Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Espionage
Espionage
Contents
1
Agent handling
1.1
Human intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Case ocer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
1.4
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Communications Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Asset (intelligence)
2.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Black operation
4.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
4.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
Parallel organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3
External support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
CONTENTS
5.4
5.5
10
5.5.1
10
5.5.2
Clandestine presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
5.5.3
11
12
5.6.1
Infrastructure cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
5.6.2
Operational cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
5.6.3
14
5.6.4
A possible countermeasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
5.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
5.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
5.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
5.6
Clandestine HUMINT
16
6.1
Legal aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
6.2
17
6.3
17
6.3.1
Clandestine Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
6.3.2
Dangled Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
18
6.4.1
18
6.4.2
18
6.4.3
19
6.4.4
19
Recruit Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
6.5.1
Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
6.5.2
Double Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
6.5.3
23
Support Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
6.6.1
Couriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
6.6.2
24
6.6.3
Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
6.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.4
6.5
6.6
28
7.1
Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.1.1
28
7.1.2
28
29
7.2.1
30
7.2
CONTENTS
7.2.2
30
7.2.3
30
7.2.4
30
31
7.3.1
UK postwar change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.3.2
US postwar change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.4
Controversies remain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
7.5
Current operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
7.5.1
35
7.5.2
35
7.5.3
35
7.5.4
Russian operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
7.5.5
Israeli operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
7.5.6
French operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
7.3
7.6
8
38
8.1
38
8.1.1
38
8.1.2
39
8.1.3
39
8.1.4
Support services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
8.2
42
8.3
43
8.3.1
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
8.3.2
43
8.3.3
43
8.3.4
Agent communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
8.3.5
Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
46
8.4.1
Agents of inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
8.4.2
Strategic deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
8.5
47
8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
8.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
8.4
iii
Concealment device
49
9.1
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.1.1
Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.1.2
Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.1.3
Candles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.1.4
49
iv
CONTENTS
9.1.5
Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.1.6
Diversion safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
9.1.7
Electrical outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
9.1.8
Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
9.1.9
50
9.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
9.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
10 Cryptography
51
10.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
52
52
54
55
55
56
10.3.3 Cryptanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
58
10.3.5 Cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
59
10.4.1 Prohibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
59
59
60
60
60
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
62
63
11 Cut-out (espionage)
64
64
64
11.3 References
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Dead drop
65
12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
65
65
12.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
66
CONTENTS
67
68
13.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
69
69
70
14.2.1 Inltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
14.2.2 Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
14.2.3 Exltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
70
70
71
71
71
71
72
72
14.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
15 Eavesdropping
15.1 Etymology
74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
15.2 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
15.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
75
75
16 Espionage
76
16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
76
76
77
77
77
78
16.4 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
79
79
16.7 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
80
81
81
vi
CONTENTS
16.10Military conicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
82
83
84
84
16.12Spy ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
85
85
16.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
16.14References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
16.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
16.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
17 False ag
88
88
88
88
89
90
90
90
90
90
91
17.3.1 Reichstag re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
91
92
17.4 Pseudo-operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
17.5 Espionage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
94
17.6.1 Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
94
17.6.3 Ideological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
94
17.7.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
17.7.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
95
18 Field agent
97
97
18.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
CONTENTS
vii
19 Industrial espionage
98
98
98
98
99
99
99
99
108
viii
CONTENTS
112
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
120
CONTENTS
ix
125
127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
134
135
136
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
138
CONTENTS
28.2 A spectrum of reconnaissance capabilities: LRS and SR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
28.3 Appropriate missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
28.3.1 Intelligence related missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
28.3.2 Oensive missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
28.4 Operational techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
28.4.1 Inltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
28.4.2 Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
28.4.3 Exltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
28.5 SR Communications-Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
28.6 Reporting during and after the mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
28.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
28.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
28.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
28.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
29 Steganography
150
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
157
CONTENTS
xi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Chapter 1
Agent handling
In intelligence organizations, agent handling is the management of agents, principal agents, and agent networks
(called assets) by intelligence ocers typically known
as case ocers.
If an agent is able to resist interrogation for a dened peA primary purpose of intelligence organizations is to pen- riod of time, the odds that other members of the network
etrate a target with a human agent, or a network of hu- can be alerted to the compromise improve.
man agents. Such agents can either inltrate the target,
or be recruited in place. Case ocers are professionally trained employees of intelligence organizations that
manage human agents and human agent networks. Intel- 1.2 Case ocer
ligence that derives from such human sources is known
A case ocer is an intelligence ocer who is a
as HUMINT.
trained specialist in the management of agents and agent
Sometimes, agent handling is done indirectly, through
networks.[1] Case ocers manage human agents, and huprincipal agents that serve as proxies for case ocers.
man intelligence networks. Case ocers spot potenIt is not uncommon, for example, for a case ocer to
tial agents, recruit prospective agents, and train agents
manage a number of principal agents, who in turn hanin tradecraft. Case ocers emphasize those elements of
dle agent networks, which are preferably organized in a
tradecraft which enable the agent to acquire needed incellular fashion. In such a case, the principal agent can
formation, as well as to enable the case ocer to comserve as a cut-out for the case ocer, buering him or
municate with and supervise the agent. Most of all, case
her from direct contact with the agent network.
ocers train agents in methods of avoiding detection by
Utilizing a principal agent as a cut-out, and ensuring that host nation counter-intelligence organizations.
the human agent network is organized in a cellular fashion, can provide some protection for other agents in the
network, as well as for the principal agent, and for the 1.3 Agents, spotting, and recruitcase ocer in the event that an agent in the network is
ment
compromised. Assuming that standard principles of intelligence tradecraft have been strictly observed by the
principal agent and the agents in the network, compro- By denition, an agent acts on behalf of another,
mised agents will not be able to identify the case ocer, whether another individual, an organization, or a foreign
nor the other members of the network. Ideally, agents government. Agents can be considered either witting or
may work side by side in the same oce, and conduct unwitting, and in some cases, willing or unwilling. Agents
their clandestine collection activities with such discipline, typically work under the direction of a principal agent or
that they will not realize that they are both engaged in es- a case ocer. When agents work alone, and are not mempionage, much less members of the same network.
bers of an agent network, they are termed singletons.
Since an agent can sometimes identify his or her principal
agent, however, or reveal information under interrogation
that can lead to the identication of a principal agent, the
protection provided by cellular network organization can
be time-sensitive.
1.4 Training
Agent training often includes techniques of tradecraft such as clandestine communications, including
cryptography, the use of one-time pads, the construction of concealment devices, and the employment of
dead drops. Other elements of tradecraft include elicitation, surveillance and countersurveillance, photography
and the emplacement of audio devices, sensors, or other
transmitters. Case ocers generally train agents one at a
time, in isolation, including only those elements of tradecraft needed to penetrate the target at hand. Case ocers
will also teach agents how to develop cover for status,
and cover for action, meaning how to establish credible
pretexts for their presence and behavior while engaged in
collection activities. A well-trained and competent agent
can conduct his or her clandestine tasks while under close
surveillance, and still evade detection. More advanced
agent training can include resistance to interrogation.
1.7 References
[1] case ocer, thefreedictionary.com, retrieved 4 March
2009
Chapter 2
Asset (intelligence)
In intelligence, assets are persons within organizations or
countries that are being spied upon who provide information for an outside spy. They are sometimes referred to as
agents, and in law enforcement parlance, as condential
informants, or 'CI' for short.
There are dierent categories of assets, including people
that:
Willingly work for a foreign government for ideological reasons such as being against their government,
but live in a country that doesn't allow political opposition. They may elect to work with a foreign power
to change their own country because there are few
other ways available.
Work for monetary gain. Intelligence services often
pay good wages to people in important positions that
are willing to betray secrets.
Have been blackmailed and are forced into their
role.
Do not even know they are being used. Assets can
be loyal to their country, but may still provide a foreign agent with information through failures in information safety such as using insecure computers
or not following proper OPSEC procedures during
day-to-day chatting.
Chapter 3
3.5 References
In black bag operations, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents illegally entered oces of targeted individuals and organizations, and photographed information found in their records. This practice was used by the
FBI from 1942 until 1967. In July 1966, FBI Director J.
Edgar Hoover ordered the practice discontinued.[3] The
use of black bag jobs by the FBI was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court on 19 June
1972 in the Plamondon case, United States v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. 297. The FBI still carries out numerous black bag entry-and-search missions, in which the
search is covert and the target of the investigation is not
informed that the search took place. If the investigation
involves a criminal matter a judicial warrant is required;
in national security cases the operation must be approved
by a secret body called the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court.[4]
Peter Wright. Spy Catcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Ocer. Penguin USA,
1987. ISBN 0-670-82055-5.
4
Chapter 4
Black operation
Black op and Black ops redirect here. For other
meanings, see Black Ops (disambiguation).
1970s. CIA Director General Michael Hayden explained why he released the documents, saying that
they provided a glimpse of a very dierent time
and a very dierent agency.[9]
4.3 References
[1] Smith, Jr., W. Thomas (2003). Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency. New York, NY: Facts on File,
Inc. p. 31. ISBN 0-8160-4666-2.
4.1 Etymology
[2] Popular Electronics, Volume 6, Issue 26. Zi-Davis Publishing Co., Inc. 1974, p. 267. There are three classications into which the intelligence community ocially
divides clandestine broadcast stations. A black operation
is one in which there is a major element of deception.
Black may be used as a generic term for any government activity that is hidden or secret. For example, some
activities by military and intel agencies are funded by a
classied "black budget, of which the details, and sometimes even the total, are hidden from the public and from
most congressional oversight.[7][8]
[3] Djang, Chu, From Loss to Renewal: A Tale of Life Experience at Ninety, Authors Choice Press, Lincoln, Nebraska,
p. 54. "(A black operation was) an operation in which the
sources of propaganda were disguised or mispresented in
one way or another so as not to be attributed to the people
who really engineered it.
In 2007 the Central Intelligence Agency declassied secret records detailing illegal domestic surveillance, assassination plots, kidnapping, and inltration and penetration of other black operations undertaken by the CIA from the 1950s to the early
[5] Rood, Justin (June 15, 2007). FBI to Boost Black Bag
Search Ops. ABC News. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
[6] The CIA Code Thief Who Came in from the Cold.
matthewald.com. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
Chapter 5
5.1.3
External support
Many cell systems still receive, with due attention to security, support from the outside. This can range from
leaders, trainers and supplies (such as the Jedburgh assistance to the French Resistance), or a safe haven for overt
activities (such as the NLF spokesmen in Hanoi).
External support need not be overt. Certain Shi'a groups
in Iraq, for example, do receive assistance from Iran, but
this is not a public position of the government of Iran, and
may even be limited to factions of that government. Early
US support to the Afghan Northern Alliance against the
Taliban used clandestine operators from both the CIA and
United States Army Special Forces. As the latter conict
escalated, the US participation became overt.
Note that both unconventional warfare (UW) (guerrilla
operations) and foreign internal defense (FID) (counterinsurgency) may be covert and use cellular organization.
In a covert FID mission, only selected host nation (HN)
leaders are aware of the foreign support organization. Under Operation White Star, US personnel gave covert FID
assistance to the Royal Lao Army starting in 1959, became overt in 1961, and ceased operations in 1962.
The lowest level consisted of three-person cells who operated quite closely, and engaging in the sort of self- While dierent kinds of insurgency dier in where they
criticism common, as a bonding method, to Communist place clandestine or covert cells, when certain types of inorganizations.
surgency grow in power, the cell system is deemphasized.
Cells still may be used for leadership security, but, if overt
violence by organized units becomes signicant, cells are
less important. In Maos three-stage doctrine,[7] cells are
5.2 Parallel organizations
still useful in Phase II to give cover to part-time guerillas,
but, as the insurgency creates full-time military units in
The NLF and PIRA, as well as other movements, have Phase III, the main units are the focus, not the cells. The
chosen to have parallel political and military organiza- Eighth Route Army did not run on a cell model.
tions. In the case of the NLF, other than some individuals
When considering where cells exist with respect to the
with sanctuary in North Vietnam, the political organizaexisting government, the type of insurgency needs to be
tion could not be overt during the Vietnam War. After
considered. One US Army reference was Field Manual
the war ended, surviving NLF ocials held high oce.
100-20, which has been superseded by FM3-07.[8] DrawIn the case of the PIRA, its political wing, Sinn Fin, be- ing on this work, Nyberg (a United States Marine Corps
came increasingly overt, and then a full participant in pol- ocer) extended the ideas to describe four types of cell
itics. Hamas and Hezbollah also have variants of overt system, although his descriptions also encompass types of
political/social service and covert military wings.
insurgencies that the cell system supports.[9] At present,
The overt political/socialcovert military split avoided the there is a new type associated with transnational terrorist
inexibility of a completely secret organization. Once an insurgencies.
active insurgency began, the secrecy could limit freedom
of action, distort information about goals and ideals, and
restrict communication within the insurgency.[6] In a split
organization, the public issues can be addressed overtly,
while military actions were kept covert and intelligence
functions stay clandestine.
1. Traditional: the slowest to form, this reects a principally indigenous insurgency, initially with limited
goals. It is more secure than others, as it tends to
grow from people with social, cultural or family ties.
The insurgents resent a government that has failed to
10
5.5.2
Clandestine presence
11
12
Osama, in this model, has the main responsibility of commanding the organization and being the spokesman on
propaganda video and audio messages distributed by the
propaganda cell. The other members of the core each
command one or more infrastructure cells.
While the tight coupling enhances security, it can limit
exibility and the ability to scale the organization. This
in-group, while sharing tight cultural and ideological values, is not committed to a bureaucratic process.
Members of the core group are under what could be
termed 'positive control'long relationships and similar
mindsets make 'control' not so much of an issue, but there
are distinct roles, and position (structural, nancial, spiritual) determines authority, thus making the core group a
13
trusted to some extent, but they may not know the contents of their messages or the actual identity of sender
and/or receiver. The couriers, depending on the balance
among type and size of message, security, and technology
available, may memorize messages, carry audio or video
recordings, or hand-carry computer media.
If Osama, the most respected, died, the core would reconstitute itself. While dierent members have an individual ideological guide, and these are not the same for all
members, the core would reconstitute itself with Richard
as most respected.
Assume there are no losses, and Osama can be reached
directly only by members of the core group. Members of
outer cells and support systems might know him only as
the Commander, or, as in the actual case of al-Qaeda,
Osama bin Ladens face is recognizable worldwide, but
only a few people know where he was or even how to
contact him.
Core group and infrastructure cells; military cells in training
5.6.1
Infrastructure cells
3. Communication means
4. Transportation means
5. Information
6. Arms and ammunition
7. Transport
Other functions include psychological operations, train- Note that Anton does not have a direct connection to
ing, and nance.
Kim. Under normal circumstances, he sacrices eciency for security, by passing communications requests
[14]
A national intelligence service
has a support organization to deal with services such as nance, logistics, fa- through Hassan. The security structure also means that
cilities (e.g., safehouses), information technology, com- Hassan does not know the members of Antons cells, and
munications, training, weapons and explosives, medical Kim may know only ways to communicate with them but
services, etc. Transportation alone is a huge function, in- not their identity.
Kim operates two systems of cells, one for secure communications and one for propaganda. To send out a propaganda message, Osama must pass it to Kim. If Kim
were compromised, the core group might have signicant
Some of these functions, such as nance, are far harder to problems with any sort of outside communications.
operate in remote areas, such as the FATA of Pakistan, Terrorist networks do not match cleanly to other cell systhan in cities with large numbers of ocial and unocial tems that regularly report to a headquarters. The apparent
nancial institutions, and the communications to support al-Qaeda methodology of letting operational cells decide
them. If the nancial oce is distant from the remote on their nal dates and means of attack exhibit an operheadquarters, there is a need for couriers, who must be ational pattern, but not a periodicity that could easily be
cluding the need to buy tickets without drawing suspicion,
and, where appropriate, using private vehicles. Finance
includes the need to transfer money without coming under the suspicion of nancial security organizations.
14
used for an indications checklist appropriate for a warning center. Such lists depend on seeing a local pattern to
give a specic warning.[15]
Note that Hassan has two subordinates that have not yet
established operational cells. These subordinates can be
considered sleepers, but not necessarily with a sleeper
cell.
