The Consumer
The Consumer
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types which are non-manipulative and manipulative advertising. The nonmanipulative persuasion through advertising consists in simply presenting the
product or service, in the best possible light. The advertiser doesnt need to lie,
omit details or intimidate the consumer. This type of advertising is truthful, that is
the facts presented are real, the information is giving in a clear, logical manner, in
order to convince by informing (Grover, 2011). The informative and persuasion
functions of advertising are based on facts and emotional arguments. The
informative advertising gives factual information to the consumer, while the
emotional advertising consists in an emotional game which has as goal to
favorable influence the decision of the consumer. There are many situations when
combined alternatives are needed and they consist in various emotional games
which are used as arguments for a certain way of acting on target-groups and
individual consumers. Every time when these advertising efforts are focused on
getting the consumers to do what the advertiser wants through subversive manners
that lack the truth, we can say this is manipulation. Where the advertiser try to
persuade the consumer by giving him facts for example, if it is a manipulator may
make up or imply facts.
The non-ethical behavior of the advertisers is also a stimulus for manipulation
through advertising. The issue of manipulative persuasion in advertising brings
out the discussion on the role of ethics. The ethics of marketing has in view to
what extent the marketing behavior, decisions and practices fit the rules and
principles of good conduct. The advertising practices must have a set of ethical
principles that could help the managers to evaluate the moral importance of each
action and to decide how far they could go, in order to stay just on line of ethics.
The research of the subject highlights three dominant principles of ethics in
advertising which obey the law, act in your self-interest and comply with the
ethics (Craig Smith, 2000; Danciu, 2009; Gray, 2011). It is not disputed that the
advertisers have as obligation to obey the law and to act in their enlightened selfinterest. However, many of the present practices of advertising show that are an
increasing number of cases when there is no alignment of the marketer s selfinterest with customers interest. There are numerous situations when the
companies try to induce the customers the feeling that they maximize the
customer s satisfaction through manipulative advertisements. All these arguments
support the idea that the law and the self-interest are not sufficient guidelines for
good conduct in marketing advertising. The advertisers must also be guided by
ethics, especially by normative marketing ethics that is prescriptive, identifying
moral principles and methods of moral reasoning that justify rules and judgments
of what is right and wrong (Craig Smith, 2000).
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Manipulation
Deceitful advertising
Fallacious arguments
Emotive persuasion
Rational persuasion
Logical arguments
Factual information
Qualities
Price
Display
Source: people.creighton.edu, p. 6.
The first type of manipulative advertising is the deceitful advertising which uses
facts, but deceptive facts. It uses confusing, misleading or blatantly untrue
statements when promoting a product, thats why this advertising is also known as
false advertising. Facts are given, but they are either false or there are significant
facts which are hidden or not mentioned. Another sort of manipulative advertising
is that uses arguments, but bad arguments. The emotive persuasion is the type
which is likely more common and it play on consumer emotions and usually
threaten him with dangers or promises amazing results, either of which are
questionable, at best. Products like diet pills or exercise equipment sold through
infomercials or TV often promise amazing results, and so persuade through
sponsoring hopes and visions of happiness. In the same category may be included
the advertisements which promote the so called traditionally made products.
The ads highlight the ingredients and the methods used in the old days and imply
they are used for the advertised products too, but these claims rarely are true. The
same methods of manipulation may be found in some of green advertising. The
green ad claims have more potential than any other type of claims to mislead and
deceive the consumers. A misleading or deceptive advertisement is known as
green washing which is misleading marketing about environmental benefits of
the product (Stokes, 2009). The consumers appreciate the green corporate
activities and as long as a company is true to its word and truth-in-advertising is
uphold the companies who act in a socially and environmentally responsible
manner may be rewarded (Rayan, 2012). The consumers are likely to accept green
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advertising claims because of their strong desire to improve the environment and
their way of life. But even the consumers with high levels of green concerns are
not able to detect misleading or deceptive claims better than other consumers. The
rapid increase of the green claims for a wide range of products and services create
confusion among consumers. A great diversity of misleading and deceptive claims
is used by the companies which have not truly green products and try to
manipulate consumers. All claims with manipulative role that can be used in
advertising no matter the product could be included in the following categories:
vague or ambiguous claims, claims that omit important information necessary to
evaluate their truthfulness or reasonableness, claims that are false or outright lies,
and various combinations of the previous categories.
