrane system of
waterproofing? In other words, is treated felt, jute fabric or cotton
drill to be preferred, and under what conditions or for what types of
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 47
Structures is each best suited? This can best be j udged and answered
from experience. Felt was used extensively on the old Manhattan
subways in New York City, in the form of a membrane composed
of six pUes of felt and seven coatings of asphalt, surrounding the
structure like an envelope. But it has not given entire satisfaction
apparently because this type of membrane has insufficient tensile
strength, so that when cracks developed in the concrete shell, it too
would break somewhere. Had this membrane been reinforced
with two or three plies of jute or cotton fabric, this fault would not
be operative in producing leaks. Then again, the felt in the mem-
brane forms a stratified sheet with as many laminations as there are
plies used. This creates many surfaces where water may creep
along under certain conditions, and cause damage. Its close texture
also prevents the escape of entrained air during its application,
which tends to create air pockets between the plies. Besides, there
is also present the capillary action of the felt fibers, though this is
not peculiar to felt alone. It has, however, a very extensive and
successful use on all manner of structures notwithstanding, and is
cheaper per unit of area than either cotton or jute fabric.
Jute fabric, on the other hand, such as was used on the new
Dual Subways in New York, also in the form of a membrane (com-
posed of three to six plies of fabric with from four to seven coatings
of coal-tar pitch), has thus far given entire satisfaction, and apparently
for the following reasons: The fabric being of the open-mesh variety
(and only such was used), permits the bonding of successive plies,
thus forming a unit-membrane of bituminous material with the
fabric acting as so much reinforcement. The open mesh automati-
cally prevents the formation of air pockets between the plies. This
fabric has considerable tensile strength and can easily stretch, with-
out tearing, over ordinary cracks. This allows the bitumen to heal
on favorable occasions. There is also somewhat more bitumen
present in this membrane than is ordinarily present in a felt mem-
brane of an equal number of plies. Tests by the author have proven
that jute fabric can be thoroughly saturated and coated with either
asphalt or coal-tar pitch, and when so treated is well preserved
against decay. It is from 50 to 100 per cent more expensive than
treated felt.
On some construction work raw burlap has been used (that is,
burlap not treated), but such practice is open to the following
objections: The hot bituminous binder applied to it in the field
cannot properly saturate it, neither is the workmanship in the field
always conducive towards such accomplishment, if that were at all
48 WATERPROOFING EiSTGINEERING
possible. And without proper treatment, the jute fabric will be
comparatively short-lived, especially if exposed in the earth with
insufficient binder; but this is equally true of the felts and cotton
fabric.
The use of treated cotton drill is undoubtedly very good for
membrane waterproofing, especially if it is strong and well-treated.
In fact, its use is only prohibitive on account of its relatively high
cost when compared with either treated felt or jute fabric, especially
in view of the fact that the latter is not less efficient in any regard.
All are vegetable products and therefore require equally thorough
saturation. The cost of the cotton drill, which is at least double
that of jute fabric and quadruple that of treated felt, also because a
more or less laminated sheet rather than a reinforced unit membrane
is formed, especially with the ordinary variety of close-woven
cotton fabric, suggests that it be given preference only after careful
economic consideration. Saturated cotton drill has been used quite
extensively on the Boston subways, and, except for some few leaks
that have developed, has given reasonable satisfaction. The very
best and most efficient type of membrane is one composed of treated
fabric, with small (in size and numbe'r) open mesh, united with a
uniformly thick bituminous binder. However, for ordinary purposes
and for rigid structures, felt is entirely serviceable. ■
Storing and Unrolling Felt and Fabric. All waterproofing mate-
rials are injured by improper storage and usage, particularly the
felts and fabrics. Fabric and felt are delivered on the work in rolls
usually wound on wooden cores (for types of cores see Fig. 82), from
100 to 150 yards in length and in varying widths from 32 to 50
inches, the 42-inch fabric and 36-inch felt being most common. The
rolls should be stored in a dry place, and in warm weather the fabric
rolls must not be stood on ends. The most satisfactory way is to
pile the rolls not more than 2 or 3 feet high, so as to insure uniform
bearing along their length, and never to pile them criss-cross. As
it is possible to wind felt much tighter than fabric rolls, they may be
stored lying down or standing up. In all cases, both materials
should be protected from the weather and from heat at all times.
^ Due to improper storing, fabric rolls become distorted and other-
wise injured, and are therefore often difficult to unwind, resulting
in tearing the fabric. Distortion is a defect which tends to create
" waves," which persist when the roll is unwound and tend to
occlude air in the membrane. Torn or badly wrinkled fabric should
not be used. The surface on which the felt or fabric is unrolled
preparatory to its use in the membrane should be clean.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 49
Precautions When Heating Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt. Where
coal-tar pitch is used as the binder for membrane waterproofing, it
should be heated gradually up to the proper consistency for applica-
tion. This is usually at a temperature between 250 and 350 deg.
Fahr. (121 and 149 deg. Cent.) for a coal-tar pitch with a melting-
point between 115 and 125 deg. Fahr. (46 and 51.6 deg. Cent.).
Where asphalt is used, it too should be heated gradually, but its
working temperature is higher, hence it may be heated to a tem-
perature between 300 and 350 deg. Fahr. (149 and 177 deg. Cent.).
Having reached the proper temperatures, the fire should be banked.
Heating a 50-gallon kettle full of coal-tar pitch or asphalt to the
required temperature for application, by means of a wood fire,
should take not less than three to four hours, for the pitch, while in
the case of asphalt heat may be applied more rapidly, but should
take not less than two to three hours. A more violent heating in
either case destroys these materials, especially the coal-tar pitch.
The danger of overheating, burning or coking (particularly the
pitch) is constantly present, and cannot be too strongly guarded
against. One way to prevent overheating is to stir the pitch occa-
sionally during the melting process, and frequently after it has melted
until it is all used. Overheating is preceded by the rising of excessive
fumes of a Hght bluish tinge. Burning is indicated by the rising of
yellow fumes from the surface of the pitch. The odor or cackling
sound is not an indication of the condition of the bitumen. Neither
is the practice of sticking a piece of wood into the molten bitumen a
real indication of its degree of heat or of its condition. Coking the
pitch is indicated by the formation of a more or less thin crust or
coating on the bottom and sides of the melting kettle.
When by accident or otherwise the pitch is slightly burned,
new pitch should be mixed with it before using, and, if badly burned,
the pitch should not be used at all. It is very essential to the " life "
of the pitch not to subject it to prolonged heating, even at a low
temperature, as this drives off some of the volatile oils which are a
valuable constituent of the pitch. The best practice is to heat
only sufficient material for one day's use.
Asphalt, though not as readily affected by heat as coaUar pitch,
also requires in its use the observance of the above rules. The burnt
condition becomes manifest by the rise of blue fumes from the sur-
face of the asphalt, and when this happens, the fire should immediately
be extinguished, and additional asphalt put into the- kettle. If
the heat has been excessive and protracted, and if the blue fumes
have been excessive and constant for more than an hour, the asphalt
50 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
should not be used, because it will undoubtedly have changed or
lost some of its properties. The effects of prolonged heating are
inversely proportional to the natural hardness of the bitumen.
Precautions should always be taken against fire in the heating
kettles, and if one starts water must not be used to extinguish it.
As the temperature of the pitch or asphalt during use is far above
the boiling-point of water, the result of throwing on water may be
serious. Fires may best be put out by the use of sand or steam.
As pitch and asphalt hold heat for a considerable time, the workmen
should be warned of the danger of being burned by these materials.
Whenever it becomes necessary to transport bitumen, as when the
particular waterproofing job is beyond a 500-foot radius from the
location of the heating kettles (which is quite common on large
construction work), small portable kettles are used for transporting
the pitch or asphalt. The same precautions must be taken to avoid
burning and coking the bitumen in these kettles as was previously
explained for the stationary heating kettles. Where the bitumen
is carried in buckets, it is best not to allow these to stand more than a
few minutes before using, as the temperature falls rapidly and the
material thickens. This condition prevents uniform spreading
when the bitumen is mopped on the felt or fabric in making the
membrane.
Proper Use of Kettles and Fuel when Heating Pitch or Asphalt.
Coal-tar pitch and asphalt have no serviceable affinity in water-
proofing by the membrane or sheet-mastic systems. Their mixture
produces a product which resembles putty in some of its physical
properties, except when the amount present of one or the other
does not exceed 5 per cent. Hence the heating kettles should not
be alternated; i.e., kettles used for melting pitch should not be used
for melting asphalt or making mastic, and vice versa. Where kettles
must so be used, it is necessary to clean them, especially where either
material has caked on the sides and bottom of the kettles, as often
happens. In fact it is good practice to thoroughly clean the heating
and mastic-mixing kettles, portable kettles and pails not less than
once a week even though their use was intermittent. Kettles
encrusted with bitumen or mastic require more fuel and time for
heating the contents. The life of the kettle is also reduced by
the presence of caked bitumen or mastic.
The easiest obtainable and cheapest fuel for heating kettles is
discarded construction timber. Staves of asphalt or pitch barrels
are objectionable on account of the unbearable volumes of smoke
they produce. Much trouble and a public nuisance would be avoided
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 51
if there was a law prohibiting their use in city streets. Cord wood
is the best to use, because with it a smouldering fire may be main-
tained for a long time. This keeps the bituminous material hot
without burning it.
Differentiating between Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt in the Field.
Engineers unfamiliar with bitumen find it difficult to distinguish
between coal-tar pitch and asphalt, consequently, mistakes some-
times occur by using one for the other. Asphalt may be a product
of asphaltic petroleum, a refined natural asphalt or a mixture of
both. Coal-tar pitch is a product of the destructive distillation
of coal in the manufacture of coke or illuminating gas. The follow-
ing characteristics will aid in identifying each on the work. Asphalt,
when newly cut, is a bright, lustrous black. It has a pungent and
somewhat rancid odor and taste. With the apphcation of heat of
equal intensity, it requires longer heating than coal-tar pitch to be
brought to the samB Uquid condition or equal temperature. When
asphalt burns without flame its fumes are decidedly blue. Coal-
tar pitch, when newly cut, is somewhat of a dull black and more
brittle, as compared to asphalt. It has an aromatic taste and odor,
which is characteristic of pitch only. When coal-tar pitch burns
without flame, its fumes are a dense, greenish yellow. The safest
and most advisable thing to do where both materials are used on
the same work is to require the manufacturers to mark or label the
containers, so as to make identification easy and certain.
Coal-tar Pitch Versus Asphalt for Waterproofing. Whether
asphalt or coal-tar pitch is to be preferred for membrane water-
proofing is still a mooted question. No doubt, for certain special
uses, as for instance, where the temperature varies widely, the
asphalt is a preferable material because it remains soft and workable
through wide temperature ranges; if the temperature varies but
little, as it often does in underground work, straight-run coal-tar
pitch will give better results on account of its greater chemical
stability But on general construction work, a good quality of
either material is equally serviceable, the prevalent contrary view
among engineers notwithstanding. The author's experience has led
him to the conclusion that certain brands of asphalt now on the
market are even to be preferred to some grades of pitch, for this
reason: The asphalts (all too few, though) as now refined, have
been constantly improving in quality, while coal-tar pitch did not
keep pace. In fact, in the last decade or so, on account o the
increasing value and importance of the by-products from coal tar,
and due to the keen competition in the waterproofing field, the
52 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
quality of pitch has materially suffered. Where the quahty of
pitch or asphalt can be controlled or ascertained and verified, how-
ever, their preference for waterproofing purposes, assuming the con-
sistency to be right for the climate or local requirement, becomes a
question of cost. The heretofore superiority of pitch was due to the
fact that asphalt was often produced as a by-product in oil refineries.
Now the practice is being reversed, hence the improved quality of
asphalt now available. But of course, good straight-run coal-
tar pitch is also available. The point to remember is that both
materials, if of good and certified quality, are practically equally
serviceable, with the exception noted above with regard to
adaptability.
Mastic System op Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The mastic system of
waterproofing consists of (1) the application of sheet mastic (com-
posed of asphalt or coal-tar pitch, sand, grit and cement or stone
dust), in the form of a comparatively thin layer, which more or less
surrounds the structure to be waterproofed; (2) a brick-in-mastic
or tile-in-mastic layer composed of a course or two of bricks or tile,
the joints being filled and all faces covered with a bituminous mastic,
the course or courses covering the structure below ground-water level.
The sheet mastic varies between J inch and 2 inches in thickness;
the brick-in-mastic varies between 2^ inches and 8 inches in thick-
ness. The brick-in-mastic layer, being between five and eight times
as thick as a 3- or 6-ply membrane, and from four to five times as
thick as the sheet mastic, is usually used where great water pressure
exists. It is the most dependable system of waterproofing, though
also the most expensive. In underground construction where head-
room is a factor, or in general where insufficient space exis'ts for the
application of one or two courses of brick-in-mastic, and where
sheet mastic cannot be used, as for instance, on sidewalls of subsur-
face structures a fabric membrane of from 4 to 8 plies is usually sub-
stituted. A felt membrane of an equal number of plies should be
used only when reinforced with 1 ply of fabric for at least each 3 plies
of felt. This precaution is not necessary, however, on very rigid
structures, or where expansion joints properly distributed in the
structure, are provided.
Almost simultaneously with the development of the fabric
membrane went the development of the sheet mastic and the brick-
in-mastic layers. Originally, a coating of mastic (composed of rock
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 53
asphalt, fluxed to the proper consistency) between | and li inches
thick, was used mainly on horizontal surfaces.* In an effort to
increase the depth and weight of this coating for waterproofing
purposes, both on horizontal and against vertical surfaces, bricks
or tiles were introduced between thinner layers of mastic. Finally,
even the brick joints were filled with mastic, resulting in the present
day brick-in-mastic layer or envelope. Where this scheme is used
for waterproofing, the materials are always incased between concrete
or other masonry surfaces.
Appljring Mastic Waterproofing. Sheet mastic for waterproofing
is mostly used on railroad bridges though it has been employed on
utiderground construction. It is most extensively used as a water-
proof floor for buildings and railroad stations. Sheet mastic is,
however, subject to abuse in its manufacture and application. For
instance, the quantities of the various mineral ingredients might be
poorly proportioned, resulting in a mastic that is too soft or too
hard; the quantity of bitumen might be insufficient to give good
cohesiveness and elasticity to the mastic. The sheet mastic might
be apphed without sufficient precautions to prevent cracks produced
by movement due to temperature changes especially over large
areas. While the particular purpose in hand should always be
considered in proportioning of the ingredients for making sheet
mastic, still the following general directions should be adhered
to: the bitumen and the sand should each be not less than 10 per
cent of the finished mastic; the fine mineral dust, whether limestone
dust or cement, should be not less than 45 per cent, and the grit
not more than 30 per cent of the finished mastic; the remaining 5
per cent is sufficient, if carefully apportioned, to take care of any
special requirements of the mastic.
When serving onlj' as a waterproofing medium, sheet mastic
must be continuous over the surface to which it is applied, but its
abutting extremities must not be relied on to make a watertight
connection with steel or concrete without special provision being
made to obtain such a condition. This may be accomplished by a
cove finish of the ends or by the use of an adhesive, plastic joint filler.
Often sheet mastic is used in conjunction with other systems of water-
proofing as, for example, to cover a felt or fabric membrane. With
due precautions in its application, sheet mastic constitutes a good
* The use of sheet mastic (or sheet asphalt as it is popularly called) dates back
to 1838, when it was used to make sidewalks in Paris. It was made of a bitu-
minous limestone from Seyssel and Valde Travers, and since then nearly all
European asphalt paving has been done with this asphaltic limestone.
64 Waterproofing ENGiNEEJiiNGt
waterproofing medium, comparable to the briek-in-mastic system.
Sheet mastic can be made to withstand shock and vibration without
cracking by introducing a wire mesh or cloth reinforcement between
equal thicknesses of mastic forming the layer. It is much cheaper
than brick-in-mastic, but is not as generally applicable.
Compared to felt or fabric membranes, the use of brick-in-mastic
to waterproof a structure is more costly, and its application often
more difficult and more exacting. The reason for this is that the
amount of labor necessary for preparing the mastic and laying the
courses to form the envelope about the structure is considerably more,
as also the quantity of material required for equal areas to be cov-
ered, than the bituminous membrane. Figs. 19 and 20 illustrate
some of the difficulties contended with in the apphcation of brick-
in-mastic to an underground structure, such as a subway. The
section in Fig. 18, representative of the construction of the new
Dual Subway in New York City, shows a typical arrangement of the
waterproofing used on this work. The brick-in-mastic, by its sub-
stantial nature, protects the floDr from percolation due to pressure,
and the bituminous membrane protects the roof from seepage of
ground water.
The condition of a structure to be waterproofed is not always
what it should be to receive the envelope of brick-in-mastic, hence
the structure must be made adaptable by artificial means such as
smoothing, drying, cleaning, etc. It may not be feasible to wait
until the concrete dries before applying the briek-in-mastic, or the
weather may make it difficult to obtain a dry surface. Where a
wet or damp surface is unavoi lible, a ply of felt or fabric or a mem-
brane consisting of the two co nbined should be placed thereon and
its surface mopped with asphilt if asphalt mastic is being used, or
with coal-tar pitch is pitch mastic is used. Pools of water and a
decidedly wet concrete should first be made reasonably dry by suit-
able means before this dry ply is laid. But no dependence for water-
proofing is to be placed on any form of dry ply.
The waterproofing mastic is usually brought to the place of
application in portable fire kettles or small pouring pails. The
mastic should not be allowed to stand in these for more than a few
minutes before using. Failure to observe this results in a loss of heat
and uniformity of mixture due to the quick settling of the mineral
aggregate. In any case the mastic should be well stirred before
pouring it on the prepared surface. The carrying pails must be
scraped after each pouring to avoid caking of the mastic on the
bottom by continued settlement. The mastic should always be
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
55
56 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
spread out to a uniform and reasonably thick film (about 5 inch)
before laying the bricks therein.
The bricks, whose function is to give a substantial and thick
waterproofing layer, are laid in the mastic so as to be completely
surrounded by a film not less than |-inch thick. In no case should
brick touch brick. A simple method of obtaining good and com-
pletely filled joints around the bricks is to slide each brick into place,
somewhat diagonally and with a slight pressure downward. This
will invariably bring the bed mastic up into the joints. Spalls
should not be used under any circumstances. An effort should be
made to use whole bricks, and bats but sparingly. In applying
more than one course of brick-in-mastic it is best to build each
almost simultaneously, with the lower course not more than a few
feet in advance of the upper. Where two courses are decided on
(in which the bricks are ordinarily placed on their largest bed) it
will often be found profitable without materially reducing the, effi-
ciency of the envelope to build a one-course envelope, but with the
bricks laid on the narrow side. This scheme will effect a saving
of 22 per cent in material alone.
Each course of bricks is to be covered with mastic so that all
joints and hollows are filled, making the surface even. When
spreading the top coat of mastic, care is to be exercised in joining
successive pourings. This top coat sometimes becomes pitted or
perforated with numerous pinholes exposing the bricks. This may
be largely overcome by increasing the amount of the fine mineral
aggregate or by adding a small amount of asbestos fiber. When
such a perforated condition is detected in the finished envelope
it should be resurfaced with the pure bitumen.
Laying protective concrete should proceed immediately or
shortly after the surface mastic has cooled. The top or exposed film
of mastic covering the bricks must be cleaned in a manner similar
to that previously described for membranes. Where temporary
construction timber cannot be removed during waterproofing opera-
tions, these locations must be taken care of similarly as described
under the " Membrane system." The forms placed about post
holes to prevent the protective concrete from flowing into the same,
should be made watertight to avoid coating the asphalted bricks
as it is difficult to remove the set mortar afterwards. In
pouring the protective concrete on the mastic, it is safest not
to exceed a drop of 6 feet in height to avoid injuring the top
coating. The surface of the protective concrete should be troweled
smooth.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 57
Precautions when Joining New and Old Brick-in-Mastic. The
ends of the courses at the finish of each day's work, or when work
. is temporarily discontinued, must be well mopped with asphalt or
coal-tar pitch, depending on the kind of mastic used, leaving no
bricks uncoated. To preserve the physical condition of these ends,
2-inch boards may be laid up against them, especially where resump-
tion of work may be delayed for a long time. In commencing the
new work, the old surface should be cleaned and softened so as to
properly join with the new mastic. The use of a gasoline torch
or the burning of some gasoline on the surface is sufficient to accom-
plish this.
Where temporary braces, posts and other supports are used on the
work and are not moved to accommodate the brick-in-mastic layers,
all four sides of such post holes should be stepped when more than
one course is used (see Fig. 16). In waterproofing these post holes
after removing the posts, all surfaces are to be carefully cleaned and
remopped with bitumen. The mastic is then poured on the pre-
pared area and the bricks embedded therein in the ordinary way.
It is advisable to dip these bricks in bitumen or mastic before laying.
In fact, all possible precautions should be taken to secure an absolutely
watertight joint on all kinds of patch work.
Placing Mastic around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam
Pipes. If, through a masonry surface which is to be waterproofed
by the apphcation of a layer of sheet mastic or brick-in-mastic, such
objects as pipes or rods project, careful workmanship is required
to make these locations watertight. Whatever the object be, that
part of its surface which will be included in the waterproofing layer
must be cleaned thoroughly. If these objects project through a
floor or roof, then it is well to leave an open ring about 2 inches wide,
completely around them, as the course or two of brick-in-mastic
is laid down. Then this ring space is preferably filled with a mastic
of softer consistency than that used ordinarily, or with pure asphalt.
Sheet mastic may be appHed without this temporary space around
projecting objects. If objects project from vertical surfaces, it is
first of all necessary to make the form (required for placing brick-
in-mastic against walls) fit snugly around the object. Then the
bricks should be so laid in the mastic at these projections as to leave
a space about 1 inch wide around them, to be filled by the mastic.
A better bond will be secured between the mastic and the pipe, rod,
or other projecting objects, if these are first swabbed with pure
bitumen. In some instances, where the importance of the work
warrants it, the efficiency of these connections will be enhanced
58 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
by the judicious application of waterproofing felt or fabric, as for
instance, if the joints were made as described under " the membrane
system"; then, by the further fiUing of the ring spaces with
mastic or pure bitumen, more positive joints are secured.
In the event that steam or hot- water pipes or mains project
through the masonry, then it is first necessary to insulate them so as
to reduce the effect of their radiating heat to a minimum. The usual
method for doing this is also described under " the membrane
system."
Preparation of Wall Surfaces for Brick-in-Mastic. When exterior
waterproofing is intended for an underground structure running
through rock, an effort is made while excavating to leave the natural
sides as vertical and smooth as possible. But this is never attained.
Hence a sand wall of concrete is applied against the natural rock to
supply a vertical and smooth surface. This acts as the " armor-
coat " for either the membranous or mastic type of waterproofing.
Excavation in earth requires the customary sheet piling and bracing.
This sheet piling is generally placed sufficiently outside the neat line
to permit the building of either a one-course brick or terra-cotta
hollow-tile wall. This wall then acts as an " armor-coat " for the
waterproofing. In some instances steel or wooden sheet piUng is so
placed as to preclude the possibility of building a masonry wall within
its confines, then this piling is made to act as the armor-coat for
receiving the waterproofing. (Fig. 19.) These conditions, however,
only occur on large and difficult work where they must be given
special consideration.
If the masonry armor-coat against the rock surface or sheet
piling is too wet to receive the waterproofing, or when the sheet-
pihng armor is in a similar condition, then a so-called dry ply of either
felt or fabric, or a combination of the two, is first applied. Where
water is actually running over the face of the wall or sheet 'piling,
it should be diverted temporarily. This may be done either by
inserting sufficient bleeders at the best elevation, or by attaching
a strip of tin in the shape of a trough above the space to be water-
proofed. Plaster of Paris or cement may be used for attaching this
strip. If, by these methods, the surface cannot be made thoroughly
dry, a dry-ply of felt and fabric combined is to be hung up against
the surface. The brick-in-mastic is then laid against it in such a
manner as to permit the water to flow down and progressively forward
and out from behind this dry ply. Wherever there is no direct water
to contend against, as above noted, the dry ply may consist of strips
of felt or fabric, mopped in the usual way. In building the armor-
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
59
Fi(j. 19.— Showing Partly l)uilt Mam \\i\l\, 1, and Fonn.s for Brick and Mastic, 2.
Note Top Row of Bricks Covered witli Mastic, and Sln'ct Piling left in
Place .Acting as Armor for Watcr|)rooling.
of filling the narrow parts of the forms with .small pieces of brick, or
squeezing in wliole bricks and thus thinning the joints.
Precautions for Setting-up, Filling and Stripping Forms for
Brick-in-Mastic Walls. In building brick-in-mastic walls, forms
are necessary niainh' to allow the mastic to set, and in warm weather,
even after. Fig. 19 shows a form for a two-course mastic wall in
60
WATERPROOFING EXC;l\EERL\G
62 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
into place by applying a constant force, pressing on as large an area
of the bulge as possible.
All asphalt mastic on cooling will reduce in volume and settle,
(about I inch in a height of 10 feet per 30 deg. Fahr. (16.5 deg. Cent.)
change in temperature for a 2 : 1 : 1 mastic) therefore no concrete
should be placed on top of a mastic wall until complete coohng and
settlement has taken place in it. Neither should a mastic wall be
counted on to carry any weight at any time because it cannot per-
form this function by the very nature of its make-up. On extended
flat surfaces, however, it can be made to safely carry about-300 pounds
per square inch at about 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.) if movement
in the layers is impossible.
Where a mastic wall is to join the brick-in-mastic on the roof of a
structure, it should be brought up to the level of the roof-masonry,
and allowed to settle and cool, then the mastic on the roof should be
laid and joined to the wall mastic. The protective concrete or other
masonry is then laid so that its joints are not directly over the joints
in the mastic waterproofing.
Materials for Making Mastic : their Properties and Proportions.
Asphalt or coal-tar pitch may be used for making mastic. Both must
be carefully selected and tested to insure their adaptability. The
usual practice is to use a minimum of 33 per cent of bitumen, but this
may be decreased to 25 per cent where a stiff mastic is required, or
increased to 50 per cent where a less viscous mastic is desired. The
mineral aggregate, the presence of which tends to increase the tensile
strength of the binder, is usually sand, cement or limestone dust,
and sometimes asbestos fiber is added as a filler. The proportions
are often arbitrarily and carelessly specified. The aim in this regard
should be to proportion the mineral filler to produce maximum den-
sity which insures maximum strength.
The sand for making mastic should all pass through a 10-mesh
sieve. It should never be used when wet or moist, and in general,
should be heated before using. (Figs. 77 and 78 show the customary
ways of doing this.) This will lessen the formation of bubbles and
pin holes in the mastic caused by the escape of the occluded moisture.
The sand should also be clean, free from dirt, silt, or vegetable
matter.
Any cement in good condition is suitable for making water-
proofing mastic. Fineness of the material is the important factor,
because the finer the grain, the more intimate is its incorporation
with the bitumen. The limestone dust need not be as fine as the
cement, but it should pass at least 80 per cent through a 100-mesh
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 63
sieve, and 10 per cent through a 200-mesh sieve. Slate dust is
sometimes substituted, but it usually lacks the fineness of either
cement or limestone dust.
Bricks used for brick-in-mastic waterproofing should be of good
quality common brick, burned hard entirely through, regular and
uniform in shape and size and of compact texture. They should
also be heated to complete dryness before using, and so heated as to
remain practically clean, i.e., free of excessive soot. The various
methods for doing this are discussed below.
The two-thirds mineral aggregate referred to above may consist
of a mixture of sand and cement or sand and limestone dust with a
reasonable amount (not more than 1.5 per cent), in either case, of
asbestos fiber. The latter material, however, may be dispensed with,
as it is only necessary in special cases, as, for instance, on the top
or final coating of the mastic layer when this is located a few feet
below ground surface. The sand and cement is usually mixed in
equal proportions by weight or volume, but it would be much
better to mix these with due regard to the percentage of voids in
the sand. In the rare instances where mastic is to be laid in a very
wet location, more mineral matter should be used, as this will
increase the weight of the mastic and decrease the tendency to create
bubbles in the asphalt due to the steaming and upward pressure of
the water, also when it is to be used on an incline, as more sand
stiffens the mastic. In the mastic that is used as a top coating for
the upper course of bricks, less sand should be used. This will
leave the mastic more ductile and plastic, permitting it, if cracked,
to heal more readily when the temperature is suitable An addition
of asbestos fiber may be made instead of reducing the sand, as this
also gives a more flexible coating.