5.6.2
Operational cells
Al-Qaedas approach, which even diers from that of earlier terrorist organizations, may be very viable for their
goals:
Cells are redundant and distributed, making them
dicult to roll up
Cells are coordinated, not under command &
controlthis autonomy and local control makes
them exible, and enhances security
Trust and comcon internally to the cell provide redundancy of potential command (a failure of Palestinian operations in the past), and well as a shared
knowledgebase (which may mean, over time, that
cross training emerges inside a cell, providing redundancy of most critical skills and knowledge).[13]
5.8 References
[1] Leahy, Kevin C. (2005). The Impact of Technology on
the Command, Control, and Organizational Structure of
Insurgent Groups (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-04.
[2] Irish Republican Army. The Green Book. Archived
from the original on 2007-06-16. Retrieved 2007-12-04.
[3] Hall, Roger (1964). You're Stepping on my Cloak and Dagger. Bantam Books.
[4] Hogan, David W. (1992). Chapter 3: Special Operations
in the European Theater. U.S. Army Special Operations
in World War II. Washington, D.C.: United States Army
Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70-42.
[5] Pike, Douglas (1970). Viet Cong: Organization and Technique of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam.
MIT Press.
[6] US Department of the Army (December 2006). FM 324: Counterinsurgency (PDF).
[7] Mao, Zedong (1967). On Protracted War. Foreign Language Press, Beijing.
15
[8] US Department of the Army (20 February 2003). FM 307 (formerly FM 100-20): Stability Operations and Support Operations.
[9] Nyberg, Eric N. (1991). Insurgency: The Unsolved Mystery. US Marine Corps University Command and Sta
College.
[10] Luttwak, Edward (1968). Coup d'etat: A Practical Handbook. Harvard University Press.
[11] Guevara, Ernesto Che (1961). On Guerilla Warfare.
Praeger.
[12] al-Qaeda training manual (PDF). US Southern District
Court, US New York City Attorneys Oce, entered as
evidence in Africa embassy bombings.
[13] Decision Support Systems, Inc. (2001-12-31). Hunting
the Sleepers: Tracking al-Qaidas Covert Operatives
(PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-17.
[14] US Central Intelligence Agency. Support to Mission:
Who We Are. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
[15] Fellman, Philip Vos; Wright, Roxana. Modeling Terrorist Networks - Complex Systems at the Mid-Range
(PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-02.
[16] Kaplan, David E. (22 September 2002). Run and Gun:
Al Qaeda arrests and intelligence hauls bring new energy
to the war on terrorism. U.S. News & World Report.
[17] Pendall, David W. (JanuaryFebruary 2004). EectsBased Operations and the Exercise of National Power.
Military Review (United States Army Combined Arms
Center). Find the article by going through the Military
Review directories
Chapter 6
Clandestine HUMINT
This article is a subset article under Human Intelligence. For a
complete hierarchical list of articles, see the intelligence cycle management hierarchy. Concepts here
also are intimately associated with
counterintelligence.
This article
deals with the what of clandestine
HUMINT, and is a prerequisite for
the how in the Clandestine HUMINT
operational techniques article.
17
18
It examines espionage by interviewing and psychologically assessing actual espionage subjects. Additionally,
persons knowledgeable of subjects are contacted to better understand the subjects private lives and how they are
perceived by others while conducting espionage .[4]
According to a press report about Project Slammer and
Congressional oversight of counterespionage, one fairly
basic function is observing ones own personnel for behavior that either suggests that they could be targets for
foreign HUMINT, or may already have been subverted.
News reports indicate that in hindsight, red ags were
ying but not noticed. [5] In several major penetrations
of US services, such as Aldrich Ames, the Walker ring
or Robert Hanssen, the individual showed patterns of
spending inconsistent with their salary. Some people with
changed spending may have a perfectly good reason, such
as an inheritance or even winning the lottery, but such
patterns should not be ignored.
By 1997, the Project Slammer work was being presented at public meetings of the Security Policy Advisory Board.[6] While a funding cut caused the loss of impetus in the mid-nineties, there are research data used
throughout the security community. They emphasize the
essential and multi-faceted motivational patterns underlying espionage. Future Slammer analyses will focus on
newly developing issues in espionage such as the role of
money, the new dimensions of loyalty and what seems to
be a developing trend toward economic espionage.
According to a 2008 Defense Department study, nancial incentives and external coercion have played diminishing roles in motivating Americans to spy against the
United States, but divided loyalties are increasingly evident in recent espionage cases. The study said, Two
thirds of American spies since 1990 have volunteered.
Since 1990, spying has not paid well: 80% of spies received no payment for espionage, and since 2000 it appears no one was paid. ... Oenders since 1990 are more
likely to be naturalized citizens, and to have foreign attachments, connections, and ties, and therefore they are
more likely to be motivated to spy from divided loyalties. Despite this trend, the report says that the majority
(65%) of American spies are still native born.[7][8]
Sometimes more than one factor applies, as with Robert 6.4.1 Recruitment through Money
Hanssen, an FBI counterintelligence agent who was a
write-in to the KGB. While he received large amounts Ames seems to have been motivated primarily by money.
of money, he apparently felt unappreciated in his own service and spying on it satised his ego.
Psychological factors can apply to people changing allegiance for reasons other than coercion or ideology. To
go beyond slogans, Project Slammer was an eort of
the Intelligence Community Sta, under the Director of
Central Intelligence, to come up with characteristics of
Project Slammer, an Intelligence Community sponsored
study of espionage.
6.4.3
19
Leaves and goes to B
themselves, trying to make a favorable impression. Extortioners and blackmailers usually act impudent, making
20
their oer in the form of an ultimatum and even resorting found dead under mysterious circumstances, had believed
to open threats.
they had been recruited by Wilson, under the pretense
that he was still a CIA executive. According to Epstein,
Wilson maintained a close association with two of the
Defector in place
agencys top executives-Thomas G. Clines, the director
of training for the clandestine services, and Theodore G.
Another method is to directly recruit an intelligence of- Shackley, who held the No. 2 position in the espionage
cer (or terrorist member) from within the ranks of the branch. Both of these men sat in on meetings that Wiladversary service (terrorist group) and having that ocer son held with his operatives and weapon suppliers and, by
(terrorist) maintain their normal duties while spying on doing so, helped further the illusion that his activities had
their parent service (organization); this is also referred to the sanction of the CIA an illusion crucial to keeping
as recruiting an agent or defector in place.[14]
his false ag attractive.[15] Wilson was involved in thenbanned arms sales to Libya, and it is unclear who actually
Starts in A
sponsored these sales.
Stays working in A but reporting to B
He was in Libya in 1982, but came to the Dominican Republic in 1982, where he was arrested for illegal arms
As mentioned, Oleg Penkovsky was a key US-British sales, and sentenced, in 1984, to 52 years in prison. He
agent, apparently detected through Soviet counterintel- was 55 years old at the time.
ligence work. Adolf Tolkachev, an electronic engineer
Continuing Freedom of Information Act and other reworking on Soviet radar, was another defector in place for
search by his attorney caused a federal judge to throw
the US, who was exposed by the CIA defector, Edward
out the conviction,[16] on the basis that prosecutors deLee Howard, who ed to the KGB before being arrested.
liberately deceived the court, in the words of the judge,
Penkovsky and Tolkachev, both motivated by ideology,
America will not defeat Libyan terrorism by doublewere executed by the Soviets.
crossing a part-time, informal government agent.
To give a sense of the innity of mirrors involved in
agent work, Howard was exposed by an apparent Soviet walk-in defector, Vitaly Yurchenko, who walked into 6.5.2 Double Agent
the US Embassy in Rome and defected to the United
States. While Yurchenko also identied Ronald Pel- The rst thing to consider about a double agent is that he
ton as a Soviet defector-in-place working in the NSA, is, at least minimally, a trained intelligence asset. He may
Yurchenko himself re-defected back to the USSR within not be a full case ocer of the other side, but he may, at
a few months. It is possible that Yurchenko was acting as least, have been an agent of theirs. They had some reaa double agent, sent by the Soviets to sacrice less impor- son to trust him. Like all other intelligence operations,
tant Soviet assets in order to protect the more important double agent cases are run to protect and enhance the national security. They serve this purpose principally by
CIA defectors in place, e.g. Aldrich Ames.
providing current counterintelligence about hostile intelligence and security services and about clandestine subFalse Flag Penetrator
versive activities. The service and ocer considering a
double agent possibility must weigh net national advanA special case of a mole is a false ag recruitment of a tage thoughtfully, never forgetting that a double agent is,
penetrator:
in eect, a condoned channel of communication with the
enemy .[17]
Starts in C
Before even considering double agent operations, a serBelieves being recruited by A
vice has to consider its own resources. Managing that
agent will take skill and sophistication, both at the loActually is recruited by B and sends false inforcal/case ocer and central levels. Complexity goes up
mation to C
astronomically when the service cannot put physical conFalse ag recruitments, admittedly for covert action trols on its doubles, as did the Double Cross System in
rather than pure HUMINT, were reported [15] as a tech- WWII. In the Double Cross System, the double agents
nique used by Edwin P. Wilson, who left CIA in 1971, were motivated by coercion: they knew they would be exand then went to work for a Navy HUMINT unit, Task ecuted if they did not cooperate. Few of them were highly
Force 157 until 1976, when he went private.[16] During trained intelligence ocers, but opportunists to start.
his time working for CIA, he was both ocially and unocially involved in arms sales. His assignments sometimes required him to establish and use front companies to gain access to information and to support CIA operations here and abroad commercially.[16] Three men,
For predictive purposes the most important clue imbedded in the origins of an operation is the agents original
or primary aliation, whether it was formed voluntarily
or not, the length of its duration, and its intensity. The
eects of years of clandestine association with the adver-
21
standing of his language; this is an extremely unwise situation for using interpreters, since the case ocer needs to
sense the emotional content of the agents communication
and match it with the details of the information owing in
both directions. Depending on whether the operation is
being run in ones own country, an allied country, or hostile territory, the case ocer needs to know the relevant
laws. Even in friendly territory, the case ocer needs
both liaison with, and knowledge of, the routine law enforcement and security units in the area, so the operation
is not blown because an ordinary policeman gets suspicious and brings the agent in for questioning.
If at all possible, the service running the double agent
have complete control of communications, which, in
practice, need to be by electronic means or dead drop.
Meetings between the double and his Service A handler
are extremely risky. Even text communication can have
patterns of grammar or word choice, known to the agent
and his original service, that can hide a warning of capture, by the use of a seemingly ordinary word. Some controlling services may paraphrase the doubles text to hide
such warnings, but run into the possibility of being detected by sophisticated analysis of the doubles normal
choice of words.
Basic Double agent
Starts in A
Recruited by B
Defects and tells B all he knows (defector)
operates in place (Agent doubled in
place) and continues to tell B about
A
Redoubled Agent
A service discovering an adversary agent, who entered
ones own service either as a penetrator or an asset in place
may oer him employment as a double. His agreement,
obtained under open or implied duress, is unlikely, however, to be accompanied by a genuine switch of loyalties.
The so-called redoubled agent whose duplicity in doubling for another service has been detected by his original
sponsor and who has been persuaded to reverse his aections again -also belongs to this dubious class. Many detected and doubled agents degenerate into what are sometimes called piston agents or mailmen, who change
their attitudes with their visas as they shunt from side to
side.[17]
Operations based on them are little more than unauthorized liaison with the enemy, and usually time-wasting
exercises in futility. A notable exception is the detected
and unwillingly doubled agent who is relieved to be found
out in his enforced service to the adversary.[17]
22
(A may also send disinformation directly through Y, since B should assume A doesn't know line of communication Y is compromised)
Passive provocateur
Passive provocations are variants involving false-ag recruiting.
Active provocateur
There can be active and passive provocation agents. A
double agent may serve as a means through which a
provocation can be mounted against a person, an organization, an intelligence or security service, or any afliated group to induce action to its own disadvantage.
The provocation might be aimed at identifying members
of the other service, at diverting it to less important objectives, at tying up or wasting its assets and facilities, at
sowing dissension within its ranks, at inserting false data
into its les to mislead it, at building up in it a tainted le
for a specic purpose, at forcing it to surface an activity
it wanted to keep hidden, or at bringing public discredit
on it, making it look like an organization of idiots. The
Soviets and some of the Satellite services, the Poles in
particular, are extremely adept in the art of conspiratorial
provocation. All kinds of mechanisms have been used to
mount provocation operations; the double agent is only
one of them.[17]
An active provocateur is sent by Service A to Service B
to tell B that he works for A but wants to switch sides. Or
he may be a talk-in rather than a walk-in. In any event,
the signicant information that he is withholding, in compliance with As orders, is the fact that his oer is being
made at As instigation. He is also very likely to conceal one channel of communication with A-for example,
a second secret writing system. Such side-commo enables A to keep in full touch while sending through the
divulged communications channel only messages meant
for adversary eyes. The provocateur may also conceal his
true sponsor, claiming for example (and truthfully) to represent an A1 service (allied with A) whereas his actual
control is the A-a fact which the Soviets conceal from the
Satellite as carefully as from us.[17]
Starts in A and is actually loyal to A
Goes to B, says he works for A, but wants to
switch sides. Gives B access to his communications channel with A (channel Y)
Keeps second communications channel, X with
A, about which B knows nothing
Reports operational techniques of
B to A via X
Provides disinformation from A,
via X, which he disseminates to B
In Country C, Service A surveys the intelligence terrain through the eyes of Service B (a species of mirrorreading) and selects those citizens whose access to
sources and other qualications make them most attractive to B. Service A ocers, posing as service B ocers,
recruit the citizens of country C. At some point, service A
then exposes these individuals, and complains to country
C that country B is subverting its citizens.
The stake-out has a far better chance of success in areas
like Africa, where intelligence exploitation of local resources is far less intensive, than in Europe, where persons with valuable access are likely to have been approached repeatedly by recruiting services during the
postwar years.[17]
A does an analysis of C and determines what
targets would be attractive to B
A then recruits citizens of C, which A believes
will be more loyal to B
The A recruit, a citizen of C, volunteers to B
A can then expose Bs penetration of C, hurting
B-C relations.
This may be extremely dicult to accomplish, and even if
accomplished the real diculty is maintaining control of
this turned asset. Controlling an enemy agent who has
been turned is a many-faceted and complex exercise that
essentially boils down to making certain that the agents
new-found loyalty remains consistent, which means determining whether the doubled agents turning is genuine or false. However, this process can be quite convoluted and fraught with uncertainty and suspicion.[14]
Where it concerns terrorist groups, a terrorist who betrays
his organization can be thought of and run as a doubleagent against the terrorists parent organization in much
the same fashion as an intelligence ocer from a foreign
intelligence service. Therefore, for sake of ease, wherever
double-agents are discussed the methodologies generally
apply to activities conducted against terrorist groups as
well.[14]
Fake double agent
Peddlers, fabricators, and others who work for themselves
rather than a service are not double agents because they
23
are not agents. Almost certainly motivated by money, it the large landings came at Normandy, deception operais unlikely they can maintain the deception for very long. tions continued, convincing the Germans that Operation
They may be uncovered by a headquarters check, as they Neptune at Normandy was a feint, so that they held back
their strategic reserves. By the time it became apparmay well have tried the same game elsewhere.
ent that Normandy was indeed the main invasions, the
strategic reserves had been under heavy air attack, and
the lodgment was suciently strong that the reduced reUnwitting double agent
serves could not push it back.