3. The manipulative advertising at work
3.1. The most claims used with a manipulative role
The ultimate goal of all types of advertising is to persuade the consumer to
purchase a product or service. The manipulative advertising intends to do that by
using facts, arguments and plying with consumers emotions in a misleading and
deceptive manner. The most claims used in manipulation through advertising are
the exaggeration of the quality of product, fallacious arguments and emotional
appeals.
Exaggeration of quality. An exaggeration can be nothing less than false
information about the product, but it can also be a form of puffery. Puffery is the
term used to denote the exaggerations reasonably to be expected of a seller as to
the degree of quality of his product, the truth or falsity of which cannot be
precisely determined. At the same time, puffery is advertising claims that
ordinary consumers do not take seriously (Berinato, 2010). Claims such as
world best (cup of) coffee or king of beers are examples of puffery in the
manipulation by advertising. The puffery seems to influence the people who are
not major consumers of the product but turns away the consumers who are experts
or have relatively high knowledge. These observations show that such
exaggerations are not very useful for achieving the goals of advertising
campaigns. The puffery could attract some new consumers but it could lose many
consumers which are loyal to the product.
Fallacious arguments. A fallacy is any error in reasoning that occurs with some
frequency (Teves, 2009). The fallacies or poor arguments can be made ignorantly
and intentionally. The second situation is of greatest importance in marketing
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superiority. The creation of the illusion of superiority of one product could use
two major language techniques that are the use of the comparatives better and
best and the effort of making the consumers believe something about the
product that is not true. The word better is legally interpreted to be a comparative
and therefore becomes a clear claim of superiority. In certain countries, the word
best can be used to describe the parity products because if all products are equally
good, they can all be considered the best. But, in order to not manipulate the
customer, the only time when better can be used is when a product does indeed
have superiority over other products in its category or when the better is used to
compare the product with something other than competitor brands
(malleryk.wordpress.com/writing). Making the consumer believe something
about the product that is not true is another technique with great potential of
manipulation in advertising. Two major categories of claims that can be used to
make the consumers believe something about the product that is not true are the
weasel claim and the unfinished claim which focus most on the linguistic
aspects. The weasel claim involves a modifier, a weasel word that negates the
claim that follows it. Some of the most common weasel words include helps
virtually, acts, can be, up to, refreshes, comforts, fights, the feel of, the look of,
fortified, enriched and strengthened. These words modify the claims that follow
them by being subtle enough for consumers to not notice them. The common
weasel words perform various categories of functions. A sense of action or of
doing something important to consumer is suggested by the words like helps
and acts. That is because the words sound as if the product is being proactive
toward the desired result. In the expression helps control dandruff for
shampoos, the word helps acts as the claim no longer control dandruff but it helps
control the dandruff like a good friend might. The prepositional phrases like up
to, the feel of and the look of imply either an upward trend or a similarity
between products. If the claim is save up to 30%, the phrase up to is often
overloaded as the consumer will save 30%. Additionally, the up to has a sense
of rising motion in it which translates in consumer as an overall good feeling.
Can be and virtually are phrases that can note the possibility of the product
being the claim says it is. The expression leave dishes virtually spotless can
make the consumer to take it as leave dishes spotless. Another function that
weasel words perform is to give one product the illusion of strength. Fortified,
enriched or strengthened are words that fulfill this role by often describing
products that the consumers normally think of as strong and powerful. Other
prepositional phrases such as the feel of and the look of are intended to make
the consumers think that the product is of high quality or is similar to another
product because they imply a comparison between two things.