Hand- versus Machine-made Mastic. When making water-
proofing mastic by hand, it is important to see that the sand and
hmestone dust are thoroughly dry. The sand and cement or lime-
stone dust are first mixed in proper proportions and then put into
the mixing kettle after sufficient asphalt has been melted therein.
The temperature of the asphalt mastic should be kept between 350
and 400 deg. Fahr. (177 and 204 deg. Cent.) and coal-tar pitch mastic
between 275 and 325 deg. Fahr. (135 and 163 deg. Cent.). The
aggregate should not be dumped into the melted asphalt but sprinkled
into it. Stirring the mastic must be continued until a uniform mix-
ture has been obtained. This requires at least twenty minutes of
continued stirring for a 50-gallon kettle.
On large work a battery of mixing kettles is usually centrally
64 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
located, but where the particular waterproofing jobs are beyond a
500-foot radius from the mixing kettles, the mastic must be trans-
ported in portable fire kettles. The mastic in the mixing kettles
is to be stirred before pouring into the portable kettles, and when it
arrives at the place of waterproofing, the mastic should again be
stirred before pouring into the carrying pails. No mastic from the
hot portable kettles must be poured into the carrying pails unless
it is to be used immediately, otherwise settlement of the aggregate
results and the uniformity of the mixture is destroyed.
The practice of making mastic by hand in open fire-heated kettles
is as old as the mastic industry, which began between 1880 and 1885.
But, though paving mastic has for many years been made by machine,
floor and waterproofing mastic continue to be made by hand. This
is partly due to the fact that (1) heretofore such mastic was not a
commonly used material, (2) natural rock asphalt was mostly used
in the belief that an artificial mastic was impossible or very inferior,
(3) the secretiveness with which the mastic industry was developed,*
and (4) the comparatively small quantities of floor mastic generally
called for on any particular job.
Making reasonably good mastic by hand is of course possible.
But there are many drawbacks not usually considered. For instance;
the consistency of the mastic is usually determined by the operator
and hence no two batches arc alike; neither are the proportions of
ingredients constant, for they are usually dumped in by "eye";
then, what is worst of all, the man mixing the mastic naturally
desires to lighten his labor and occasionally either does not sufll-
ciently mix the batch, or adds more bitumen than the amount
pecified. All of these objections would be absent in a machine-
lade mastic, because the ingredients would necessarily have to
be weighed or measured, as is done in mixing concrete by machine.
The quality would also be easily regulated and the engineer could
better inspect the work to see that his specifications were lived-up to,
especially in the matter of cooking the mastic. On large work this
is very important.
A type of mastic-mixing machine which makes this possible,
and indeed, makes a superior mastic, is shown in Fig. 67. The
author, who has experimented with and observed the product of a
machine of this type for a long time, can state confidently that it
would be to the interest of the mastic industry to abolish the hand-
mixed product and resort to a machine-mixed mastic, especially
'■' In the early days of the mastic industry it was not beneath some of those
engaged in it to employ the tricks of witchcraft to fool the inquisitive,
66 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
fire is used the flames should be kept low. This scheme permits
the escape of smoke without covering the bricks with soot. The
radiating heat dries the bricks to any desired degree depending
on how long they remain near the fire. If a second row of bricks is
built around the first one it will receive its incipient heat and as the
inner cyhnder of bricks is used up the outer one will gradually receive
its share of heat. This method, however, is also slow. A mechani-
cal brick heater is described in Chapter VI, and is the most efficient
means for heating and drying bricks known to the author.
Weather Conditions Governing Waterproofing Operations. To
obtain the best results, no waterproofing should be done wherein
ordinary bitumen is used as the cementing or binding material,
especially in the form of a membrane, sheet mastic, or brick-in-
mastic layers, when the air temperature is below 40 deg. Fahr.
(4.5 deg. Cent.), nor during snow, rain, or drizzle. Coal-tar pitch
chills rapidly in cold weather and will not stick well to cold masonry;
and asphalt is even less adhesive to cold masonry. Neither pitch
nor asphalt will adhere to a wet surface, therefore these conditions
must be avoided. However, if the work be amply protected from
cold and wet weather, waterproofing may proceed with due precau-
tions for eliminating the hazards of these conditions. On the other
hand, in warm weather, care must be taken to protect the finished
waterproofing promptly, especially if it is exposed to the sun, other-
wise expensive repairs may become necessary, before or soon after
completion of the work.
Integral System of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The integral system of
waterproofing is the process of making impermeable mortar or con-
crete by incorporating in the mass, certain ingredients which act
either as void fillers, as lubricants for the aggregate, or chemically
upon the cement, thus densifying the mass. These ingredients con-
sist of (1) finely ground powders, such as clays, silicates, feldspars
and hydrated lime, which are usually mixed with the dry cement
at the mill or on the work; (2) liquids and pastes such as stearate of
lime (water-insoluble soap), sodium or potassium oleate (water-
soluble soap), aluminum stearate, calcium chloride and oil com-
pounds, which are usually mixed with the gaging water, though
they are sometimes added to the mixed mass to form an integral
part of the resulting mortar or concrete.
The fillers may be inert or active. If inert, as the above powders
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 67
are, they merely fill up the pores or voids inherent in the concrete,
but if active, as the above soap compounds are, they may either
unite with the cement or crystallize in themselves. The resulting
compounds tend either to fill the voids and barricade the pores or to
become water repellent. Most of the hquids and some of the pow-
ders are inactive lubricants of a fatty nature, and these assist the
aggregates to sHde more compactly into place.
The purpose of the integral system of waterproofing is to make
concrete and mortar impermeable by the apphcation of the water-
proofing materials during the process of mixing, thus reducing the
cost of the construction by ehminating the necessity for any addi-
tional treatment. This system of waterproofing, however, does not
remove the need for thorough mixing and careful placing of the
concrete.
The integral system of waterproofing is best adapted for treat-
ment of structures in the course of construction, principally of the
type not subject to vibration or shock. For water tanks, dams,
foundations, and other stationary or rigid concrete structures, where
absorption or percolation through the concrete may work serious
havoc, it is particularly well adapted. However, the possibilities of
making mass concrete impermeable by the simple expedient of care-
fully grading and correctly proportioning the aggregate and pro-
longing the time of mixing should not be forgotten. For railroad
subways and bridge floors, this system should not be specified, no
matter how promising may be the materials offered; for, even if the
waterproofing materials added do not weaken the concrete (as
sometimes happens when inferior compounds are used), they cannot
prevent its cracking under vibration of traffic and the consequent
percolation of water through such cracks.
The incorporation of foreign ingredients in mass concrete to
increase its density, or, what amounts to the same thing, decrease
its permeability, is not so very old. Originally quick lime was used,
then certain patented compounds began to appear on the market,
such as stearates and resinates (water-insoluble substances), and
finally hydrated hme began to be used for this purpose. In recent
times numerous secret and patented compounds have been exten-
sively used, but owing to a general dissatisfaction with the results
obtained, they have received a considerable setback. And with
them some v^ty good materials were thrown into disrepute. The
practice of adding an arbitrary but small percentage of cement
over and above the calculated amount is quite prevalent, and often
accomplishes the results claimed for many of these special compounds,
68 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Limitations of the Integral System of Waterproofing. The use
of integral waterproofing compounds should be limited to conditions
where certainty exists regarding character of stresses in the structure,
and then only after the materials have been analyzed, tested and
proven efficient. The following pertinent remarks by the U. S.
Bureau of Standards* corrobate the foregoing: " The addition of
so-called integral waterproofing compounds will not compensate
for lean mixtures nor for poor materials, nor for poor workmanship
in the fabrication of the concrete. Since in practice the inert
integral compounds (acting simply as a 'void-filling material) are
added in such small quantities they have very little or no effect
on the impermeability of the concrete. If the same care be taken
in making the concrete impermeable without the addition of water-
proofing material, as is ordinarily taken when waterproofing materials
are added, an impermeable concrete can be attained."
The incorporation of any kind of integral waterproofing material
into a mass of concrete will not materially prevent the formation of
hair cracks or temperature cracks or cracking due to uneven settle-
ment. Results with different materials will vary, but very few
have .proven entirely satisfactory. Neither can this system prevent
seepage through day's work planes, and expansion joints, or joints
between steel and concrete. Furthermore, this system of water-
proofing, or rather the materials used in connection therewith, may
reduce the strength of concrete and sometimes may even induce
disintegration in the concrete. The integral waterproofiing materials
that will not do these things are, in fact, few, and their successful
use requires so much care and labor that better results may often
be obtained by the self-densified system of waterproofing, f In the
light of present-day knowledge and experience with integral water-
proofing compounds, their use and need are debatable on the basis
of real efficiency. There are many cases, nevertheless, where any
other system of waterproofing as well as the integral system might
be used with equally good results, the selection under such cir-
cumstances, being, of course, a comparison of costs. The integral
system has, however an advantage always worthy of consideration,
* Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 83.
t The author is able to say that several manufacturers of integral water-
proofing materials have admitted this to him, but they asserted that these
materials are worth their cost merely by acting as a factor of safety. It seems
more probable, however, that these materials act more psychofogically than as a
safety factor. That is to say, workmen will probably feel more inclined to
prolong the mixing and tamp more vigorously when told or shown that some-
thing has been added, but which will really be effective only by such activity.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 69
namely, it requires no additional excavation or protective masonry,
and the waterproofing operation proceeds with the construction,
which is often a great advantage. In justice to some materials of this
type that have apparently given satisfaction, it must be admitted
that there is really great need for more extensive, and exhaustive
practical tests, that is service tests, on this entire class of materials.
Integral Waterproofing Materials and Their Application
The types of materials above mentioned namely, powders,
pastes and liquids, will now be considered in a more detailed manner.
The many integral compounds appearing on the market are mostly
of a water-repellent nature, but their compositions are seldom
divulged, except those which are patented. The powders are usually
of a white, floury consistency, and water-repellent. This property
is imparted to them by the addition of some metallic stearate such as
limesoap, which is of a fatty nature. The fineness of the powders
gives them their void-filling properties, while those of a fatty nature
act also as a lubricant for bringing into closer proximity the con-
stituent materials of the concrete. The addition to the concrete
mass of various amounts of hydrated lime also creates a dense mixture
by the same procress.
Use of Hydrated Lime. In regard to the addition of hydrated
lime, experience has demonstrated that it serves to increase the
plasticity and also to lubricate, as it were, the aggregate of the con-
crete, resulting in a denser and more uniform mass. But the United
States Bureau of Standards* states that the value of hydrated lime
as a waterproofing medium is probably due to its void-filling prop-
erties, and that the same results could be expected from any other
finely ground inert material, such as sand or clay. While this is
true, it is none the less an indisputable fact that hydrated lime acts
in a greater measure as a lubricant, which the others would only do
in a very limited way. Many proprietary compounds are composed
mainly of finely ground sand and clay.
By adding from 10 to 15 per cent of hydrated lime, the tendency
of concrete to check and hair crack is materially reduced, as the
lime absorbs and retains a large percentage of water and therefore
holds the moisture in freshly poured concrete until the slower acting
cement can utilize it.
Mr. Sanford E. Thompson,! in a series of experiments on the
* Technologic Paper No. 3.
t American Society for Testing Materials, June, 1908.
70
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Portland
Cement
(Parts).
Sand
(Parts).
Stone
(Parts).
Hydrated
Lime
(Per Cent).
1
1
1
2
2.5
3
4
4.5
5
8
12
16
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
71
N. Y.
Clay.
Mo.
Clay.
Feldspar.
Sand.
Hydrated
Lime.
Silica
58.30
16.85
6.41
.06
4.22
2.92
.12
.77
2.71
.60
7.00
72.91
15.01
2.79
.03
.59
.85
.12
.80
2.12
1.12
3.81
64.02
19.38
.70
trace
.87
.33
.10
2.52
11.76
.06
.54
89.50
2.36
2.58
.12
1.37
.57
.21
.26
.70
.20
2.35
1.34
.45
Ferric oxide
.13
46.90
Magnesia
32.19
Potassium oxide
Water (105°)
15.05t
Ignition loss
99.96
100.15
100.28
100.22
100.08
*Cart
on dioxide.
tl
Potal water.
are hydrated dolomitic hme, clays, finely ground sand, and finely
ground feldspar. Some of these may be partly changed in time
when in the concrete. The hydrated Ume may be partly carbonated,
especially on the surface; the feldspar may decompose by the
leaching out of the alkaUes; the sand will change but very Uttle,
if composed of a high-grade quartz sand; the clays will be very inert,
although some theories have been brought forward which assume a
very important role for clay when mixed with concrete; this is to the
effect that the colloids of the clay protect the calcium compounds
from quick hydration, and consequently prevent increase in volume
due to chemical action." However, reliable data show that the
addition of clay to concrete or mortar decreases their permeability
considerably and even increases their strength to a shght degree.
But the use of clay as balanced against the addition of extra cement
* Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 44.
72 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
to accomplish the same results should be carefully considered,
especially in the light of a comparison of costs. For, reasonably good
clay must be used, and unless cheaply obtained the balance will
invariably be in favor of the cement. Plain blue brick clay and pure
white Georgia clay may be used with good results as inert void
fillers.
Use of Active Fillers. Active fillers consist of compounds which
react with certain constituents of the cement, thus forming new
compounds which are themselves inert and either b!:rricade or fill
up the voids. In most of these compounds on the market the active
fillers form, but a small percentage of the compound proper as
illustrated by the analysis in the first column of Table VI. " This
compound was a white powder with a strong aromatic odor of
Kauri resin. It was in fact partly a resinate of potash, which
would be decomposed by the lime present to the corresponding lime
resinate, which is comparatively insoluble. The great part of the
compound is entirely inert, being china clay and hydrated lime.
"As, however, in themselves these materials are not waterproofing,
but become so only as a result of a series of reactions, it would be
better to use the result of these reactions directly and not depend
upon something that may not always take place either wholly or
in part."
Use of Proprietary Cements. Some proprietary cements are
compounds made of Portland cement that has been altered by the
addition of either stearates of lime, or soda and potash, sand, and
other materials and specially treated until the mass becomes a water-
repellent cement. Again, some waterproof cements are made by
mixing about 5 per cent (by weight) of a lime-oil compound in
clinker form, with Portland cement clinker and grinding them
together. The powder formed is then used as ordinary cement,
and results in a more or less dense concrete, not, however, in-
dependent of the necessary care in mixing and placing. Another
form of compound of this nature consists of fish-oil boiled in hydro-
chloric acid, then mixed with burnt lime while slaking with water,
the resulting product being a paste which dries and hardens as
clinker. Another similar compound is made by combining a pow-
dered resinate compound consisting of copal gum, hydrated lime and
fine clay in proportion of 1 : 1 : 1 by weight with Portland cement,
the use of which tends to make waterproof mortar or concrete. These
compounds are also used for surface coatings as well as direct cements.
When used as a direct cement, the lime-oil cement compounds depend
for their impervious tendencies upon the formation of stearates of
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
73
O
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74
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Compound Used as
Direct Cement
Compound Used as
Coating*
(Cement Content) .
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
Lime
Magnesia
Sulphuric anhydride (SO,-.)
Sodium oxide
Potassium oxide
Ignition loss
Carbon dioxide
fOrganic (fat acid)
Water
23.75%
5.96
1.97
64.44
0.91
1.21
0,11
0.73
1.07
100.15
22.40%
7.98
3.63
59.34
1.85
1.15
0.52
0.10
0.45
2.16
0.32
0.93
99.76
* This compound consists of Portland cement (27.73%) and sand (72.27%). The sand
(all passing one-eighth sieve), is mixed with the cement, and is composed of quartzite and
dolomite; there is also a trace of fat acids present.
t The organic is fat acids with a melting point of 52 deg. Fahr. and present as a Ume soap.
Use of Integral Liquids. The liquids are mainly composed of
metallic salts, such as chloride of hme; they also consist of oil
emulsions and soap solutions, and solutions of paraffin in benzine
* Technologic Paper No. 3, pp. 41 and 47.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 75
or benzol. But the paraffin solutions are usually not added to the
gaging water, these being appUed to a masonry surface with a brush
as explained under the surface-coating system. The waterproofing
properties of these Hquids are derived from the formation of gela-
tinous coatings around the smallest particles of the constituents
of the masonry. Of course, this would tend to decrease the strength
of the concrete, and often does. There is also a coal-tar product
used as an integral waterproofing from which the volatile oils have
been almost entirely removed, and the remaining materials tend to
bind together the particles of cement and fill the voids in the concrete.
Some other compounds are composed of fish oil and water glass
(sodium silicate). The fish oil, which is semi-drying, is slowly
saponified by the lime of the cement, and the water glass forms a
lime silicate, both actions, however, being incomplete, due to the
insufficiency of lime present in the cement for such action. Analyses
of a fish-oil compound and one of calcium chloride follow.*
Fish-oil Compound. Calcium Chloride Compound.
Soap 1 .05% Silica trace
Oil 47.29 Alumina and iron oxide 0.25%
Ash water glass 11 . 64 Calcium chloride 27 . 19
Volatile (water) 40 . 02 Magnesium , 04
Water (and iron resinate 15%) 72 . 52
Use of Integral Pastes. Most pastes are soluble mixtures of
secret ingredients which derive their waterproofing properties by the
precipitation of insoluble materials in the voids of the concrete.
Some also act so as to consolidate the mass by increasing its
plasticity. These contain either fine clay, lime, or colloidal matter,
or all of these.
Sometimes pastes are made by mixing a powder, such as alum, to
the cement, and a soap solution to the tempering water. In making
the concrete this paste is added, and the two constituents combine
to form a stearate of aluminum which, as noted before, is a stable,
water-insoluble, void-filling compound.
In the employment of integral pastes or any of the above com-
pounds it is advisable first to investigate the efficacy of the materials
by inspection of results accompUshed on previous work. By sub-
mitting samples for analysis to qualified chemists, or by sending
them to the United States Testing Laboratory the following neces-
sary information can be obtained for a nominal cost: (a) effect on
the strength of the concrete; (b) waterproofing properties when
subjected to extreme ranges of temperature; (c) effect of common
* United States Bureau of Standards, Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 48
76 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
acids and alkalies on their waterproofing properties; (d) effect oil
steel reinforcement, i.e., if productive or preventive of corrosion, etc.
In all cases the manufacturer's written instructions should be
followed with due observance, of course, to any special conditions
arising on the work necessitating variation or change of manipulation.
Self-Densified Concrete
Definition, Purpose and Development. The system of water-
proofing, or, more properly speaking, the practice of making imper-
meable concrete or mortar by means of self-densification, is, as the
name implies, a process of proportioning the constituent materials
and mixing them so as to create as dense a finished mass as possible.
This is as difficult to obtain as it is finally effective in producing
watertight concrete. The reason for this difficulty is that the
requisite density is dependent upon varying factors, the ones most
frequently militating against density being the lack of interest and
inevitable fatigue of the labor employed together with the uncer-
tainty of obtaining the specified quality and exact amount of materials
for each batch without exceptional precautionary measures.
The self-densifying system of waterproofing like the integral
system is adapted to any kind of mortar or concrete structure not
subject to severe vibration, undue settlement or extreme variations
in temperature, unless the movements due to such settlement or
temperature changes are taken care of by properly located and
waterproofed expansion joints. Its main purpose, however, is to
eliminate the use of any form of waterproofing, because of the extra
cost of materials, and the requisite time, labor, and attention r.eces-
seary in the application or incorporation of most forms of water-
proofing compounds. If the energy spent in preparing and applying
waterproofing materials were expended on careful proportioning,
mixing, and supervision in making the mass concrete or the mortar,
the engineer would obtain more nearly impervious masonry. The
supervision required in either case, to obtain the best results, is in
fact, about the same.
The origin of self-densified concrete is probably coincident with
the origin of making concrete. In attempting to duplicate natural
stone in strength, it was but one step further to attempt to make the
concrete as dense as such stone. This probably led to the develop-
ment of a form of cement so fine in itself as to have practically no
voids whatsoever. Such a fine-ground cement carries more sand,
and makes denser and more impervious concrete than the cement
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 77
of the old standard of fineness. This standard of fineness was 5
per cent passing a 2500-mesh sieve, as against 78 per cent passing a
200-mesh sieve of the present-day standard. But only in com-
paratively recent times was the further discovery made of the value
of proportioning the constituents of concrete in such a manner
that the voids of the stone, or largest aggregate, are completely
occupied by the sand, the voids of the sand by the cement, and
the whole united by the hydration of this cement in the presence of
water. Though this is theoretically correct, in practice it is found
necessary to use about 10 per cent of extra cement to obtain the best
results; first, because of incomplete hydration of the cement;
secondly, because of the practical impossibility of exact grading ot
aggregates; thirdly, because of insufficient mixing, tamping and
supervision of details.
Methods of Making Dense Concrete. Concrete may be mixed
either by hand or by machine, both methods, if properly appUed,
giving about the same grade of concrete, though the balance is
always in favor of machine-mixed concrete. The work done by
hand is likely to be uneven in quality, and some batches will be less
thoroughlly mixed than others, while machine-mixed concrete is
usually of a more uniform quality and is generally less expensive.
Hand-mixed concrete is employed only when the quantity is small
or when machinery is unobtainable, but not where uniformly dense
and impervious concrete is an essential factor.
The fundamental requirements for obtaining self-densified
mortar or concrete are: (1) destruction of the inherent porosity
of the mortar or concrete; (2) scientific proportioning of aggregates;
(3) careful supervision and good workmanship.
The inherent porosity of concrete is due partly to the fact that
only about 20 per cent of the cement* used in making concrete is
hydrated, or, in other words, acts as a cementing material, the other
80 per cent remains lying in the pores as so much inert matter, but
only partly closing the pores; and partly to the fact that since every
62J pounds of water weight in concrete occupies 1 cubic foot of space,
which amount of water, if lost by evaporation or drainage during the
setting period, means 1 cubic foot of voids remaining in the mass.
Again, improperly graded aggregate or poorly proportioned mixtures,
or both, are very conducive to porosity in concrete and not so easily
remedied. Too much water and too Little mixing are factors in the
workmanship which often results in porous concrete.
* See series of articles on microscopic study of concrete by N, C, Johnson,
in Engineering Record, January, February, March, 1915.
78 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
The porosity due to the first two causes, i. e., insufficient
hydration and excessive evaporation, may be reduced, first, by
mixing each batch longer than is now common in practice (with the
significant slogan in the industry of " a batch a minute "), and,
secondly, by mixing with just sufficient water to obtain a medium
or mushy consistency. Concrete of this consistency may be defined
as a mixture of cement, sand, and stone or gravel of jelly-like con-
sistency, which is not watery, but can be spaded and readily
worked into place in the form. This consistency is illustrated
in Fig. 21.*
Coarseness of sand and aggregate, is also effective in reducing
porosity and absorption, although gravel seems to produce the
denser concrete, f In fact, gravels are preferable to crushed-stone
aggregate, particularly for underwater work, because they mix
and settle in place more easily. Either crushed stone or gravel
may be used, however, if carefully handled. But bank-run gravel
should never be used, as its quality is not uniform.
Scientific Proportioning. The second essential requirement for
the production of impermeable mortar or concrete is scientific
proportioning. It is of the greatest importance that concrete
should be made as dense as possible if it is to be made impervious,
that is, that it should have the smallest practicable percentage of
voids. This is best accomplished, or, at least, the various methods
tending toward this result in practice are as follows:!
(1) Arbitrary selection; one arbitrary rule being to use half as
much sand as stone, as 1 : 2 : 4 or 1 : 3 : 6; another, to use a volume
of stone equivalent to the cement plus twice the volume of the sand,
such as 1 : 2 : 5 or 1 : 3 : 7.
(2) Determination of voids § in the stone and sand, and pro-
portioning the materials so that the volume of sand is equivalent to
the volume of voids in the stone and the volume of cement slightly in
excess of the voids in the sand.
(3) Determination of the voids in the stone, and, after selecting
the proportions of cement to sand by test or judgment, proportion-
ing the mortar to the stone so that the volume of mortar will be
slightly in excess of the voids in the stone.
* Technologic Paper No. 3, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
t Engineering News-Record, Vol. 79, No. 16, p. 740. 1917.
t " Proportioning Concrete," by Sanford E. Thompson, Journal, Association
Engineering Societies, Vol. 36, April, 1906, ^ . 185.
§ Proportioning by voids has seemingly been proven fallacious. Se^ TecJmO'
logic Paper No. 58 of the IT. S, Bureau of Standards, p. 39,
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
79
QUAKlriG CONSISTENCY
MUSHY CONSISTENCY
FLUID CONSISTENCY
80 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
(4) Mixing the sand and stone and providing such a proportion
of cement that the paste will slightly more than fill the voids in
the mixed aggregate.
(5) Making trial mixtures of dry materials in different pro-
portions to determine the mixture giving the smallest percentage of
voids, and then adding an arbitrary percentage of cement, or else
one based on the voids in the mixed aggregate.
(6) Mixing the 'aggregate and cement according to a given
mechanical analysis curve. (See Appendix I.)
(7) Making volumetric tests or trial mixtures of concrete with
a given percentage of cement and different aggregates, and selecting
the mixture producing the smallest volume of concretes; then
varying the proportions thus found, hy inspection of the concrete
in the field.
The two most practical methods, however, for accurately deter-
mining the proportions of each material is by mechanical analysis
of the aggregates and volumetric synthesis, or proportioning by
trial mixtures. The method of proportioning concrete according to
Fuller's curve gives 1 : 1.41 : 4.34 as an ideal mix for producing the
densest concrete.
From the above methods of proportioning the following laws,
which relate especially to the grading of the aggregate, have been
evolved :
1. Aggregates in which- particles have been specially graded
in sizes so as to give, when water and cement are added, an artificial
mixture of greatest density, produce concrete of higher strength
than mixtures of cement and natural materials in similar proportions.
2. The strength and density of concrete is affected but slightly,
if at all, by decreasing the quantity of the medium size stone of the
aggregate and increasing the quantity of the coarsest stone. An
excess of stone of medium size, on the other hand, appreciably
decreases the density and strength of the concrete.
3. The strength and density of concrete are affected by the
variation in the diameter of the particles of sand more than by
variation in the diameters of the stone particles.
4. An excess of fine or medium sand decreases the density and
also the strength of the concrete, as will also a deficiency of fine
grains of sand in a lean concrete.
5. The substitution of cement for fine sand does not affect the
density of the mixture.
6. In ordinary proportioning with a given sand and stone and
a given percentage of cement, the densest and strongest mixture is
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFIXG 81
attained when the volume of the mixture of sand, cement and water
is so small as just to fill the voids in the stone. In other words, in
practical construction, use as small a proportion of sand and as
large a proportion of stone as is possible without producing visible
voids in the concrete.
7. The best mixture of cement and aggregate has a mechanical
curve resembling a parabola, which is a combination of a curve
approaching an elhpse for the sand portion and a tangent straight
hne for the stone portion.
Grade of Workmanship and Supervision Necessary for Water-
tight Concrete. The third requirement is careful workmanship and
supervision, particularly the latter, for obviously, where the engineers'
directions are not followed, or orders are neglected; where supervi-
sion or inspection is lax, httle can be done in the way of making
dense concrete, in spite of willing and conscientious help. In this
connection it is also well to remember that when inexperienced
laborers or foremen are depended on to produce an impervious
concrete, no scientific proportioning or prolonged mixing will turn
the doubtful balance in favor of the concrete. To produce impervious
concrete it is imperative to give strict supervision to details, and
this phase is usually neglected by inexperienced labor. To accom-
pHsh these various objects, alert foremen and experienced workmen
should be selected, and details of design and construction carefully
attended to.