Witting is a term of intelligence art that indicates that
There are other benets to analyzing the exchange of inone is not only aware of a fact or piece of information, but
formation between the double agent and his original seralso aware of its connection to intelligence activities. An
vice, such as learning the priorities of service A through
unwitting double agent thinks that he is still working for
the information requests they are sending to an individhis own Service A, but Service B has somehow managed
ual they believe is working for them. If the requests all
what, in communications security, is called a man-in-theturn out to be for information that service A could not use
middle attack. Service A believes it is in contact with its
against B, and this becomes a pattern, service A may have
own agent, and the agent believes he is communicating
realized their agent has been turned.
with his true control. This is extremely dicult to conSince maintaining control over double agents is tricky at
tinue for more than a very brief period of time.
best, it is not hard to see how problematic this methodolCreating an unwitting double agent is extremely rare. The
ogy can become. The potential for multiple turnings of
manipulative skill required to deceive an agent into thinkagents and perhaps worse, the turning of ones own ining that he is serving his team when in fact he is damaging
telligence ocers (especially those working within counits interests is plainly of the highest order.
terintelligence itself), poses a serious risk to any intelligence service wishing to employ these techniques. This
may be the reason that triple-agent operations appear not
6.5.3 Multiply Turned Agent
to have been undertaken by U.S. counterintelligence in
A triple agent can be a double agent that decides his true some espionage cases that have come to light in recent
loyalty is to his original service, or could always have been years, particularly among those involving high-level penloyal to his service but is part of an active provocation of etrations. Although the arrest and prosecution of Aldrich
your service. If managing a double agent is hard, agents Ames of the CIA and Robert Hanssen of the FBI, both of
that turned again (i.e., tripled) or another time after that whom were senior counterintelligence ocers in their reare far more dicult, but in some rare cases, worthwhile. spective agencies who volunteered to spy for the Russians,
hardly qualies as conclusive evidence that triple-agent
Any service B controlling, or believing it controls, a dou- operations were not attempted throughout the commuble agent, must constantly evaluate the information that nity writ large, these two cases suggest that neutralization
agent is providing on service A. While service A may operations may be the preferred method of handling adhave been willing to sacrice meaningful information, or versary double agent operations vice the more aggressive
even other human assets, to help an intended penetration exploitation of these potential triple-agent sources.[14]
agent establish his bona des, at some point, service A
may start providing useless or misleading information as
part of the goal of service A. In the WWII Double Cross Triple agent
System ,[20] another way the British controllers (i.e., serStarts out working for B
vice B in this example) kept the Nazis believing in their
agent, was that the British let true information ow, but
Volunteers to be a defector-in-place for A
too late for the Germans to act on it. The double agent
Discovered by B
might send information indicating that a lucrative target
was in range of a German submarine, but, by the time the
Oers his communications with A to B, so B
information reaches the Germans, they conrm the report
may gain operational data about A and send
was true because the ship is now docked in a safe port
disinformation to A
that would have been a logical destination on the course
reported by the agent .[21] While the Double Cross Sys- A concern with triple agents, of course, is if they have
tem actively handled the double agent, the information changed loyalties twice, why not a third or even more
sent to the Germans was part of the overall Operation times? Consider a variant where the agent remains funBodyguard deception program of the London Control- damentally loyal to B:
ling Section. Bodyguard was meant to convince the Germans that the Allies planned their main invasion at one of
several places, none of which were Normandy. As long Quadruple agent
as the Germans found those deceptions credible, which
Starts out working for B
they did, they reinforced the other locations. Even when
24
Discovered by B
Oers his communications with A to B.
B actually gets disinformation
about As operational techniques
A learns what B wants to know,
such as potential vulnerabilities of
A, which A will then correct
25
Additional requirements for bank reporting were in the
PATRIOT act, and intended to help catch terrorists
preparing for operations. It is not clear, however, if terrorist operations will involve highly visible cash transactions. The 9/11 operations cells were reported to have
required somewhere between $400,000 and $500,000 in
operating funds, and there were indeed wire transfers in
the $100,000 range. Still, the question remains if a relatively small expenditure, compared with the enormous
amounts in the illegal drug trade, will draw counterintelligence/counterterrorist attention.
For clandestine networks where the case ocers are under non-ocial cover, handling large sums of cash is more
dicult and may justify resorting to IVTS. When the
cover is under a proprietary (owned by the intelligence
agency) aviation company, it can be relatively simple to
hide large bundles of cash, and make direct payments.
In the US, nancial transactions begin with mutual identication between the customer and the nancial institution. Although there are many Internet frauds involving
fake nancial institutions or criminals masquerading as a
nancial institution (i.e., phishing), the more dicult requirement is for the prospective customer to show acceptable identication to the bank. For basic relationships,
a government-issued identication document, such as a
US security systems, about which the most public infor- passport or drivers license, usually suces. For foreign
nationals, their countrys equivalent may be accepted, almation is known, usually include a credit check as part
of a security clearance, and excessive debt is a matter of though it may be harder to verify.
concern. It may be the case that refusing to clear peo- Going beyond the basics becomes much more dicult.
ple with known nancial problems has stopped a poten- Were the relationship one that involved classied intial penetration, but, in reality, the problem may well be at formation, there would be an extensive personal histhe other side. Aldrich Ames, Robert Hanssen, and John tory questionnaire, ngerprint check, name search with
Walker all spent more money than could be explained by law enforcement and intelligence, and, depending on the
their salaries, but their conspicuous spending did not draw clearance level, additional investigations.
attention; they were detected because variously through Credit bureaus and other nancial information services
investigations of leaks that threw suspicion on their ac- may be helpful, although the accuracy of some of these
cess to information. Suspicion did fall on Jack Dunlap, is questionable. There are Federal requirements to check
who had his security clearance revoked and committed names against lists of possible terrorists, nancial crimsuicide. Perhaps Dunlap was more obvious as a low-level inals and money launderers, etc. In many respects, we
courier and driver than the others, while the others were have a problem where nancial institution employees,
ocers in more responsible positions.
without law enforcement training, are being asked to be
26
and successful investigator speaks of instinct, which takes Another means of transferring assets is through commeryears to develop.
cial shipment of conventional goods, but with an articially low invoice price, so the receiver can sell them and
recover disbursed funds through prot on sales.
Money Laundering and subverting formal value
transfer systems
Money laundering is more associated with domestic
crime than with clandestine operations, and is less likely
to be involved in clandestine operations. Nevertheless, a
brief mention of its potential benets are in order. The
basic principle of money laundering is that someone is in
a business that has large cash income, such as drug sales
or gambling. The receiving organization needs to nd a
way that these get into usable bank accounts, so they can
be accessed for large purchases.
The most common way to do money laundering is to nd
a legal business that naturally receives much of its income in cash. These could include hair and beauty shops,
small groceries, and, ironically, laundries and dry cleaners. The legal business, or more likely multiple businesses, receive the illegal cash as well as normal receipts,
and draw amounts that do not attract suspicion. Periodically, the launderer may have the cash-receiving rm buy
something for him, or, less commonly, to write a large
check that goes into his legal account. Care is taken that
the amounts in the legal accounts do not hit the limits that
cause automatic reporting.
Informal value transfer systems (IVTS) , however, exist in a number of cultures, and bypass regular nancial
channels and their monitoring systems (see nancial intelligence). These are known by regional and cultural names
including:
6.7 References
[1] UK Security Service (MI5). Espionage and the Law
(– SCHOLAR SEARCH ).
[2] US Department of Defense (2007-07-12). Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military
and Associated Terms (PDF). Retrieved 2007-10-01.
[3] Condon, Richard (1964). An innity of mirrors. Random
House.
[4] Intelligence Community Sta (1990-04-12). Project
Slammer Interim Progress Report. Slammer 1990. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
[5] Stein, Je (1994-07-05). The Moles Manual. New
York Times. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
[6] Security Policy Advisory Board (1997-12-12). Security
Policy Advisory Board Meeting Minutes. SPAB 1997.
Retrieved 2007-11-04.
[7] Herbig, Katherine L. (2008-03-01).
Changes in
Espionage by Americans: 1947-2007 (PDF). Defense Personnel Security Research Center, with
Counterintelligence Field Activity. Retrieved 2008-0407.
[8] Shane, Scott (2008-04-20). A Spys Motivation: For
Love of Another Country. The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
[9] Schecter, Jerrold L.; Deriabin, Peter S. (1992). The Spy
Who Saved the World: How a Soviet Colonel Changed the
Course of the Cold War. Scribner. ISBN 0-684-19068-0.
Schecter 1992.
hundi (India)
While details dier by culture and specic participants, [12] Barron, John (1983). KGB Today: The Hidden Hand.
Readers Digest Assn. ISBN 0-88349-164-8.
the systems work in a comparable manner. To transfer
value, party 1 gives money (or other valuta) to IVTS agent [13] Serov, Ivan A.. Work with Walk-Ins (–
SCHOLAR SEARCH
1-A. This agent calls, faxes, or otherwise communicates
). Studies in Intelligence. CIA-Serov.
the amount and recipient of the funds to be transferred,
to IVTS agent 2-A, who will deliver the funds to party [14] Gleghorn, Todd E. (September 2003). Exposing the
Seams: the Impetus for Reforming US Counterintelli2. All the systems work because they are valuable to the
gence (PDF). Naval Postgraduate School. Retrieved
culture, and failure to carry out the agreement can invite
2007-11-02.
savage retribution.
Reconciliation can work in a number of ways. There [15] Edwin Wilson: The CIAs Great Gatsby. Parade.
September 18, 1993. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
can be physical transfer of cash or valuables. There can
be wire transfers in third and fourth countries, countries [16] Hughes, Lynn N. (October 27, 2003). Opinion on Conwithout strong reporting requirements, which the IVTS
viction [US District Court, Southern District of Texas]"
(PDF). Hughes 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
agents can verify.
27
Chapter 7
28
[5]
29
30
7.2.1
United Kingdom World War II Op- ity; to prevent duplication, wasted eort, crossing of operational wires, friction, and consequent insecurity; and
erations
SOE conducted competent training in parachuting, sabotage, irregular warfare, etc. It could check language
and marksmanship skills, as well as examining clothing
and personal eects for anything that could reveal British
manufacture, SOE trained agents in the distinguishing
uniforms, insignia, and decorations of the Germans, But
it could not teach them the organization, modus operandi,
and psychology of the German intelligence and security
services; and it did not call upon the MI-5 and MI-6 experts who did know the subject...[9] those services also
were reluctant to provide SOE with access to their own
sensitive sources. While isolating SOE from the clandestine services provided some mutual passive security, it
also failed to provide proactive counterintelligence.
After Operation Barbarossa, Soviet Partisans arose spontaneously, from cut-o regular troops, and from ordinary
citizens. Such a spontaneous uprising against an invader
is accepted in international law, under the Third Geneva
Convention.
Nazi Germany had multiple and poorly coordinated organizations, not surprisingly given Adolf Hitler's tendency
to duplicate functions and cause bureaucratic conict, so
he was the only person with the full picture. It was common to have a military, a Party, and a state organization
with the same function, which was true, to a lesser extent,
in the Soviet Union.
At the end of the war the Foreign Oce and the Chiefs
of Sta agreed to return the responsibility for covert operations to the jurisdiction of the Secret Intelligence Service. There were three reasons for the change: to ensure
that secret intelligence and special operations were the responsibility of a single organization under a single author-
during
7.3.1
UK postwar change
31
could call on SAS, outside contractors, or other UK military personnel.
UK Military Special Forces
It was at this stage that the relationship with the SAS, seconded and retired, as well as a number of 'private' specialist companies became ever more important and by 1987 a
Special Forces Directorate was formed to coordinate the
activities of the SAS and SBS and ensure closer collaboration with the SIS.[1]
United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF) was formed in
1987 to draw together the Armys Special Air Service
(SAS) and the Special Boat Squadron Royal Marines
(SBS), which was renamed the Special Boat Service at
the same time, into a unied command, based around the
former Director SAS who was given the additional title
of Director Special Forces. The Directorate has been expanded by the creation of the Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing, the Special Reconnaissance Regiment and the
Special Forces Support Group.
Current SIS paramilitary capabilities
SIS can also call on the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, which absorbed 14 Intelligence Company as well
as Intelligence Corps and Royal Military Police personnel, including female ocers.
32
The United States should provide itself with the organization and the means
of supporting foreign resistance movements in guerrilla warfare to the advantage of United States national security
during peace and war.
Guerrilla warfare should be supported
under policy direction of NSC.
Agencies for conducting guerrilla warfare can be established by adding to the
CIAs special operations functions the responsibility for supporting foreign resistance movements and by authorizing the
Joint Chiefs of Sta to engage in the conduct of such operations. Primary interest in guerrilla warfare should be that of
CIA in peacetime and [Department of
Defense] in wartime.
"A separate guerrilla warfare school and
corps should not be established[emphasis
added]. Instead, [Department of Defense], in coordination with State Department and CIA, should select personnel, give them necessary training in established Army schools, supplemented by
courses in other military and State Department schools.
33
After the end of the war, the US Army created a PWD.
While there had been pressure to put PWD under the
newly revitalized Intelligence Division, McClure was
strongly opposed.
A great part of my diculty in carrying out
what I felt was my mission was with G-2. The
G 2s all felt that they had a monopoly on intelligence and were reluctant in the earlier stages
to give any of that intelligence to Psychological
Warfare knowing that it would be broadcast or
used in print.[13]
There was also a sensitivity about providing intelligence
to units working behind enemy lines and subject to capture. McClure believed that PWD either should report to
Operations, or, as was eventually done, as a special sta
for the Chief of Sta.
While McClure himself was a psychological operations
specialist, his work with OSS had made him appreciative
of UW. Since no other Army agency seemed interested
in the UW mission, McClure was granted sta authority
over UW, with a mission to:
While General Charles A. Willoughby, intelligence ofcer (G-2) at Douglas MacArthur's headquarters asked
CIA, in the absence of an Army HUMINT function, to
establish special reconnaissance (SR) teams. This worked
until the ceasere talks began, but the CIA history speaks OPCW had three major divisions:
of severe conict with G-2 over support resources and
security. There was a continuing tension over CIA pro Psychological Warfare
viding tactical support to EUSAK, and carrying out its
Requirements
national-level missions. The Army and CIA never worked
Special Operations. The latter was parout eective counterintelligence cooperation.
ticularly signicant, because it formulated plans for creation of the US Armys
rst formal unconventional warfare capaPWD and the Creation of US Army Special Forces
bility: Special Forces.
After World War II, the regular Army had a largesse of
ocers that had successfully run large UW operations, McClure brought ocers with World War II or Korean
without any doctrine to guide them. The Army also had War experience in UW or long-range penetration, instrong psychological operations capabilities, and a new cluding COL Aaron Bank, LTC Russell Volckmann, and
CPT Donald Blackburn. Bank had been assigned to the
Army Sta element was created to manage them.
During World War II, the Psychological Warfare Divi- OSS and fought with the French Maquis. Volckmann
sion (PWD) of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expe- and Blackburn had both been guerillas in the Philippines,
ditionary Force (SHAEF) was created to conduct overt and Volckman had also led UW in Korea. McClure saw
psychological warfare against German troops in Europe. one of his responsibilities as selling UW, in spite of
A joint UK-US organization, it was commanded by US resistance from the Army and CIA. He was able to reBrigadier-General Robert A. McClure .[15] McClure had cruit qualied personnel from the Ranger units that had
commanded psychological operations in North Africa, been disbanded in Korea. With personnel spaces availagain under the command of Dwight D. Eisenhower, and able from disbanding the Ranger companies in Korea, the
enjoyed his condence. SHAEF PWDs sta came from Army activated Special Forces in early 1952.
the US Oce of War Information (OWI), the US OSS, Special Forces, both in their original form and as a comand the British PWE.
ponent of the current United States Special Operations
34
Command, have provided the nucleus of US paramilitary The Cold War CIA takes shape
capabilities, both under direct military, CIA, and joint
control. Some Special Forces personnel left the Army In 1952, the OPC and OSO, along with assorted supand went to work as CIA employees.
port oces, were merged to what was originally called
The US Special Forces was established out of several spe- the Directorate of Plans, then, more honestly, the Dicial operations units that were active during World War II. rectorate of Operations. It has recently been reorganized
Formally, its lineage comes from the 1st Special Service into the National Clandestine Service.
Force (Devils Brigade), but that unit was more a Special
Reconnaissance (SR) and Direct Action (DA) command,
which operated in uniform without augmentation by local
soldiers.
Some of the Oce of Strategic Services units have much
more similarity, in mission, with the original Army Special Forces mission, Unconventional Warfare (UW), or
acting as cadre to train and lead guerillas in occupied
countries. The Special Forces motto, de oppresso liber
(Latin: To free from oppression) reects this historical
mission of guerilla warfare against an occupier. Specically, the 3-man Operation Jedburgh units provided leadership to French Resistance units. The larger OSS Operational Groups (OG) were more associated with SR/DA
missions, although they did work with Resistance units.
COL Aaron Bank, commander of the rst Special Forces
group, served in OSS during World War II. Other OSS
guerilla units included Detachment 101 in Burma, under the China-Burma-India Theater, which, among other
missions, screened the larger Ranger unit, Merrills Marauders
35
forces of the US, or cover & deception for the armed There is the potential for conict between the NCS, DCS,
forces.
and USSOCOM, especially the Joint Special Operations
Command (JSOC), as well as an organization, originally called the Intelligence Support Activity (ISA). ISA
changes its (classied) ocial name every two years and
7.5 Current operations
its code names approximately every 6 months.[6]
Dierent countries have dierent legal and political constraints on covert operations, and whether they are carried
out by military special operations under military command (in or out of uniform), by military special operations personnel under the command of an intelligence
agency, or by paramilitary personnel under intelligence
command. The United Kingdom does have not a rigid a
legal separation between the two, but also does not appear
to have a major bureaucratic conict between the intelligence community and military special operations. While
the legalities also may not be as strict for Russia, there is
a historical conict among the security organizations and
the military, and among dierent security agencies such
as the FSB and OMON.