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The unfinished claim suggests that the product has more or is better than
something, but does not say what something is. The unfinished claims could
rely on more. A clear example is the expression 20% more cleaning power
which could be interpreted as either 20% more cleaning power than competing
brands or 20% more cleaning power than earlier version of the some product.
The fact that it does not specify what product has 20% more cleaning power
renders the claim meaningless.
3.2.2. Visual techniques of manipulation
Many advertisements which are placed in practically in all media relay on visual
and combined techniques to manipulate the consumers. Some of the most used
such techniques are the manipulation by photo shopping, the mixture of the
amusement with ads, the manipulation of the size and the price of the product and
the misleading graphs.
The manipulation by photo shopping. The advanced technique offers a large
variety of solutions in visual advertisements and their manipulation. The photo
shopping is a technique where photos or photographs are edited in ways in which
create an illusion or a different look and feel of the raw image and making it
interesting for advertisements. Such technique can be achieved by using photo and
vector editing soft wares like Photoshop, Illustrator, Corel and Gimp and many
others. In contrast by simply editing like enhancement and corrections, the photo
manipulation often includes creative retouching like adding 3D elements,
backgrounds, vectors, and other sleek vibrant colors (ninjacrunch. com/40-coolface-). The colors play an important role in manipulative ads, since they have
meanings and emotions tied to them just like words and images. The warm colors
such as red, orange and yellow can represent passion, happiness and energy, while
the cool colors like blue, green and violet are used to create a sense of peace,
serenity, health and security (Brown, 2010). The advertisers should take into
account some basic rules that seem to be universal in the choice of the colors. The
primary colors like red, yellow and blue tend to emphasize simplicity as well as
speed. The secondary colors are created by mixing two primary colors together.
These include green, orange and purple. The tertiary colors can be created by
mixing secondary and primary colors together. When choose colors the
advertisers have in mind to create consistency, to highlight content, and to
emphasize the most important features of the product. If they want manipulate the
consumers, the advertisers are mixing the images and colors together in such ways
that can persuade and direct the consumers to purchase the product by deceiving
and misleading them (For manipulation in advertising see 37 Examples of Photo
Manipulation In Advertisements, www.Designyourway.net/37-examples-of
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can distinguish between truth and fallacies or lies. Bomprad and Baranowski
(2007) suggest that five values drive the conscious consumers and these are health
and safety, honesty, convenience, relationships and doing good. The conscious
consumers insist that the companies are honest, that is they reliable and accurately
detail and promote the features and the benefits of the products. When the
companies make unsubstantiated claims or over promise benefits, they risk
breeding cynicism and distrust. The dynamics of the realities about the conscious
consumers should have a strong impact on the commercial advertising. The
companies have to learn the lessons emerging from the values of conscious
consumers and their evolution in the future and create advertising messages
accordingly. Real progress could be made in the practice of advertising in many
other areas. More ethical behavior, more proactive self-regulation, better
marketing cooperation are some with the most potential.
More ethical behavior of the advertising and the consumers could enhance the
quality of advertising and reduce the proportions of manipulation through
advertising.
More proactive self-regulation of the advertising. The advertising industry has
established self-regulatory systems in nearly all major markets. The European
Advertising Standards Alliance (EASA) brings together national advertising selfregulatory organizations and organizations representing the advertising industry in
Europe who support self-regulation. It is the single authoritative voice on
European advertising self-regulation. The International Chamber of Commerce
has prepared a Framework for Responsible Food and Beverage Marketing
Communication in 2006 with specific provisions relating to the advertising of
food and beverage vis-a-vis children (www. responsible-advertising.org/ eselfregulation.asp).
The history of self-regulations shows that active self-regulation has more
advantages, one of them consisting in the protection of consumers from ads that
mislead (Peeler, 2013). By acting quickly and decisively against misleading
advertising claims, the self-regulation significantly reduces the number of
potentially misleading claims. The chances of better counteracting the
manipulation practices in advertising will rise in the future if the self-regulation
has a more proactive role.