From the foregoing articles it may be seen that a 1 : 2 : 4 con-
crete is for all practical purposes impermeable, and that with scientific
proportioning of ingredients and grading of aggregates, as outlined
above, a 1 : 3 : 7 concrete can be made almost equally impervious.
Further, the maximum density of concrete is obtained when the
particles lay as close together as possible. Consequently its imper-
viousness depends upon the varying degree of roughness of the
stone and sand, the relative sizes of stone, sand and cement, the
proportionate quantities of the various sizes, the readiness with
which the materials compact, and the amount of water used. The
sizes and quantities being determined and adhered to, careful work-
manship and cautious supervision will do the rest.
The use of these ingredients according to the varied but specific
methods outlined, in no waj^ alters the present standard methods of
mixing and laying concrete. A variation though, in the general
method of mixing concrete by machine must be noted because of
its successful accomplishment in the matter of producing dense and
impervious concrete. Contrary to the prevalent adverse opinion
82 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
of the practice of mixing concrete by first turning on the water and
then dumping the aggregate into the mixer, this practice, shghtly
modified in that each material is put into the drum separately,
starting with the water, followed by the cement, the sand, and
finally the large aggregate, the drum revolving continuously, actually
produces very impervious concrete. This practice is now resorted
to in the manufacture of reinforced concrete water pipe.
Wherever the three essential requirements can be fulfilled and
the suggestions for making them effective followed, there is but
little need to add any waterproofing compound, providing the struc-
ture is not subject to vibration and other harmful physical influences.
If it is subject to such influences, then the only systems well adapted
for the waterproofing, especially on large engineering structures,
under these conditions, are the membranous or sheet mastic sys-
tems, or, possibly, the surface coating system and in some cases, the
grouting process. However, by the judicious arrangement and
distribution of well-made and watertight expansion joints, all water-
proofing may sometimes be eliminated, even in the non-rigid type of
structure.
The general subject of the self-densification of mortar and con-
crete is treated exhaustively in standard works on concrete, and
for more particular and detailed information, these may be con-
sulted to good advantage.
Grouting Process of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. Waterproofing by the
grouting process means the placing (usually) of a very wet cement
mortar behind and around a finished iron or masonry tunnel or other
underground structure, injected through the walls or some portion
of its body. The mortar or grout is forced, generally by means
of a pneumatic grouting machine, through cracks, joints, or pipes
suitably located in the structure, until refusal, or until there is
evidence of the grout having filled all the seams in the rock, or per-
meated the ground in the immediate vicinity of the structure. The
purpose of this is to force the ground water to find or make new
channels for itself, so that it will not come in direct contact with the
structure, which may not be sufficiently watertight in itself to prevent
seepage. The mortar or grout is, of course, in itself very impervious.
This follows from the richness of the mixtures used, in many instances
being nothing more than a neat cement. In fact, such mixtures,
that is, either neat cement, grout, or mortar, form the most imper-
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 83
vious materials, and constitute the best waterproofing mediums if
applied in the proper place and manner. For the grouting process,
these materials are well adapted, and serve their purpose admirably.
This system or process of waterproofing is well adapted for solidi-
fying masonry, various soils * and fissured rock, for sinking wet con-
struction shafts, and for driving tunnels in unstable and water-
bearing material, for cutoff walls and in general where great water
pressures are to be resisted by the finished structure as, for instance,
around tunnels underneath river beds. Grout is also used in tunnel
headings which must pass through water-bearing ground, to fill
the voids in the dry packing over a tunnel arch or elsewhere, to
cut off heavy flows of water from cracks, seams, and fissures in the
rock about the tunnel or its shafts, in the solidification of rock and
quicksand at dam sites, and to insure a watertight contact with,
and the complete protection of, steel work imbedded in the masonry.
In fact the grouting process has a wider field of usefulness than is
generally known.
The grouting process originated or was invented before 1891, but
was only patented in that year. The inventor, Mr. Robert L.
Harris, set forth many of the possibilities of this process, and to-day
it is a recognized engineering procedure and is used on practically
all tunnel construction, though somewhat modified in method.
One of these modifications, perhaps the most radical and of very
recent origin, consists of a pneumatic concrete machine that mixes,
conveys and places the concrete in one continuous stream and
operation, producing a reasonably dense, and impervious concrete.
This process eliminates dry packing over arches of tunnels, permits
the placing of the complete ring of tunnel or hning but does not
readily fill up seams or fissures in the natural rock. This particular
apparatus is still undergoing improvement and promises fair to be a
most important addition to the engineer's equipment of machines
for making and placing dense mortar and concrete. The grouting
process in general will have a wider field of usefulness when its
operation and manipulation, its simplicity and effectiveness are
better understood, and the apparatus perfected, resulting also in
greater economy in its application.
* In sinking a large steel caisson shaft for constructing a tunnel under the
East River to connect the new subways between Brooklyn and Manhattan,
New York City, the bulkheads of the caisson contained a number of 2|-inch
diameter openings, capped during sinking, and used for coneolidating the sur-
rounding material by grouting. Public Service Record, Vol. 3, No. 3, March,
1916. Published by the Public Service Commission, 1st District, State of New
York.
84 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Application of Grout for Waterproofing. To secure good results
from the grouting process, great care must be exercised in conducting
the work. This worii is most advantageously carried on at a rea-
sonably low temperature. Attention to details and a thorough
understanding of the nature of the problem at hand are necessary.
In the case of driven tunnels, for instance, great judgment and care
are required in panning off running water so that none of it will come
in contact .with fresh concrete; and such considerations as the best
method of drilling and placing holes for grouting, the proper con-
sistency of the grout mixture, the best cement to use, what injection
pressure should be applied, the best means of producing and control-
ling the flow of grout, are matters vital to the success of the process.
But these are not difficult to determine as a rule by the performance
of a few preliminary field tests.
In tunnels grouting under pressure is not done until some time
after placing the complete ring of masonry lining at the location
to be grouted, except to reduce leakage in wet ground, or in connec-
tion with sections of masonry lining built to control such leakage
or to support wet and heavy ground. Generally, grout is mixed
as thick as can, with certainty, be made to completely fill the voids.
Good proportions for grout are 1 : 1 (or I5) : 1. Sand or stone dust
and either Portland or natural cement can be used to equal advantage.
Grouting should be carried on continuously at any particular seam
or void until completed, without intermission sufficient to allow
the grout to take an initial set. The grout should be delivered uni-
formly and steadily to avoid occluding air in the interstices of the
dry packing. This is usually accomplished by using two grouting
machines so that while one is shooting grout the other is being
charged. This is especially necessary where large seams or voids
in rock are to be grouted.
For filling large voids thick grout is best, but for small cracks
and fine seams a thin mixture should be used, as, for instance, a
mixture so lean that the water will carry the cement as far as possible
into the fine seam and so avoid blocking up close to the drill hole.
In tunnels through rock, all voids over the arch should be filled
without requiring the grout to travel a great distance, not more than
25 feet after leaving the grout pipe. Grouting of any section of
tunnel should begin at the bottom and proceed uniformly upward.
Unless some other order is found more desirable. If the upper ends
of each series of grout pipes are at different elevations, the grouting
should invariably begin at the lowest pipes, and no higher pipe con-
nected until the grout from a lower pipe begins to flow out of it (see
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
85
86 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
1600 openings per square inch. If it is desired to use stone screenings
instead of sand it should be the finest obtainable or such as will pass
at least 60 per cent through an 8-mesh sieve, 85 per cent retained on
a 50-mesh sieve and 90 per cent retained on a 100-mesh sieve. The
quantity of water necessary to form the mixture depends on the
physical condition of the ground, rock or masonry to be grouted as
well as upon the condition of the sand or stone screenings. It is
always best to commence with a very liquid mixture, say one part of
cement to five or seven parts of water, by volume, increasing the
amount of cement untill a 3 : 6 to 3 : 7 (sand : water) mixture is
obtained. But it is not possible to adhere to any set rule in
grouting, therefore the operator should possess both judgment
and experience if the greatest efficiency and economy are looked
for.
Equipment for Grouting Process.* The best equipment to use
for forcing grout into the spaces to be filled depends upon the pres-
sure necessary to make the grout travel, and the consistency of the
mixture best adapted to the size and kind of voids to be filled. If
a considerable yardage of grout is required a large capacity equip-
ment is best, but where a small quantity is to be placed, especially
under high pressure, a different equipment is necessary to secure
the best results. In the past, and to a certain extent at present,
grouting has been done by pouring the mortar or grout through pipes
arranged in such a way as to secure the necessary pressure. Gener-
ally, however, more pressure than that afforded by the head of grout
alone is required.
The equipments ordinarily used at the present time are as follows:
(1) Reciprocating pumps furnishing a continuous flow with inde-
pendent means of mixing the grout; (2) Pneumatic mixers and
placers, which are of two classes f (a) paddle mixing and air ejecting,
(6) air mixing and air ejecting; (3) paddle mixing and water ejecting.
A paddle mixing and air ejecting type of grout tank has been exten-
sively used on shield-driven tunnels. This type is well adapted for
placing large quantities of grout, as in grouting dry packing behind
tunnel linings, especially over the arch.
A tank of the air-mixing and ejecting type was used very largely
on the work of the New York Board of Water Supply, particularly
in grouting shafts and pressure tunnels. To counteract the extremely
high head over the Hudson crossing, a Cameron pump was used to
force water into the grout tank. This raised the pressure as high
* Engineering News, May 6, 1916, Vol. 75.
t Developed and patented by William Lester Canniff in 1907.
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
3
cr
<!
C3
- 1 -a
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 89
further economy in avoiding the piping of compressed air through
the tunnel for grouting work.
Many good details of operation and experience with the grouting
process are described in a series of articles by Mr. James F. Sanborn,*
Division Engineer, Board of Water Supply, New York, which are well
worth persual by readers contemplating similar work.
Steam-pressure Concrete Mixing and Placing Machine. A new
machine embodying the principles of both the grout mixer and
cement gun has recently been developed and used for making water-
tight concrete direct by materially increasing its density during
placing. This machine is called a concrete atomizer and the details
of its operation are as follows :t
The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, A, can make concrete weigh-
ing about 170 pounds per cubic foot. Superheated steam at from
75 to 80 pounds pressure is turned into the mixing chamber while
the concrete is being thoroughly mixed by mechanical means. The
mixture is then discharged through an outlet, and a fresh supply of
superheated steam takes it to the form at high velocity through a
special hose, which is provided with a nozzle opening which can be
instantly increased to the diameter of the hose in case it is plugged.
Where conditions prevent the use of steam, superheated compressed
air gives almost as good results. Fig. 24, B, shows a plant where
high-pressure steam is supplied from a locomotive, passed through a
reducing valve, and superheated to supply the mixer. The super-
heating effectively prevents condensation of water in the stream of
concrete being delivered from the nozzle to the point of work, and
enables the workman to see the face upon which he is playing the
stream.
The pressure and superheating produce a concrete of considerably
increased strength, while the force with which the mixture is applied
gives it great density. A thin slab placed in this way has been found
to be waterproofed under high water pressure. When the amount
of mixing water is properly regulated little aggregate is lost by falhng
from the working face, and sections 1 foot in thickness have been
placed in continuous operation on vertical walls. One of the photo-
graphs shows this machine at work repairing a concrete retaining
wall. It has also recently been successfully employed to reline a
badly leaking tunnel with gravel concrete about 5 inches thick. J
* " Grouting, an Effective Remedy for Stopping Leakage in Tunnels and
Shafts," Engineering Record, April 15, 22, and 29, 1916.
t Invented and described by Harold P. Brown in Journal of American Con-
crete Institute, Vol. Ill, No. 7, July, 1915.
t Proceedings American Concrete Institute, ^'ol. 12, 1916.
90
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
icMg;^^'- "\
Fig. 24.
A. "Concrete Atomizer," which Turns Out Concrete under 80-lb. ^^tcam
Pressure.
B. Mixer Outfit at AA'ork on Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R.
Retaining Wall, Newark, N. J.
CHAPTER III
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
Impervious Roofing Defined. The subject of impervious roofing
is vast and complex, and we can only hope to cover its more general
aspects with as much detail as is consistent with the practical limits
desired for this chapter. The term " Impervious Roofing " is taken
to mean those materials which are used as a topmost covering for
any form of building construction and whose main function is to
create a watertight roof. These materials always require properly
constructed supports regardless of the character of the roofing or
structure. Impervious roofing, however, does not include the sup-
ports, such as trusses, beams, purlins and rafters, but does include
everything else such as sheathing boards, masonry tiles and slabs
or other suitable sheathing materials, which are placed upon the
roof supports for the double purpose of providing a uniform and
continuous surface for receiving the waterproofing materials and
adding to the protection of the interior from the elements. Rain,
hail and snow are, of course, the particular scourges which create the
necessity for making roofs absolutely watertight. The cost of roof-
ing depends on so many different factors, that no worth-while
estimate could be given as a general indication of the relative saving
to be expected from the use of the types explained below. However,
one thing should be borne in mind, namely, the annoy&nce and
maintenance expense occasioned by leaky and short-lived roofs,
are hardly compensated for by any possible saving in first cost.
The following considerations should guide the selection of a roofing:*
(1) Chance of leaks due to character of construction; (2) Probable
Ufe, including chance of damage by the elements and by wear from
other causes; (3) Fire-resisting value; (4) Cost of maintenance;
(5) Cost of materials; (6) Cost of laying.
The simplest form of roof is the primitive flat roof of the Orient
made with cross beams, thatch, and a heav^y layer of stamped^ clay,
which made the roof more or less watertight. In central Syria ani
* American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
Bulletin No. 131, January 19, 1911.
91
92 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
in Egypt important buildings were roofed with beams and made
watertight with slabs of stone. The Greeks used mainly low-
pitched, gabled roofs protected with tiles of marble or terra cotta.
The Romans were the first to use domes of brick or concrete covered
with cement and lead sheeting for watertightness. On elaborate
structures the roofs were covered with tiles or with bronze plates.
In the mediaeval cathedrals the roofs, which invariably had a very
steep pitch, were for the first time in history sheathed with boards,
then covered with slate, tiles, sheet copper or lead. The Italian
classic type of roof was made nearly flat; and this type now pre-
dominates in tropical and subtropical climates. Steep roofs quite
obviously predominated in regions of much rain or nnow, as in
northern countries, and continue to do so. Most modern roofings
have not the same architectural beauty as those of ancient classic
types, but they are more economical and efficient, also more varied
and numerous in material and design than the old roofings. Some
of the more important ones will be considered separately in the
following articles.
Properties and Application of Shingles
Wood Shingles. For securing watertight roofs, many materials
are now in common use, all of which fall under four general heads of
roofing, namely: the shingle roof, the tin roof, the felt roof (also
called the composition of built-up roof), and the functional roof.
The oldest and most commonly used of these roofings is the shingle
roof. Wooden shingles are universally used for this purpose. These
are made of various woods, such as cypress, redwood, cedar, juniper,
white pine and spruce; this also being the order of their durability.
Cypress is the most durable of wood shingles, though, as with all other
woods, it is only the heartwood that shows greatest durability.*
On the other hand redwood is much less inflammable than any of the
others and spruce is the cheapest. Wooden shingles are usually
packed in bundles (four of which constitute a " thousand," or the
equivalent of one thousand shingles 4 inches wide) sawed to dimension
sizes, which range from 4 to 6 inches wide and 16 to 24 inches long,
or in random sizes, which range from 2i to 16 inches wide and 16
to 24 inches long. Wood shingles are easy to apply, being fastened
to the sheathing boards with two or three nails driven into the part
that will be covered by the exposed portion of the superimposed
* Cypress shingles were laid on a roof of a building in Greenwich, Conn., in
1640 and were serving well 250 years afterwards.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING 93
shingle. Unfortunately it is almost impossible to secure nails that
will not corrode before good shingles will deteriorate, hence
the shingles become loosened and displaced. The use of pure
iron nails, rather than galvanized iron nails, will reduce this hazard
to a minimimi. No shingle should show more than one-third of its
face to the weather. For the number required and the covering
area of shingles, see Table XXXVII. For protecting wooden
shingles from rapid incineration and deterioration, they are usually
dipped into fireproof liqmds, such as solutions of sodium silicate oi'
aluminum sulphate, or coated with a wash mixture composed of
lime, salt and fine sand or wood ashes. The sodium silicate, however,
is readily soluble in water hence it will wash off unless the shingles
are given a top coat of oil or paint; and the lime-salt-sand solution
will not stick long unless also covered with a coat of oil or paint.
The most effective and in the end the economical way would be to
paint the shingles with a zinc borate paint. This paint is also
remarkably fireproof. For preserving purposes such salt solutions as
zinc chloride and sodium fluoride; or such oils as carbolinemn and
dead oil (creosote oU) are much used. The shingles are dipped in
either of th^e for a period determined by experiment but usually
depending on the grade of wood used. If creosote oil is objection-
able, then besides the above salt solutions a solution of persulphate
of iron of 2 to 2J deg. Baum4, can be substituted. But if the per-
sulphate of iron solution is used then it is advisable to top coat the
shingles with hot, raw, Unseed oil. Often, however, besides receiving
preservative treatment the shingles are painted or stained to create a
pleasing effect. Since dipping the shingles is mainly for their pres-
ervation, they are completely submerged in the liquid, but in paint-
ing them, which is mainly for appearance, only the weather portion
of the shingles is coated. However, unless this is done with the
greatest care, it would be better to paint the whole shingle, because
otherwise dry-rot will hardly be prevented. For shingles that are
merely to be stain-treated (they can be stained almost any color),
the staining is best and most durably applied by dipping.
Slate Shingles. Next in general use are slate shingles, especially
the black and the red varieties, but various shades of green and gray
are also used. These are supplied commercially in thicknesses of f, rs,
and J inch, increasing by | inch, to 1 inch. Slate should be hard
and tough, and have a well-defined vein, which must not be too
coarse; if the slate is too soft, it will absorb moisture, if too brittle,
it cannot be cut and punched without splitting, and it will easily be
damaged by walking on the roof. A clear metaUic ring when the
94
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Nails,-
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. — :
=^
^
^
*=
; ;
: :
96
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERIXG
thickness of pan (flat) tiles (as used on the above mentioned work*)
except at the ribs, or along the edges, was a])proximatcIv 1| inches,
being nowhere less than 1 inch, while the average thickness was not
* New York Catskill Water Supply, Type "A" Reinforced Concrete Roof
Tiles.
IMPERVIOUS UOOFIXO
9/
to exceed l\ inches (see Fi.n'. 2'.t). In plaein-i the tiles upon the steel
frames of tlie roof (and steel frames are prc>i'eral)ly usetl for their
support so as to ol)tain tlie necessary I'it^idity), the steel shoukl be
covered with mortar or other suitable coating material foi- protection
against corrosion. It is important that this covering be neither
chipped, cracked nor other-.\-ise injured, flashings for tiles about
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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IMPERVIOUS ROOFING 99
tile. For best results it is important to use clean water and to form
a medium consistency concrete. In general the mixture may be
approximately in the proportions of 1 : 2J to 1 : 3, the aggregates
being measured by weight or volume, as found practicable. It is
important to thoroughly mix the concrete in a good mechanical
mixer, except that very small quantities may be mixed by hand.
Concrete mixing by machine should be continued for at least ten
minutes. No tiles should be made of retempered concrete. Where
it is desired to tint the tiles, mineral coloring materials may be added
during the mixing, but if the bottom surfaces are to be exposed
inside of a building they should preferably be a very Kght gray or
white. The top surface of tiles may be tinted by the surface applica-
tion of a suitable paint.
Steel reinforcement for concrete tiles should be ample, pref-
erably of the mesh fabric variety, firmly fastened at each inter-
section and properly placed. Tor reinforcing- the ridge, hip, rib and
finial tiles or other special shapes and the bearing lugs of pan tiles,
steel rods about 3 inch in diameter will be very useful in addition
to the mesh reinforcement. The best practice is to put the steel
in the lower part of the tile and every part of it at least -fg inch
from the surface. The reinforcement must be placed in exact
positions specified by design, and held in position so as to prevent
displacement while the concrete is being deposited and while it is
setting. If the concrete is not sufficiently wet to thoroughly coat
the steel with cement, it is advisable to coat the steel with cement
grout as it is being placed in the form or immediately before
placing.
After fabrication the tiles should be seasoned; that is, in order
to avoid all manner of cracks, the tiles, on removal from the forms,
should, during the first month, be kept constantly moist. It is very
important that all the tiles should be true to the shapes required
by the particular design; especially is it important to see that the
flat tiles are not warped. Particular attention is also necessary for
making those edges which bear on the surfaces of other tiles so
true and smooth as to form good joints. Variations from any
dimension ought not to exceed | inch. The tiles should be adjusted
in place so as to give close joints where exposed to the weather, and
so that each tile will have a satisfactory bearing. The exposed
spaces between the soffits of the eaves tiles and the cornices should
be pointed smooth with Portland cement mortar, which may be
made to match the tiles in color. All joints should be made per-
manent with an elastic roofing cement. Tiles having unevenness.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
101
inches from the lower edges and ends. One nail is driven half way
between the two, thus using three nails to each shingle on this row.
It is best to use 1-inch galvanized nails with large, flat heads about
5 inch in diameter.
The regular course should begin with a full-sized shingle, as shown
in Fig. 30, laying same parallel to, and flush with, the outer edge or
vertical end of the roof. The lower end is flushed with the first layer,
allowing ^-inch space between the shingles. The course is thus
continued, using two nails to the shingle, driven 4| inches from the
lower edge. The second row is thus begun with two-third-sized
shingles, laid 4 inches to the weather, and nailed as the others. The
third row follows with one-third-sized shingles and the same spacing,
etc. In beginning the fourth row, full-sized shingles are again used
and continued as before. The f-inch space between shingles allows
for contraction and expansion and improves the general appearance.
If shingles are laid 4 inches to the weather and 4| inches from
the lower ends, all nail heads will be fully covered and protected.
Metal should, of course, be used for all flashings and for lining
gutters.
Asbestos Shingles.* There are on the market various brands of
pressed asbestos shingles mostly cut to a standard size, usually
* Originated in Austria. Patented in the United States in January, 1907.
102
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
FiG. 31.
A. The American or Straight-laid Method of Applying Shingles.
B. The Honeycomb or Hexagonal Method of Laying Square-cut Shingles.
C. The Diagonal or French Method of Applying Shingles.
ness under hydraulic pressure. When new, they absorb between
5 and 10 per cent by weight of water, depending on the compression
they underwent. But when exposed to the air for any length of
time, further hydration of the cement decreases their absorptiveness
104
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Tin Roofing
Properties and Application of Tin Roofing. The second type of
roofing, that is, tin roofing, is applicable to both flat and pitched
roofs, and is adaptable to special and difiicult conditions, as well
as practicable in every climate. Tin plate (which consists of iron
or steel sheeting, tinned with an alloy of lead and tin), copper and
zinc sheetings, are the most generally used for this purpose and their
predominance is in the order given. The coat on the tin plate is,
as noted above, mostly an alloy of lead and tin with the quantity
of lead usually predominating. The best grade of tin is that which
is coated with an alloy consisting of 30 per cent pure tin and 70 per
cent pure lead. The weight of this coating varies between 8 pounds
and 40 pounds per box of 112 sheets, 14 by 20 inches, depending on
the thickness of the coat. Plates carrying less than 20 pounds
should not be used for permanent buildings; for such use 30 to 40-
pound coating is most serviceable. Where the coating is all of
lead it is called terne plate and this grade is generally used on inex-
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
107
exercised in making the bends and angles, for if they are made too
sharp the metal is liable to crack.
Wherever any metal roof covering finishes at a wall or any place
where flashing is necessary the roof metal should be turned up S or
10 inches and securely fastened; then this metal should be counter-
(Cleat Omitted)
flashed and the flashing let into the joint of the wall at least 2 inches
and well cemented. This is a part of the work that requires partic-
ular attention so as to get everything watertight.
In all metal roofing the main points are to get the joints water-
tight and to make provision for expansion and contraction.
IMPERMOUS ROUFIXG
113
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
115
03
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Waterproofing engineering!
An ingenious and inexpensive flashing is shown in Fig. 37. The
metal lock referred to in the diagram is of galvanized sheet iron,
and acts as the backbone for the flashing, which may be made of
ordinary felt or strips of prepared-roofing felt, these often being
substituted for the more expensive all-metal flashings.
2x1 COontinuonB)
Seal of Cement Gronfc
or Roofing: Cement .
BRICK PARAPET
A
mmm
••^■■^:',i}::'.ij'WM
^sag.■'■-•'•=*='=^
liSil
-Flaahinff
/■RoofinET
Plastic Cement
or Pitch
CONCRETE PARAPET
B
Fig. 36.— Flashing Details.
Roof Cutters
The function of impervious roofing is to shed the rainwater so
that none finds entrance into the building. On small and umm-
portant structures, rainwater is allowed to drip off the eaves, often
discoloring the walls. On most structures, however, both large and
small, provision is made for taking care of the drip by providing
gutters directly under the eaves, or other roof plane, and in the
valleys of the roof. The most modern practice is to slope the roofs
of buildings so as to provide drainage in the direction of the center
of the structure, where the gutters and conductors are arranged for
easy access. This arrangement avoids marring the architectural
effect of the facade. Fig. 38 shows typical arrangements of metal
gutters and conductors, for mil! and factory buildings.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
119
Pontion of lock
before hammered.
(Metal
Adjustable
Hanger
every
(American
121
-J « < )i_
^bestoS]
122
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Fig. 42. — Two Types of Watertight Joints in Puttyless Glass Roofing. (Patented.)
B
Fig. 43.
A. Methods of Nailing Down Corrugated Sheet Iron on Roofs and Sidings.
B. Methods of Applying Sheet or Corrugated Roofing to Roof Framework.
small iron cleats are riveted to the sheets which hook on to angle
irons screwed on to the purlins or roof frame work. Fig. 43, B,
shows several methods in common use. The former method pro-
duces a more durable and watertight roof.
The slab type of functional roofing is usually made so as to lap
over each other and fit into prepared grooves. The joints are usually
made watertight with an adhesive, elastic compound.
A roof built of concrete blocks or blocks of any other material
will not of itself be watertight because of the many joints; such
roofs must first be waterproofed usually with a membranous roofing
material hence these materials cannot be classed as functional
roofings.
CHAPTER IV
WATERPROOFING EXPANSION JOINTS IN MASONRY
Function and Properties of Expansion Joints. Expansion joints
constitute one of the basic causes contributing to the difficulty of
making masonry structures watertight. When masonry is to be
waterproofed its expansion joints must be so made that water cannot
pass through them. This is usually accomplished either by some
form of tongue and groove, by a bent cutoff plate, by gaskets, and
so forth, in endless variety. Designers usually include some form
of bitumen or other sticky, plastic material as a joint filler.
To devise a joint that will remain tight under all conditions of
weather and stress is exceedingly difficult. Most failures of water-
proofing are due to the lack of joints, to joints not placed where the
tensile stress is large, to narrow joints, or to joints which do not
remain watertight. In a great many cases if an adequate number of
good watertight joints were provided no other waterproofing would
be required. Concrete and other masonry can nearly always be
made as impervious as necessary between cracks, and therefore the
waterproofing of a structure is often a question of waterproofing
its joints. Hence, we shall investigate, (1) the methods used for
the proper provision for expansion and contraction in concrete or
other masonry; and (2) the methods used for proper waterproofing
of the joints.
Expansion joints are used in structures to allow the masonry to
expand and contract freely with changing temperature, and to per-
mit other necessary, small, internal movements and readjustments.
Expansion joints are, in fact, simply cracks built into the masonry
to anticipate or take the place of the internal cracks and breaks.
A sufficient number of these joints must be provided to avoid dis-
figuring the masonry with unsightly cracks (see Fig. 124). The
following instance demonstrates the commonest way that cracks
occur in masonry. Structural materials have a varying coefficient
of expansion* (see Table XXX).
* The coefficient of expansion for any material is the factor which expresses
the change per unit of length for each degree of temperature.