36
7.5.4
Russian operations
Recent Russian doctrine can only be inferred from Soviet practice, unconventional warfare, and some special
reconnaissance, seems to be subordinated to major military commands. Spetsnaz special operations forces are
under the GRU, although units are attached to major
commands.[26]
7.5.5
Israeli operations
7.6 References
[1] SIS Paramilitary/Covert Action Sections. 2004-06-01.
Retrieved 2007-12-08.
[2] Secret Intelligence Service MI6 - UK Intelligence Agencies. 2004-01-17. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
[3] Manget, Frederic F. (1996), Intelligence and the Rise
of Judicial Intervention: Another System of Oversight,
Studies in Intelligence
[4] Ellis, Earl H. (23 July 1921), Advanced Base Operations
in Micronesia, retrieved 2007-11-01
[5] Kennan, George F. (May 4, 1948). Policy Planning Sta
Memorandum: The inauguration of organized political
warfare. Foreign Relations of the United States: 1945
1950 Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment.
[6] John,Jessica Ryane (2006-01-30). A Dierence with (or
without) Distinction: Evading Congressional Oversight
of Covert Action through the Use of Special Operations
Forces (PDF). George Washington University.
[7] Kahn, David (1996). The Codebreakers - The Story of
Secret Writing. Scribners. ISBN 0-684-83130-9. Kahn.
[8] Secret Intelligence Service MI6. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
[9] Rice, Albert E. (18 September 1995), Intelligence and
Covert Action (– SCHOLAR SEARCH ), Studies in
Intelligence, retrieved 2007-11-18
[10] Finnegan, John Patrick (1998). Chapter 7: The Cold
War and Korea. Army Lineage Series, Military Intelligence. United States Army Center of Military History.
CMH Pub 60-13.
Israel has both clandestine collection and some covert ac[11] Taylor, Karen M. (2003). Identifying the Traitor among
tion in the Mossad, although their larger paramilitary opUs: The Rhetoric of Espionage and Secrecy (PDF). Unierations are assigned to what they call reconnaissance
versity of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
units, the premier one being Sayeret Matkal[27]
[12] Berger, D. H, The Use of Covert Paramilitary Activity as
7.5.6
French operations
The Directorate-General for External Security [15] Paddock, Alfred H. Jr., Major General Robert Alexis McClure: Forgotten Father of US Army Special Warfare, re(DGSE)[28] is responsible for intelligence analysis
trieved 2007-12-09
and clandestine collection, but also has an operations
division and an action service within it, the Division [16] Finnegan, John Patrick (1998). Chapter 6: World War
Action. The Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, a covert
II Intelligence in the Field. Military Intelligence. Army
action against Greenpeace, was an example of no service
Lineage Series. United States Army Center of Military
being perfect.
History.
Note that the French worked closely with Operation Jed- [17] Kennedy, John F. (1961-06-28), National Security Action
burgh during World War II. Some 3-man Jedburgh teams
Memorandum No. 57: Responsibility for Paramilitary Ophad a French, US, and UK member.
erations, retrieved 2007-11-21
7.6. REFERENCES
[18] Kelley, Danny M. II (2005), The Misuse of the Studies and Observation Group as a National Asset in Vietnam, U.S. Army Command and General Sta College,
retrieved 2007-11-21
[19] Shultz, Richard H., Jr. (1999). The Secret War Against
Hanoi. HarperCollins.
[20] Nixon, Richard M. (February 17, 1980), National Security
Decision Memorandum 40: Responsibility for the Conduct,
Supervision and Coordination of Covert Action Operations
[21] Central Intelligence Agency, Support to Military Operations, 2002 Annual Report, retrieved 2007-12-19
[22] Gordon, Michael R.; Trainor, Bernard E. (1995). The
Generals War: The Inside Story of the Conict in the Gulf.
Little, Brown and Company.
[23] Rosenau, William (2000), Special Operations Forces and
Elusive Enemy Ground Targets: Lessons from Vietnam and
the Persian Gulf War. U.S. Air Ground Operations Against
the Ho Chi Minh Trail, 1966-1972 (PDF), RAND Corporation, retrieved 2007-11-11
[24] Ripley, Tim, Scud Hunting: Counter-force Operations
against Theatre Ballistic Missiles (PDF), Centre for Defence and International Security Studies, Lancaster University, retrieved 2007-11-11
[25] Waller, Douglas C. (1994). The Commandos: The Inside
Story of Americas Secret Soldiers. Dell Publishing.
[26] Suvorov, Viktor (1990). SPETSNAZ: The Inside Story Of
The Special Soviet Special Forces. Pocket. ISBN 0-67168917-7.
[27] Tucker, Jonathan B. (March 2003), Strategies for Countering Terrorism: Lessons from the Israeli Experience1,
Journal of Homeland Security (Homeland Security Institute)
[28] DGSE - General Directorate for External Security; Direction Generale de la Securite Exterieure, Federation of
American Scientists
37
Chapter 8
tion
8.1.2
An intermediate approach has the ocers clearly working for their country, but without diplomatic immunity
and with a cover role that does not immediately suggest
intelligence aliation. For example, the Soviet GRU
covered some intelligence ocers under the TASS news
agency, or as part of a trade or technical mission, or even
as diplomats. The last might seem surprising, but this was
under a GRU assumptions that military attaches would
always be assumed to be intelligence ocers, but that
members of the civilian part of an embassy might actually
be diplomats rather than intelligence ocers.[2]
39
A journalist.
A member of the civilian government,
such as a Member of Parliament.[3]
An example of civilian cover for an American ocer involved a German refugee, with the pseudonym Stephan
Haller, who had widely ranging interests and special
skills in mathematics and physics, as well as native language skill. His overt role, in 1949, was directing a program that paid subsidies to German scientists, part of a
larger program of denying German talent to the Soviets.
Initially, he was based in Pforzheim, (West) Germany.[4]
After two years in Pforzheim, he had a well-established
cover, and had been collecting political and scientic intelligence to the scientists, and also Germans that he knew
in political circles before emigrating. In 1951, he moved
to Berlin, directing overall operations against scientic
targets in the East Zone of Germany, while still managing the subsidy program. His new work included encouraging defection of key craftsmen working for the Soviets.
He was considered a master craftsman,
He did not grow careless or conceited
with success. Here remained a meticulous
craftsman. Before he debriefed a source, he
mastered the subject to be discussed. His
agents were made comfortable not only by
his cigars and beer but also by the easy
ow of communication. And he did not
end until he had every last scrap of useful information. He never failed, moreover, to remain alert for operational leads-potential agents, counterintelligence indicators, propaganda possibilities. When Haller
was nished, there were no more questions
to be asked. And though he groaned over
the chore of putting it on paper, his reporting became thorough-and more than thorough,
illuminating-for he rarely failed to make interpretive comments.
40
a way that the ocers of the GRU undercover residency that are self-organizing and have preexisting ties, making
do not have one crumb of information which is not neces- them virtually impossible to inltrate, has survived the
sary. Operations are planned in such a way that there is no GRU and is common in terrorist networks.
possibility of the illegals becoming dependent on the actions of the undercover residency. A lesson learned from
Other agents recruited by residencies are
the loss of espionage networks was to keep them small,
gradually organised into agent groups of three
subdividing them, with independent reporting to Center,
to ve men each. Usually, agents working in
when more agents were recruited.[5]
one particular eld of espionage are put together in one group. Sometimes a group consists of agents who for various reasons are
Moving new agents into illegal residencies
known to each other. Let us suppose that one
agent recruits two others. ... Thus to a certain
Suvorov explained that new agents were separated from
extent the members of agent groups are comocial Soviet institutions only after the agent has completely isolated from Soviet diplomatic reprepromised himself, by giving Soviet Intelligence a signifsentation. The agent group is in contact with
icant quantity of secret material, that is, made it imposthe undercover residency for a period of time,
sible for himself to go to the police. The separated agent
then gradually the system of contact with the
comes in three guises: the separated acting agent, the
residency comes to an end and orders begin to
agent group and the agent residency.
be received directly from Moscow. By various
channels the group sends it material directly
to Moscow. Finally the contact with Moscow
Separated acting agent The most resources are debecomes permanent and stable and the agent
voted to the agents that provide the most important magroup is entirely separated from the residency.
terial. Once the central headquarters assesses the agents
With gradual changes in personnel at the resiinformation as highly valuable, the doctrine is to stop,
dency, like the resident himself, the cipher oftemporarily, obtaining new material, and improving his
cers and the operational ocers with whom
security and education in espionage tradecraft. The trainthere was once direct contact, nobody outside
ing is preferably done in a third country, from which he
the Centre will know of the existence of this
might or might not be moved to the Soviet Union. His
particular group. Should it happen that operatabsence typically would be covered by taking a vacation
ing conditions become dicult, or that the emor holiday.
bassy is blockaded or closed down, the group
will be able to continue its activities in the same
Thence he will go back to his own country,
way as before.[5]
but as an independently acting agent. He will
be run exclusively by the Centre, in concrete
terms the head of a section, even, in special
Agent residency When the GRU attaches one or more
cases, the head of a directorate and in extreme
illegals (i.e., Soviet ocer under an assumed identity), the
cases the deputy head of the GRU or the head
residency changes from an agent residency into an illegal
himself. The running of such an agent is thus
residency. This process of increasing the numbers and
carried out exactly as the running of illegals is.
the gradual self-generation of independent organisations
continues endlessly. Suvorov uses a medical metaphor
Agent group The next category of agent, less valuable of quarantine designed to contain infection to describe
than a separated acting agent but still of importance, was separating agents for improved security.
the agent group, which migrated from diplomatic or civil- The GRU kept certain ocers immediately ready to go
ian contact, to the in-country illegal rezidentura (resident into illegal status, should the host nation intensify secuand infrastructure), to direct communications with the rity.
Center. The leader of such a group is called, in Soviet
terminology, a gropovod, and is conceptually the only
These ocers are in possession of previmember of the group that communicates with Moscow.
ously prepared documents and equipment, and
In reality, clandestine communications personnel may be
gold, diamonds and other valuables which will
aware of the direct contact, but newer electronics allow
be of use to them in their illegal activities will
the leader to manage his or her only communications.
have been hidden in secret hiding-places beSuvorov makes the important point that A group automatically organises itself. The GRU obviously considers family groups containing the head of the family and
his wife and children to be more secure and stable. The
members of such a group may work in completely different elds of espionage. The pattern of having groups
41
the larger the possibility it may be detected by counterintelligence organizations. Beyond the station chief, the
most likely person to be associated with the station, not
as a case ocer, is a communicator, especially if highly
specialized secure communication methods are used.
42
aviation-related businesses have been popular US propri- struction to Moses to send spies into the land of Canaan.
etaries, including Air America and Southern Air Trans- The account of the harlot Rahab sheltering Israelite spies
port.
and betraying the city of Jericho might be the rst docu[10]
Once the service has a presence in aviation, it may be- mented instance of a safe house.
come aware of persons, in private business, civil service,
or the military, who y to destinations of interest. They
may mention it in innocent conversation, such as at the
airports restaurant or bar. They also may be assumed
to be going there, based by analysis of ight departure
times, aircraft type, duration of trip, and their passengers
or cargo.
43
Once the information is captured, it must be transmitted.
The transmission may be impersonal, as with dead drops
or car tosses. It may involve carriers. It may be electronic. If there is a need for personal meetings, the agent
must know how to request them, and also to alert the network leader or case ocer that the agent may be under
suspicion.
Teaching countersurveillance techniques to agents is a
calculated risk.[12] While it may be perfectly valid for an
agent to abort a drop or other relatively innocent action,
even at the cost of destroying valuable collected material,
it is much more dangerous to teach the agent to elude active surveillance. The ability to elude professional counterintelligence personnel following the agent, for example, may conrm the counterintelligence organizations
suspicion that they are dealing with a real agent.
The agent may join, or even create, a new network. In Still, the agent may need to have an emergency escape
the latter case, the agent may be called a lead agent or procedure if he conrms he is under surveillance, or even
a principal agent. The latter term is also refers to access if he is interrogated but released.
agents, who only help in recruiting.
Well-managed agent relationships can run for years and
even decades; there are cases where family members,
children at the time their parents were recruited, became
full members of the network. Not all agents, however, operate in networks. A Western term for agents controlled
as individuals is singleton. This term usually is reserved
for the rst or most sensitive recruitments, although specialized support personnel, such as radio operatives acting
alone, are called singletons.[11] In Soviet tradecraft, the
equivalent of a singleton is a separated acting agent. Professional intelligence ocers, such as Robert Hanssen,
may insist on being singletons, and go even farther, as
with Hanssen, refuse in-person meetings. Even as a singleton, the agent will use security measures such as secure
communications.
meetings are important in maintaining psychological control. Nevertheless, some agents, especially trained intelligence ocers like Robert Hanssen, will almost never
meet, but provide material good enough to prove their
bona des. A Soviet ocer commented, whatever an
44
agents role in the intelligence net, personal contact should move. If neither is feasible, it is better to have Headquarbe made with him only when it is impossible to manage ters dispatch an ocer to a third country, either legally
without it. The number of meetings should be kept as low or illegally, for the meeting.[13]
as possible, especially with sources of valuable information.
Clandestine transfer operated by humans
Personal meetings may be held to give an
agent his next assignment and instructions for
carrying it out, to train him in tradecraft or
the use of technical or communications equipment, to transmit documents, reports, technical equipment, money, or other items, or to fulll several of these purposes. In actual practice several purposes are usually served by a
meeting. In addition to its particular objectives
more general needs can be lled. A meeting
held for training purposes may be a means for
clarifying biographic data on the agent or his
views on various subjects. At every meeting
with an agent one should study him and obtain
new data on his potential and talents, thereby
providing a better basis for judging his sincerity and deciding how much trust to place in
him.[13]
It is a case-by-case decision whether the material exchanged should have safeguards against accessing it in
other than a precise manner. One straightforward protection method is to have the material on exposed photographic lm, in a container that does not suggest that
it contains lm and might be, innocently, opened in a
lighted room. Self-destruct devices also are possibilities,
but they conrm that the transfer involved sensitive material.
Brush pass and other physical exchange with couriers Under the general term brush pass is a wide range
of techniques in which one clandestine operative passes
a physical item to another operative.[15] Brush implies
that the two people brush past one another, typically in
a public place and preferably a crowd, where random people interfere with any visual surveillance. In a properly
executed brush pass, the agents do not even stop walking;
Agents, to varying extents, need reinforcement. Salary is at most, they may appear to bump into one another.
important and also gives a lever of compromise, although During the brief contact, a common means of executing
pressing it too hard can oend a truly ideologically mo- the exchange is for both to be carrying otherwise identical
tivated agent. Some agents benet from recognition that objects, such as a newspaper, briefcase, or magazine. The
they can never show, such as a uniform of your service, information being exchanged is in one of them. As the
or decorations from it.
two people separate, they still appear to be holding the
Agents will be more comfortable if they believe that they
will have protection, preferably exltration, if compromised. Protecting their families may be even more important. When the agent operates in a country with a
particularly brutal counterintelligence service, providing
them with a nal friend, or means for suicide, can be
comforting even if they never use it.[14]
8.3.4
Agent communications
This section deals with skills required of individuals, ei- A variation of the brush pass is the live letter drop, in
ther agents or support personnel. Most skills are con- which one agent follows a predened route, on foot, with
a prepared report hidden in a pocket. En route, a second
cerned with communications.
agent unknown to the rst agent picks his/her pocket and
then passes the report on unread, either to a cut-out or to
Meeting places for personal meetings
an intelligence ocer. This technique presents opportunities both for plausible deniability and for penetration by
A Soviet ocer commented, perhaps counterintuitively, hostile agents.
that it is harder to have longer meetings with agents when
the case ocer is under diplomatic cover. The reason is
that local counterintelligence is aware of the case ocer, Dead drop A dead drop is a container not easily found,
where the existence of an illegal (i.e., nonocial cover such as a magnetized box attached to a metal rack in an
in US terms) ocer may not be known to them. For out-of-sight alley. The box could be loosely buried. It
the legal ocer, here it is best either to have reliable should be possible to approach the container to ll or
safehouses or to deliver the agent discreetly to the o- empty it, and not be easily observed from a street or wincial residency building. The latter is a serious operational dow.