Better marketing cooperation between the companies and the consumers. The
issue of cooperation is a distinctive feature of the relationship marketing which
focus on the cultivation of mutually advantageous relationships between the
company and its customers (Danciu, 2009). An enhanced cooperation in
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advertising between the two subjects becomes possible when the company, the
marketer includes the consumers in its marketing solutions. The consumers should
become partners of the marketers, in order to contribute to the creation of value
for them and to make a non-manipulative persuasive advertising.
4. Conclusions
The manipulation in marketing has become an issue which accompanies the daily
life of the consumers. The companies decide to manipulate the consumers every
time when the interests of the consumers dont align to their interests and goals
and they dont succeed to persuade them otherwise. A great role in the consumers
manipulation has the manipulation by advertising due to its functions and place in
the mix of marketing techniques used to fulfill what the consumerism demands:
more consumption, more diversity and better consumption. The techniques for
manipulation through advertising are controversial every time the advertiser win
and the consumer lose. The critics of manipulative advertising highlight two broad
classes of advertising controversies. One type of critique charges that moral rules
against causing harm are violated when manipulating through advertising. In
other words, the advertising has negative financial and health-related effects,
negative impact on efficiency, harmfully effects on familial and community ties.
Additionally, the advertising promotes self-centered hedonism and lastly it may
have negative environmental impact. Another category of controversies about
advertising are liberty-based critics. These arguments charge that certain forms of
advertising rob a person of the capacity for free choice in deciding when to
purchase a product, good or service.
No matter the arguments against advertising as a whole, the assumptions of it
being always manipulative is not true. People are complex buyers which make
decisions based on a variable mix of rational and emotional components. But just
this complex, controversial and mixed nature of individual personality make
possible to deceive, mislead and misjudge some situations, products, brands or
companies as a result of manipulative advertising. The deceptive advertising is
most universally thought of to be immoral. The responsibility of the consumer is
greatly diminished when one discovers that they are telling lies to buy by the
seller or the advertiser. In such cases of fraud, the advertisers certainly hold a
majority of the responsibility. When using faulty arguments it is much more
difficult to assign blame to the advertisers. Mature consumers are expected to
realize which argument is real and which is bad and, if advertisers use fallacies,
one would expect that the consumers know better. In such cases, the burden of
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responsibility appears to full primarily upon the consumer. More ambiguity exists
in the case of emotive persuasion because the main problem consists in the
difficulty of gauging how much effect advertisements have on the consumers
emotions. Thats why the techniques and mechanisms of advertising should be
used in a way that aligns to the convergence of interests and arguments.
Many of the manipulative actions in advertising are difficult to prove and no one
can say if harder regulations will reduce the natural tendencies toward
manipulation through advertising. Therefore, it seems that other solutions should
be found in areas where the marketers and the consumers identify mutual
interests, in order to improve the practices of advertising. Some important areas in
which the advertisers and the consumers could find reciprocal benefits are the
conscious advertising for conscious consumers, more ethical behavior, more
proactive role of self-regulation and better cooperation in marketing and the good
results could have a significant contribution toward the reduction of the
proportions of manipulation through advertising. These efforts will help the
reduction of the proportion of manipulation through advertising in these areas at
least, if the advertisers observe some necessary principles.
The advertisers should move from a sole focus on corporate profits to a belief and
practice that an organization can achieve something larger than making money.
The advertisers should understand that more consumers, especially the
conscious ones, recognize that all things are connected. Therefore, they must
be in the process of becoming conscious of the impact of advertising and
pursuit the mutual benefits of it.
The advertisers should be aware that the advertising must be authentic. That is
all communication with the consumers should be hundred per cent honest and
transparent. More than ever, an increasingly proportion of consumers are
prizing the transparency, accountability and authenticity.
The advertisers should align their messages with consumers values in every
aspect and in all components of advertising. The companies which align their
values with their actions will earn enduring loyalty among the consumers.
If the companies follow these principles, they easily could translate them in
honest, non-manipulative practices in advertising and so become more trusted.
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