124
128
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
1^8
■^tM$K filler
Lap Joint-Strips
joined by heatint^
faces
Expansion Joint,
non-flowing
Butt
JolDt
Aspbalt Strip
Baffle 4"x
SECTION A-A
Construction
Joints
\:
Front of Wall-
^
■.;■':■.?.■-■.',:;•'.'?,■■ v.. .*£iv.
^PS'.Pfle^t'reiitpdV:'!-!
:.ci.y:;:\yj
. ; ■■.BricM.n: .MSstle;
^".'/^'- ':-:<?:-. '-••'^"-
B
VERTICAL EXPANSION JOINTS
+
I'i^^
W°°^
I.-CJ'V.D".
.5!^-^: o'-'^
■j/.-'.'-'o
■'■'/-. -'a'-'.-
Metal- or
■-"^.liieitibraner
-o ..\--.'.- ■ .0 -\- ^
a::.:--?.-
;:o:. ■.■."■.■-:■':■■*■"-■ <7":^,(
a ■ '.iilrCin J?lat>:-".!\
■AnchoF*"-"-'.'-':
tj.-i;?: -;:°.v'-?-::
D E
HORIZONTAL EXPANSION JOINTS
Fig. 46. — Basic Types of Waterproofed Expansion Joints.
130
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
1 t 1'
1 1
^la"
f
B
[-..-.
A
-^Separation mad€f
by insertion of
waterproofing
material
B
SECTION A.A
A, EXPANSION JOINT FOR RETAININa WALL
ELEVATION
:S'-;'.'i?-.'Ceiiaeii;';.
■M^stic'.v.:.-.(7.;.:
:::i?vV':
Fig. 47. — Typical Forms of Waterproofed Expansion Joints Used for Various
Structures.
Buck of Wall
S:
:v.
.^ Horizontal Joint^
^ Filler, 2 Layers
-^V-
Flap
SECTION A-A
Fig. 48. — Horizontal Waterproof Baffle, and Vertical Expansion Joint and Joint
Filler Used on Concrete Retaining Wall of the Brighton Beach, Line, B.R.T.
Railroad System, Brooklyn, New York.
adheres to the concrete when set, and elastic, so that it " gives "
when contraction and expansion take place.
Fig. 49 shows a horizontal joint for a concrete floor. This joint
is waterproofed by means of a copper V-joint anchored and filled
with a joint roll, consisting of treated fabric wound tightly on itself
and covered with some tenacious and elastic compound, which when
132
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
t:••K:''^■bV^'■•^:■■'•^'■■■'?•'•■'■■•■■•'■■■'5?■•
//..v-V-'iVrr-'Trgiifiy-Bonea-'.':
■■■'<i:--/a'>\
■.•'■^\-::-'^,.<
■Aliotioc-;.' '■•.'O,;
.;-.M7;:.v.V.-.; ■.•
a.v;v/.p' ;;.;,■,■.,■'<;■;■:••:•■.
Fig. 49. — Type of Waterproofed Expansion Joint Used on Public Service Railway
Terminal, Newark, N. J.
Yiscoug Bituminous
Compouiid-
^^^^^^y^^»:
Fig. 50. — Waterproofed Expansion Joint for Solid Floor Bridge. (Patented.)
S Layers oF Burlap-
SECTION OF EXPANSION-JOINT
ON LEVEL SURFACE
A
Expanded Uetal ~
I or more
SECTION OF EXPANSION-JOINT
AT OFFSET IN WATERPROOFING SURFACE
B
Fig. 51. — "Unfilled" Type of Waterproofed Expansion Joint.
ing walls. They form merely a weak bond in the structure, but
permit lateral movement and so prevent disaUgnment. However,
unless some barrier, as a bituminous sheet or membrane, is inter-
posed, water will readily seep thi-ough these joints.
Fig. 53 shows a reinforced tongue-and-groove joint successfully-
used on the Compton Hill Reservoir, St. Louis, :\Iissouri.* The
Engineering New?, December 23, 1915, Vol. 74.
134
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
joint was filled with treated felt and pitch binder as each section was
built up. Fig. 54 shows an all-adaptable form of joint waterproofed
with a soft asphalt contained in a copper bulb the imbedded portion
of which is perforated so as to bond more securely. Fig. 123 is an
efficient form of joint used by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western R. R. on two of its viaducts.
Cutoffs in Expansion Joints. Water should not be allowed to
enter expansion, joints; but if this be inevitable, then it is best to
use some form of cutoff, near one face of the structure, and to provide
proper drainage within the structure. Copper, tin, galvanized iron,
lead and zinc sheeting are often used as cutoffs in expansion joints,
A Clay
Fig. 52.
A. Rectangular Recess in Expansion Joint, Filled with Plastic Clay.
B. Rectangular and Triangular Tongue-and-groove Expansion Joints.
and all serve their purpose very well, but the copper sheeting best of
all. There are two types of cutoffs, known as the internal and exter-
nal. One of the best illustrations of modern practice showing the
use of the internal type of cutoff is in the expansion joints of the
Kensico Dam on the Catskill Aqueduct of New York City.
The expansion joints in this dam contain a strip of copper placed
across each joint near the upstream face to cut off leakage (see Fig.
55, B). This cutoff was constructed in the following manner:
A portion of the strip was placed in a groove in the vertical face
of the masonry forming one side of the expansion joint, and sur-
rounded with concrete or mortar, allowing the remainder of the
strip to project, as shown in detail in Fig. 55, A.
"^'"
Sidewalk or
Roadway SIab-\
i*"'nt#^"1
" '"'■■o'':-vi:v.?;'v';
>:?o:-
,-v^!^:';!;'-.--.Vi!erf6&te4-.::,',;iv;;
-■■■- .^^V-.■-■■.■.■.":Rl)t■ldp'i■(>j■.'•. .•■:■*:••
iiiiili
;^v:Q;•
>•-;^ft:
\Miy^i--lfi^;^r:^^/:^S}^\
i_Asphalt
■:^'M?-y:-:-^-:i/M:
^ICA/J
WMt0-yr0^
/t3ft^i^SSv:;S-^V: -Ivf?:'!
t<-l^
136
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
60BJ moaJiaiuiOQ^
in <
iffl
>o
X
111
<
Neat Cement
Fig. 56. — Expansion Joint with Internal Cut-off Used in Reinforced Concrete
Waterpipe. (Patented.)
to the other junction at F. Hence, it remains there and freezes
when cold weather sets in. The effect of this freezing and the con-
sequent thawing is cumulative upon the structure in that when
ice forms the water expands, exerting a force in the same direction
as the contraction of the masonry, caused by the lowering of the
temperature. On the other hand, when thawing sets in the mobility
of the water returns and the masonry expands unimpeded. The
copper strip being placed near the upstream face keeps the rest of
the joint practically dry.
The internal cutoff is not limited only to large and massive struc-
tures, but may be and has been used very successfully on reinforced
concrete pipes for conveying water even under pressure. These
pipes are usually made in small lengths, 3 to 10 feet, of scientifically
graded aggregate mixed in about the following proportions, 1 : If : 2^.
The connection between lengths is made in the form of an expansion
joint, such as shown in Fig. 56, which is patented. This expansion
138
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
joint has an internal cutoff in the form of a strip of soft copper cast
in the spigot end and passing clear around the pipe, being crimped
as shown to permit the longitudinal movement of the sections.
The other end is set in mortar rammed into the- joint from the inside,
and protected with a coat of neat cement, as shown. The joints
are made free to open and close by the application to the face of the
spigots of a bituminous paint.
'^'M
^^^^
steel Plate
mmi^m^m
^HelQforced Coucrete
-Porous Material
-Vitrified Pipe
it^
1 Layer Paraffin Treated
Felt, between 2 Layers
of Tarred Felt
•Dralnae'e Groove
l"wlde, 2"deep,
Fall Length oX Plates
1J4 X 55 Bar 2 c to c.
drainage Groove
140
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
:S/V.v\;^i?:;jij;wS:'!iigfc.-.w'>
^•."w»U»;/,">.'
wmmm:
..■:*■
'■.•.v;.'-r
■■'.■O-':-
Inside Face^
of Wall
POSITION OF STRAPS BEFORE PLACING OF
MEMBRANE WATERPROOFINS
IK IM
.^•
DETAIL OF
COPPER
STRAPS
at Expaneion Joint
Fig. 59.— An External Cut-off Type of Expansion Joint Used on the new Hill-
to-Hill Bridge at Bethlehem, Penn.
CHAPTER V
WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
Selection and Adaptability cf Materials. There are on the
market numerous waterproofing materials, but comparatively few
are extensively used. We shall examine the most important of
them, however, to determine their general properties whence we will
be able to better understand their use and adaptability for the
different systems of waterproofing in which thej' are employed.
The system of waterproofing and the method of application usually
determine the character or land of material to be used, while both
the material and the system of waterproofing are dependent on the
type of structure to be waterproofed. For, obviously, an existing
structure presents different conditions and waterproofing possi-
bilities from one in the course of construction. Again, a tunnel or
subway presents different conditions and difficulties than does a
building or bridge. Hence the need for different waterproofing
systems, methods and materials. Of course, where several materials
are equally good, or methods equally applicable, then cost governs.
A low first cost, however, is not necessarily the most economical, and
it behooves the architect, engineer and contractor to be calculating
and cautious in this regard.
Materials for Different Systems of Waterproofing. Nearly all
waterproofing materials readily fall under the six systems of water-
proofing previously considered, namely: (1) "surface coating";
(2) "membrane"; (3) "mastic"; (4) "integral"; (5) " self-
densified concrete "; (6) " grouting process."
Each system however, has certain materials best adapted to
itself as, for example, in the " surface coating " system, are used:
(a) Scores of patented and secret compounds.
(6) Coatings of elaterite, paraffin (oil and soHd), mastic, tar,
asphalt, and mixtures of these, cement, cement grout, neat cement,
and mixtures of caustic potash or soap and alum.
(c) Paints composed of suet, lime, asphalts dissolved in naphtha,
in benzine or mixed with linseed oil, and other hydrocarbons.
(rf) Enamels consisting of mixtures of linseed oil and rosin or
145
146
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
a. Bitumens
b. Sheetings
c. Metals
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Fig. 60.
A. Cement Rock, as it Appears in Nature.
B. Cement Materials being Burned in Rotary Kilns.
C. Cement Clinker as it Comes from the Kilns.
D. Cement, Ground Fine for Use.
WATERPROOFIXG MATERIALS
153
Fia. 61.
^4, Asbestos as it Comes from the Mines.
B. Asbestos Fiber as Used with Bitumen to Form Plastic Compounds.
160
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
III
flllILM
■ nil ■■■■<"*"£*■••■■•■ ■*■*
■ ..<■•"■*■■'■■■*<•"■*■"*■"■
,«; I ■■••■>•■••■ a liBiw ■■•■>■>"
■ ■•■•■■• ■■•»••!■■•>«■•••'■«-
Fig. 62.
A. Seven-ounce Untreated Burlap, Showing open Mesh.
B. Same Burlap, Saturated and Coated with Asphalt.
retains between 35 and 50 per cent of its open mesh after treatment,
becomes more pliable, and weighs between 14 and 18 pounds per 100
square feet. It acts as a reinforcement in the waterproofing mem-
brane much the same as does expanded metal in reinforced concrete
slabs. .It is now very extensively used for waterproofing under-
ground structures, and is in keen competition with felt, which,
formerly, was used exclusively. Fig. 62, A, shows a photographic
reproduction of a piece of 7-ounce raw burlap; Fig. 62, B, shows
the same piece properly saturated and coated with bitumen.
* "Manufacture, Test and Use of Waterproofing: Fabric," Engineering News,
Scpten)l)er 24, 1914,
WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
163
No. of Sieve.
Limit of
Fineness
(Per Cent
Passing) .
Limit of
Coarseness
(Per Cent
Passing).
100
95
95
85
16
75
40
30
50
20
50
30
100
CHAPTER VI
WATERPROOFING IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY
Applicability of Tools and Machinery fcr Waterproofing. The
tools, implements and machinery employed in the waterproofing
industry are somewhat connected with the asphalt pavement in-
dustry with which most engineers and contractors are more or less
famihar. Some tools are used in common and some implements
are easily modified to suit either industry. The tools and implements
are usually of simple construction, and some are often home-made^
Surriy "'
Saturant
Satunitirf Tank
Fig. 65. — T>-]iical Dipper and Pouring Pail Used in Waterproofing \\-ith Asphalt
or Tar.
168
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
The bottom of the kettle is riveted but easily removable when burnt
and removal is necessary. The dimensions of the kettle are as
follows: Kettle, 38 inches diameter at top, j^-inch plate, 21 inches
deep; bottom, | inch thick. Mantle, 40 inches diameter, 36 inches
high, of j^-inch plate. Kettles of 50 gallons capacity are the most
generally used. Through the opening in the mantle a wood fire
is built under the kettle in which the bitumen gradually melts.
While in a hot and molten condition, the bitvmien is poured into
small kettles or pouring pails by means of dippers, both of which
are shown in Fig. 65.
Cylindrical Mastic-mixing Kettle. Cylindrical mastic-mixing
kettles are well adapted for making mastic because every part of
U-
iratented in U, S. A.,
172
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
an outlet from the inner kettle. The cost of tliis kettle depends on
the capacity: 45 gallons costing about $66.00; 65 gallons .181.00;
100 gallons about $121.00. Fig. 68, A, shows the kettle adapted to
making mastic mechanically by the addition of a double mixer, gear,
shaft and hand crank hinged arbor. The cost of this type of mixer
also depends on the capacity, namely, 45 gallons about $125.00;
65 gallons about $150.00 and 1000 gallons about $207.00. At B is
shown the pipe connections for each style of kettle.
The steam pressure required for raising the cold materials in these
kettles to their proper temperature is about 100 pounds per square
inch applied for about one hour.
Fig. 69.— Roofer's Kettle, Used for Heating Bitumen and Mastic.
A. Mantle. B Kettle.
Fig. 70. — Stationary Roofer's Kettle. (End View has Outside Jacket Removed.)
intended for long hauls and small jobs. The bitumen can be heated
while being hauled to the work. In places where the municipal
authorities will not allow a thoroughfare to be blockaded by station-
ary kettles, this is found a desirable outfit. The space back of the
driver's seat is arranged for holding wood, having sufficient space
for about two daj^s' supply. There is also a rack for carrying pails,
dippers, mops, etc. The heating tank is provided with a hinged
cover. This type of heater usually comes in sizes of 100 to 150
gallons capacity.
Portable Heating Kettle (Hand Cart Type). The portable kettle
illustrated in Fig. 73 is much used by roofers and waterproofers,
particularly the latter, because it is made in as small capacities as
desired. By the use of this type of small portable heating kettles,
the stationary mixing kettles can be almost any distance from the
174
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERIXG
Fig. 71.— Portable A.sphalt and Tar-heating I^ettle with Davit Attachment.
ur^'^'^
Fig. 73.— Hand-portable T\-pc .if Tar, Asjjhalt, and Mastic-heatnig Kettle.
bottom tank in which the bitumen is heated, and the other an inclined
container for the sand or gravel which is drawn out as needed from an
A
Fig. 75.
A. Paddle Type of Mastic Stirrer, (|-inch Wire Mesh).
B. Stirring Rod.
17&
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
ho
<a .S
a
Ph
_ -^ bo
? 03 0)
— 9
^ o >
CQ 03 ft
<t! O O
50
O g
II
9-
■3 eq
Pl(
03
O
05
179
Gasoline Torch. The torch shown in Fig. 76, D, is the one most
gencralh' used for heating laps and small surfaces of old waterproofing
of the membrane and surface coating types. It is sometimes also
used for heating concrete in the mixer, in freezing weather, where it
is very effective, and helpful in producing good concrete in cold
weather. This torch produces a blue flame of great heat efficiency.
The shipping weight of this type of torch is aljout 4j pounds.
Fig. 77. — Method of Drymt^ and Sieving Sand; Typical .Vrrangement of Fire-
lieated Ivettles for Making Mastic. (Note Yoke for Carrymg Pails of
Hot Pitch or Mastic.)
180
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Fig. 78. — Method of Drying, Heating, and Sieving Sand in Large Quantities.
Sand and Gravel Heating Pipe. The pipes shown lying on the
ground in Fig. 77 are sheet metal, but more usually old, discarded,
cast-iron water pipes, over I5 feet in diameter. They are used very
extensively by waterproofers for drying and heating sand and gravel
in large quantities. Where possible, the sand or gravel is dumped
directly on the pipes as shown, otherwise these materials are shoveled
on until a pile, 2 or 3 feet high, rests on them. A wood fire is built
inside of these pipes, in which a
natural draft is always present.
When the sand is sufficiently heat-
ed, it is usually screened (see man
with shovel at wheelbarrow) before
being used. Fig. 78 shows an
improvised pipe furnace for dry-
ing, heating and screening sand in
large quantities.
Salamander. The salamander
shown in Fig. 79 is used for
drying bricks which are intended
for briek-in-mastic waterproofing,
and also for heating enclosed
areas to be waterproofed in cold
weather. Salamanders are usually
made of |- or j^inch steel plate
and equipped with heavy cast-iron
gratings. They come in several
sizes, the most common being 17
inches in diameter by 20 inches
high and 20 inches in diameter by
24 inches high.
Wheel Barrow. A steel-tray wheel barrow, besides serving its
obvious purpose, is very commonly used for volume measurements
of the mineral ingredients entering into the making of mastic for
waterproofing. Such a wheel barrow is usually constructed of
Nos. 16 to 12 gauge steel, and in capacities of 2| to 6 cubic feet.
Concrete Tampers. The tampers shown in Fig. 80, A, B and C,
are designed to insure a compact concrete mass. The tamping process
is really a slicing and cutting process for the purpose of letting air
bubbles out of the concrete. Ordinary tamping is done by a form
of tamper shown in Fig. 80, B. For facing work, the gridiron tamper
in Fig. 80, A, gives excellent results. The tamper shown at C is
constructed with two spacings.
for
182
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
FiG. 81.
A. Mastic trowel.
B. Mortar Trowel.
C. Wood Spreader or Float for Mastic Floors.
proofing felts are often rolled up without any cores, but waterproofing
fabric can never be handled without cores. The various types
employed are illustrated in Fig. 82.
Mechanical Brick Heater. A practical and economical method
of drying and heating bricks is by the use of an iron furnace, or
Wood
2x 2"
Wood
2"DSam.
Cardboard
4" Diam.
Wood Crate
3 -2" Blocks
Bo.x Core
3"x 3"
Fig. 82. — Types of Cores upon which Felt and Fabric is Rolled for Shipping.
186
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
c
c
K
^
■ Grout Discharffe.
to Plac&
prevents the sand and cement setting into and choking the outlet,
pipe G. During this operation, the blowoff valve K must be open.
When the batch is mixed, valves K and D are closed, and valve C
opened. When the batch is to be ejected, valve F, controlled by
handle H, is opened and the grout discharged through a hose attached
to outlet G. Then valves C and F are closed, the excess pressure
allowed to blow off through valve K, when the door A drops open,
and the machine is again ready to be charged.
CHAPTER VII
TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL TESTS ON WATERPROOFING
Necessity of Testing Waterproofing Materials. Testing of
waterproofing materials is necessary to insure good and uniform
products. Representative specimens of materials to be used should be
tested in the laboratory for comparison with specified requirements.
Analysis should be made when any doubt exists regarding the true
nature of the material. This is especially true of tar and bituminous
compounds and proprietary products, as has, no doubt, become
evident. Some practical field tests may reveal certain undesirable
quaUties, but laboratory tests can often be relied upon to reveal
more, and should not be neglected.
To know the properties of materials is not more essential than
knowing how to test for these properties, at least in a practical way.
In the light of present-day knowledge of waterproofing materials,
it is necessary for the engineer to be acquainted with methods of
testing and to be able to correctly interpret results of tests. Of
equal importance to the tester is a knowledge of the significance of
the tests called for in specifications. For this, however, both techni-
cal knowledge and experience are necessary.
In this chaper technical tests on pitch and asphalt are briefly
described and their significance explained; also tests and results
on the impermeability of plain and waterproofed concrete and cement
mortars, and certain practical tests related to general waterproofing
are described. The results of some of the tests described herein
will make evident certain statements of facts made in other chapters.
Particular attention is directed to the many practical tests as show-
ing the logical way of aiding the engineer's judgment in arriving at
conclusions in regard to the adaptability of some materials for
unusual purposes. Waterproofing involves comparatively little
theory, which, perhaps, explains its slow progress, and its continu-
ance as an art rather than as an exact science.
188
Pyknometer
Type),
Used to Obtain
Specific Gravity of
Bitumens.
(6-a)-(d-c)"
Flash Point. The flash point of an asphalt determines the pos-
sibility of explosions in the melting kettles and general fire risk. It
is the temperature at which volatile oils are given off in a gaseous
state and which may catch fire. This is guarded against by keeping
the flash point as high as possible, that is, refining the asphalts
so as to exclude as much volatile oil as practicable. An asphalt
with a flash point below 400 deg. Fahr. is not ordinarily used.
Although for ordinary purposes the open-cup method for deter-
mining the flash and burning-points of tars and bituminous materials
192
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
196
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
FiG.SS.-
-Electricallv Controlled
Penetrometer.
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
MELTING-POINT TEST
No. 1. Pitch Mould (Special).
No. 2. Hook; Made of « 12 Copper Wire.
No. .S. Thermometer.
Fig. 89. — Apparatus for Determining the Melting-point of Bitumen by the
Cube-in-water Method.
-thermometer
:| f - Strip of Metal
\j -i^i
% —
-2)if-Diamr-
Rnbber Gasket
gn'-Bia ni—
/
1^
■1
deg. Fahr. The |-inch rod supporting the shelf is inserted through
the central hole in the stopper and set so that the top of the shelf is
exactly 1 inch from the bottom of the beaker. The thermometer
is inserted in the other opening and is set so that the top of the
bulb is I inch above the top of the shelf and the bulb itself is | inch
from the rod supporting the shelf.
At least 1 ounce of the sample to be examined is carefully melted
at as low a temperature as possible, care being taken, however, to see
206
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
- Thermometer
^^,
flycerine
TT
I I
JOoat
BituE
Then
Bulb
—Stopper
-Guide Cork
OoatiQs of
Bitumem on
Thermometer
Bulb
- Glycerine
Fig. 92. — Apparatus for Finding the Melting-point of Bitumen by the "General
Electric" Method.
-^^^
208
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Heating Coi]
For making the softening-point test and the drop-point test in one
operation, the apparatus is filled with the compound, and a ther-
mometer inserted as shown in Fig. 93 (c). The temperature ifc
increased at the rate of 7 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) per minute until
the compound comes up through the mercury. The temperature
at which this occurs is called the softening-point of the the compound.
Continuing the test further, the temperature at which a drop of the
compound falls through the glass tube is called the drop point cf the
compound. If the compound has a high softening-point and a high
melting-point, a somewhat greater rise of temperature per minute
is admissible to within about 30
deg. Fahr. (16.6 deg. Cent.) of the
softening-point.
Fig. 94 illustrates the method
by which heat is applied unifcimly
over the entire appcralus. A fiter
spool approximately Ixs inches
inside diameter, 3 inches Icng,
and 4 inches outside diameter, is
wound with about 240 turns of
No. 12 D.C.C. magnet wire. By
means of alternating current of 60
cycles, the iron testing apparatus
is heated to any desired degree.
The voltage employed varies
between 30 and 55 volts, and the
current from 4 to 8 amperes. For
use with a direct current on a 110-
volt circuit, wire of half the size
should be used, and the voltage could be varied between 60 End 1 10
volts. By either method the temperature can be kept almost con-
stant at any degree or can be made to vary as desired.
The testing apparatus and coil are placed on top of a large glass
tube which is embedded in a wooden base. By means of a mirror
at the side of the glass tube in the base, the melting of the compound
in the drop-point test can be observed. When doing this, it is
necessary to have an incandescent lamp on the opposite side of the
base from the mirror.
Flow Point of Bitumen. The flow-point test is mainly for com-
parison of roofing pitches and asphalts. It is a method for obtaining
the relative flow, or progressive tendency to glide, of one asphalt
pr pitch with another accepted as a standard, under the following
B-FLOW MOLD
A • FLOW PLATES
Fig. 95. — Mold and Plate for Flow-point Test.
bears no direct relation to either the melting-point or the penetration
of the pitch or asphalt tested.
Ductility Test on Bitumen. It is generally true that the greater
the ductility of an asphalt, i.e., the extent to which it is capable of
being drawn out in the form of a fine thread, the greater its cement-
ing or cohesive value. The main function of the ductility test,
however, is to reveal the possible amount of healing to be expected
in a fractured bitumen in the form of applied waterproofing. For
a given penetration, the greater the ductilitj- of an asphalt, the
greater the healing or cohesive quality. Except when used for
joint fillers and other special purposes, no asphalt should have a
ductility less than 20 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
The test as made on the Abraham Tensometer* is shown in
* Proceedings of American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 10, 1910.
210
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
-™^
_.^J
replaced in the machine and drawn apart until it breaks; the dis-
tance thus traversed being recorded as the ductihty of the specimen.
Detailed information on this instrument may be found in the Pro-
ceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vols. 10
and 11, 1910 and 1911.
A simpler and more commonly used machine, the " Smith Duc-
tility Machine," is shown in Fig. 98. The preliminary treatment
of the bitumen and the preparation of the briquette for testing it
with this machine are conducted as follows: The mold is placed
upon a brass plate. To prevent the asphalt from adhering to the
plate and the inner side of the two removable pieces of the mold, they
212
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
are well amalgamated. Tlie different pieces of the mold are held
together in a clamp or l)y niean.s of an India ruljher liand.
The material to be tested is poured into the mold while in a
molten state, a slight excess being added to allow for shrinkage on
cooling. After the bitumen is nearly cooled, the briquette is
smoothed off level by means of a heated i^alette knife. When
cooled, the clamp is taken off and the two center pieces of the mold
removed, leaving the briquette of asphalt firmly attached to the two
ends of the mold, which serves as clips. The briquette is then
immersed in water maintained at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.),
per cent in weight when heated for five hours at 325 deg. Fahr.
(163 deg. Cent.) in an electric oven, and not more than 3 per cent
and 9 per cent respectively in a gas oven. After such heating,
neither bitumen shall have its penetration reduced more than one-
half the original. The different amounts volatilized in each oven is
due to the relative restricted circulation of air in the electric oven.
This test* is usually made on 50 grams of bitumen which are
\veighed in a flat-bottomed dish, 2^ inches inside diameter, and If
inch deep, placed in the oven and held exactly at 325 deg. Fahr. (163
deg. Cent.) for five hours. Then it is cooled in a desiccator, and the
loss in weight is noted. The electric oven shown in Fig. 99 is some-
* Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, No. 4, April, 1911.
214
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
times used but gives lower results than the gas oven. Therefoxe
specifications should state the type of oven to be used for the test.
The gas oven shown in Fig. 100, which is still widely used, has
the top and sides covered with 1.8-inch asbestos. The shelf is pro-
vided with a |-inch asbestos pad, large enough to accommodate the
dishes. The bulb of a Centigrade thermometer should be 1 inch
above the shelf and the emergent stem should show the 90-degree
mark. Not more than four tests must be run in the oven at a time.
Goa Tubo'
216
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
for this test is shown in Fig. 101. The pitch is first dried, then it is
passed through a 30-mesh sieve to remove any foreign substances.
In testing materials of 5 per cent or more insoluble matter, 5 grams
should be taken for the test. With lesser percentages, 10 grams
should be used. The amount is weighed in a 100-c.c. beaker, and
digested with about 50 c.c. of c.p. toluol on a steam bath for a period
not to exceed thirty minutes. A filter cup, previously prepared,
is weighed in the weighing bottle and placed in a carbon filter tube
over a beaker or flask. The toluol-tar mixture is now decanted
through the thimble and washed with hot c.p. toluol until cleaned,
Outlet V/ater
Steam Bath
Wire
1. Flask.
Fractions.
Per Cent of
Distillate.
-F,
°C.
518-572
270-300
300-350
350-375
572-662
662-707
ji««*t
Fig/ 102.