45
ratories have chemical and photographic techniques that
detect the disturbance of paper bers by the act of writing, so the invisible ink will not resist systematic forensic
analysis. Still, if its existence is not suspected, the analysis may not be done.
Microphotography Another technique, for hiding
content that will resist casual examination, is to reduce
the message to a photographic transparency or negative,
perhaps the size of the dot over the letter i in this article.
Such a technique needs both a laboratory and considerable technical skill, and is prone to damage and to accidentally falling o the paper. Still, it does have a countersurveillance value.[16]
Encryption Encryption, especially using a theoretically secure method, when properly executed, such as the
one-time pad,[17] is highly secure, but a counterintelligence agent seeing nonsense characters will immediately
become suspicious of the message that has been captured.
The very knowledge that a dead drop exists can cause it to
be trapped or put under surveillance, and the member of
a brush pass that carries it will be hard-pressed to explain
it.
Cars with diplomatic immunity have advantages and disadvantages for tosses. They cannot be searched if the toss
is observed, but they also are followed more easily. Diplomatic cars usually have distinctive markings or license
plates, and may be equipped with electronic tracking devices. Counterintelligence could wait until the car is out
of sight following a toss, then apprehend and interrogate
the courier, or simply keep the courier under surveillance
to discover another link in the message route.
Plain language code Less suspicious when examined,
although very limited in its ability to transfer more than
simple content, is plain language code. For example, the
Methods of protecting message content
nal attack order for the Battle of Pearl Harbor came
in a radio broadcast of the Japanese phrase, Climb
A message left in a dead drop, or dropped during an imMount Niitaka. Subsequent espionage communications
properly executed brush pass, is quite incriminating if
referred to ships as dierent types of dolls at a doll repair
counterintelligence personnel can immediately see suspishop.
cious information written on it. The ideal material for
Plain language code is most eective when used to trigger
transfer looks quite innocuous.
a preplanned operation, rather than transfer any signiAt one time, invisible ink, a subset of steganography, was
cant amount of information.
popular in espionage communications, because it was not
visible to the naked eye without development by heat or
chemicals. While computer-based steganographic tech- Steganography, covert channels, and spread specniques still are viable, modern counterintelligence labo- trum Steganography, in the broadest sense of the word,
46
47
48
the National Clandestine Services. These are part of the [11] Agent Radio Operation During World War II, Studies in
Intelligence
CIA Directorate of Operations, which has some responsibility for Direct Action (DA) and Unconventional War[12] Begoum, F.M. (18 September 1995), Observations on
fare (UW), although the latter two, when of any apprethe Double Agent, Studies in Intelligence, retrieved 3
ciable size, are the responsibility of the military.
November 2007
There is much more argument for doing so at headquar[13] Bekrenev, (GRU ocer) L. K., Operational Contacts
ters, possibly not as one unit but with regular consultation.
(– SCHOLAR SEARCH ), Center for the Study of InCertain services, such as name checks, communications,
telligence, Central Intelligence Agency
cover identities, and technical support may reasonably be
combined, although the requirements of a particular eld [14] Hall, Roger (1957), You're Stepping on my Cloak and Dagger, W. W. Norton & Co.
network should be held on a need-to-know basis.
Other countries might have the functions under the same [15] Decision Support Systems, Inc. An Analysis of Al-Qaida
Tradecraft. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
organization, but run them in completely dierent networks. The only commonality they might have is emer[16] John Barron (1974), KGB: the secret work of Soviet secret
gency use of diplomatic facilities.
agents, Readers Digest Press
8.7 References
[1] Paterson, Tony (25 November 2004), Berlin plaque pays
tribute to Schindler of Stourbridge"", Independent, the
(London)
[2] Rogov, (GRU ocer) A.S., Pitfalls of Civilian Cover
(– SCHOLAR SEARCH ), Studies in Intelligence (Central Intelligence Agency)
[3] US Department of the Army (September 2006), FM 222.3 (FM 34-52) Human Intelligence Collector Operations
(PDF), retrieved 2007-10-31
[4] Beller, Patrick R., The Life and Work of Stephan Haller,
Studies in Intelligence (Central Intelligence Agency)
[5] Suvorov, Victor (1984), Chapter 6, The Practice of
Agent Work, Inside Soviet Military Intelligence, MacMillan Publishing Company
[6] US Department of Defense (12 July 2007), Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military
and Associated Terms (PDF), retrieved 2007-10-01
[7] Carroll, Thomas Patrick (5 September 2006), Human Intelligence: From Sleepers to Walk-ins (PDF)
[8] Prouty, L. Fisher (1973), The Secret Team: The CIA and
Its Allies in Control of the United States and the World,
Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-798173-2
[9] R.F. Bennett.
[10] U.S. Department of Justice,Commission for Review of
FBI Security Programs (March 2002), A Review of FBI
Security Programs
[17] David Kahn (1974), The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing, Macmillan, ISBN 0025604600
[18] National Security Agency. VENONA. Archived from
the original on 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-11-18.
[19] The SSTR-6 and SSTC-502 - Joan-Eleanor, 2007, retrieved 2007-11-17
[20] Edward J. Campbell. Soviet Strategic Intelligence Deception Organizations.
Chapter 9
Concealment device
Concealment devices or diversion safes are used to hide
things for the purpose of secrecy or security. They are
made from an ordinary household object such as a book,
a soda can, a candle, a can, or something as small as a
coin. The idea is that such an inconspicuous object would
not be expected to contain anything of worth.
Examples in espionage include dead drop spikes for transferring items to other people, and hollowed-out coins or
hollowed out teeth for concealing something - such as microlm or a suicide pill. Examples in smuggling include
suitcases with false bottoms for hiding contraband.
9.1.3 Candles
A new type, the hollow candle looks like a large scented
candle but is mostly hollow. The bottom comes o and
rolled papers or small objects can be placed and hidden
inside. Some of the most clever of these contraptions
looked like large, ordinary black candles with a felt base
concealing the opening. To open them, two metal needles
are poked through the felt at certain points and an electric
current passed through, causing them to open.
During World War II MI9 was responsible for creat- 9.1.4 Cans and jars
ing many concealment devices for escape aids to assist
prisoners of war to escape.
Also a new form of concealment device, mock cans of
various household chemicals or food and drinks can be
purchased. A wide variety of commonly used personal
9.1 Examples
care, household products and food containers with removable tops and bottoms are available. Valuables can
be discreetly stored inside these lookalike containers and
9.1.1 Ammunition
kept in their seemingly rightful places. Each of these diStarting in the First World War and still continuing version safes are indistinguishable from the genuine proddetection, and they may even be
today, military personnel use ammunition casings to uct, and can thus avoid
[1]
weighted
to
feel
full.
hide small amounts of critical information e.g. encryption/recognition codes or navigational grid references etc.
The hiding place is very easy to prepare: the bullet is
removed from the cartridge and the propellant powder 9.1.5
poured away. A small piece of paper with writing on it
can be stored inside. Given that ammunition can be found
everywhere in a combat zone, it is very easy to hide or discard such items because they blend in easily. Similarly,
if a soldier is captured, the enemy expects that soldiers
will have ammunition in their pockets, so little attention
is paid, beyond conscating and discarding it.
9.1.2
Coins
Books
50
goods to be concealed. Some of the more common devices used for this purpose are video players such as VHS,
DVD and Blu-ray players, computer accessories such as
DVD-ROM drives and hard disk drives, battery packs
or even a laptop computer itself. More often than not,
the majority of the components will be removed to allow
more space to conceal an item, but that will render the
device inoperable and may arouse suspicion, and it may
be of more benet to preserve the operation of the device
at the sacrice of space. Additionally, the electronic device itself may be subject to theft, thereby defeating the
Such hollow coins were created from two ordinary coins, purpose of such a concealment device.
by milling out one face and the interior of both coins (to
create a cavity), and the edges of one (so it could slide
into the other). The half coin with intact edges would 9.2 See also
also have a pin-prick size hole drilled through its face,
so the device could be opened by inserting a pin. A
Rudolph Abel
scratch may be added to help line up the faces while clos Dead drop
ing italthough it is very dicult to detect a slight misalignment by casual inspection. A device of this nature
was famously discovered by a paper boy in the "Hollow
Nickel Case". U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers was issued 9.3 References
with a hollow silver dollar containing a tiny, saxitoxinimpregnated needle,[2] to be used to commit suicide in [1] Diversion Safes at the Wayback Machine (archived February 21, 2009)
case of capture by enemy forces.
9.1.6
Diversion safe
9.1.7
Electrical outlet
9.1.8
Painting
9.1.9
Computer equipment and consumer electronics can easily be used for concealing goods and information. Usually the only tool required is a screwdriver, the device can
be opened up, have the majority of the electronic and
mechanical components removed and replaced with the
[2] Unauthorized Storage of Toxic Agents. Church Committee Reports 1. The Assassination Archives and Research
Center (AARC). 1975-176. p. 7. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
Chapter 10
Cryptography
Secret code redirects here. For the Aya Kamiki album,
see Secret Code.
Cryptology redirects here. For the David S. Ware album, see Cryptology (album).
Cryptography (or cryptology; from Greek
krypts, hidden, secret"; and graphein, writing, or - -logia, study, respectively)[1] is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication
in the presence of third parties (called adversaries).[2]
More generally, it is about constructing and analyzing
protocols that block adversaries;[3] various aspects in
information security such as data condentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation[4] are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography ex- 10.1 Terminology
ists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics,
computer science, and electrical engineering. Appli- Until modern times cryptography referred almost exclucations of cryptography include ATM cards, computer sively to encryption, which is the process of converting
passwords, and electronic commerce.
ordinary information (called plaintext) into unintelligiCryptography prior to the modern age was eectively ble text (called ciphertext).[8] Decryption is the reverse,
synonymous with encryption, the conversion of informa- in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertion from a readable state to apparent nonsense. The text back to plaintext. A cipher (or cypher) is a pair
originator of an encrypted message shared the decoding of algorithms that create the encryption and the reverstechnique needed to recover the original information only ing decryption. The detailed operation of a cipher is
with intended recipients, thereby precluding unwanted controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance
persons from doing the same. Since World War I and by a "key". This is a secret (ideally known only to
the advent of the computer, the methods used to carry the communicants), usually a short string of characters,
out cryptology have become increasingly complex and its which is needed to decrypt the ciphertext. Formally, a
51
52
"cryptosystem" is the ordered list of elements of nite
possible plaintexts, nite possible cyphertexts, nite possible keys, and the encryption and decryption algorithms
which correspond to each key. Keys are important both
formally and in actual practice, as ciphers without variable keys can be trivially broken with only the knowledge of the cipher used and are therefore useless (or even
counter-productive) for most purposes. Historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as authentication
or integrity checks.
53
Enciphered letter from Gabriel de Luetz d'Aramon, French Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, after 1546, with partial decipherment
key word is used. In the mid-19th century Charles Babbage showed that the Vigenre cipher was vulnerable to
Kasiski examination, but this was rst published about
ten years later by Friedrich Kasiski.[15]
Although frequency analysis can be a powerful and general technique against many ciphers, encryption has still
often been eective in practice, as many a would-be
cryptanalyst was unaware of the technique. Breaking a
message without using frequency analysis essentially required knowledge of the cipher used and perhaps of the
key involved, thus making espionage, bribery, burglary,
defection, etc., more attractive approaches to the cryptanalytically uninformed. It was nally explicitly recognized
in the 19th century that secrecy of a ciphers algorithm
is not a sensible nor practical safeguard of message security; in fact, it was further realized that any adequate
cryptographic scheme (including ciphers) should remain
secure even if the adversary fully understands the cipher
algorithm itself. Security of the key used should alone
be sucient for a good cipher to maintain condentiality under an attack. This fundamental principle was rst
explicitly stated in 1883 by Auguste Kerckhos and is
generally called Kerckhoss Principle; alternatively and
more bluntly, it was restated by Claude Shannon, the inventor of information theory and the fundamentals of the-
54
oretical cryptography, as Shannons Maxim'the enemy Extensive open academic research into cryptography is
knows the system'.
relatively recent; it began only in the mid-1970s. In recent
Dierent physical devices and aids have been used to times, IBM personnel designed the algorithm that became
assist with ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the Federal (i.e., US) Data Encryption Standard; WhitHellman published their key agreethe scytale of ancient Greece, a rod supposedly used by eld Die and Martin
[18]
ment
algorithm;
and
the RSA algorithm was published
the Spartans as an aid for a transposition cipher (see
in
Martin
Gardner's
Scientic
American column. Since
image above). In medieval times, other aids were inthen,
cryptography
has
become
a widely used tool in comvented such as the cipher grille, which was also used for a
munications, computer networks, and computer security
kind of steganography. With the invention of polyalphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Al- generally. Some modern cryptographic techniques can
only keep their keys secret if certain mathematical probbertis own cipher disk, Johannes Trithemius' tabula recta
scheme, and Thomas Jeerson's multi cylinder (not pub- lems are intractable, such as the integer factorization or
the discrete logarithm problems, so there are deep conlicly known, and reinvented independently by Bazeries
around 1900). Many mechanical encryption/decryption nections with abstract mathematics. There are very few
cryptosytems that are proven to be unconditionally sedevices were invented early in the 20th century, and several patented, among them rotor machinesfamously in- cure. The one-time pad is one. There are a few important
cluding the Enigma machine used by the German govern- ones that are proven secure under certain unproven asment and military from the late 1920s and during World sumptions. For example, the infeasibility of factoring exWar II.[16] The ciphers implemented by better quality ex- tremely large integers is the basis for believing that RSA is
amples of these machine designs brought about a substan- secure, and some other systems, but even there, the proof
is usually lost due to practical considerations. There are
tial increase in cryptanalytic diculty after WWI.[17]
systems similar to RSA, such as one by Michael O. Rabin
that is provably secure provided factoring n = pq is impossible, but the more practical system RSA has never been
10.2.2 Computer era
proved secure in this sense. The discrete logarithm problem is the basis for believing some other cryptosystems
Cryptanalysis of the new mechanical devices proved to are secure, and again, there are related, less practical sysbe both dicult and laborious. In the United King- tems that are provably secure relative to the discrete log
[19]
dom, cryptanalytic eorts at Bletchley Park during WWII problem.
spurred the development of more ecient means for car- As well as being aware of cryptographic history, cryptorying out repetitious tasks. This culminated in the devel- graphic algorithm and system designers must also sensiopment of the Colossus, the worlds rst fully electronic, bly consider probable future developments while working
digital, programmable computer, which assisted in the on their designs. For instance, continuous improvements
decryption of ciphers generated by the German Armys in computer processing power have increased the scope
Lorenz SZ40/42 machine.
of brute-force attacks, so when specifying key lengths,
Just as the development of digital computers and electronics helped in cryptanalysis, it made possible much
more complex ciphers. Furthermore, computers allowed
for the encryption of any kind of data representable in
any binary format, unlike classical ciphers which only encrypted written language texts; this was new and signicant. Computer use has thus supplanted linguistic cryptography, both for cipher design and cryptanalysis. Many
computer ciphers can be characterized by their operation
on binary bit sequences (sometimes in groups or blocks),
unlike classical and mechanical schemes, which generally
manipulate traditional characters (i.e., letters and digits)
directly. However, computers have also assisted cryptanalysis, which has compensated to some extent for increased cipher complexity. Nonetheless, good modern
ciphers have stayed ahead of cryptanalysis; it is typically
the case that use of a quality cipher is very ecient (i.e.,
fast and requiring few resources, such as memory or CPU
capability), while breaking it requires an eort many orders of magnitude larger, and vastly larger than that required for any classical cipher, making cryptanalysis so
inecient and impractical as to be eectively impossible.
55
10.3.1
Symmetric-key cryptography
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
Bob
Hello
Alice!
Encrypt
6EB69570
08E03CE4
Alice
Hello
Alice!
One round (out of 8.5) of the IDEA cipher, used in some versions
of PGP for high-speed encryption of, for instance, e-mail
Secret key
Decrypt
Symmetric-key cryptography, where a single key is used for encryption and decryption
ods in which both the sender and receiver share the same
key (or, less commonly, in which their keys are dierent, but related in an easily computable way). This was
the only kind of encryption publicly known until June
1976.[18]
Symmetric key ciphers are implemented as either block
ciphers or stream ciphers. A block cipher enciphers input
in blocks of plaintext as opposed to individual characters,
the input form used by a stream cipher.
56
eort.
6EB69570
08E03CE4
Alice
Hello
Alice!
Decrypt
Alice's
private key
Public-key cryptography, where dierent keys are used for encryption and decryption
cryption and decryption of a message, though a message or group of messages may have a dierent key than
others. A signicant disadvantage of symmetric ciphers
is the key management necessary to use them securely.
Each distinct pair of communicating parties must, ideally, share a dierent key, and perhaps each ciphertext exchanged as well. The number of keys required increases
as the square of the number of network members, which
very quickly requires complex key management schemes
to keep them all consistent and secret. The diculty of
securely establishing a secret key between two communicating parties, when a secure channel does not already exist between them, also presents a chicken-and-egg problem which is a considerable practical obstacle for cryptography users in the real world.
Padlock icon from the Firefox Web browser, which indicates that
TLS, a public-key cryptography system, is in use.
Whiteld Die and Martin Hellman, authors of the rst published paper on public-key cryptography
Public-key cryptography can also be used for implementing digital signature schemes. A digital signature is reminiscent of an ordinary signature; they both have the characteristic of being easy for a user to produce, but dicult for anyone else to forge. Digital signatures can also
57
10.3.3
Cryptanalysis
58
59
culty needed to compromise some security aspect of the 10.4.2 Export controls
cryptosystem (i.e., to any adversary).
The study of how best to implement and integrate cryp- Main article: Export of cryptography
tography in software applications is itself a distinct eld
(see Cryptographic engineering and Security engineer- In the 1990s, there were several challenges to US exing).
port regulation of cryptography. After the source code
for Philip Zimmermann's Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) encryption program found its way onto the Internet in June
1991, a complaint by RSA Security (then called RSA
Data Security, Inc.) resulted in a lengthy criminal inves10.4 Legal issues
tigation of Zimmermann by the US Customs Service and
the FBI, though no charges were ever led.[45][46] Daniel
See also: Cryptography laws in dierent nations
J. Bernstein, then a graduate student at UC Berkeley,
brought a lawsuit against the US government challenging some aspects of the restrictions based on free speech
grounds. The 1995 case Bernstein v. United States ultimately resulted in a 1999 decision that printed source
code for cryptographic algorithms and systems was pro10.4.1 Prohibitions
tected as free speech by the United States Constitution.[47]
Cryptography has long been of interest to intelligence In 1996, thirty-nine countries signed the Wassenaar Argathering and law enforcement agencies. Secret commu- rangement, an arms control treaty that deals with the exnications may be criminal or even treasonous. Because of port of arms and dual-use technologies such as crypits facilitation of privacy, and the diminution of privacy tography. The treaty stipulated that the use of cryptogattendant on its prohibition, cryptography is also of con- raphy with short key-lengths (56-bit for symmetric ensiderable interest to civil rights supporters. Accordingly, cryption, 512-bit for RSA) would no longer be exportthere has been a history of controversial legal issues sur- controlled.[48] Cryptography exports from the US berounding cryptography, especially since the advent of in- came less strictly regulated as a consequence of a maexpensive computers has made widespread access to high jor relaxation in 2000;[49] there are no longer very many
quality cryptography possible.
restrictions on key sizes in US-exported mass-market
In some countries, even the domestic use of cryptogra- software. Since this relaxation in US export restricphy is, or has been, restricted. Until 1999, France signif- tions, and because most personal computers connected
icantly restricted the use of cryptography domestically, to the Internet include US-sourced web browsers such
though it has since relaxed many of these rules. In China as Firefox or Internet Explorer, almost every Internet
and Iran, a license is still required to use cryptography.[5] user worldwide has potential access to quality cryptogMany countries have tight restrictions on the use of cryp- raphy via their browsers (e.g., via Transport Layer Setography. Among the more restrictive are laws in Belarus, curity). The Mozilla Thunderbird and Microsoft OutKazakhstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Singapore, Tunisia, and look E-mail client programs similarly can transmit and
receive emails via TLS, and can send and receive email
Vietnam.[43]
encrypted with S/MIME. Many Internet users don't reIn the United States, cryptography is legal for domestic alize that their basic application software contains such
use, but there has been much conict over legal issues re- extensive cryptosystems. These browsers and email prolated to cryptography. One particularly important issue grams are so ubiquitous that even governments whose inhas been the export of cryptography and cryptographic tent is to regulate civilian use of cryptography generally
software and hardware. Probably because of the impor- don't nd it practical to do much to control distribution
tance of cryptanalysis in World War II and an expecta- or use of cryptography of this quality, so even when such
tion that cryptography would continue to be important laws are in force, actual enforcement is often eectively
for national security, many Western governments have, impossible.
at some point, strictly regulated export of cryptography.
After World War II, it was illegal in the US to sell or distribute encryption technology overseas; in fact, encryp10.4.3 NSA involvement
tion was designated as auxiliary military equipment and
[44]
put on the United States Munitions List. Until the development of the personal computer, asymmetric key al- See also: Clipper chip
gorithms (i.e., public key techniques), and the Internet,
this was not especially problematic. However, as the In- Another contentious issue connected to cryptography in
ternet grew and computers became more widely available, the United States is the inuence of the National Security
high-quality encryption techniques became well known Agency on cipher development and policy. The NSA was
involved with the design of DES during its development at
around the globe.
60
IBM and its consideration by the National Bureau of Standards as a possible Federal Standard for cryptography.[50]
DES was designed to be resistant to dierential cryptanalysis,[51] a powerful and general cryptanalytic technique known to the NSA and IBM, that became publicly known only when it was rediscovered in the late
1980s.[52] According to Steven Levy, IBM discovered
dierential cryptanalysis,[46] but kept the technique secret at the NSAs request. The technique became publicly known only when Biham and Shamir re-discovered
and announced it some years later. The entire aair illustrates the diculty of determining what resources and
knowledge an attacker might actually have.
Another instance of the NSAs involvement was the 1993
Clipper chip aair, an encryption microchip intended to
be part of the Capstone cryptography-control initiative.
Clipper was widely criticized by cryptographers for two
reasons. The cipher algorithm (called Skipjack) was then
classied (declassied in 1998, long after the Clipper initiative lapsed). The classied cipher caused concerns that
the NSA had deliberately made the cipher weak in order
to assist its intelligence eorts. The whole initiative was
also criticized based on its violation of Kerckhoss Principle, as the scheme included a special escrow key held by
the government for use by law enforcement, for example
in wiretaps.[46]
10.4.4
10.6. REFERENCES
Global surveillance
61
Strong cryptography
10.6 References
[19] Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition (Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications), 2005, by Douglas R. Stinson, Chapman and Hall/CRC
[1] Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; Jones, Henry Stuart; McKenzie, Roderick (1984). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford University Press.
[2] Rivest, Ronald L. (1990). Cryptology. In J. Van
Leeuwen. Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science 1.
Elsevier.
[3] Bellare, Mihir; Rogaway, Phillip (21 September 2005).
Introduction. Introduction to Modern Cryptography. p.
10.
[4] Menezes, A. J.; van Oorschot, P. C.; Vanstone, S. A.
Handbook of Applied Cryptography. ISBN 0-8493-85237.
[23] RFC 2440 - Open PGP Message Format. Internet Engineering Task Force. November 1998. Retrieved 26 March
2015.
[27] NIST Selects Winner of Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA3) Competition. Tech Beat. National Institute of Standards and Technology. October 2, 2012. Retrieved 26
March 2015.
[28] Die, Whiteld; Hellman, Martin (8 June 1976). Multiuser cryptographic techniques. AFIPS Proceedings 45:
109112.
[29] Ralph Merkle was working on similar ideas at the time
and encountered publication delays, and Hellman has
suggested that the term used should be DieHellman
Merkle aysmmetric key cryptography.
[30] Kahn, David (Fall 1979). Cryptology Goes Public.
Foreign Aairs 58 (1): 153.
[31] Rivest, Ronald L.; Shamir, A.; Adleman, L. (1978).
A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and PublicKey Cryptosystems. Communications of the ACM
(Association for Computing Machinery) 21 (2): 120126.
Archived November 16, 2001 at the Wayback Machine
Previously released as an MIT Technical Memo in April
1977, and published in Martin Gardner's Scientic American Mathematical recreations column
[32] Wayner, Peter (24 December 1997). British Document
Outlines Early Encryption Discovery. New York Times.
Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[33] Cocks, Cliord (20 November 1973). A Note on 'NonSecret Encryption'" (PDF). CESG Research Report.
62
63
NSAs CryptoKids.
Chapter 11
Cut-out (espionage)
In espionage parlance, a cut-out is a mutually trusted intermediary, method or channel of communication, facilitating the exchange of information between agents.
Cutouts usually only know the source and destination of
the information to be transmitted, but are unaware of the
identities of any other persons involved in the espionage
process. Thus, a captured cutout cannot be used to identify members of an espionage cell.
11.3 References
[1] Wood, Jessica (2010). A Digital Copyright Revolution
(PDF). Richmond Journal of Law and Technology 16 (4).
Retrieved 25 October 2011.
64
Chapter 12
Dead drop
For a USB device used as a public dead drop, see USB into the ground or placed in a shallow stream to be redead drop.
trieved at a later time.
A dead drop or dead letter box is a method of espionage
tradecraft used to pass items between two individuals using a secret location thus not requiring them to meet directly. Using a dead drop permits a case ocer and agent
to exchange objects and information while maintaining
operational security. The method stands in contrast to
the live drop, so called because two persons meet to exchange items or information.
12.1 Overview
Spies (covert intelligence agents) and their handlers have
been known to perform dead drops using various techniques to hide items (such as money, secrets or instructions), and to signal that the drop has been made. Although the signal and location by necessity must be agreed
upon in advance, the signal may or may not be located
close to the dead drop itself, and the operatives may not
necessarily know one another, or ever meet.
The location and nature of the dead drop must enable retrieval of the hidden item without the operatives being
spotted by a member of the public, the police or other
security forcestherefore, common everyday items and
behavior are used to avoid arousing suspicion. Any hidden location could serve, although often a cut-out device
is used, such as a loose brick in a wall, a (cut-out) library
book, or a hole in a tree.
Espionage
66
12.4 Notes
[1] Nick Paton Walsh, The Guardian (23 January 2006).
Moscow names British 'spies in NGO row. Retrieved 8
April 2012.
12.5 References
Russians accuse 4 Britons of spying.International
Herald Tribune. January 24, 2006. News report on
Russian discovery of British wireless dead drop.
Old spying lives on in new ways. BBC. 23 January
2006.
Madrid suspects tied to e-mail ruse. International
Herald Tribune. April 28, 2006.
Military secrets missing on Ministry of Defence
computer les
Chapter 13
domestic opposition and foreign governments. These operations are unhampered by legal restrictions or an open
media. Non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations,
frequently use denial and deception to inuence governments and the public opinion of target societies.[5] Other
authors illustrate the D&D topic with Operation Fortitude
and consider it one of the most successful such examples in history.[6][7][8] According to Donald C.F. Daniel
democratic societies have more qualms with deception
than they have with denial (in the technical sense used in
this article); Daniel contrasts the little public controversy
that surrounded the secretive way in which Nixons rapprochement with China was negotiated (as example of secrecy/denial that did not cause a public outrage) with the
uproar caused by the announcement of 2001 announcement of the Oce of Strategic Inuence (an institution
that had among its stated goals the planing of false stories
in the foreign press).[2]
According to United States Department of Defense denitions, military deception includes both denial and deception (as dened in the D&D framework).[9] Canadian OPSEC ocer John M. Roach notes that Deception used as a broad, general term includes the elements
of both denial and deception, each having distinct actions that are either active or passive.[10] D&D is not
the only terminology used to make this distinction; according to Roach passive deception is another technical term for denial.[10] Western writers see the Soviet
(and post-Soviet) maskirovka practices as not drawing a
sharp or signicant distinction between the two components of denial and deception.[1][10] The Islamic concepts
of kitman and taqiyya, or at least the jihadist interpretations thereof, have been seen by Westerners as the equivalents of the two components of denial and (respectively)
deception.[10][11] Since taqiyya is a word with Shiite connotations, Sunni militants sometimes prefer to use the
word iham instead, roughly with the meaning deception of unbelievers.[12] Although the Chinese deception
theory literature is vast and uses rather dierent terminology (relative to Western works), some recent surveys
have identied that "seduction" understood as convincing the enemy to make fatal mistakesis considered the
highest form of deception while confusing or denying information to the enemy are considered lesser forms.[13]
67
68
13.2 References
[1] Hutchinson, William.
(2004) The Inuence of
Maskirovka on Contemporary Western Deception Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference on Information Warfare and Security. ISBN 09547096-2-4.
[2] Donald C.F. Daniel (2005). Denial and Deception. In
Jennifer E. Sims and Burton L. Gerber. Transforming U.
S. Intelligence. Georgetown University Press. pp. 134
141. ISBN 1-58901-477-4.
[3] Abram Shulsky, Elements of Strategic Denial and Deception, in Strategic Denial and Deception: The TwentyFirst Century Challenge, ed. Roy Godson and James J.
Wirtz (Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 1517; Roy Godson and James J. Wirtz, Strategic Denial
and Deception, International Journal of Intelligence and
Counterintelligence 13 (2000): 425-426.
[4] James B. Bruce and Michael Bennett (2008). Foreign
Denial and Deception. In Roger Z. George and James
B. Bruce. Analyzing Intelligence. Georgetown University
Press. p. 124. ISBN 1-58901-239-9.
[5] Ibid., 427-428.
[6] Michael I. Handel (2012). Intelligence and Deception.
In John Gooch. Military Deception and Strategic Surprise!.
Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-136-28202-7.
[7] Glenn P. Hastedt, ed. (2011). Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: A-J. ABC-CLIO. p. 305. ISBN 978-185109-807-1.
[8] H. Wentworth Eldredge (2013). Biggest Hoax of the
War. Operation FORTITUDE: The Allied deception plan
that fooled the Germans about Normandy. In Hy Rothstein and Barton Whaley. The Art and Science of Military
Deception. Artech House. p. 241. ISBN 978-1-60807551-5. Article previously published in Air Power History,
vol. 37, no. 3, Fall 1990, pp. 15-22
[9] Johnson, Mark, and Jessica Meyeraan. "Military deception: Hiding the real-showing the fake". Joint Forces Sta
College, Joint and Combined Warghting School, p. 4
[10] John M. Roach, DECEPTION: Can information superiority be achieved with or without it?, Newsletter of the
OPSEC Professionals Society, July 2012, Volume 3, Issue 2, p. 7. Also published in The Canadian Army Journal
Vol. 10.3 Fall 2007, p. 117-120
[11] Devin R. Springer, James L. Regens, David N. Edger
(2009). Islamic Radicalism and Global Jihad. Georgetown University Press. p. 51. ISBN 1-58901-578-9.
Chapter 14
69
70
plying with the laws and customs of war is that they tech- 14.2.2 Attack
nically are legal combatants, but this, historically, is respected even less than for regular military personnel mak- To reduce their chance of detection, if the target could
ing a clandestine approach to the target.
be destroyed by demolition charges, set on a delayed fuse
so the team can exltrate before the explosion, this would
be far preferable to having to ght their way to the target,
place demolition charges, and ght their way out of the
14.2 Operational techniques
now-alerted target area.
Techniques that minimize the chance of detection during Skill with explosives and demolition, therefore, is a critical skill for DA units. They also may employ long-range
inltration, attack, and exltration are preferred.
sniper re. Properly uniformed forces that kill other
There is a blurry line between Special Reconnaissance
properly uniformed soldiers, ring from cover and never
units that never directly attack a target with their own
revealing themselves to enemy troops, are in compliance
weapons, instead directing air and missile strikes onto a
with the laws of war, but, especially if at least part of
target, and Direct Action, where the soldiers will physthat operation was conducted out of proper uniform or inically attack the target with their own resources, and
signia (e.g., by guerillas), the force is likely to be treated
possibly with other support. Some special operations
as unlawful combatants.
forces have doctrine that allowed them to attack targets
of opportunity; Soviet Spetsnaz, while on SR during a
war, were expected to attack any tactical nuclear delivery systems, such as surface-to-surface missiles, that they
14.2.3 Exltration
encountered.[6]
The team will leave the attack area using any of the means
they used to inltrate, although they will have to deal with
14.2.1 Inltration
the problem of an alerted enemy. Rather than going imDirect action teams, depending on training and resources, mediately to the means of exltration, they may have prepared a safe house or some other hiding place near the
may enter the area of operations in many ways:
target, and make a delayed exltration.