A. Pcrmeahility Molds and Test Pieces.
B. Permeability Test Piece Holder.
Description of Standard Apparatus. The apparatus* for holding
the test pieces is shown m Fig. 102, B, in sections ready to assemble.
Fig. 103 is a cross-sectional view of the test piece assembletl ready
for testing. A, A are rubber washers of 5-inch inside diameter and
8-inch outside diameter; B, B are cast-iron top and bottom sections
* Technologic Paj^er No. 3, U. S. Bureau of Standards, Dept. of Commerce
and Labor.
222
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
The molds are 6-inch wrought-iron pipe, 12| inches long, with
a cast-iron flange screwed to the upper end. In order to prevent
the passage of water between the pipe and the cement lining ten
or twelve V-shaped grooves were cut in each pipe, each groove
extending around the inner surface of the pipe.
This flanged pipe was attached to the casting by means of six
eyebolts. A f-inch pipe, 4 feet 6 inches long, was screwed into this
casting. Each of these f-inch pipes was jointed to the main pipe,
which, in turn, connected with the water main and with the air
reservoirs. The shut-off globe valves for water and air are shown
on the pipes connecting the main pipe with the water main and with
Water Main Connected with University Supply
Water Valve
K— Air Valve A
Pipe CoQnectlDg
with Air Tank
^<-AirValve"B"
X"w.I.Pipe
-A
J L^
isti
i
Air
Beserrolr
i-i
if;
lO
B
Fig. 104.
A. Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Concrete.
B. Section of Mold and Casting.
the air reservoirs. The cast-iron cylinders, 6i inches in diameter and
4 feet 8 inches long, formed the air reservoirs. They were connected
with a large air tank, not shown, by means of the pipe shown in
Fig. 104, B, a shut-off globe valve being placed between the air tank
and air reservoirs.
A glass tube and attached scale graduated to hundredths of a
foot were fastened to each |-inch pipe in order to obtain the water
level in the pipe. The globe valve V was used in order to dis-
connect any specimen proving defective. The f-inch pipe and glass
tube were drained by means of the needle valve. A gauge registered
the air pressure.
^terprooflng Material
^"
-.65 Neat Cemsnft
Liainff
-W.I.Eipo
■f^5<"
Waterp^oflUff 3
^m
S33&C1::;?;
iii-:i.».».*»v s
^^
""AW
pipe. After the concrete had absorbed the standing water the
mortar top was added, the surface of the concrete and the mortar
being thoroughly troweled. In applying all surface preparations,
care was taken to secure a dry, clean surface and to have the prep-
aration well brushed in. The water pressure varied from 20
pounds to 40 pounds per square inch applied continuously from
three to seven days.
In all cases except those in which the compounds were applied
in the form of a membrane, the results were variable. The materials
used were more or less reliable but the results obtained were not
often enough satisfactory to establish a single superior compound.
226
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
04 Tubinj
l>4 Tubing
.'X"^ Bolta
On No. 6-7
On No. 8-12
SECTION ON B-B
it-l)iTabtag
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PUL SPECIMEN
PUHC SPECIMEN
230
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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232
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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236
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
the four methods. From the results thus obtained, and the tabu-
lated values given above, Table XII was constructed. By means
of this table the known melting point of a bitumen by one method
is readily converted to an equivalent value by another method.
TABLE XI.— COMPARATIVE MELTING-POINTS OF BITUMEN
Asphalt
Sample,
Number.
Ball-and-ring
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Difference
Between
Ball-and-ring
and Cube-in
Water
Methods.
Cubc-in-
Water
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Difference
Between
Cube-in-
Water and
Kraemer and
Sarnow
Methods.
Kraemer and
Sarnow
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
1.. . .
169
109
151
129
122
124
134
131
127
139
31
30
27
24
30
26
25
29
31
27
200
139
178
153
152
150
159
160
158
166
33
37
29
32
33
30
33
40
32
37
167
102
3
4
149
121
5
119
6.
120
7
8
126
120
126
10..
129
To Transform to
Ball-and-ring
Method.
Kraemer
and Sarnow
Method.
Mabery-
Sieptein
Method.
Cube-in-
Water
Method.
Ball-and-ring
Add 5
Subtract 20
Subtract 25
Subtract 30
Subtract 35
Subtrapt 15
Subtract 5
Add 20
Add 30
Mabery-Sieplein
Add 25
Add 35
Cube-in-water
Add 15
Pitch Pbior
TO Heating.
Kind of Pitch.
i5
a
E
S«
Ota
O
CO
•s
a •
II
i « OS
ftgS
III
■3PO
a
S3
1*
g
.s «
SCu
1
13
1
as
a
o
•e .
1"
.S
ca .
so
o
Soft 1
Medium |
Hard (
5
None
5
None
5
None
76
90
no
107
123
144
29,5
29.9
29.6
84
94
104
106
120
135
108
120
136
138
152
172
29.9
30.9
30.9
30.8
31.3
32.1
3.80
3.36
5.99
3.08
2.70
4.09
tn
Kind of Pitch.
•1
•Sta
9-n
gfe
w?
•Sfc.
am
w?
J2
Oa
so
a 5j3
■e .
o?
1"
"3 S
-SPs
^Q 2
S6
SQ-o
SP'S
"r"-,
tn
l£
IJ
3^^
Soft [
92
118
30.4
5.79
102
138
31.5
9.22
106
132
31.5
• 6.55
117
150
3i.3
10.10
Medium <
121
154
31.4
8.31
145
180
32.9
11.50
130
162
33.6
44.4
138
170
35.4
4.97
Hard {
133
178
32.7
3.24
150
188
33.5
5.68
154
194
34.9
7.47
168
208
36.3
10.85
1— 1
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ll
lliisssssssss
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1— I ,— 1 ,-H 1— 1
240
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
TABLE XV.-
Contents, Per
Cent.
Ductility
at 32
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Ductility
at 62
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Ductility
at 77
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Melting-
point
Kraemer
and Sarnow
Method,
Pitch.
Asphalt.
Asbestos.
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
100
35
100
99J
1
2
li
13
17
no
99
11
16
113
98i
li
10
119
98
li
13
140
97
3
2
119
100
20
126
99i
10
130
9
99
11
128
10
98^
li
13
165
11
98
8
11
154
12
97
10
143
The most evident conclusions from this test are, that due to the
presence of the asbestos the ductility of the bitumen is considerably
decreased and the melting-point is increased. The former fact
indicates that the mixed bitumen would not hold together in the form
of a thin cbating as well as the pure bitumen, while the latter indicates
that the mixed bitumen would flow with greater diffculty than the
pure bitumen at the same temperature.
Ductility of Asphalt Containing Coal-tar Pitch. The purpose of
this test is to determine the effect on the ductility of asphalt of the
addition of coal-tar pitch in various percentages. Both the asphalt
and the pitch were of the grade regularly used in waterproofing the
dual subways in New York.
The melting-point of the pitch was about 116 deg. Fahr. (47 deg.
Cent.) by the cube-in-water method, and the asphalt about 120
deg. Fahr. (49 deg. Cent.) by the Kraemer and Sarnow method.
242
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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244
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
(2) The coal-tar pitch curves show that the pitch is more affected
by change of temperature than the asphalt. This is not quite
obvious, however, unless we assume a common point for both curves,
which would very likely be near the melting-point of both materials.
Then, if measured from this point, the above fact is readily proved.
(3) Of both pitch and asphalt mastics the pitch mastic of pro-
portions 2 : 2 : 1 is more affected by temperature changes.
(4) Of the asphalt mastics, the one of proportions 1:1:1 is
least affected by temperature changes.
1.30
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90
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60 70 80
Temperature, Deg. Eahr.
Fig. 108. — Relation of Penetration to Temperature of Asphalt and Coal-tar
Pitch; also Asphalt and Coal-tar Pitch Mastic, Mixed in the Proportions
of 1 Part Bitumen, 1 Part Sand, and 1 Part Limestone Dust. (Points of
Curves are the Means of three Sets of Readings on Penetration Machine
Using a No. 2 Cambric Needle, Weighted to 100 Grams and Acting for
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246
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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250
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
30 per cent sand and 30 per cent cement, by weight. The bricks
were the ordinary building variety, 21 by 3f by 8 inches.
The joints of the wooden form used for making the specimens
were purposely made not absolutely tight, as this is a condition which
occasionally occurs in practice. As a result, some of the hot mastic
leaked out, leaving a considerable void between two bricks above
the level of the leak.
One of .the forms was also made somewhat narrow, that is, its
width did not permit more than about a j^-inch joint. The result
was that on inserting the brick the mastic was squeezed out between
the form-side and brick. The latter was in consequence only partly
covered with mastic.
These conditions illustrate the necessity of making tight-joint
forms and also wide enough to allow sufficient mastic between all
brick faces.
Three specimens were made as above noted (in good forms) and
when tested for compression at about 70 deg. Fahr. (21 deg. Cent.),
gave the results noted in Table XVII, to which, also, are added for
comparison, the ultimate compressive strength of plain brick and
brick and mortar.
TABLE XVII.— ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICK
AND MASTIC, BRICK AND MORTAR AND PLAIN BRICK
Ultimate Compresive Strength
(Lb. per Square Inch)
360
281
421
2520(a)
2440(a)
3776(6)
5120
5060
4880
Compression on column, ,8 X8 inch base, 1 foot 4 inches high, of common brick and mortar,
(d) Lime mortar, 1 : 3 proportion ; (&) Portland cement mortar, 1 : 2 proportion,
t Compression on largest bed of single bricks.
ASPHALT-
Pitch
(Based
3N Raw Mate-
Material.
Un-
treated.
Treateu.
Treated.
rials) .
No.
Satu-
atu
Per
.' Cent
* of
>d. Satu-
Per
Per
Cent
Satu-
rated
Satu- r
ate
Cent
of
rated.
and
Coated.
rated
C
anc
Date
of
[boating
Total
Bitu-
men.
21.70
29.80
71.30
37.1
190.0
227
25.56
59.80
80.11
133.0
79.4
213
3
20 30
35.82
61.82
76.4
128.0
204
22.59
45.80
68.00
. 102.0
98.0
202
5
Open-mesh jute fabric
21.60
50.36
133
24.55
33.65
61.45
37.0
113.0
150
21.60
59.95
177
21.20
47.50
124
19.95
37.60
70.05
88.0
162.0
261
10
21.15
36.55
75.35
72.7
183.0
256
11
22.00
89.40
306
20.18
21.70
39.70
61.20
47.05 £
6.C
78.0
116.0
136.2
41.2
203.9
12
157
13
19.10
59.90 ?
5.7
5 214.0
82.9
295
14
20.35
52.10 i
7.U
5 155.0
172.0
328
15
19.65
51.90 i
S.'i
5 165.0
86.1
251
16
18.45
62.30 '
l.t
237.0
50.2
287
17
21.05
58.90 i
1.4
5 179.0
107.0
286
18
22.50
64 . 20 i
2.',
185.0
SI. 8
266
19
20.30
49.65 '
8.'
143.0
142.0
286
Averages
20.30
55.70 "
S.t
174.0
95.4
269.5
20
28.75
62.85
. 118.0
21
25.25
65.00
. 166.0
22
22.25
47.60
. 113.0
23
2»*.89
66.17
. 135.0
24
27.40
52.90
93.0
25
20.55
25.50
35.62
55.30
73.2
114.7
26
29.90
79.26
. 165.0
27
17.30
34 70
101.0
28
26.20
56.80
116.0
29
25.60
53.05
107.0
30
Felt (Ught grade) . .
21.60
24.10
44.70
63.70
106.0
119.0
31
59.35
121.20
104.0
32
Felt (heavy grade)
58.51
182.14
211.0
33
50.60
125.50
146.0
34
Felt (heavy grade)
64.20
157.60
146.0
35
73.80
161.90
119.0
36
157.10
150.90
71.0
. 132.7
• • • •
37
38
17.05
43.05
. 152.0
Cotton fabric. . . .
19.30
45.62
. 136.0
18.20
44.30
143.6
—
256
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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CHAPTER VIII
WATERPROOFING SPECIFICATIONS
Specification Requisites. Many architects and engineers are
not sufficiently familiar with waterproofing engineering, hence, in
writing specifications, abstractions are freely made from one speci-
fication and used in another. Such practice is inadvisable and should
be guarded against. In writing specifications there is usually re-
quired some of the lawyer's skill in phraseology and the experienced
engineer's knowledge. For those not so fortunate as to possess
both these quahties, a few remarks on the writirig of waterproofing
specifications will not be amiss.
The specification writer should avoid being general, for, to be
specific is the first requisite of good specification writing. Water-
proofing specifications, as indeed all specifications, should be written
open enough to admit of fair competition. They should describe
the materials, their properties and application well enough to enable
manufacturers to make them, contractors to apply them, and engi-
neers or inspectors to approve or reject the materials or their appli-
cation, or the field work in general, on the strength of such specifica-
tions. They should be suited to the conditions surrounding the
particular work. Sufficient instructions should be embodied in the
specifications to enable the engineer to assure himself that the water-
proofing work can be properly executed under them. Equivocal
or incomplete statements should be avoided, while explanatory
clauses should be inserted wherever necessary. The application
of waterproofing materials is more difficult and important than their
manufacture; hence, efficient and sufficient supervision should be
called for. Specific laboratory tests should also be called for, and
these should be basic, not supplemental as they often are at present.
No waterproofing specifications should allow a variation from any
numerical requirement for strength or composition, as determined
by test, of anything more than is consistent with best practice for
the particular property under consideration. Such values are given
for a great many materials, and will be found in the book of yearly
proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials. But
262
271
The melting-point shall be not less than 116 nor more than 122
deg. Fahr. (47 and 50 deg. Cent.), determined by the cube-in-water
method. The penetration (Dow machine) at 77 deg. Fahr. (25
deg. Cent.) with 100 grams acting for five seconds, shall be not
more than 180 and not less than 110.
The matter insoluble in hot extraction in benzol and toluol shall
be not less than 24 and not more than 32 per cent.
The ash shall not exceed 1 per cent.
On distillation to 671 deg. Fahr. (355 deg. Cent.), the specific
gravity of the total distillate shall be not less than 1.06, determined
at 140/140 deg. Fahr. (60/60 deg. Cent.).
Remarks. Coal-tar pitch meeting the above specifications has
not yet been used for making waterproofing mastic. In fact, no
coal-tar pitch has ever been used for the purpose mentioned in the
specifications, because it was always considered impossible to obtain
a tar-pitch that would be at all plastic at 32 deg. Fahr. (0 deg. Cent.).
But as a result of extensive tests a grade of pitch has been evolved in
which this objection has been overcome. The above specification
is based on that series of tests. The method of making mastic is
explained in Chapter II.
Hydrated Lime for Integral Waterproofing.* Hydrated lime is
a dry flocculent powder resulting from the hydration of quicklime.
It is commercially divided into four classes: (a) High calcium;
(6) calcium; (c) magnesian; (d) high-magnesian.
The classes and chemical properties of hydrated lime shall be
determined by standard methods of chemical analysis.
The non-volatile portion of hydrated lime shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition:
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HYDRATED LIME
Properties Considered.
High Calcium.
Calcium.
Magnesian.
High
Magnesian.
Calcium oxide
Magnesian oxide
Silica i alumina + oxide
of iron (max.) ....
Carbon dioxide (max.). .
Water
Per Cent.
90 (min.)
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
Per Cent.
85-90
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
■ Cent.
10-25
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
Per Cent.
25 (min.)
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
292
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
After the |-inch layer of asphalt pn top of the burlap has become
cold spread a |-inch layer of concrete evenly over the surface.
Then press a layer of expanded metal into the concrete and cover the
metal with a layer of concrete 5 inch thick making the total thick-
ness of the concrete If inch thick and trowel the concrete smooth.
6 'or more
Burlap.^ \.
2 Layers of Tar Paper -
Broken
Stone
Filling
3 Layers of Burlan>.
3 Layers of Eurlap'
IT
to Surface or Base
3
Fig. 112. — Standard Methods of Waterproofing Bridge Floors, C. M. & St. P. Rj.
Protect the concrete from the sun for twenty-four hours after laying.
The joints in the expanded metal should be lapped 6 inches. (See
id) Fig. 112).
After the work has been brought up to the desired point from both
sides, interlap, in order, the strips which reach across the joint,
mopping asphalt between burlap surfaces. Place a strip of burlap
308
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
310
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
FiQ, 114. — Details of Built-up Slag Roof over Concrete Slab.
CHAPTER IX
PRACTICAL RECIPES AND SPECIAL FORMULAS
Origin and Nature of Special Formulas
Considering the many varied purposes and conditions under
which the different systems of waterproofing are found serviceable,
it is surprising how few are the basic waterproofing compounds in
common use. Not more than fifty of such compounds are in the
market. Of these compounds the integral system claims about
30 per cent, the surface coating system about 40 per cent, and the
membrane and mastic systems about 30 per cent. The grouting and
self-densified processes are not considered in this connection because
they require, besides a good grade of material, only scientific manipu-
lation for successful work. The general nature of most of the basic
compounds is discussed in Chapter V. On the other hand, of the
special waterproofing compounds there are at least several hundred.
The nature of these, of course, is in most instances kept as a trade
secret. Still, from time to time, some chemists and engineers dis-
cover or invent useful waterproofing compounds or new processes
for utilizing old compounds. These are often published in the
technical press of both the chemical and engineering professions.
Government chemists, and engineers in particular, are very resource-
ful and liberal in this regard. The United States Department of
Agriculture, the Department of Interior and the Department of
Commerce and Labor, publish annually scores of bulletins and tech-
nical papers some of which are replete with valuable information,
suggestions, and tests on new and old waterproofing methods and
materials,* which are often distributed free and never for more
than cost. These pubhcations are regarded with great favor and au-
thority in the waterproofing industry; and well they may be, for they
are always unbiased, truthful and practical, the only adverse criticism
* As illustrations of the types of these papers, see Bulletin No. 230 of the Office
of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Technologic Paper No. 3
of the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor; Bulletin No.
329 of the U. S. Geological Survey, Department of Interior.
313
Masonry Treatments
Waterproof Mortar. For masonry joints: equal parts of sand
and cement with sufficient water to form a plastic paste produces a
very waterproof mortar; for surfacing and stucco work a 1 : 2
mortar is very efficient provided it is allowed to dry very slowly.
A mbcture consisting of one-sixth underburnt and one-sixth well-
burnt powdered brick, one-third slaked lime, and one-third sand,
will make a dense, waterproof mortar.
Dampproof Coating Compounds for Masonry. An easily made
and applied coating for dampproofing purposes consists of about
20 per cent, by weight, of paraffin (melting-point between 104 and
122 deg. Fahr. (40 and 50 deg. Cent.) dissolved in 80 per cent of a
petroleum oil mixture. This mixture may be made of about 45 per
cent benzene, 25 per cent wood turpentine and 30 per cent
•kerosene.
CHAPTER X
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
Waterproofing applied forms an important part of waterproof-
ing engineering and also a very interesting one. It describes accom-
plishment in the field. Chemical analyses and physical tests of
waterproofing materials are important but they are, after all, mostly
accelerated tests. Service is the real " acid test " for all waterproof-
ing materials and their apphcation. The best criterion of the rela-
tive merits of the various materials and systems of waterproofing
discussed in previous chapters is their efficacy and endurance in
service. Many secret and patented compounds and various types
of waterproofing cannot be fairly judged in any other way than by
their past performences. In fact, certain grades of asphalt have won
favor and preferance for waterprbofing purposes by no other means
than past service. Coal-tar pitch is extensivelj'^ used for water-
proofing underground structures for the same reason. On the other
hand, many integral and surface-coating compounds proved their
unworth in this manner though apparently successful in the labora-
tory. The grouting process of waterproofing is advancing rapidly
now only because of its efficiency as proved in service.
In this chapter will be found practical instances of each of the
six systems of waterproofing previously discussed ; also the standard
and special materials used, the methods of application and where
possible the degree of success obtained.
Examples of Surface Coating Applications
Water Storage Works, U. S. Reclamation Service. The storage
works and tunnel connected with the Strawberry Valley Project *
in the U. S. Reclamation Service are located in the Wasatch Moun-
tains at an elevation of 7500 feet, sui rounded by mountains, some of
which reach an elevation of 10,000 feet above sea level. There is a
wide variation in temperature in this vicinity during the entire
* Enginerring News, Vol. 73, No. 15, April, 1915.
323
324 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
year, and the climate is very severe during the winter months, the
lowest temperature on record being 50 deg. Fahr-. below zero. The
snowfall ranges from 10 feet in low years to 24 feet in high years.
On account of these conditions of extreme cold, with alternate thaw-
ing and freezing, the action of water and frost on concrete that is
not impervious is very marked. It was therefore decided to treat
the concrete with some sort of preventive against absorption of water
by the surfaces exposed.
A study was made of the various waterproofing processes in com-
mon practice. Because the structures had been completed, and in
view of the extraordinary conditions, it was decided to treat the verti-
cal surfaces with alum and soap solutions (Sylvester process) and the
horizontal ones with paraffin.
The alum solution was made by dissolving 2 ounces of alum in
1 gallon of hot water. The soap solution was composed of | pound
of castile soap dissolved in 1 gallon of hot water. The paraffin
was boiled to rid it of any water content, as the presence of water
rendered it hard to apply. Ordinary commercial products were
used.
The surface to be treated with paraffin was first entirely freed from
all moisture, loose concrete, dirt aftd other foreign substances. The
paraffin was then heated and applied to the surface of the concrete
with a paint brush and was forced into the pores by flashing the
flame of a blow torch over the surface.
In the application of the alum and soap (which produces an in-
soluble aluminum stearate in the pores and on the surface of the
concrete), the surface of the concrete was first prepared in the same
manner as for the paraffin treatment. The alum solution was
then applied at a temperature of 100 deg. Fahr. with a moderately
stiff brush, and was then worked in with a stiff horse-brush. While
the surface was still moist from this treatment the hot soap solutiiDn
was applied in the same manner. One treatment with each solution
in the manner described above constituted a coal. If other coats
were deemed necessary, they were applied in a manner similar to the
first coat, after the preceding coat had been allowed to stand twenty-
four hours or more. The work of application was carried on by two
men, one applying the solution and the other following and working
it in as described above.
No actual tests were made to determine the imperviousness of
the concrete after treatment, but the structures that were repaired
and treated have gone through two severe winters and no further
disintegration of the concrete on any part thereof has occurred.
326
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
bond between the concrete and the hand-laid wall. The concrete
is reinforced horizontally and vertically with wire fabric of diamond
mesh, the main wires being No. 4 gauge,'spaced 5 inches apart. No
expansion joints were provided, and although the concrete face has
been exposed to severe temperature conditions, few or no tempera-
ture cracks have occurred.
The concrete in the lower portion of the wall forming the water
face and in the gate tower was of 1:2:4 mixture, the aggregate
consisting of crushed trachite, while the upper portion of the wall
and tower was made of a mixture consisting of practically equal parts
of sand and gravel. Up to a point about 20 feet below the crest,
a calcium-oleate waterproofing compound was added to the water
used to gauge the mixture. The specifications provided that one part
SPILLWAY SECTION
MAIN SECTION
Fig. 116. — Sections through Beaver Park Dam Showing Waterproof Facings.
327
carbohydrate and applied with a trowel on the inside of the arch and
sides. This surface mortar coat contained about 7 per cent of the
waterproofing liquid (added to the gauging water) was easy to apply
but troublesome after apphcation, required repairing, and even then
it did not remain entirely impervious thereafter. In 1917 the remain-
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
329
of felt and heavy mop coats. Each layer of felt was carefully rolled
down before the succeeding coat and next layer of felt were applied,
care being taken to squeeze out all the air bubbles. The felt over-
6Ply-
Existiag Floor
Kew Concrete
SECTION SHOWING WEDGE
JOINT AT OUTSIDE WALL
SECTION SHOWING
JOINT AT DIVISION WALL
imm
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
333
street Grade
Slope l":6'
^l"Cement Waterproofing
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
33^
336
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
sidered that the free drainage through the rock packing, the surface
of the boards and the smooth outer surface of the concrete in the
arch would allow the comparatively small quantity of water in these
parts of the tunnel to find its way to the sides, thence to the ditches
at the bottom, rather than percolate through the concrete. This
proved to be very generally the case, as is shown by the dry condition
of the tunnel as built. The back lagging was used over the arch,
Method of
lapping MatB
DETAILS OF WATERPROOFING
One layer of felt with 4" overlap to
be nailed to lagging of inch boards,
using tin washers on nails over the
whole of the intrados of the arch be-
fore starting any concrete or placing
any of the permanent felt and pitch
waterproofing. The waterproofing
over the arch can be laid in mats of
three thicknesses of felt properly
joined together with pitch made as
shown diagrammatically at x.
Each of these mats of three-ply felt
will be overlapped half the width of
the mat, as shown diagrammatically
at J/.
Fig. 121. — Various Types of Arch Waterproofing Used on Bergen Hill Tunnels.
both where the sand wall was built and where it was omitted, as well
as being placed over the waterproofing of the arch as an armor
course where waterproofing was required. Where the sand walls
were built and waterproofed, and where the waterproofing was not
carried over the arch, the waterproofing was turned in at the top,
as shown at C.
The third method provided for waterproofing the whole of the
arch. This was the same as B except for the addition of the water-
proofing inside the back lagging. In placing this waterproofing,
the felt was cut in strips about 11 feet long (about 1 foot longer than
the length of a section of arch) and six thicknesses were cemented
338
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
floor system over each main arch is divided into three parts by four
transverse expansion joints — two adjacent to each pier and one at
each of the quarter points of the span. The floor is drained by
downspouts through all spandrel walls, excepting those at the
two intermediate expansion joints, and the drainage is discharged
into the openings between the two ribs of the main arch. The
drainage is prevented from flowing over the expansion joints by
dikes built across the floor (enlarged details are shown in Fig. 123).
" The waterproofing proper was done by using three plies of
saturated cotton fabric laid in hot asphalt. The concrete was first
mopped with the hot asphalt. The three layers of cloth were then
laid in the usual manner, each layer being mopped before the appUca-
tion of the succeeding layer. This waterproofing was carried up
the sides of the parapet wall to the top of the ties and directly across
all expansion joints, so that the waterproofing was in reahty continu-
ous from one end of the bridge to the other. At the expansion joints
one additional layer of the saturated fabric was laid across and
folded in the expansion joint beneath a copper flashing, similarly
laid, over which the three layers of waterproofing were placed. A
fold was provided in the waterproofing at the joints to provide
for expansion and the entire joint filled with the hot asphalt.
WATERPROOFIXG APPLIED
339
SECTION B-B
SECTION A-A
Fig. 123. — Dike Form of Expansion Joint, and Details of Waterproofing on the
Martin's Creek Viaduct.
over the entire area of the membrane. An opening was left in the
mastic directly over the center of each expansion joint and filled with
the hot asphalt. The asphalt-mastic was used for protection in prefer-
ence to brick or concrete, since our experience elsewhere with this
mastic, under ballast, indicates that it does not crack and in reality
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
341
previous to laying each sheet. The laps were made tight by follow-
ing with a hot smoothing iron. ITpon the membrane thus made there
was laid, as armor for the waterproofing and as a wearing surface,
a granohthic pavement (1:1:2 mixture with 5 to f inch washed
bluestone chips), marked off in scjuares. These squares were sepa-
rated by expansion joints continuous with the expansion joints in
the subbase, as shown in Fig. 125, also along the balustrades, vault
lights, and at every point where flashing would ordinarily have been
emploj'ed.
In waterproofing the expansion joints, the cut in the bottom slab
was heated, painted and partly filled with the asphaltic compound.
Then the membrane was brought down into the opening and the joint
pointed with mortar. The joint was covered with a patch strip
Fig. 124. — Slab Cracks Made into Expansim .Joints in Waterproofing the
Capitol Terraces, Washinst.iin, 1). C.
(see detail A" on Fig. 125), completing the lower half. When the
granolithic paving was laid, wood strips, tap-ered f to j inch, were
inserted as joint forms. When the concrete had set, the wood was
pulled out, the opening heated and partly filled with the compound.