Inltration: Used when enemy troops
does not have full view of their own
lines, such that skilled soldiers can move
through their own front lines and, as a
small unit, penetrate those of the enemy.
Such movement is most often by night.
Tactical ground vehicles: The British
Special Air Service pioneered in-vehicle
SR, going back to North Africa in WWII.
In Desert Storm, US special reconnaissance forces used medium and heavy helicopters to carry in vehicles for the Scud
Hunt.
Helicopter: Using rapid disembarkation
by rope, ladder, or fast exit, at night;
Parachute: Typically by night, and using
the HALO or HAHO jump technique so
their airplane does not alert the enemy;
Boat: Across inland water or from a surface ship or even a helicopter-launched
boat
Underwater: By swimming or means
from a submarine or an oshore surface
ship. Some highly trained troops, such as
US Navy SEALs or British Special Boat
Service may parachute into open water,
go underwater, and swim to the target.
14.3.2
71
Prisoner of war rescue raids in the ternees were rescued. Two guerillas and two paratroopers
were killed, and a small number wounded.
Philippines
Afterwards, the Japanese retaliated by killing 1,500 FilThe US command had become increasingly concerned ipinos, who were not involved in the raid and rescue. The
that the Japanese intended to kill all prisoners, and al- Japanese commander was later convicted of war crimes
ready had been alerted to several killings. They exe- and hanged.
cuted multiple rescue raids. Documents and prisoner
interrogation subsequently proved that the concern was
14.3.3 Israeli raid on Soviet radar used by
fully justied.
A combination of Filipino guerillas, Alamo scouts (6th
US Army Special Reconnaissance force) and US 6th
Ranger Battalion paratroopers carried out a successful
DA raid on the Cabanatuan prison camp, destroying the
Japanese guard force and freeing the prisoners. As is frequently done in DA, the inltration was in phases: the
guerillas were already in the area, but the Alamo Scouts
came in early, and were guided to the target area by the
local ghters. Reconnaissance of the camp provided information to nalize the nal raid, which was deferred a
day due to a larger enemy presence.
The Rangers parachuted to a landing zone a distance from
the camp, aware they would need to crawl to their nal
jump-o points. Another method often used in DA was
to provide a distraction to the defenders, in this case with
a low-level pass by a ghter aircraft. The guards were
looking to the sky when the Rangers rushed the camp.
Egypt
In 1969, Israel became aware that Egypt was using an advanced Soviet radar. Originally, an air attack was planned
to destroy it. The air attack was cancelled, however, and
the mission assigned to helicopter-carried Sayeret Matkal
special operations troops, who believed they could capture the radar, and return at least signicant pieces.
In Operation Rooster 53, the raiders quickly suppressed
the local security, and then began taking apart the radar to
return critical components for technical intelligence analysis. After consultation between the ground special operations soldiers and the helicopter pilots, they packaged
the entire radar and successfully carried it as external
loads on their CH-53 helicopters, operating at the edge
of the helicopters lift capability .[7]
After the guards were neutralized, the rescue force ran 14.3.4 Attempted prisoner of war rescue in
North Vietnam
into another problem common in prisoner rescues: many
prisoners were confused or so terribly afraid that they
needed to be forcibly removed. Others were sick and un- Operation Ivory Coast was a long-range US raid, in 1970,
to rescue POWs believed to be held in the Son Tay prison
able to walk. Nevertheless, the rescue was successful.
camp. The rescue force, of 56 Army Special Forces perThe Raid at Los Baos was also a success. Prior to the atsonnel plus Air Force special operations personnel, ew
tack, Filipino guerillas had established clandestine comclandestinely from Thailand into North Vietnam, while
munications with prisoners, and had precise information
Naval aircraft conducted diversionary activities.
about the camp. This was a considerably larger operation
for a larger number of prisoners, with a much stronger Although the ground force fought a sharp engagement
Japanese presence in the area. Operations began, as is with North Vietnamese and a never-identied, probably
often typical, with reconnaissance. 11th Airbornes Pro- foreign unit, near the camp, they took no casualties (other
visional Reconnaissance Platoon jumped in and linked up than a broken ankle from a hard landing). The prisoners
with guerillas. Two days later, they marked the drop and had been moved to other camps, but the raiders successlanding zones, and then killed the gate guards, as a guer- fully exltrated.
rilla regiment encircled the camp and attacked Japanese Even though the raid failed in its specic purpose, its tacthey could see.
tical execution was near perfect. It did have a signicant
Next, a paratrooper company jumped into a marked drop strategic eect on the North Vietnamese, who became
zone, linked up with additional guerillas, killed the re- concerned about other raids behind their own lines and
reallocated signicant resources to internal security .[8]
maining guards, and secured the prisoners.
The remainder of the paratroop battalion moved, by water
using amphibious tractors, to a point 2 miles from the 14.3.5
camp. They would land and then move to the camp, and
take the prisoners onto the vehicles.
A fourth phase protected the actual escape, diverting the
remaining Japanese troops with a strong force including
artillery and tank destroyers. Additional guerrilla units
formed ambushes to stop Japanese reinforcements from
moving into the area. 2,147 former Allied POWs and in-
72
The DA force landed on Modelo prison at night, carried
by light MH-6 special operations helicopters. AH-6 helicopter gunships suppressed potential snipers on nearby
building, while AC-130 xed-wing gunships put heavy
re into other military buildings of the complex. The
Delta operators secured the roof, and a team fought to
Muses cell, where they blew down the door and rescued
him.
14.4. REFERENCES
73
14.4 References
[1] US Department of Defense (2007-07-12). Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military
and Associated Terms (PDF). Retrieved 2007-10-01.
[2] Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story
of Americas Most Secret Special Operations Team. New
York, New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-362722.
[3] Beckwith, Charlie A.; Knox, Donald (2003). Delta Force:
The Armys Elite Counterterrorist Unit. Avon. ISBN 0380-80939-7.
[4] Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August
1949, Article 29. International Red Cross. Retrieved
2007-11-11.
[5] Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of
War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the
Laws and Customs of War on Land, Article 29. International Red Cross. 18 October 1907. Retrieved 2007-1111.
[6] Suvorov, Viktor (1990). SPETSNAZ: The Inside Story Of
The Special Soviet Special Forces. Pocket. ISBN 0-67168917-7.
[7] Operation Rooster Israel Captures Egyptian Radar
In War of Attrition. Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[8] Manor, Leroy J. The Son Tay Raid, November 21, 1970.
[9] Powell, Colin (March 2003). My American Journey. p.
145. ISBN 0-345-46641-1.
Chapter 15
Eavesdropping
15.2 Techniques
Eavesdropping is secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent, as dened by
Blacks Law Dictionary.[1] This is commonly thought to
be unethical and there is an old adage that eavesdroppers
seldom hear anything good of themselves... eavesdroppers always try to listen to matters that concern them.[2]
15.1 Etymology
15.3 References
[3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed.), Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2
[4] eavesdrop. Online Etymology Dictionary.
75
Chapter 16
Espionage
Spy and Secret agent redirect here. For other uses, tion.
see Spy (disambiguation) and Secret agent (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Espionage (disambiguation).
16.1
Espionage or, casually, spying involves a spy ring, government and company/rm or individual obtaining information considered secret or condential without the permission of the holder of the information.[1] Espionage is
inherently clandestine, as it is taken for granted that it is
unwelcome and in many cases illegal and punishable by
law. It is a subset of intelligence gathering, which otherwise may be conducted from public sources and using
perfectly legal and ethical means. It is crucial to distinguish espionage from "intelligence" gathering, as the latter does not necessarily involve espionage, but often collates open-source information.
Espionage is often part of an institutional eort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term is
generally associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage.
One of the most eective ways to gather data and information about the enemy (or potential enemy) is by inltrating the enemys ranks. This is the job of the spy
(espionage agent). Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of enemy forces.
They can also nd dissidents within the enemys forces
and inuence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can
also be used to steal technology and to sabotage the enemy in various ways. Counterintelligence operatives can
feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets, and preventing attempts at subversion. Nearly every country has very strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often
severe. However, the benets that can be gained through
espionage are generally great enough that most governments and many large corporations make use of it to varying degrees.
Further information on clandestine HUMINT (human intelligence) information collection techniques is available,
including discussions of operational techniques, asset recruiting, and the tradecraft used to collect this informa-
History
76
77
weapons secrets. Recently, espionage agencies have targeted the illegal drug trade and terrorists. Since 2008 the
United States has charged at least 57 defendants for attempting to spy for China.[18]
Dierent intelligence services value certain intelligence
collection techniques over others. The former Soviet Union, for example, preferred human sources over
research in open sources, while the United States has
tended to emphasize technological methods such as
SIGINT and IMINT. Both Soviet political (KGB) and
military intelligence (GRU[19] ) ocers were judged by
the number of agents they recruited.
During the Expedition of 'Abdullah ibn 'Atik in Decem- 16.2 Targets of espionage
ber 624,[7] he sent one his followers to assassinate Abu
Ra' ibn Abi Al-Huqaiq for mocking Muhammad with Espionage agents are usually trained experts in a specic
his poetry and for helping the troops of the Confederates targeted eld so they can dierentiate mundane informaby providing them with money and supplies[8]
tion from targets of intrinsic value to their own organiIn the Expedition of Abdullah Ibn Unais, also known as sational development. Correct identication of the taris the sole purpose of the espionage
the Assassination of Khaled bin Sufyan, Muhammad get at its execution
[20]
operation.
sent Abdullah ibn Unais to assassinate the leader of the
Banu Lahyan tribe. Muhammad alleged that Khaled bin Broad areas of espionage targeting expertise include:[21]
Sufyan Al-Hathali, considered an attack on Madinah and
that he was inciting the people on Nakhla or Uranah to
Natural resources: strategic production identight Muslims. So Muhammad sent Abdullah ibn Uncation and assessment (food, energy, materials).
ais to assassinate him. Which he did successfully. AfAgents are usually found among bureaucrats who
ter cutting o his head at night,[9] he brought it back to
administer these resources in their own countries
Muhammad.[10][11][12][13]
Popular sentiment towards domestic and foreign
Abdullah ibn Unais found Hudayr in the company of his
policies (popular, middle class, elites). Agents ofwife, when asked about his identity. Unais replied: I am
ten recruited from eld journalistic crews, exchange
an arab tribesman who has heard of you and the Army
postgraduate students and sociology researchers
you are raising to ght Muhammad, so I have come to
join your ranks.[11] Sufyan bin Khalid trusted him. Then
Strategic economic strengths (production, research,
Unais asked to talk to him privately, once, while conversmanufacture, infrastructure). Agents recruited from
ing, Abdullah ibn Unais walked a short distance with ibn
science and technology academia, commercial enKhalid, and when an opportunity came he struck him with
terprises, and more rarely from among military techhis sword and killed him. After killing ibn Khalid, he cut
nologists
o his head, brought that to Muhammad,[9]
Military capability intelligence (oensive, defensive,
During the Expedition of Al Raji in 625.[14] Some men
maneuver, naval, air, space). Agents are trained by
requested that Muhammad send instructors to teach them
special military espionage education facilities, and
Islam,[14] but the men were bribed by the two tribes of
posted to an area of operation with covert identities
Khuzaymah who wanted revenge for the assassination
to minimize prosecution
of Khalid bin Sufyan by Muhammads followers.[15] Ac Counterintelligence operations specically targetcording to William Montgomery Watt, the seven men
ing opponents intelligence services themselves,
Muhammad sent may have been spies for Muhammad
such as breaching condentiality of communicaand instructors for Arab tribes.[16] Watts claim that they
tions, and recruiting defectors or moles
were spies and not missionaries is mentioned in the Sunni
hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari.[17]
Modern history
Although the news media may speak of spy satelThe Cold War involved intense espionage activity be- lites and the like, espionage is not a synonym for all
tween the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union intelligence-gathering disciplines. It is a specic form
and China and their allies, particularly related to nuclear of human source intelligence (HUMINT). Codebreaking
78
(cryptanalysis or COMINT), aircraft or satellite photography, (IMINT) and research in open publications (OSINT) are all intelligence gathering disciplines, but none
of them are considered espionage. Many HUMINT activities, such as prisoner interrogation, reports from military reconnaissance patrols and from diplomats, etc., are
not considered espionage. Espionage is the disclosure of
sensitive information (classied) to people who are not
cleared for that information or access to that sensitive information.
Unlike other forms of intelligence collection disciplines,
espionage usually involves accessing the place where the
desired information is stored or accessing the people who
know the information and will divulge it through some
kind of subterfuge. There are exceptions to physical
meetings, such as the Oslo Report, or the insistence of
Robert Hanssen in never meeting the people who bought
his information.
The US denes espionage towards itself as The act of obtaining, delivering, transmitting, communicating, or receiving information about the national defense with an
intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be
used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage
of any foreign nation. Blacks Law Dictionary (1990)
denes espionage as: "... gathering, transmitting, or losing ... information related to the national defense". Espionage is a violation of United States law, 18 U.S.C.
792798 and Article 106a of the Uniform Code of Military Justice".[22] The United States, like most nations,
conducts espionage against other nations, under the control of the National Clandestine Service. Britains espionage activities are controlled by the Secret Intelligence
Service.
16.3.1
Numbers messaging
Non-ocial cover
Ocial cover
One-way voice link
Safe house
Side channel attack
Steganography
Surveillance
Surveillance aircraft
[23]
16.4 Organization
Agent handling
Concealment device
Covert agent
Covert listening device
Cut-out
Cyber spying
Dead drop
False ag operations
Honeypot
Interrogation
A spy is a person employed to seek out top secret information from a source. Within the United States Intelligence Community, asset is a more common usage. A
case ocer, who may have diplomatic status (i.e., ocial
cover or non-ocial cover), supports and directs the human collector. Cutouts are couriers who do not know the
79
agent or case ocer but transfer messages. A safe house 16.5 Industrial espionage
is a refuge for spies. Spies often seek to obtain secret
information from another source.
Main article: Industrial espionage
In larger networks the organization can be complex with
many methods to avoid detection, including clandestine Reportedly Canada is losing $12 billion[25] and German
cell systems. Often the players have never met. Case of- companies are estimated to be losing about 50 billion
cers are stationed in foreign countries to recruit and to ($87 billion) and 30,000 jobs[26] to industrial espionage
supervise intelligence agents, who in turn spy on targets in every year.
their countries where they are assigned. A spy need not be
a citizen of the target countryhence does not automatically commit treason when operating within it. While
16.6 Agents in espionage
the more common practice is to recruit a person already
trusted with access to sensitive information, sometimes
a person with a well-prepared synthetic identity (cover In espionage jargon, an agent is the person who does
background), called a legend in tradecraft, may attempt the spying; a citizen of one country who is recruited by a
second country to spy on or work against his own country
to inltrate a target organization.
or a third country. In popular usage, this term is often
These agents can be moles (who are recruited before they erroneously applied to a member of an intelligence serget access to secrets), defectors (who are recruited af- vice who recruits and handles agents; in espionage such a
ter they get access to secrets and leave their country) or person is referred to as an intelligence ocer, intelligence
defectors in place (who get access but do not leave).
operative or case ocer. There are several types of agent
A legend is also employed for an individual who is not in use today.
an illegal agent, but is an ordinary citizen who is relocated, for example, a protected witness. Nevertheless,
Double agent, is a person who engages in clansuch a non-agent very likely will also have a case ocer
destine activity for two intelligence or security serwho will act as controller. As in most, if not all synthetic
vices (or more in joint operations), who provides
identity schemes, for whatever purpose (illegal or legal),
information about one or about each to the other,
the assistance of a controller is required.
and who wittingly withholds signicant information
Spies may also be used to spread disinformation in the
organization in which they are planted, such as giving
false reports about their countrys military movements, or
about a competing companys ability to bring a product to
market. Spies may be given other roles that also require
inltration, such as sabotage.
Many governments routinely spy on their allies as well as
their enemies, although they typically maintain a policy
of not commenting on this. Governments also employ
private companies to collect information on their behalf
such as SCG International Risk, International Intelligence
Limited and others.
Many organizations, both national and non-national, conduct espionage operations. It should not be assumed that
espionage is always directed at the most secret operations
of a target country. National and terrorist organizations
and other groups are also targets.[24] This is because governments want to retrieve information that they can use
to be proactive in protecting their nation from potential
terrorist attacks.