The remaining space was pointed with mortar. In this way a covered
and sealed reservoir was created at each expansion joint. As the
structure contracts and expands, the mortar plug is drawn down or
forced out, the seal being preserved. After one summer's use the
joints were found all closed nearlj' tight, demonstrating that by use
of a thin plastic membrane underlying the wearing surface the latter
could be kept from spalling or cracking.
Manhattan and Brooklyn Railroad Viaducts. In building rail-
road viaducts through city streets, where space is usually very
valuable and scarce, and economy of operation the governing factor
in the type of structure required, it has become the practice to con-
struct the stations underneath the track level, instead of projecting
342
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
343
them into the side streets on a level with the tracks. This new
practice necessitates the portion of track floor or road bed directly-
over the station mezzanine to be perfectly watertight. To best
accomplish this the steel work at these locations of the elevated
|<-!Af>-j{^
_2l4i_
^■^.^Vi^-^'-'t^^r
344
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
and 127. A design very successful in this respect is used by the
New York Municipal Railway Corporation of Brooklyn, N. Y., on
several of its elevated lines (see Fig. 126).
Waterproofing on the concrete roadbeds over the mezzanine floors
of these stations consists of a 2-ply membrane composed of treated
cotton fabric and asphalt binder, applied over the concrete and lapped
on to the steel girders. Sometimes the ends of the membrane were
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
345
substitution of a steel channel for one of the cover plates of the steel
girder. Fig. 128 shows the design of a steel and concrete roadbed
on a few railroad viaducts in New York City. The waterproofing
details, one of which is shown in Fig. 129, were not entirely-
adequate.
In connection with the design and construction of watertight steel
and concrete road beds of railroad viaducts it is proper to point out
to the engineer whose duty it is to design the waterproofing for such
locations that he would do well to carefully study the details connected
therewith. He knows, for instance, that the structure is subject to
i^y^y^^4li^ ^
j^ a Rods 6 Ctrs.
y, a Kods 1 6 Ctre.
Fig. 128. — Typical Construction of Mezzanine Roof on Elevated Railroad
Structures in New York City, Showing Location and Protection of Mem-
brane Waterproofing.
WATERPROOFING APPi^IED
347
348
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
-Joint Filler
-Joint Filler
-3-Ply Membrane
^ Joint Filler
\^MMM^
FLASHING V-JOINT
Fig. 130. — Improved Types of V-joints for Elevated Structures.
form of construction may also be modified so as to have the angle iron
act as a flashing instead of a joint, as shown at B in Fig. 130. A
strip of thin sheet lead between the angle and web is recommended.
An arrangement, whereby the angle iron is eliminated and a copper
flashing substituted, is shown at C, Fig. 130. This desien is mor(>
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
349
efficient than the above two, because if the joint filler should fail to
act, it would still be almost impossible for water to get around the
flashing and seep through the joint. This design, however, is costlier
and requires great care. when applying and soldering together the
sections of the flashing and in the selection of the metal. In design-
mg the protective concrete, it is often necessary and always advis-
able to reinforce it with some form of wire mesh of which the trans-
verse ends should be left projecting somewhat into the joint filler.
Fig. 131 shows a way to utiUze the protective concrete so as to secure
watertightness in the track floor. Other methods will undoubtedly
350
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
deck. The track floors between the platforms of the upper deck are
waterproofed with a 6-ply membrane made of treated jute fabric
and coal-tar pitch having a melting-point of 120 deg. Fahr. by the
cube-in-water method. This membrane terminates directly over
the webs of the platform girders as shown at A, Fig. 132. These
girders support concrete walls which, in turn, support the platform
of the upper deck. The first summer after the station was com-
pleted considerable quantities of the binder exuded through and all
along the construction joints between this concrete and the top flange
of these girders.
Fig. 132. — Cross-section of Station Platform and Track Floor, Showing Scheme
of Waterproofing Proposed and Used on a Sub-level Railroad Structure
in New York City.
354
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
2 Concrete
^ Ply W.P.
Concrete
BETWEEN STATIONS
Fig. 132A.
In applying the brick-in-mastic to the floor of the subway, the
surface of the concrete bed, which was generally from 4 to 6 inches
thick, was covered with a single ply of waterproofing felt or fabric,
and its surface completely mopped. This served as a dry ply upon
which to place the brick-in-mastic envelope.
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
355
from this facing and the brick and mastic laid therein, as follows.
A ciuantity of mastic was poured into the space and bricks laid in
it on their largest bed and in a double row, leaving a mininuun of
^-inch joints around all faces. After cooling, the forms were removed
and the main concrete wall of the sulnvay was built against the mastic
wall. No leaks developed where the brick-in-mastic envelope was
used.
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
359
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
361
Symmetrical
about this line -
^ Wy0<l^&^^M$^i^&^^'^^^$^^^&^0^^^^^^M^i&^
/^j:'-'-.'^.-'iU:8"cbbc'rete':v''r;;*5'
HALF SECTION BETWEEN
DIAPHRAGMS SHOWING CONCRETE DETAILS
362
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
for the first time in eleven years after its construction. This was
made possible only after it was waterproofed by a unique method.
Unstable foundations had caused cracks, particularly in one corner
of the reservoir, which defied all the many attempts to make the
structure watertight until the following inexpensive method was used.
A strip of sheet rubber, stretching 30 feet long by 3 feet wide by
I inch thick, was placed in the corner of the basin covering the crack.
A box, built around this rubber-covering and filled with soft mud,
kept the sheet in place. Another large crack, in the bottom of the
Fig. 1354. — Steel Tubes for Harlem River Tunnel, Lexington Avenue Subway,
before Sinking.
basin, was also covered with a strip of rubber and held in place by a
cement mortar covering. The basin was then filled with water, and
it was found that, although the crack in the wall opened jt inch
still further, there was no leakage. This method was suggested and
carried into effect by Mr. F. .J. Lewis, a resident of Bellaire.
Timber Sheeting Waterproofing for Subaqueous Tunnels.*
Referring to Fig. 137, in which timber sheeting constitutes the
waterproofing for a subaqueous tunnel, the author believes that if
the form of tunnel construction indicated is at all practicable, the
* Proceedings of the ,\merican Society of Civil Engineers for November, 1914.
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
363
pwoo JO paiiud,.
a
O
a
3
H
2
|£1
l*-;;oe-^*-7;B8-
264
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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WATERPROOFING APPLIED
367
-lo'e"
ammoniac and iron borings) between the plates of the metal lining
forming the tubes, and in taking out each bolt and placing around
the shank imder the washer at each end a grommet made of yarn
soaked in red lead. Before calking with the rust mixture the joints
were cleaned. The usual mixture for the joints was 2 pounds of
salammoniac, 1 pound of sulphur and 250 pounds of iron filings or
borings. Air hammers were used with advantage in calking this
mixture into the joints. The results were variable and not always
satisfactory.
CHAPTER XI
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Maximum
Difference
(Per cent).
$0.50
1.00
2.00
25,00
7.00
$0.40
1.20
1.60
20.00
6.50
$0.45
1.80
'2.40
18.00
7.50
$0.35
.75
1.40
22.00
6.00
$0.30
.90
1.50
20.00
8.00
$0.41
1.10
1.83
16.00
7.25
66
140
71
56
33
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
$0.30
$0.35
$0.40
$0.50
$0.60
.70
1.20
1.10
.90
.80
1.30
1.50
1.40
2.00
2.25
25.00
29.00
20,00
18.00
10.00
7.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
Maximum
Difference
(Per cent).
100
71
73
61
33
372
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
TABLE XXII.-
Wage Per
Eight-hour
Day.
Hemarks.
InsDector
$4.00 to 5.00
4. 25 to 5.00
3.50 to 4.50
2.00 to 2.50
1.75 to 2.25
1.50 to 2.00
3.50 to 4.50
2.25 to 2.50
Waterproofers
Waterproofers' helpers . . .
Labor.
Roofers
Roofers' helpers
COST DATA ON MATERIALS, IMPLEMENTS, AND LABOR 373
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378
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
When Tin
Costs
(per Box.)
Flat Seam
(Cost
per Square).
Standing Seam
(Cost
per Square).
When Tin
Costs
(per Box).
Flat Seam
(Cost
per Square).
Standing Seam
(Cost
per Square).
$3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
$1.67
2.22
2.78
3.34
3.89
4.45
5.00
5.56
6.11
6.67
$1.85
2.47
3.09
3.71
4.32
4.94
5.56
6.18
6.80
7.41
$6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
22.00
24.00
$1.67
2.10
2.62
3.15
3.67
4.20
4.72
6.25
6.77
6.30
$1.69
2.25
2.81
3.37
3.94
4.50
5.06
6.62
6.19
6.75
Price per 100 square feet at a given price per box of 112 sheets — Cost of, laying not
included.
CHAPTER XII
PRACTICAL TABLES
Explanation of Tables. Tables are very useful, and in technical
books indispensable, especially when they are all pertinent to the
subject. A conscientious effort has been made to keep the present
work free of the encumbrance of irrelevant tables. The few included
herein have been found indispensable. They are believed to be
accurate but not necessarily complete, though sufficient for all
practical purposes.
Table XXVII, " Thermometric Equivalents," converts the Fah-
renheit temperatm-e scale into the Centigrade scale and vice versa.
This is often necessary in the laboratory and in the field.
Table XXVIII gives the relative values of density and specific
gra^dty of hquids heavier than water.
Table XXIX, " Specific Gravity and Baum6 for Liquids Lighter
than Water," shows the relation of density, as recorded on the
Baum^ scale, to specific gravity of liquids lighter than water. Every
hquid lighter than water has a definite specific gravity at a certain
temperature, and in consequence a definite density which is usually
measured by the hydrometer and expressed on the Baume scale.
Some liquids, such as petroleum oils, when distilled at and to a cer-
tain temperature, give off volatile oils, which leave the residue denser
than the original; this denser composition is indicated by a corre-
spondingly higher reading on the Baurn^ scale. This reading may
be transformed, by means of the table, into an equivalent specific
gravity of that liquid for that temperature.
Table XXX, " Specific Gravity and Coefficient of Expansion of
Various Materials," is compiled from the most reliable sources.
Some of the values are not to be found in any book, having been
obtained from research laboratory tests. A knowledge of the rela-
tive expansion and contraction of mineral and organic solids and
Hquids is often necessary in waterproofing engineering.
Table XXXI, " Weight and Thickness of Burlap, Felt, and Cot-
ton Fabric Membranes with Coal-tar Pitch Binder," is based on water-
proofing membranes made only with coal-tar pitch binder. If
379
380
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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PRACTICAL TABLES
381
TABLE XXVIII
fin^ i-i pro f-/» —1
Specific Gravities at ^^ F. q-pf^z,C. Corresponding to Degrees Baum6 for
oU Llo .00 J
Liquids Heavier than Water
;]
Degrees
Baum6.
1
1.0000
1.0007
1.0014
1.0021
1.0028
1.0035
1.0042
1.0049
1.0055
1.0062
1.0069
1.0076
1.0083
1.0090
1.0097
1.0105
1.0112
1.0119
1,0126
1.0133
2
1.0140
1.0147
1.0154
1.0161
1.0168
1.0175
1.0183
1.0190
1.0197
1.0204
1.0211
1.0218
1.0226
1.0233
1.0240
1.0247
1.0255
1.0262
1.0269
1.0276
1.0284
1.0291
1.0298
1.0306
1.0313
1.0320
1.0328
1.0335
1.0342
1.0350
1.0357
1.0365
1.0372
1.0379
1.0387
1.0394
1.0402
1.0409
1.0417
1.0424
1.0432
1.0439
1.0447
1.0454
1.0462
1.0469
1.0477
1.0484
1.0492
1.0500
1.0507
1.0515
1.0522
1.0530
1.0538
1.0545
1.0553
1.0561
1.0569
1.0576
1.0584
1.0592
1.0599
1.0607
1.0615
1.0623
1.0630
1.0638
1.0646
1.0654
1.0662
1.0670
1.0677
1.0685
1.0693
1.0701
1.0709
1.0717
1.0725
1.0733
10
1.0741
1.0749
1.0757
1.0765
1.0773
1.0781
1.0789
1.0797
1.0805
1.0813
11
1.0821
1.0829
1.0837
1.0845
1.0853
1.0861
1.0870
1.0878
1.0886
1.0894
12
1.0902
1.0910
1.0919
1.0927
1.0935
1.0943
1.0952
1.0960
1.0968
1.0977
13
1.0985
1.0993
1 . 1002
1.1010
1.1018
1.1027
1.1035
1.1043
1.1052
1.1060
14
1 . 1069
1.1077
1.1086
1.1094
1.1103
1.1111
1.1120
1.1128
1.1137
1.1145
15
1.1154
1.1162
1.1171
1.1180
1.1188
1.1197
1 . 1206
1.1214
1 . 1223
1 . 1232
16
1.1240
1.1249
1.1258
1.1267
1.1271
1 . 1284
1.1293
1.1302
1.1310
1 . 1319
17
1 . 1328
1.1337
1.1346
1.1355
1.1364
1 . 1373
1.1381
1.1390
1 . 1399
1 . 1408
18
1.1417
1 . 1426
1.1435
1.1444
1 . 1453
1.1462
1.1472
1.1481
1.1490
1.1499
19
1.1508
1.1517
1 . 1526
1 . 1535
1.1545
1 . 1554
1.1563
1.1572
1 . 1581
1 . 1591
20
1.1600
1.1609
1.1619
1.1628
1 . 1637
1.1647
1.1656
1.1665
1.1675
1.1684
21
1 . 1694
1.1703
1.1712
1.1722
1.1731
1 . 1741
1 . 1750
1.1760
1.1769
1 . 1779
22
1.1789
1.1798
1 . 1808
1.1817
1.1827
1.1837
1.1846
1.1856
1.1866
1.1876
23
1.1885
1.1958
1 . 1905
1.1915
1.1924
1.1934
1 . 1944
1.1954
1.1964
1.1974
24
1.1983
1.1993
1.2003
1.2013
1.2023
1.2033
1.2043
1.2053
1.2063
1.2073
25
1.2083
1.2093
1.2104
1.2114
1.2124
1.2134
1.2144
1.2154
1.2164
1.2175
26
1.2185
1.2195
1.2205
1.2216
1.2226
1.2236
1.2247
1.2257
1.2267
1.2278
27
1.2288
1.2299
1.2309
1.2319
1.2330
1.2340
1.2351
1.2361
1.2372
1.2383
28
1.2393
1.2404
1.2414
1.2425
1.2436
1.2446
1.2457
1.2468
1.2478
1.2489
29
1.2500
1.2511
1.2522
1.2532
1.2543
1.2554
1.2565
1.2576
1.2587
1.2598
30
1.2609
1.2620
1.2631
1.2642
1.2653
1.2664
1.2675
1.2686
1.2697
1.2708
31
1.2719
1.2730
1.2742
1.2753
1.2764
1.2775
1.2787
1.2798
1.2809
1.2821
32
1.2832
1.2843
1.2855
1.2866
1.2877
1.2889
1.2900
1.2912
1.2923
1.2935
33
1.2946
1.2958
1.2970
1,2981
1.2993
1.3004
1.3016
1.3028
1.3040
1.3051
34
1.3063
1.3075
1.3087
1.3098
1.3110
1.3122
1.3134
1.3146
1.3158
1.3170
35
1.3182
1.3194
1.3206
1.3218
1.3230
1 3242
1.3254
1.3266
1.3278
1.3291
382
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
TABLE XXYIU.—Continued
fi(\o l~1 PI° K(\ ~l
Specific Gravities at ^tth F- , -„ -/. C- Corresponding to Degrees BaumS for
dU lis .56 J
Liquids Heavier than Water
Degrees
Bauni6.
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
63
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
.3303
.3426
,3551
.3679
.3810
.3942
.4078
.4216
.4356
.4500
.4646
.4796
.4948
.5104
.5263
.5426
.5591
.5761
.5934
.6111
.6292
.6477
.6667
.6860
.7059
.7262
,7470
,7683
,7901
,8125
,8354
8590
8831
9079
9333
3315
3438
3564
3692
3823
3956
4091
4230
4371
4516
4661
4811
4964
6120
6279
5442
5608
6778
6952
6129
6310
6496
6686
6880
7079
7282
7491
7706
7923
8148
8378
8614
8856
9104
3327
3451
3577
3705
3836
3969
4105
4244
4385
4529
4676
4826
4979
6136
5295
5458
5625
5796
5969
6147
6329
6516
6705
6900
7099
7303
7612
7726
7946
8170
8401
8638
8880
9129
.3339
.3463
.3590
.3718
.3849
.3983
.4119
.4258
.4399
.4544
.4691
.4841
.4995
.6162
.5312
.5475
.5642
.6812
.5987
.6165
.6347
6534
6724
.6919
7119
7324
7533
.7748
7968
.8193
8424
8662
8905
9155
3352
3476
3602
3731
3862
3996
4133
,4272
4414
4558
4706
4857
5010
5167
5328
5491
5659
5830
6004
6183
6366
6553
6744
6939
7139
7344
7554
7770
7990
8216
8448
8686
8930
9180
3364
,3488
3615
3744
3876
4010
,4146
4286
4428
4573
4721
4872
6026
6183
5344
5508
5676
5847
6022
6201
6384
6571
6763
6959
7160
7365
7576
7791
8012
8239
8471
8710
8954
9205
.3376
.3501
.3628
.3757
.3889
.4023
.4160
.4300
.4442
.4588
.4736
.4887
.5041
.5199
.5360
.5625
.5693
.5864
.6040
.6219
.6403
6590
6782
6979
7180
7386
7697
7813
8036
8262
8496
8734
8979
9231
3389
3514
3641
3770
3902
4031
4174
4314
4457
4602
4751
4902
5057
5215
6376
6641
5710
5882
6058
6237
6421
6609
6802
6999
7200
7407
7618
7835
8067
8286
8619
8758
9004
9256
3401
3526
3663
3783
,3916
,4050
4188
4328
4471
4617
4766
4918
5073
5231
5393
6558
5727
6889
6075
6256
6440
6628
6821
7019
7221
7428
7640
7857
8080
8308
8642
8782
9029
9282
,3414
.3639
.3666
.3796
.3929
.4064
.4202
.4342
.4486
.4632
.4781
.4933
.5088
.5247
.5409
.5575
.6744
.5917
.6093
6274
.6459
6648
.6841
7039
.7241
7449
7661
7879
8102
8331
8666
8807
9054
9308
PRACTICAL TABLES
383
TABLE XXIX
£*f\o n CO c^£i ~~\
Specific Gravities at -p-^ F. " C. Corresponding to Degrees Baumd for
bU LIS -So J
Liquids Lighter than Water
-1
Degrees
Baume.
1
10
1.0000
0.9993
0.9986
0.9979
0.9972
0.9964
0.9957
0.9960
0.9943
0.9936
11
.9929
.9922
.9915
.9908
.9901
.9894
.9887
.9880
.9873
.9866
12
.9859
.9852
.9845
.9838
.9831
.9825
.9818
.9811
.9804
.9797
13
.9790
.9783
.9777
.9770
.9763
.9766
.9749
.9743
.9736
.9729
14
.9722
.9715
.9709
.9702
.9695
.9689
.9682
.9676
.9669
.9662
15
.9655
.9649
.9642
.9635
.9629
.9622
.9616
.9609
.9602
.9596
16
.9589
.9582
.9576
.9669
.9563
.9556
.9550
.9543
.9537
.9530
17
.9524
.9517
.9511
.9604
.9498
.9492
.9485
.9479
.9472
.9466
18
.9459
.9463
.9447
.9440
.9434
.9428
.9421
.9415
.9409
.9402
19
.9396
.9390
.9383
.9377
.9371
.9366
.9368
.9352
.9346
.9340
20
.9333
.9327
.9321
.9316
.9309
.9302
.9296
.9290
.9284
.9278
21
.9272
.9265
.9269
.9263
.9247
.9241
.9235
.9229
.9223
.9217
22
.9211
.9204
.9198
.9192
.9186
.9180
.9174
.9168
.9162
.9156
23
.9150
.9144
.9138
.9132
.9126
.9121
.9115
.9109
.9103
.9097
24
.9091
.9085
.9079
.9073
.9067
.9061
.9056
.9050
.9044
.9038
25
.9032
.9026
.9021
.9016
.9009
.9003
.8997
.8992
.8986
.8980
26
.8974
.8969
.8963
.8957
.8951
.8946
.8960
.8934
.8929
.8923
27
.8917
.8912
.8906
.8900
.8896
.8889
.8883
.8878
.8872
.8866
28
.8861
.8855
.8850
.8844
.8838
.8833
.8827
.8822
.8816
.8811
29
.8805
.8799
.8794
.8788
.8783
.8777
.8772
.8766
.8761
.8766
30
.8760
.8746
.8739
• .8734
.8728
.8723
.8717
.8712
.8706
.8701
31
.8696
.8690
.8686
.8679
.8674
.8669
.8663
.8668
.8653
.8647
32
.8642
.8637
.8631
.8626
.8621
.8616
.8610
.8605
.8600
.8594
33
.8589
.8584
.8678
.8673
.8568
.8663
.8557
.8552
.8547
.8642
34
.8537
.8531
.8526
.8621
.8516
.8511
.8605
.8500
.8495
.8490
35
.8485
.8480
.8475
.8469
.8464
.8469
.8454
.8449
.8444
.8439
36
.8434
.8429
.8424
.8419
.8413
.8408
.8403
.8398
.8393
.8388
37
.8383
.8378
.8373
.8368
.8363
.8358
.8353
.8348
.8343
.8338
38
.8333
.8328
.8323
.8318
.8314
.8309
.8304
.8299
.8294
.8289
39
.8284
.8279
.8274
.8269
.8264
.8260
.8255
.8260
.8245
.8240
384
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Degrees
Baum§.
'
40
0,8235
0.8230
0.8226
0.8221
0.8216
0.8211
0.8206
0.8202
0.8197
0.8192
41
.8187
.8182
.8178
.8173
.8168
.8163
.8159
.8154
.8149
.8144
42
.8140
.8135
.8130
.8121
.8121
.8116
.8111
.8107
.8102
.8097
43
.8092
.8088
.8083
.8078
.8074
.8069
.8065
.8060
.8065
.8051
44
.8046
.8041
.8037
.8032
.8028
.8023
.8018
.8014
.8009
.8005
45
.8000
.7996
.7991
.7986
.7982
.7977
.7973
.7968
.7964
.7959
46
.7955
.7960
.7946
.7941
.7937
.7932
.7928
.7923
.7919
.7914
47
.7910
.7906
.7901
.7896
.7892
.7887
.7883
.7878
.7874
.7870
48
.7865
.7861
.7858
.7862
.7848
.7843
.7839
.7834
.7830
.7826
49
.7821
.7817
.7812
.7808
.7804
.7799
.7795
.7791
.7786
.7782
. 50
.7778
.7773
.7769
.7766
.7761
.7756
.7752
.7748
.7743
.7739
51
.7735
.7731
.7726
.7722
.7718
.7713
.7709
.7705
.7701
.7697
52
.7692
.7688
.7684
.7680
.7676
.7671
.7667
.7663
.7659
.7654
63
.7650
.7646
.7642
.7638
.7634
.7629
.7626
.7621
.7617
.7613
54
.7609
.7605
.7600
.7596
.7592
.7588
.7584
.7580
.7576
.7572
55
.7568
.7663
.7569
.7556
.7551
.7547
.7543
.7539
.7635
.7531
56
.7527
.7523
.7519
.7516
.7511
.7507
.7503
.7499
.7495
.7491
67
.'7487
.7483
.7479
.7475
.7471
.7467
.7463
.7469
.7455
.7461
58
.7447
.7443
.7439
.7435
.7431
.7427
.7423
.7419
.7416
.7411
59
.7407
.7403
.7400
.7393
.7392
.7388
.7384
.7380
.7376
.7372
60
.7368
.7365
.7361
.7367
.7353
.7349
.7346
.7341
.7338
.7334
61
.7330
.7326
.7322
.7318
.7316
.7311
.7307
.7303
.7299
.7296
62
.7292
.7288
.7284
.7280
.7277
.7273
.7269
.7265
.7261
.72i8
63
.7254
.7250
.7246
.7243
.7239
.7236
.7231
.7228
.7224
.7220
64
.7216
.7213
.7209
.7206
.7202
.7198
.7194
.7191
.7187
.7183
65
.7179
.7176
.7172
.7168
.7165
.7161
.7157
.7154
.7150
.7147
66
.7143
.7139
.7136
.7132
.7128
.7126
.7121
.7117
.7114
.7110
67
.7107
.7103
.7099
.7096
.7092
.7089
.7085
.7081
.7078
.7074
68
.7071
.7067
.7064
.7060
.7056
.7053
.7049
.7046
.7042
.7039
69
.7036
.7032
.7028
.7025
.7021
.7018
.7014
.7011
.7007
.7004
PRACTICAL TABLES
385
TABLE XXlX.—Conti7iued
*u^\jKjXiiyj
\JIXCIi\ Hj
-- 60° "•[
l5. 56 1
Degrees
Bauiii6.
5
6
70
0.7000
3.6997
3.6993
3.6990
3.6986
3.6983
3.6979
3.6976
3.6972
3.6969
71
.6965
.6962
.6958
.6955
.6951
.6948
.6944
.6941
.6938
.6934
72
.6931
.6927
.6924
.6920
.6917
.6914
.6910
.6907
.6903
.6900
73
.6897
.6893
.6890
.6886
.6883
.6880
.6876
.6873
.6869
.6866
74
.6863
.6859
.6856
.6853
.6849
.6846
.6843
.6839
.6836
.6833
75
.6829
.6826
.6823
.6819
.6816
.6813
.6809
.6806
.6803
.6799
76
.6796
.6793
.6790
.6786
.6783
.6780
.6776
.6773
.6770
.6767
77
.6763
.6760
.6757
.6753
.6750
.6747
.6744
.6740
.6737
.6734
78
.6731
.6728
.6724
.6721
.6718
.6715
.6711
.6708
.6705
.6702
79
.6699
.6695
.6692
.6689
.6686
.6683
.6679
.6676
.6673
.6670
80
.6667
.6663
.6660
.6657
.6654
.6651
.6648
.6645
.6641
.6638
81
.6635
.6632
.6629
.6626
.6623
.6619
.6616
.6613
.6610
.6607
82
.6604
.6601
.6598
.6594
.6591
.6588
.6585
.6582
.6579
.6576
83
.6573
.6570
.6567
.6564
.6560
.6557
.6554
.6551
.6548
.6545
84
.6542
.6539
.6536
.6533
.6530
.6527
.6524
.6521
.6518
.6515
85
.6512
.6509
.6506
.6503
.6500
.6497
.6494
.6490
.6487
.6484
86
.6482
.6479
.6476
.6473
.6470
.6467
.6464
.6461
.6458
.6455
87
.6452
.6449
.6446
.6443
.6440
.6437
.6434
.6431
.6428
.6425
88
.6422
.6419
.6416
.6413
.6410
.6407
.6404
.6401
.6399
.6396
89
.6393
.6390
.6387
.6384
.6381
.6378
.6375
.6372
.6369
.6367
90
.6364
.6361
.6358
.6355
.6352
.6349
.6346
.6343
.6341
.6338
91
.6335
.6332
.6329
.6326
.6323
.6321
.6318
.6315
.6312
.6309
92
.6306
.6303
.6301
.6298
.6295
.6292
.6289
.6286
.6284
.6281
93
.6278
.6275
.6272
.6270
.6267
.6264
.6261
.6258
.6256
.6253
94
.6250
.6247
.6244
.6242
.6239
.6236
.6233
.6231
.6228
.6225
95
.6222
.6219
.6217
.6214
.6211
.6208
.6206
.6203
.6200
.6197
96
.6195
.6192
.6189
.6186
.6184
.6181
.6178
.6176
.6173
.6170
97
.6167
.6165
.6162
.6159
.6157
.6154
.6151
.6148
.6146
.6143
98
.6140
.6138
.6135
.6132
.6130
.6127
.6124
.6122
.6119
.6116
99
.6114
.6111
.6108
.6106
.6103
.610C
.6098
.6095
.6092
.6090
100
.6087
386 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
asphalt binder is to be used instead the weight of the membrane
may be taken as 15 per cent less than the values given in the table.
The weights and thicknesses noted in columns 3, 4 and 5, are
average values of many specimens actually weighed and measured.
The rest of the items were calculated. The two thicknesses of binder
film, Ys iiich and ^-inch were assumed because yj-inch is the thick-
ness of a film of binder when carefully applied with a single mopping,
while the ^-inch film is obtained with a double mopping which is
sometimes called for on important work. Where the ^-inch thick-
ness of film is used only half the number of plies required for the
xt inch would be necessary under the same conditions of water
pressure, etc.
While jute burlap weighing 7, 8, 9, 10 and even 11 ounces is some-
times used, the TJ-ounce open-mesh variety is most extensively
used. No. 26 felt is a very commonly used grade, though anywhere
from No. 20 to No. 50 felts are used for membrane waterproofing.
The heavier-weight felts are usually used for roofing. The medium-
weight cotton fabrics are most extensively used for membrane water-
proofing. These weights range from 4 to 6 ounces per square yard.
For obtaining weights of complete membranes consisting of more
than 6 plies, the simplest way is to draw a curve on cross-section
paper for three or four values in which the number of plies are the
abscissae and the weights are the ordinates. It will be found that
the curves so drawn are straight lines and may be produced to give
the values sought.
Table XXXII, " Thickness of Waterproofing Materials for Dif-
ferent Water Pressures," shows the approximate mmiber of felt and
fabric phes, thicknesses of mortar and mastic layers and the number
of courses of various kinds of waterproofing materials (applicable
to the membrane or surface-coating types of waterproofing), required
under various heads of water. It is compiled from a careful study
of the general field practice in waterproofing underground structures.
The bituminous sheet mastic layers, the brick-in-mastic courses and
the different membranes, should be protected, or rather, encased
in masonry, both to support them and protect them from climatic
temperature changes. The surface-mortar coats, | inch thick or
less, must not be put on in several layers to make up there quired
thickness, but the thicker mortar coats may have a scratch coat,
and together with the " finish coat " should make up the requked
thickness. Both the thin and thick mortar coats must be applied
continuously over or on the structure until completed.
Table XXXIII, " Volumes and Weights of Ingredients used in
PRACTICAL TABLES
387
Substance.
Alcohol (100%)
Asphalt, artificial (Eastern
petroleum), residuum at
21° Baum6
Asphalt, Bermudez Lake.
Asphalt, Mexican
Asphalt, Trinidad Lake
(crude)
Asphalt, Trinidad, liquid. . .
Beeswax
Castor oil
China wood oil
Caoutchouc (rubber) ....
Creosote oil
Fats
Gutta Percba
Ice
Linseed oil
Paraffin (hard)
Oils (vegetable)
Oils (mineral)
Petroleum, Mexican as-
phaltic (crude)
Pitch, coal tar
Pitch, oil tar
Rosin
Rubber (sheet)
Tallow
Turpentine
Water (4° C.)
Wax
Specific
Gravity
at 62° F,
(Aver.).
0.79
1.3
1.061
1.036'
1.21
0.96
0.955
0.96
0.944
0.94
1.07
0.935
0.99
0.92
0.927
0.908
0.925
0.915
0.878
1.298
1.218
1.1
1.5
0.94
0.860
1.000
0.965
Volu-
metric
Coeffici-
ent of
Expan-
sion Per
Deg. F.
(Aver.).
,00058
000507
,000352
, 000288*
,000352
000303
,000150
,666355'
.000332
0000408"
.000380'
.000568
000392
0002435
000258=
000454'
000086
Substance.
Asbestos
Brick (common) .
Brick masonry. . .
Cedar
Clay ''Dry lumps)
CoL ._ete (stone) .
Copper
Specific
Gravity
at 62° F.
(Aver.) .
2.81
1.922
2.00
0.45
1.80
2.33
8.88
3.1
2.68
2.26
2.27
2.12
7.70
11.40
1.35
2.72
2.65
1.84
0.77
0.61
2.95
2.48
2.44
2.81
7.80
1.9
2.20
7.40
7.05
Lineal
Coeffici-
ent of
Expan-
sion
Per Deg.
F.
(Aver.) .
00000306
0000031
,0000068
.0000093
, 0000041
, 0000047
, 0000044
0000067
0000159
0000045
0000056
00000561
0000027
0000030
0000092
0000067
0000035
0000061
0000058
0000061
,0000117
000017
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Weight of
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o
Total
Binder in
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(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
-I^HsHS:ls:2|>e"i-ssB^KH.sKSBs|:s|s^:::e
Weight of
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(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
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1-ply saturated
1-ply saturated and coated. . .
1-ply membrane (applied) . . .
1-ply membrane (applied) . . .
2-ply membrane (applied) . . .
2-ply membrane (applied) . . ..
3-ply membrane (applied) . . ".
3-ply membrane (applied) . . .
4-ply membrane (applied) . . .
4-ply membrane (applied) . . .
5-pIy membrane (applied) . . .
S-ply membrane (applied) . . .
6-ply membrane (applied) . . .
6-ply membrane (apolied) . . .
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PRACTICAL TABLES
38S
Ntjube
a OF Plies,
Laybbs OB
COUBSES.
a
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Portland Ce-
ment Mortar
ON Outside of
SUBSTRXTCTDKE.
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2
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8
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8
18
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3
4
21
7
5
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3
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24
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6
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27
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H
30
2c
33
9
8
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li
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10
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li
39
10
10
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9
9
10
11
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WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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PRACTICAL TABLES
391
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WATERPROOFmG ENGINEERING
HydrOBtatio ITpad —
Feet.
Pressure
per Square Inch —
Lbs.
Lifting Pressure
per Square Foot
(Under Floor)— Lbs.
Average Pressure
per Square Foot on Wall
Surface Affected.- Lbs.
0.5
0.21
31.2
15.6
1.0
0.43
, 62.5
31.2
2. J
0.86
125.0
62.5
3.0
1.30
187.5
93.7
4.0
1.73
250,0
125.0
5.0
2,17
312,5
156.2
6.0
2.60
375,0
187.5
8.0
3.47
500.0
250,0
10.0
4.34
625.0
312,5
12.0
5.21
750.0
375,0
15.0
6.51
937.5
468.7
20.0
8.68
1250.0
625.0
25.0
10,85
1562.5
781.2
30.0
13.02
1875.0
937.5
40.0
17,36
2500.0
1250.0
60.0
26.04
3750.0
1875.0
80.0
34.72
5000,0
2500.0
100.0
43.40
6250.0
3125.0
PRACTICAL TABLES
393
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Approximate
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WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
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PRACTICAL TABLES
395
zinc has a gauge of its own, while lead is usually figured at so many-
pounds to the square foot, such as 2-pound lead, 3-pound lead, etc.
Galvanized sheets have a gauge based on their weights, and not on
the thickness. Corrugated galvanized sheets usually figured on
the U. S. Standard gauge, are made in standard widths of corru-
gations, and in standard lengths, ranging from 5 to 10 feet, with
a maximum length of 12 feet.
Table XXXVI, "Weights of Roof Coverings," gives closely
approximate weights of various roof coverings and sheathings.
These figures are very useful for designing and estimating.
Material.
Average Weight in
Lbs. per Sq. Ft
of Roof.
5.0
2.8
4.0
4.0
1.3
18.0
8.5
2.0
8.0-10.0
1.8
2.0
3.6
3.0
4.0
5.0
3.0
8.0
4.0
9.0
6.8
4.5
2.5
0.5
0.7
15.0
2.5
2.0
4.0
1.5
396
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
Le>
GTH IN Inches.
16
18
20
24
11 "
Width in Inches.
Width
in Inches.
Width
Inches.
Width in Inches.
4
5 6
77
98
119
3i
90
114
139
4 1
03
130
159
4i 1
16
146
179
5 1
29
162
199
129
62 199
51 ]
-12
178
219
142
]
78 219
6 ]
55
194
239
155
94 239
239
6i
168
^
!10 259
259
181
!26 279
279
226
279
329
7^
194
!42 299
299
242
299
353
207
!58 319
319
258
319
377
81
339
274
339
401
359
290
359
425
9i
.....
306
379
449
10
322
399
473
338
419
479
11
354
439
521
111
370
459
545
12
386
479
569
PRACTICAL TABLES
397
Size of
Slates
(Inches).
No. of Inches
Exposed
When Laid.
No. per
Square
(100 Sq. Ft.).
Weight of
Galvanized Nails
per Square.
14X24
98
Lb. Oz. d.
1 6 4
12X24
115
1 10 4
12X22
9J
126
1 12 4
11X22
n
138
1 15 4
12X20
81
142
2 4
10X20
8J
170
2 6 4
12X18
7i
160
1 13 3
10X18
7i
192
2 3 3
9X18
7i
214
2 7 3
12X16
6i
185
2 2 3
10X16
61
222
2 8 3
9X16
6^
247
3 3
8X16
6i
277
3 2 3
10X14
5i
262
3 3
8X14
51
328
3 12 3
7X14
5i
374
4 4 3
8X12
400
4 9 3
7X12
458
5 3 3
6X12
4i
533
6 1 3
Si
ATING
Nails.
Shingle
Nails.
Felt Roofing i\
L.VRGE Heai
Bahbed.
AILS,
RoOFiNO Nails,
B.^KBED.
tt
■a
d
ta
g
6
3
E3
1— 1
6
Ed
c
g
6
«
3
be
c
6
1
6
&<2
ffi
<!
CO
_)
<
ij
1— (
<
2d
12
411
3d
13
429
3
1
1
2
10
13
714
3i
101
225
id
12
274
8
7
16
10
7
8
12
469
4rf
1*
10^
187
5d
If
12
235
i^
10
12
411
,<«
If
10
142
12
204
10
11
■^8
13
365
2
9
103
7d
2i
11
139
10
11
11
251
8d
21
11
125
u
7
T6
10
If
10
233
9d
21
11
114
If
1
2
7
16
10
li
10
176
lOd
10
83
If
2
10
9
151
103
*A
B man
ufactu
red b
i' Pitt
3burg]
Steel
Cp.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
EXPLANATION OF MECHANICAL ANALYSIS* FOR GRADING
CONCRETE AGGREGATES
Mechanical analysis consists in separating- the particles or grains
of a sample of any material, such as broken stone, gravel, sand or
cement, into the various sizes of which it is composed, so that the
material may be represented by a curve (see Figs. 139-140), each
of whose ordinates is the percentage of the weight of the total sample
which passes a sieve having holes of a diameter represented by the
distance of this ordinate from the origin in the diagram.
The objects of mechanical analysis curves as applied to concrete
aggregates are (1) to show graphically the sizes and relative sizes
of the particles; (2) to indicate what sized particles are needed to
make the aggregate more nearly perfect and so enable the engineer
to improve it by the addition or substitution of another material;
and (3) to afford means for determining best proportions of differ-
ent aggregates.
To determine the relative sizes of the particles or grains of which
a given sample of stone or sand is composed, the different sizes are
separated from each other by screening the material through succes-
sive sieves of increasing fineness. After sieving, the residue on each
sieve is carefully weighed, and beginning with that which has passed
the finest sieve, the weights are successively added, so that each
sum will represent the total weight of the particles which have passed
through a certain sieve. The sums thus obtained are expressed as
percentages of the total weight of the sample and plotted upon a
diagram with diameters of the particles as abscissae and percentages
as ordinates.
A convenient outfit for such a mechanical analysis as above
described, consists of a set of sieves, an apparatus for shaking the
sieves, and scales for weighing. A standard size of sieve is 8 inches
in diameter and 2J inches high. Sieves with openings exceeding
0.10 inch are preferably made of spun hard brass with circular
* Taylor and Thompson " Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," p. 193.
399
400
APPENDIX I
Sand Sieves.
Commercial No.
Diameter
in Inches,
Hole.
Wire.
3 00
i in. round
2.50
No. 7
0.111
0.032
2.00
" 12
0.056
0,027
1.50
" 20
0.0335
0,0165
1.00
" 30
0,0198
0.0135
0,75
" 50
0,0120
0,0080
0.50
" 90
0.0059
0.0052
0.25
" 200
0,0029
0.0021
401
o o c!
=3.
'•*.
ll
'
y
y
y
75
/'
/
1
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X
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""^
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50
,fN
i^
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.«
^>
1
^)
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25
c
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-'
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1.75
Fig.
The various percentages are plotted on the diagram and the curve
drawn through the points. The vertical distance from the bottom
of the diagram to the curve, that is, the ordinate at any point,
represents the percentage of the material which passed through a
single sieve having holes of the diameter represented by this particu-
lar ordinate. Since the percentage of material paesing any sieve
is always the complement of the percentage of grains coarser than
that sieve, the vertical distances from the top of the diagram down to
the curve represents the percentages which would be retained
away from the rest, thoroughly mixed, spread, and quartered as before. The
operation is repeated until the quantity is reduced to that required for the
sample.
* In practice to-day the custom prevails of shaking the material until no
more comes through as determined by successive weighings.
402
APPENDIX 1
upon each sieve if employed alone. For example, taking 1.25, 62
per cent, the distance from the bottom of the diagram, represents
the percentage of material finer than l^-inch diameter, and 38 per cent,
the distance down from the top of diagram, represents the percent-
age coarser than IJ inch.
TABLE XLI.— RESULTS OF SCREENING SAMPLES OF STONE OF
FIG. 140
Size Sieve.
Percentage Finer
than Each Sieve.
Inches
Grams
Per Cent
1.50
801
SO
1.00
457
46
0.67
222
22
0.45
99
10
0.30
27
0.20
19
0.15
0.10
■gioo
a
s
II
fn
i
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I
s
— rl
■s
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0.200
APPENDIX II
CONCRETE IN SEA "WATER*
Regarding the chemical action of sea water on concrete and its
prevention, the following information and conclusions are presented
here because of their bearing on and corroboration of the subject
matter of Chapter I.f
Investigations concerning the effect of sea water on concrete
inmiersed for periods up to fifty years or more; of the relative merits
of standard Portland cement and Portland cement made with dif-
ferent proportions of its principal constituents, in resisting the dis-
integrating effect of sea water; of the effect of varying the propor-
tions of cement in the mortar and concrete; of differently graded
aggregates; of the addition of various finely ground materials to
the cement after burning; of the relative durability of concrete
cast in place as compared with concrete blocks allowed to harden
before placing in the sea; and of the effect of various materials added
to the concrete mixture to produce impermeability and consequent
increased durability, have been made in European countries and in
America.
Regarding the chemical action of sea water on cement, the fol-
lowing conclusions are presented:
Cement containing up to 2f per cent of sulphuric anhydride
(SO3) resists the action of sea water fully as well as cement with lower
sulphuric anhydride content.
While all the hydraulic cements now in use are Hable to decomposi-
tion in sea water, Portland cement is the one to be preferred in every
respect.
High iron Portland cement and puzzolan cement have failed to
show superiority over standard Portland cement in resisting the
disintegrating effect of sea water.
* American Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 15, March, 1914, p. 564.
t For a presentation of practical results of marine construction and valuable
conclusions drawn from observed effects of sea water on concrete aU over the
United States, see five articles by Rudolph J. Wig and Lewis R. Ferguson in
Engineering News-Record, commencing Vol. 79, No. 12, 1917.
403
404 APPENDIX II
Regarding the effect of varying the proportions of cement in the
mortar and concrete, in general, the richer mixtures have been found
to offer better resistance to the attack of sea water. Proportions
recommended for mortars are those with one part cement to one part
of sand up to one part cement to two parts sand. The bad condi-
tion of mortars leaner than the above after exposure in sea water,
stands out prominently.
In the use of reinforced concrete for maritime works, it is advis-
able to employ larger proportions of cement than are usual for similar
works in fresh water.
Concerning the addition of finely ground material to the cement
after burning, it has been found that the addition of ground puzzolan
or furnace slag to Portland cement increases the resistance of the
resulting mortar or concrete to the disintegrating effect of sea water.
Regarding the use of any material added to the concrete mix-
ture in small quantities in order to reduce permeability, no results
of practical working tests have demonstrated that the effect of any
material in reducing permeability is other than mechanical, i.e.,
to supply a deficiency in fine material in a poorly graded concrete
mixture.
Allowing the concrete to harden under favorable conditions before
exposure to the action of sea water greatly increases its resistance to
attack by the sea water and is recommended wherever possible.
When concrete is deposited under sea water, such precaution
should be observed as will prevent the washing of the cement from the
mixture.
Forms should be so tight as to prevent the entrance of sea water
after depositing the concrete, in order that a smooth dense surface
may be obtained.
The combined effect of freezing and of sea water is noted on
marine structures in northern latitudes between high and low tide
levels. Under these conditions the disintegrating effects are par-
ticularly severe.
Dense, properly hardened concrete is not affected by the action
of sea water. Where the concrete is porous, however, it is likely
to be damaged by frost action, especially between tides. There is no
evidence, however, that porous concrete is damaged by sea water
in latitudes where there is no frost.
The making of a dense, impermeable concrete by the use of a
well-graded aggregate, rich mixture, proper consistency, and good
workmanship, and allowing the concrete to harden under favorable
conditions before being exposed to the action of sea water, is generally
406 APPENDIX n
tive test. The amount should not be over one part nor less than
one-half part for each part of cement.
Waterproofing with substances that combine chemically with the
free Ume ought to be successful and is worth testing.
Between extreme high and low tides the concrete surface should
be faced continuously, without joints, with about 3 inches of 1 : 1^
or 1 : 2 mortar made with sand as specified below, well cured before
coming in contact with the sea water. Facing must be placed simul-
taneously with the backing.
The cement should be low in lime and alumina and contain as
little gypsum as possible.
Sand must be silicious', uniformly graded from fine to coarse,
with not less than 50 per cent nor more than 70 per cent passing
through a No. 20 sieve, and no more than 3 per cent passing a No.
100 sieve and must have no organic matter coating the grains'. It
must be free from roots and easily disintegrated grains, such as
feldspar, shells, limestone, mica, etc. It should be washed free
from clay, and should show a tensile strength for 1 : 3 specimens
not less than the following percentages of the strength of standard
Ottawa sand of the same consistency, using the brand of cement
that is to be used on the work:
. Percentage
■*■««• Strength.
1 day 85
7 days 95
28 days 100
Where concrete must be exposed to sea water without mortar
facing, gravel should not be used. Broken stone should be hard,
durable trap, granite or other dense, hard, insoluble stone. It
should not exceed f inch in size and should be free from crusher
dust, sand, dirt, organic matter or other foreign substances. The
mixture should be 1 : IJ : 3 or 1 : 2 : 4 or should be proportioned
for maximum density.
Pure fresh water should be used in sufficient quantity to permit
the materials to be well puddled and spaded, so that no later surface
treatment or patching will be required, but not sufficient to materially
retard the setting of the cement. Care must be exercised, however,
to prevent the formation of laitance or pockets of neat cement or
very rich mortar.
Forms should be tight to prevent leakage of cement, or, where
concrete must be submerged immediately, to prevent contact with
the sea water.
APPENDIX III
REPORT ON WATERPROOFING *
The following report of Committee D-8 of the American Society
for Testing Materials corroborates the author's information and
experience in general waterproofing preceding and since its publica-
tion.
The committee reports that while it has not been able to arrive
at sufficiently definite conclusions to enable it to formulate specifica-
tions for the making of concrete structures waterproof or for materials
to be used in such work, it has reached certain general conclusions
which may be of assistance to the constructo: in securing the desired
result of impermeable concrete.
Early in the investigation, the work was found to sub-divide
naturally into three branches, and the conclusions reached will be
grouped in order under these sub-divisions, which are:
1. The determination of causes of the permeability of concrete as
usually made from mixtures of Portland cement, sand and stone, or
other coarse aggregate, in proportions of from 1 cement, 2 sand and
4 stone, to 1 cement, 3 sand and 6 stone, and the best methods of
avoiding these causes.
2. The rendering of concrete more waterproof by adding to ordi-
nary mixtures of cement, sand and stone, other substances, which,
either by their void-filUng or repellent action, would tend to make
the concrete less permeable.
3. The treatment of exposed surfaces after the concrete or mortar
has be3n put in place and hardened more or less, either by penetra-
tive, void-fiUing or repellent liquids, making the concrete itself less
permeable or by extraneous protective coatings, preventing water
having access to the concrete.
Considering these several sub-divisions separately and in the order
named, the committee finds:
1. Causes of Permeability of Concrete. In the laboratory and
under test conditions using properly graded and sized coarse and fine
aggregates, in mixtures ranging from 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 stone,
to 1 cement, 3 sand and 6 stone, impermeable concrete can invariably
* Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 13, 1913, p. 459.
408
APPENDIX IV
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WATERPROOFING INDUSTRY
Acid Sludge. A waste mixture of sulphonated hydrocarbons resulting from
the treatment of bitumens with sulphuric acid.
Aggregate. The inert material, such as sand, gravel, shell, slag or broken
stone, or combinations thereof, with which the cementing material is mixed to
form a mortar or concrete.
Albertite. A soft jet black mineral (asphaltic hydrocarbon) derived from
petroleum by natural oxidation, obtained in Canada.
Alum. A white crystalline substance consisting of a hydrated double sul-
phate of aluminum and potassium. See Chapter V.
Anthracene. A waxy crystalline hydrocarbon found principally in coal tars.
Artificial Bitumens. Hydrocarbon residues produced by the partial or frac-
tional distillation of bitumen.
Artificial Gilsonite. A product obtained from the distillation of a mixture of
fish remains and wood and redistillation of the resulting oil.
Asbestine. A trade name for a certain grade of powdered asbestos used in
paints as a filler.
Asbestos.- A mineral of fibrous crystalline structure composed, chemically,
of silicates of lime and magnesia, and alumina. See Chapter V.
Asbestos Felt. Sheets made of asbestos shreds. See Chapter V.
Ash Water Glass. Same as water glass.
Asphalt. SoUd or semi-solid native bitumens, solid or semi-solid bitumens
obtained by refining petroleums, or solid or semi solid bitumens which are combi-
nations of the bitumens mentioned with petroleums or derivatives thereof, which
melt on the appUcation of heat, and which consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons
and their derivatives of complex structvue, largely cyclic and bridge compounds.
Asphalt Cement. A fluxed or unfluxed asphaltic material, especially prepared
as to quality and consistency.
Asphalt Mastic. A term frequently applied to refined asphalt, particularly
to that obtained from bituminous rocks. A mixture of fine mineral matter and
asphalt.
Asphalt Pavement. A pavement composed of a mixture of asphalt and sand
or powdered mineral dust or both.
Asphalt Putty. A mixture of a liquid and a solid asphalt (and fine mineral
matter, usually) or asphalt and coal-tar pitch, having a particular consistency.
Asphaltenes.* The components of the bitumen in petroleum, petroleum
products, malthas, asphalt cements, and solid native bitumens, which are soluble
in carbon disulphide, but insoluble in paraffin naphthas.
Asphaltic. Similar to, or essentially composed of, asphalt.
* Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication N'o. 10 at the third International
Road Congress.
413
414 APPENDIX IV
Asphaltic Coal. Solid forms of asphalt (originally derived from petroleum)
which, through loss of their oil content, by oxidation, resemble glance coal.
Asphaltic Concrete. Broken stone bound together with asphaltic cement.
Asphaltic Limestone. Limestone or limestone sands naturally impregnated
with asphalt or maltha, and known as " asphalt " in Europe.
Asphaltic Oils. Asphaltic petroleums.
Asphaltic Petroleums. Petroleums containing an asphaltic base.
Asphaltic Sandstone. Sandstone naturally impregnated with asphalt or
maltha and known as " asphalt " in Europe.
Asphaltite. Same as asphaltic coal.
Asphaltum. The Latin form of the English word asphalt.
Bakelite. A hard amber-like substance manufactured from the coal-tar
derivatives phenol and formaldehyde. See Chapter V.
Bank-run Gravel. The normal product of a gravel bank.
Barret Specification Felt. Trade name for a proprietary tar-treated roofing '
felt.
Baume Gravity. An arbitrary scale of specific gravity or density of liquids,
usually expressed as deg. Baumd, or " B. on a hydrometer. See Chapter XII.
Benzene. Benzol (CbHb). See Chapter V.
Benzine. A light and volatile fraction of petroleum. See Chapter V.
Benzol. A light, volatile, colorless coal-tar distillate of the formula CoHn.
See Chapter V.
Bermudez Asphalt. A very pure semi-solid native asphalt from Bermudez.
Binder. The bituminous cementing material employed in the membrane
system of waterproofing.
Bitumen. A natural hydrocarbon mixture of mineral occurrence, widely
diffused in various forms which grade by imperceptible degrees from a light gas to
a sohd; commercially the term includes only the heavy liquid and solid asphalts.
Frequently coal-tar pitch is so referred to.
Bituminous. A term applied to materials containing bitumen.
Bituminous Cement. A bituminous material suitable for use as a binder
having cementing qualities which are dependent mainly on its bituminous char-
acter.
Bituminous Emulsion. A mixture of a, bituminous oil and water made
miscible through the action of a saponifying agent or alkaline soap.
Bituminous Paints. Mixtures of liquid paraffin and asphalt or coal-tar;
mixtures of bitumen with some drying oil. See Chapter V.
Bituminous Putty. A mixture of bituminous materials and whiting or other
mineral, of a putty-like consistency.
Bituminous Rock. Same as rock asphalt.
Blown Asphalt. Asphalt through which air has been blown during the
process of refining.
Blown Oils. Blown petroleum.
Blown Petroleum.* Semi-solid or solid products produced primarily by the
action of air upon originally fluid native bitumens which are heated during the
blowing process.
Building Paper. A paper, usually a heavy grade and strong, sized with rosin
to make it water resisting and used to sheath buildings to exclude drafts.
*Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication No. 10 at the third International
Road Congress.
418 APPENDIX IV
High Carbon Tars. Tars containing a high percentage of free carbon (between
15 and 25 per cent).
Hot Stuff. Washing soda (carbonate of lime) when used to quicken the set-
ting time of mortar. Colloquially, also hot molten asphalt, or coal-tar pitch, or
mastic made from these.
Hydrated Lime. A finely divided white powder, made of ordinary lime to
which has been added just sufficient water to insure complete slaking, and
leaving the product dry. See Chapter V.
Hydrocarbons. Chemical compounds composed of the elements hydrogen
and carbon.
Hydrolithic. Proprietary trade name applied to the integral system of
waterproofing.
Hydrolytic. Name commonly applied to materials used in integral water-
proofing which tend to prevent the percolation of water through the treated
masonry.
Hydrex Compound. Trade name for a proprietary asphalt.
Imitatite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
Impsomite. A solid bitumen resembling gilsonite, found in Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Integral Compound. A material incorporated in mortar or concrete, previous
to or during mixing, to waterproof same. See Chapter II.
Integral System. The process of incorporating waterproofing materials in
mass mortar or concrete. See Chapter II.
Iron (Powdered). Cast iron or pig iron in powder form.
Isinglass. The dried swimming bladders of several varieties of fish from
which gelatine is extracted.
Joint Filler. Any compound used for filling joints between moving parts
of steel or masonry (structures) subject to expansion, contraction and vibration.
See Chapter IV.
Kaolin. A fine clay the purity of which gives it a white color.
Lake Pitch. A plastic porous, and about 50 per cent impure asphalt from
the asphalt " lake " in the island of Trinidad.
Land Pitch. A surface deposit of solid Trinidad Lake asphalt which is
tougher and more tenacious than the " lake " asphalt.
Land Plaster. Powdered gjrpsum; also, but incorrectly, used to designate
plaster of Paris.
Lap Cement. A liquid bituminous compound used for cementing the laps
of ready roofing.
Larutan Compound. Trade name of a proprietary asphalt.
Larutan System. Application of a waterproofing membrane in the form of
small squares of asphalt-treated cotton fabric. See Chapter II.
Layer. A course or coat made in one application.
Lime. A white substance resulting from the burning of limestone. See
Chapter V.
Linseed Oil. Oil obtained from the seed of flax by pressing. See Chapter V.
Lithocarbon. A commercial name for an asphaltic limestone found in
Uvalde, Texas, U. S. A.
Low Carbon Tars. Tars containing a low percentage of free carbon (between
5 and 15 per cent).
Maltha. A natural or artificial asphalt containing sufficient lighter compounds
to be liquid.
420 APPENDIX IV
ParafSn Oil. A heavy liquid fraction of the manufacture of paraffin from
petroleum. See Chapter V.
Paraffin Petroleum. Petroleum, the base of which is principally of the paraffin
series of hydrocarbons.
Paraffin Scale. Solid paraffins in asphalt. See Chapter V.
Petrolene. Those portions of asphalt and similar materials which are
soluble both in carbon bisulphide and petrolic ether, and which are volatile at
163 deg. Cent, and below.
Petroleums. Native mineral oils or fluid native bitumens of variable com-
position.
Petrolic Ether. A volatile naphtha lighter than gasoline, obtained from
petroleum.
Pine Oil. A heavy distillate of rosin.
Pine Tar. Gum of the pine tree from an incision or by distillation of the wood;
common rosin.
Pipe Coating. A bituminous compound applied hot or cold to iron or steel
pipes for preservation purposes.
Pitch. A sticky resin from pine tar. Semi-solid or solid residues from the
distillation of bitumen; usually applied to residue obtained from tar. Short, for
coal-tar pitch.
Pitch (Hard). Pitch showing a penetration of not more than ten.
Pitch (Soft). Pitch showing a penetration of more than ten.
Pitch (Straight-run).* A pitch run in the initial process of distillation, to
the consistency desired without subsequent fluxing.
Plaster Bond. Name of various bituminous compounds used for bonding
plaster to masonry walls, and which also serve as dampproofing mediums.
Plaster of Paris. A hydraulic cement; a chalky powder resulting from the
calcination of pure gypsum (a hydrated calcium stdphate) at a temperature
between 250 and 400 deg. Fahr. losing' thereby three-quarters of its water of
combination.
Plastic Roofing. A plastic (when warm) roofing compound applied with a
trowel, composed of some fine or fibrous inert substance mixed with tar or other
bitumen.
Plastic Slate. A mixture of coal tar and powdered slate.
Portland Cement. A fine cementing powder made by carefully burning and
grinding a cement rock or an artificial mixture of limestone and clay. See Chap-
ter V.
Primer. A first coat applied to masonry preparatory to receiving the suc-
cessive coats of material for waterproofing or dampproofing purposes.
Puzzolan Cement. A very fine cementing powder made by mechanically
mixing and powdering slaked lime and volcanic ash or slag.
Pyrobitumens. Mineral organic substances forming bitumens upon being
subjected to destructive distillation.
Pyrogenetic. That which originates from the action of heat.
Quasi-colloidal Bodies. Like, or nearly colloidal, particles.
Quasi-soap. Like, or as if it were, soap.
Red Rope Paper. A red variety of building paper partly composed of rope
waste.
Reduced Oils. Reduced petroleums.
* Proposed by the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials (Committee D-4)
of the' American Society for Testing Materials.
422 APPENDIX IV
Sylvester Process. The process of applying alternate coats of soap and alum
solutions for waterproofing and dampproofing purposes. See Chapter II.
Tar Pitches. Semi-solid or solid residual tars.
Tar. Bitumen which yields pitch upon fractional distillation and which is
produced as a distillate by the destructive distillation of bitumens, pyrobitumens,
or organic material. See Chapter V.
Texene. A trade name for a turpentine substitute.
Torpedo Gravel. A coarse hard grit.
Trinidad Asphalt. A solid or semi-solid asphalt, brown to black in color,
porous and about 50 per cent impure, obtained from the island of Trinidad.
Turrellite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
Vintaite. Gilsonite.
Varnish Gum. Any resinous substance excluding rosin. A term used to
designate, but incorrectly so, asphalt and coal tar when used in proprietary water-
proofing compounds.
Viscosity. The measure of the resistance to flow of a bituminous material,
usually stated as the time of flow of a given quantity of the material through a
given orifice.
Volatile. AppUed to those fractions of bituminous materials which will
evaporate at climatic temperatures.
Water Absorbent. A property of a floor-hardening or waterproofing material
which makes it readily miscible with water.
Water Glass. Sodium silicate (Na.SiiOg) or alkaline silicates soluble in
water.
Water Repellent. A property of a waterproofing material which hinders
or prevents its miscibility with water.
Water Table. Loosely applied to ground -water level.
Waterproofing. The process of treating masonry to exclude or prevent the
percolation of moisture or water through it.
Water-gas Tar. A liquid hydrocarbon produced by cracking oil vapors in
the manufacture of carburetted water-gas. See Chapter V.
Wurtzelite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
APPENDIX V
REFERENCES
The following reference literature is arranged only approximately according
to the caption topics. Most of this literature was consulted in the preparation of
this book, acknowledgments being made in foot-notes. The author is gratified
to note the increased interest manifested in waterproofing engineering since the
commencement of this book, four years ago, and the broader viewpoint assumed
by writers of modem literature on the art of waterproofing.
Asphalt and Tar.
Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavement.
Bituminous Road and Paving Materials, by Hubbard.
The Art of Roadmaking, by Harwood Frost.
Effect of Illuminating Gas on Asphalt Pavements, Eng. News, Mar. 4, lOl.*-,
Vol. 73, No. 9, p. 441.
Waterproofing, by Boorman, Proceedings National Association of Cement
Users, 1909.
Coke-oven Tars of the United States. OflBce of Public Roads, Circular No.
97, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1912.
Concrete in General.
Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Taylor and Thompson.
Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Homer A. Reid.
Reinforced Concrete, by Buel and Hill.
Cairn's " Cement and Concrete."
Reinforced Concrete, by Marsh.
Oil-mixed Portland Cement Concrete, Bulletin No. 230, Office of PubUc
Roads, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1915.
Concrete in Sea Water.
The effect of SO3 in Portland Cement. Proceedings of Association of German
Portland Cement Manufacturers, 1911.
" Action of Sea Water on Hydraulic Binding Media," by Lombard and
Deforge, International Association for Testing Materials Proceedings, 1912.
" Action of Sea Water on Reinforced Concrete," by de Blocq van Kuffeler,
International Association for Testing Materials Proceedings, 1912.
" The Different Iron and Slag Cements," Engineering News, September 7,
1911, Vol. 66, No. 10, Editorial.
" Ferrite Cement and Ferro Portland Cement," by E. C. Eckel, Engineering
News, Aug. 3, 1911, Vol. 66, No. 5.
" The State of Preservation of Test Blocks," by W. Czarnowski. Inter-
national Association for Testing Materials, 1912.
423
424 APPENDIX V
" Cement in Sea Water," by A. Poulson. International Association for Test-
ing Materials, 1909.
" Official German Recognition of the Harmless Nature of a Slag Addition to
Portland Cement Clinker." Engineering News, September 7, 1911.
" Experiments on the Decomposition of Mortars by Sulphate Waters," by
G. A. Bied. International Association for Testing Materials, 1909.
" Some Observations on the Disintegration of Cinder Concrete," by George
Borrowman. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, June, 1912.
" Disintegration of Fresh Cement Floor Surfaces," by Alfred H. White,
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 9.
Relative Effects of Frost and Sulphate of Soda Effloresence Tests on Build-
ing Stones. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 33,
1895.
Action of the Salts in Alkali Water and Sea Water on Cements. U S. Bureau
of Standards, Bulletin No. 12, Nov., 1912.
Action of Sea-water on Mortar. Cement Age, March, 1907.
Destruction of Cement Mortar and Concrete by Alkali at Great Falls, Mont.
Eng. Cont., June 24, 1908.
Durability of Stucco and Plaster Construction. U. S. Bureau of Standards
Bulletin No. 70, Jan., 1917.
What is the Trouble with Concrete in Sea Water? Engineering News-Record,
Vol. 79, No. 12, page 532.
Dampproofing.
The prevention of Dampness in Houses, by A. F. Keim.
Electrolysis.
Electrolysis in Concrete; Tech. Paper No. 18, Bureau of Standards, U. S.
Dept. of Commerce, 1913.
Surface Insulation of Pipes as a Means of Preventing Electrolysis. Tech.
Paper No. 15, Bureau of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1914.
Special Studies in Electrolysis Mitigation, Tech. Paper No. 32, Bureau of
Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce 19
Engineering Structures.
Waterproofing — An Engineering Problem, by Myron H. Lewis. Proc.
Engrs. Club of Phiia., Vol. 25, page 339, Oct., 1908.
Waterproofing, Progress Report of Special Committee on Concrete and Rein-
forced Concrete. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 66, page 444, March, 1910.
Waterproofing Cement Mortars and Concretes, by H. Wiederhold. Proc.
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 3, page 228, 1907.
Waterproofing Cement Mortars and Concretes, by Edward W. De Knight.
Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 3, page 238, 1907.
Waterproofing Concrete and Masonry, by Edward W. De Knight, Eng. News,
Vol. 57, page 187, Feb. 14, 1907.
Waterproofing Cement Structures, by James L. Davis, Proc. Natl. Assoc.
Cement Users, Vol. 4, page 323, 1908.
Waterproofing of Concrete Structures, pages 344-74. Hand-book for Cement
and Concrete Users, by Lewis and Chandler.
Making Concrete Waterproof, by Prof. I. O. Baker, Eng. News, Vol. 62, page
390, Oct. 7, 1909.
REFERENCES 42S
Waterproofing of Engineering Structures, by W. H. Pinley, Journal Western
Society of Engineers, June, 1912.
The Waterproofing of Solid Steel Floor R.R. Bridges, Am. Society Civil Engrs.,
Vol. 40, No. 10, Dec, 1914.
Report of Committee VIII on Masonry, Proceedings Am. Railway Engineer-
ing Association, Vol. 15, page 569, March, 1914.
Review of Various Experiences in Waterproofing. " Concrete," April, 1916.
" Engineering Geology," by Heinrich Reis and Thomas L. Watson.
The Manufacture of Coke in the United States. U. S. Geologic Survey
Bulletin, Dept. of Interior, 1913.
Formulas and Recipes.
Henley's 20th Century Book of Formulas and Recipes.
" Paint Making and Color Grinding," by Charles S. Uebele.
General Literature on Waterproofing.
" Masonry Construction," by Ira O. Baker.
" Building Construction,'' by Prof. Henry Adams.
Merriman's " Civil Engineer's Pocketbook."
Subways and Tunnels of New York, by Gilbert, Wightman and Saunders.
Panama Canal Waterproofing, Engineering News, Vol. 73, No. 5, page 215,
Feb. 4, 1915.
Treatise on Arches, by SchefHer.
Impermeable Water Tanks, Eng. News, Mar. 18, 1914, Vol. 71.
Grouting.
" Lining Rondout Pressure Tunnel," New York, Engineering Record, Dec.
30, 1911, page 772.
Grouting Big Savage Tunnel, Using Air, Eng. Rec, page 728, Dec. 23, 1911.
OUve Bridge Dam, New York, Eng. Rec, page 385, April 8, 1911.
Rondout Pressure Tunnel, New York, Eng. Rec, page 315, Sept, 17, 1910.
Grouting Arches, Hamburg, Germany, Eng. Rec, page 258, Sept. 3, 1910.
French Methods and Machines, Eng. Rec, page 495, Oct. 30, 1909.
Foundations in England, Eng. Rec, page 474, April 4, 1908.
Stopping Leaks, Cincinnati Water Works, Eng. Rec, page 224, Mar. 4, 1905.
" Grouting a Water-bearing Rock Seam on CatskiU Aqueduct," Eng. News,
Vol. 67, No. 6, page 278, Feb. 8, 1912.
Test of Watertightness of Concrete Tunnel Lining under High Head, Eng.
News, Vol. 66, No. 24, page 710, Dec. 14, 1911.
Mixing and Conveying Concrete by Compressed Air, Eng. News, Vol. 66, No.
6, page 173, Aug. 10, 1911.
Rondout Pressure Tunnel, New York, Eng, News, Vol. 65, No. 22, page 654,
June 1, 1911.
Lining and Grouting a French Railway Tunnel in Water-bearing Material,
Eng. News, Vol. 62, page 580, Nov. 25, 1909.
Pumping of Cement Grout into Masonry on the MetropoUtan Railway, Paris,
Eng. News, Vol. 62, page 581, Nov. 26, 1909.
Grouting a Leaky Tunnel on the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway,
Eng. News, Vol. 66, No. 15, page 374, Oct. 11, 1906,
" Catskill Aqueduct," by Lazarus White.
426 APPENDIX V
Inspection.
Inspection of Waterproofing for Concrete Work, by Jerome Cochran, Engr.
and Contr^ Vol. 37, pages 370 arid 404, April 5 and 10, 1912.
Joints.
Effect of Oil on Cement Mortar, Eng. News, July 4, 1907, Vol. 58, No. 1.
Efficiency of Cement Joints in Joining Old Concrete to New, Eng. News,
Dec. 12, 1907, Vol. 58, No. 24.
Strength of Concrete Joints, Proceedings of Erigineer's Society of Western
Penn., Dec, 1908.
Lime, Hydrated Lime and Clay.
" Hydrated Lime," by E. W. Lazell, Ph. D. (1915).
The Colloid Matter of Clay and its Measurement. Bulletin No. 388, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Dspt. of Interior, 1909.
Lime: Its Properties and Uses; Circular No. 30, Bureau of Standards,
U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1911.
Metal Sheetings.
" Harlem River Crossing of the Lexington Ave. Subway." New York Muni-
cipal Eng. Journal, Vol. 1, No. 6, Dec, 1915.
Methods of Waterproofing.
Methods of Waterproofing Concrete, by Richard H. Gaines, Eng. News,
V61. 58, No. 13, page 344, Sept. 26, 1907.
Current Methods of Waterproofing Concrete-covered Bridge Floors, Eng.
Rec, Vol. 58, page 488, Oct. 31, 1908.
Waterproofing the New York Subways, Railway Review, Vol. 58, No. 11,
March, 1916.
Subaqueous Highway, Tunnels, American Society C. E., Vol. 4, No. 9, Nov.,
1914.
Roofing.
Inspector's Pocket Book, by A. T. Byrne.
Building Mechanics' Ready Reference, by H. G. Richey.
Sand and Cement.
Standard Sand for Cement Work, Eng. Rec, July 20, 1907.
Sands: Their Relation to Mortar and Concrete, Cement Age, July, 1908.
A Sand Specification and its Specific AppHcation, Proc of the Amer. Soc
for Testing Materials, Vol. 10, 1910.
The Cement Industry in the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, Dept. of
Interior, Bulletin for 1910.
Brown's " Hand Book for Cement Users."
Specifications.
Specifications Covering Methods of Waterproofing Engineering Structures
by Joseph N. O'Brien, Eng. Contr., Vol. 34, page 26, July 13, 1910.
Specifications for Obtaining Dampproof and Waterproof Substructures, Eng.
Contr., Vol. 34, page 239, 1910.
Specifications and Instructions for Waterproofing Metal and Masonry
Structures, by W. H. Finley, Eng. Contr., Vol. 30, page 289, Nov. 4, 1908.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Work, by W. H. Pinley, Proc,
Natl, Assoc Cement Users, Vol. 1, page 35, 1905.
REFERENCES 427
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Bridges — Chicago and North-
western Railway, Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 1, 1905.
Specifications for Waterproofing Bridges in the District of Columbia, Proc.
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, \'ol. 5, page 146, 1909.
Specifications for Waterproofing a Pumping Chamber in Ground under
External Head of Water, Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 5, 1909.
Specifications for Waterproofing New York Rapid Transit Subway, Proc,
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, \'ol. 1909, page 237.
Specifications for Waterproofing Solid Steel-floor R.R. Bridges, Eng. Cont.,
Sept., 1915.
Tests.
Methods for Testing Coal tar, etc., by S. R. Church, Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1913.
Specific Gravity, Its Determination, etc., by J. M. Weiss, Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1915.
The Permeability of Concrete under High Water Pressure, Eng. News,
Vol. 47, No. 26, page 517, June, 1902.
Paraffin Test as Applied to Bituminous Road Compounds, Eng. News, July 8,
1911, Vol. 65, page 680.
Methods for the Examination of Bituminous Road Materials, Bulletin No.
314, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1915.
Permeability Tests on Gravel Concrete, Eng. Rec, Sept. 26, 1914.
Permeability Tests of Concrete, Eng. Rec, Jan. 21, 1911.
Test of Concrete for Impermeabihty, Eng. Rec, May 28, 1910.
Impermeability Tests on Concrete, Eng. News, Nov. 7, 1912.
Investigation of Impermeable Concrete, Eng. Contr., Feb. 26, 1908.
Progress Report on Materials for Road Construction and on Standards for
Their Tests and Use. Amer. Soc. C. E., Vol. 40, No. 10, Dec, 1914.
The Testing of Materials. Circular No. 45, U. S. Bureau of Standards,
Dept. of Commerce, 1913.
Some Practical and Technical Tests on Waterproofing Materials, N. Y.
Municipal Engineers' Journal, Sept., 1917.
Waterproofing Fabrics.
Manufacture, Test and Use of Waterproofing Fabric, Eng. News, Vol. 72,
Sept. 24, 1914.
The Waterproofing of Fabrics by Mierzinski.
Linen, Jute and Hemp Industries; Special Agents Series No. 74, U. S. Dept.
of Commerce, 1913.
Waterproofing Instructions.
Instructions for Waterproofing Concrete Surfaces, by W. J. Douglas, Eng.
News, Vol. 56, No. 25, page 645, Dec. 20, 1906.
Directions for the Apphcation of Waterproof Cement Coatings, Eng. News,
Vol. 57, Jan., 1907, page 247.
Suggestions for Waterproofing Subways, Public Service Record, Vol. 3,
No. 7, July, 1916 (PubUcation of Public Service Commission for 1st District,
Stateof New York).
Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users, by M. H. Lewis, C. E,
Waterproofing Materials.
Materials of Construction, by Thurston.
INDEX
Absorption, Defined, 7
— of Concrete, 4, 229, 230
Raw Fabrics, 256, 257
Felts, 256, 257
Stone, 4
Treated Felts, 256, 257
Fabrics, 256, 257
Abutments, Protection of, 31
Acid Treatment, 21
— Sludge Defined, 413
Acids, Effect of, 29
— in Ground Water, 3
Actinolite, Use of. 111
Adhesion between Laps, 46
Adhesives, 320
Aggregate for Mastic, 63
— Defined, 413
— Scientific Proportioning, 77
Air Compressor, Use of, 87
— Pockets, 23, 47
— Temperature, 28
Akeley, Mr. C. F., 19
Albertite Defined, 413
Alcohol, Specific Gravity, 387
Alkalies, Effect of, 29
Alkaline, 3
Alum, 26, 145, 147, 374
— Defined, 413
— Nature of, 147
— Solution, 28
— Use of, 197
Alumina, 9
Aluminum Sulphate, 28
— Stearate, 66
Am. Ry. Engrs. Assn., 117, 129
— Soc. T. M. Report, 408
Anthracene Defined, 413
Arbitrary Selection, 78
Arches, 32
Architect's Duty, 25
Armor Coat, 58
Asbestine Defined, 413
Asbestos, 23, 31, 374
— Covered Roofing, 121
— Covered Sheet Iron, 120, 146
— Defined, 413
— Felt, Application of, 111
Defined, 153, 413
Saturated, 146
Use of, 45, 153
— Fibre, Use of, 63
— Filler, Effect of, 238, 240
— Nature of, 153
— Shingles, Application of, 11, 101,
102, 103
Manufacture of, 102
— Shredded, 32
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Use of, 56, 153
Ash Water Glass Defined, 413
Asphalt, 32, 145, 146, 147, 374
— Blown, Use of, 141
— Cement Defined, 413
— Characteristics of, 51
— CoeflScient of Expansion, 387
— Containing Pitch, 240
— Consistency of, 49
— Cutter, 178, 179
— Defined, 413
— Ductility of, 240
— Effect of Overheating, 49
— Heating Kettle, 175, 174
of, 49
— Joint Filler, 142
— Mastic Defined, 413
— Nature of, 154
— Odor of, 49
— Pavement Defined, 413
— Preference for, 52
430
INDEX
Asphalt, Produced, 51
— Publications on, 423
— Putty Defined, 413
— Quality of, 51
— Smoother, 177
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Use of, 17,31,32, 154
— Versus Coal-tar Pitch, 51
Asphaltenes Defined, 413
Asphaltic Coal, 414
— Concrete, 414
— Defined, 413
— Limestone Defined, 414
— Oils Defined, 414
— Petroleum Defined, 414
— Sandstone Defined, 414
Asphaltite Defined, 414
Asphaltum Defined, 414
B
Backfill, 13, 39, 40
Bacterial Decomposition, 8
Bakelite, 146, 147, 414 ,
— Use of, 154
Bank-run Gravel, 78, 414
Barrels, Cost of, 373
Barret Specification Felt, 414
Basement Waterproofed, 365
Bats, Use of, 56
Battens, Use of, 114
Baum^ Table, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385
— Gravity, 414
Beeswax Specific Gravity, 387
— Coefficient of Expansion, 287
Benzene Defined, 414
Benzine, 145, 147
— Cost of, 374
— Defined, 414
— Use of, 155
Benzol, Cost of, 374
— Defined, 414
— Use of, 155
Bergen Hill Tunnels, 335, 336
Bermudez Asphalt Defined, 414
Binder, 32, 414
Bitumen, Artificial Defined, 413
— Defined, 414
— for Mastic, 62
— Ready Roofing, 112
— Transportation, 50
Bituminous Binder, 34
— Blanket, 31
— Cement Defined, 414
— Coat Applied, 24
— Compound, Use of, 16, 29, 46, 146
— Defined, 414
— Emulsion Defined, 414
— Enamels, 29
— Fillers, 142
— Mastic, 29, 52
— Paint, 18, 29, 142, 147, 155, 414
— Paste, 29, 31
— Putty Defined, 414
— Rock Defined, 414
Bleeders, Use of, 58
Blistering, 20, 26
Block Tin, Use of, 108
Blow Holes, 34
Blown Asphalt, Use of, 143, 414
— Oil Defined, 414
— Petroleum Defined, 414
Board Sheathing, 308
Bond, Effect of Surface, 249
Bonding Fabrics, 47
— Day's Work, 70
Boston Tunnels, 337, 338
Brick, Absorption of, 4
— Applied, 56
— Bond, 249
— Compression of, 249, 250
— Cost of, 374
— Courses, 57
— Function of, 56
— Heating Methods, 65, 66, 183, 373
— in Mastic, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 146,
355
— Parapet, 118
— Protective Medium, 37
— Quality of, 61, 63
— Roof Domes, 92
— Sewers, 20
— Soot Covered, 65
— Specific Gravity, 4, 387
— Walls, 58
Bridge Floors, 67
— Waterproofed, 53
Bronze Plate Roofs, 92
Brooklyn Railroad Viaducts, 34
Broom, Cost of, 373
Bubbles in Mastic, 62
INDEX
431
Cement, Excess, 77
— Floor Defined, 415
— for Mastic, 318
— Grouting, 85
— Gun Operation, 19, 20, 184, 185,
186, 373
— Hydration of, 77
— Mortar, Use of, 156, 16
— Petroleum Resisting, 318
— Publications on, 426
— Quick-setting, 85
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Tiles, 97
Cerasin Defined, 415
Cerite Defined, 415
Charcoal, 29
Cheese, Use of, 144
Chemical Acting Materials, 146, 147
Chimneys, Flashing for, 117
China Clay, 72, 415
— Wood Oil, Defined, 415
■ — Specific Gravity, 387
— — — Use of, 31, 143, 148
Chipping of Surface, 21
Chloride of Lime, 74
Choctow Defined, 415
Cinder, Concrete Absorption, 4
— Specific Gravity, 4
Cisterns, 24
Civilization, Measure of, 2
Clay, 66, 75, 415
— Oil-joint Filler, 142
— PubUcations on, 426
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Tiles, 95, 96
— Use of, 26, 71, 72, 91, 156
Clay-cement Waterproofing, 365
Cleats, Use of, 108
Climate, Consideration of, 31
Clinker, 72
Coal Tar Defined, 415
— Pit Waterproofed, 366
Coal-tar Pitch, 32, 146, 147, 374
— • — Characteristics of, 49, 51
Defined, 415
Joint, Filler, 142
Overheating, 49
Produced, 51
Versus Asphalt, 51
Products, 31, 75
432
INDEX
INDEX
433
Drying, 26
— Oven, 214
Dual Subways in N. Y. C, 54
Ductility of Asphalt, 240
— Relation to Temperature, 246
Dust Defined, 416
Dwellings, Concrete, 2
E
Earth Excavation, 58
East View Tunnels, 331
Eastern Petroleum Defined, 416
EfHorescence, 6, 12, 14
Egyptians Practice Waterproofing, 1
Elastic Membrane, 31, 45
Elaterite, Use of, 145, 147, 157
— Defined, 416
Electric Oven, 213, 373
— Resistance, 10
Electricity, Effect of, 9
Electrolysis, 4, 9, 10
— Publications, 424
Emulsion Defined, 416
Enamels, 145
Engineering and Contracting, 8, 369
Engineering News, 325, 328, 334, 337
Engineering News-Record, 85, 322
Engineering Record, 337, 352
Equipment for Grouting, 86
Estimates, 368, 369
Evaporating Oven, 214
Examples of Membrane AppUcation, 331
Grouting, 357
Integral Application, 356
Mastic Application, 353
Self-densification, 356
Special Waterproofing, 360
Excavating Foundations, 29
Excess Cement, 26, 70
Expansion Joint, Basic Types, 129
Cutoff, 136
Defined, 416
Design of, 126
Drain Pipe, 138
Effect of, 12
Fillers, 129
Function of, 124
Illustrated, 130
Properties of, 124, 128
Reinforced, 135
434
INDEX
INDEX
435
Hail, 5
Hair Cheeks, 26
Hard Soap, 28
Harlem River Tunnels, 360, 361
Harris, Mr. Robert L., 83
Headers, 61
Heat, Effect on Pitch, 236
Linseed Oil, 236
Heating Kettles, 50, 170, 171, 173
— Pan, 178, 180
High Carbon Tars, 418
Horizontal Joints, 128
Hot Stuff Defined, 128
Hudson-Manhattan Tunnels, 330, 365
Hydrated Lime, 66, 67, 146, 147, 375,
426
Composition, 71, 418
_ — Proportion, 70
Joining Membranes, 34
Joint BafHe, 131
— Barrier, 133
— Fillers, 140, 141, 142, 426
Chemical Acting, 143
Defined, 418
— Rolls, 129, 131
Joints, Effect of, 42, 43
— for Bridges, 133
436
INDEX
INDEX
437
N
Nailheads Covered, 101
Nailing Base, 94
Nails, Use of, 93, 101, 397
Naphtha, Coal-tar, 23
— Defined, 419
— Use of, 31, 145, 147, 161
Naphthaline Defined, 419
Natural Asphalt, 146
— Cement, 72, 146, 147, 149, 419
Native Bitumen, 419
— Paraffin, 419
Neat Cement, 82, 145, 146, 147, 150
Necessity of Waterproofing, 1
Neponsit Felt Defined, 419
Neutral Oil Defined, 419
New York Board of Water Supply, 86
Clay, 71
Dual Subways, 334, 353
Municipal Railway Corp, 343
Testing Laboratory Method, 198,
201
O
Oak, Specific Gravity, 387
Oil Asphalts Defined, 419
— Compounds, 66
— Effect of, 36
— Emulsion, 74
— Gas Tar Defined, 419
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Tester, 192
Oil-tar Pitch, 146, 147, 161, 375, 419
Old Laps, 34
Oleate Potassium, 66
— Sodium, 66
Oxidation of Reinforcement, 9
Ozokerite Defined, 419
Ozocerite Defined, 419
438
INDEX
INDEX
439
440
INDEX
INDEX
441
442
INDEX
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