Communications both are necessary to espionage and
clandestine operations, and also a great vulnerability
when the adversary has sophisticated SIGINT detection
and interception capability. Agents must also transfer
money securely.[24]
from one on the instructions of the other or is unwittingly manipulated by one so that signicant facts
are withheld from the adversary. Peddlers, fabricators, and others who work for themselves rather than
a service are not double agents because they are not
agents. The fact that doubles have an agent relationship with both sides distinguishes them from penetrations, who normally are placed with the target
service in a sta or ocer capacity.[27]
Re-doubled agent, an agent who gets caught as
a double agent and is forced to mislead the foreign intelligence service.
Unwitting double agent, an agent who offers or is forced to recruit as a double or
re-doubled agent and in the process is recruited by either a third party intelligence
service or his own government without
the knowledge of the intended target intelligence service or the agent. This can
be useful in capturing important information from an agent that is attempting
to seek allegiance with another country.
The double agent usually has knowledge
of both intelligence services and can identify operational techniques of both, thus
making third party recruitment dicult
or impossible. The knowledge of operational techniques can also aect the relationship between the Operations Ocer
80
Intelligence agent: Provides access to sensitive information through the use of special privileges. If
used in corporate intelligence gathering, this may include gathering information of a corporate business
venture or stock portfolio. In economic intelligence,
Economic Analysts may use their specialized skills
to analyze and interpret economic trends and developments, assess and track foreign nancial activities, and develop new econometric and modeling
methodologies.[28] This may also include information of trade or tari.
Access agent: Provides access to other potential
agents by providing proling information that can
help lead to recruitment into an intelligence service.
Agent of inuence: Someone who may provide political inuence in an area of interest or may even
provide publications needed to further an intelligence service agenda. The use of the media to print
a story to mislead a foreign service into action, exposing their operations while under surveillance.
report to a local station. A non ocial cover operative is a type of cover used by an intelligence operative and can be dubbed an Illegal[29] when working
in another country without diplomatic protection.
16.7 Law
Espionage is a crime under the legal code of many nations. The risks of espionage vary. A spy breaking the
host countrys laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even
executed. A spy breaking his/her own countrys laws can
be imprisoned for espionage or/and treason (which in the
USA and some other jurisdictions can only occur if he
or she take ups arms or aids the enemy against his or
her own country during wartime), or even executed, as
the Rosenbergs were. For example, when Aldrich Ames
handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA) agents in the Eastern Bloc to his KGBocer handler, the KGB rolled up several networks,
and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames
was arrested by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had
diplomatic immunity, was declared persona non grata and
taken to the airport. Amess wife was threatened with life
imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did,
and she was given a ve-year sentence. Hugh Francis
Redmond, a CIA ocer in China, spent nineteen years
in a Chinese prison for espionageand died thereas he
was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.[30]
81
However, espionage and intelligence can be linked. According to the MI5 website, foreign intelligence ocers
acting in the UK under diplomatic cover may enjoy immunity from prosecution. Such persons can only be tried
for spying (or, indeed, any criminal oence) if diplomatic
immunity is waived beforehand. Those ocers operating without diplomatic cover have no such immunity from
prosecution.
There are also laws surrounding government and organisational intelligence and surveillance. Generally, the
body involved should be issued with some form of warrant or permission from the government, and should be
enacting their procedures in the interest of protecting national security or the safety of public citizens. Those
carrying out intelligence missions should act within not
only RIPA, but also the Data Protection Act and Human
Rights Act. However, there are specic spy equipment
laws and legal requirements around intelligence methods
that vary for each form of intelligence enacted.
82
quiring intelligence are not considered spies but are lawful 16.11 List of famous spies
combatants entitled to be treated as prisoners of war upon
capture by the enemy. Article 30 states that a spy cap- See also: Intelligence agency, Special Operations Executured behind enemy lines may only be punished follow- tive and United States government security breaches
ing a trial. However, Article 31 provides that if a spy
successfully rejoined his own military and is then captured by the enemy as a lawful combatant, he cannot be
punished for his previous acts of espionage and must be
treated as a prisoner of war. Note that this provision does
not apply to citizens who committed treason against their
own country or co-belligerents of that country and may be
captured and prosecuted at any place or any time regardless whether he rejoined the military to which he belongs
or not or during or after the war.[42][43]
The ones that are excluded from being treated as spies
while behind enemy lines are escaping prisoners of war
and downed airmen as international law distinguishes between a disguised spy and a disguised escaper.[23] It is
permissible for these groups to wear enemy uniforms or
civilian clothes in order to facilitate their escape back to
friendly lines so long as they do not attack enemy forces,
collect military intelligence, or engage in similar military operations while so disguised.[44][45] Soldiers who are
wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes simply for the
sake of warmth along with other purposes rather than engaging in espionage or similar military operations while
so attired is also excluded from being treated as unlawful
combatants.[23]
Saboteurs are treated as spies as they too wear disguises
behind enemy lines for the purpose of waging destruc- Howard Burnham (1915)
tion on enemys vital targets in addition to intelligence
gathering.[46][47] For example, during World War II, eight
German agents entered the U.S. in June 1942 as part of
Operation Pastorius, a sabotage mission against U.S. economic targets. Two weeks later, all were arrested in civilian clothes by the FBI thanks to two German agents betraying the mission to the U.S. Under the Hague Convention of 1907, these Germans were classied as spies and
tried by a military tribunal in Washington D.C.[48] On August 3, 1942, all eight were found guilty and sentenced to
death. Five days later, six were executed by electric chair
at the District of Columbia jail. Two who had given evidence against the others had their sentences reduced by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt to prison terms. In 1948,
they were released by President Harry S. Truman and deported to the American Zone of occupied Germany.
The U.S. codication of enemy spies is Article 106 of
the Uniform Code of Military Justice. This provides a
mandatory death sentence if a person captured in the act
is proven to be lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in
or about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within the control or jurisdiction of any of the armed forces, or in or
about any shipyard, any manufacturing or industrial plant,
or any other place or institution engaged in work in aid
of the prosecution of the war by the United States, or
elsewhere.[49]
FBI le photo of the leader of the Duquesne Spy Ring (1941)
83
84
16.11.2
World War II
In the United States, there are seventeen[53] federal agencies that form the United States Intelligence Community.
The Central Intelligence Agency operates the National
Clandestine Service (NCS)[54] to collect human intelligence and perform Covert operations.[55] The National
Security Agency collects Signals Intelligence. Originally the CIA spearheaded the US-IC. Pursuant to the
September 11 attacks the Oce of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) was created to promulgate
information-sharing.
Kim Philby
Ray Mawby
Informants were common in World War II. In November 1939, the German Hans Ferdinand Mayer sent what
is called the Oslo Report to inform the British of German technology and projects in an eort to undermine the 16.12 Spy ction
Nazi regime. The Rseau AGIR was a French network
developed after the fall of France that reported the start Main article: Spy ction
of construction of V-weapon installations in Occupied
France to the British.
An early example of espionage literature is Kim by the
Counterespionage included the use of turned Double English novelist Rudyard Kipling, with a description of
Cross agents to misinform Nazi Germany of impact the training of an intelligence agent in the Great Game
points during the Blitz and internment of Japanese in the between the UK and Russia in 19th century Central Asia.
US against Japans wartime spy program. Additional An even earlier work was James Fenimore Cooper's clasWWII espionage examples include Soviet spying on the sic novel, The Spy, written in 1821, about an American
US Manhattan project, the German Duquesne Spy Ring spy in New York during the Revolutionary War.
convicted in the US, and the Soviet Red Orchestra spy- During the many 20th century spy scandals, much inforing on Nazi Germany. The US lacked a specic agency mation became publicly known about national spy agenat the start of the war, but quickly formed the Oce of cies and dozens of real-life secret agents. These sensaStrategic Services (OSS).
tional stories piqued public interest in a profession largely
Spying has sometimes been considered a gentlemanly
pursuit, with recruiting focused on military ocers, or
at least on persons of the class from whom ocers are
recruited. However, the demand for male soldiers, an increase in womens rights, and the tactical advantages of
female spies led the British Special Operations Executive
(SOE) to set aside any lingering Victorian Era prejudices
o-limits to human interest news reporting, a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent to their work. To ll in
the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has
been formed largely by 20th and 21st century literature
and cinema. Attractive and sociable real-life agents such
as Valerie Plame nd little employment in serious ction,
however. The ctional secret agent is more often a loner,
16.12.1
16.12.2
Anderson, Nicholas NOC Enigma Books 2009 Post Cold War era
Ishmael Jones The Human Factor: Inside the CIAs
Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture Encounter Books
2008, rev. 2010
Michael Ross The Volunteer: The Incredible True
Story of an Israeli Spy on the Trail of International
Terrorists McClelland & Stewart 2007, rev. 2008
Jean-Marie Thibaud, Dictionnaire Encyclopdique
International des Abrviations, Sigles et Acronymes,
Arme et armement, Gendarmerie, Police, Services
de renseignement et Services secrets franais et
85
trangers, Espionnage, Contrespionnage, Services de
secours, Organisations rvolutionnaires et terroristes,
Paris, L'Harmattan, 2015, 827 p
16.14 References
[1] WHAT IS ESPIONAGE?".
[2] "Espionage in Ancient Rome". HistoryNet.
[3] Henrywotton.org.uk. Henrywotton.org.uk. Retrieved
2012-07-07.
[4] Soustelle, Jacques (2002). The Daily Life of the Aztecas.
Phoenix Press. p. 209. ISBN 1842125087.
[5] Al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman (2002), Sealed Nectar,
Dar us Salam, p. 340
[6] Ab Khall, Shawq (2003), Hamra al assad, Dar us
Salam, p. 273, ISBN 9960-897-54-0
[7] William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam
to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 14
[8] Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 204. (online)
86
[11]
[31] treason
[32] espionage
[33] spying
[34] Aldrich Ames Criminal Complaint. jya.com. Retrieved
2011-03-19.
[35] USA v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Adavit in Support
of Criminal Complaint, Arrest Warrant and Search Warrant. fas.org. Retrieved 2011-03-19.
[36] Gerstein, Josh (11.3.7). Despite openness pledge, President Obama pursues leakers. politico.com. Retrieved
2011-03-19. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[37] See the article on John Kiriakou
[38] Your World: The Nowhere Man, Rupa Jha, October 21,
2012, BBC (retrieved 2012-10-20) (Program link:The
Nowhere Man)
[39] https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/
espionage-and-the-law.html
[40] https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/
what-is-espionage.html
[41] Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of
War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the
Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907.. International Committee of the Red Cross.
[42] Paul Battersby, Joseph M. Siracusa Ph.D, Sasho Ripiloski
(January 19, 2011). Crime Wars: The Global Intersection of Crime, Political Violence, and International Law.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 125.
[43] Charlesworth, Lorie (2006).
2 SAS Regiment,
War Crimes Investigations, and British Intelligence:
Intelligence Ocials and the Natzweiler
Trial". The Journal of Intelligence History 6 (2): 41.
doi:10.1080/16161262.2006.10555131.
[44] United States of America, Practice Relating to Rule 62.
Improper Use of Flags or Military Emblems, Insignia or
Uniforms of the Adversary. International Committee of
the Red Cross.
[45] 2006 Operational Law Handbook
[46] Leslie C. Green (February 1, 2000). The Contemporary
Law Of Armed Conict 2nd Edition. Juris Publishing. p.
142. ISBN 1-929446-03-9.
[47] George P. Fletcher (September 16, 2002). Romantics at
War: Glory and Guilt in the Age of Terrorism. Princeton
University Press. p. 106.
87
[48] Dr. J. H. W. Verziji (1978). International Law in Historical Perspective: The laws of war. Part IX-A. Brill Publishers. p. 143. ISBN 90-286-0148-1.
Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient
Times to the Internet 1996 Revised edition. First
published in 1967.
[53] http://www.intelligence.gov/
about-the-intelligence-community/ (nota bene: They say
its 17 agencies, in fact, taking military intelligence into
consideration, its 22 agencies)
[54] Oces of CIA > Clandestine Service > Who We Are.
cia.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-18.
[55] Oces of CIA > Clandestine Service > Our Mission.
cia.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-18.
[56] http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106805285
Chapter 17
False ag
False colors redirects here. For the imaging technique, gaging in battle.[5] Auxiliary cruisers operated in such a
see False-color.
fashion in both World Wars, as did Q-ships, while merchant vessels were encouraged to use false ags for proFalse ag (or black ag) describes covert operations de- tection. The 1914 Battle of Trindade was between the
auxiliary cruisers RMS Carmania and SMS Cap Trafalsigned to deceive in such a way that the operations appear
as though they are being carried out by entities, groups, gar, in which Cap Trafalgar had been altered to look like
Carmania.
or nations other than those who actually planned and executed them. Operations carried out during peace-time One of the most notable examples was in World War II
by civilian organizations, as well as covert government when the German commerce raider Kormoran, disguised
agencies, may by extension be called false ag operations as a Dutch merchant ship, surprised and sank the Ausif they seek to hide the real organization behind an op- tralian light cruiser HMAS Sydney in 1941, causing the
eration. Geraint Hughes uses the term to refer to those greatest recorded loss of life on an Australian warship.
acts carried out by military or security force personnel, Kormoran was also fatally damaged in that encounter and
which are then blamed on terrorists.[1]
its crew was captured, but it was a considerable psycho[6]
In its most modern usage, the term may also refer to those logical victory for the Germans.
events which governments are cognizant of and able to
stop but choose to allow to happen (or stand down),
as a strategy to entangle or prepare the nation for war.
Furthermore, the term false ag terrorism may even be
used in those instances when violence is carried out by
groups or organizations which, whether they know it or
not, are being supported or controlled by the victim nation. deHaven-Smith argues that the terminology has become looser in recent years due to the increasingly complex levels of duplicity and international intrigue between states.[2] Some argue that false ags are methods
used by deep states as a form of deep politics.[3]
The name false ag has its origins in naval warfare
where the use of a ag other than the belligerents true
battle ag as a ruse de guerre, before engaging the enemy, has long been accepted.[4] Such operations are also
accepted in certain circumstances in land warfare, to deceive enemies in similar ways providing that the deception is not perdious and all such deceptions are discarded
before opening re upon the enemy.
Naval warfare
This practice is accepted in naval warfare, provided the This draft was never adopted as a legally binding treaty,
false ag is lowered and the true ag raised before en- but the ICRC states in its introduction on the draft that
88
17.1.3
Land warfare
89
1. It is prohibited to kill, injure, or capture an
adversary by resort to perdy. Acts inviting the
condence of an adversary to lead him to believe that he is entitled to, or is obliged to accord, protection under the rules of international
law applicable in armed conict, with intent to
betray that condence, shall constitute perdy.
The following acts are examples of perdy:
(a) The feigning of an intent to negotiate under
a ag of truce or of a surrender;
(b) The feigning of an incapacitation by
wounds or sickness;
(c) The feigning of civilian, non-combatant status; and
(d) The feigning of protected status by the use
of signs, emblems or uniforms of the United
Nations or of neutral or other States not Parties
to the conict.
2. Ruses of war are not prohibited. Such ruses
are acts which are intended to mislead an adversary or to induce him to act recklessly but
which infringe no rule of international law applicable in armed conict and which are not
perdious because they do not invite the condence of an adversary with respect to protection under that law. The following are examples of such ruses: the use of camouage, decoys, mock operations and disinformation.
Article 38. Recognized emblems
1. It is prohibited to make improper use of the
distinctive emblem of the red cross, red crescent or red lion and sun or of other emblems,
signs or signals provided for by the Conventions or by this Protocol. It is also prohibited to
misuse deliberately in an armed conict other
internationally recognized protective emblems,
signs or signals, including the ag of truce, and
the protective emblem of cultural property.
2. It is prohibited to make use of the distinctive emblem of the United Nations, except as
authorized by that Organization.
Article 39. Emblems of nationality
1. It is prohibited to make use in an armed conict of the ags or military emblems, insignia
or uniforms of neutral or other States not Parties to the conict.
2. It is prohibited to make use of the ags or
military emblems, insignia or uniforms of adverse Parties while engaging in attacks or in order to shield, favour, protect or impede military
operations.
90
Russo-Swedish War
In 1788, the head tailor at the Royal Swedish Opera received an order to sew a number of Russian military uniforms. These were then used by the Swedes to stage
an attack on Puumala, a Swedish outpost on the RussoSwedish border, on 27 June 1788. This caused an outrage
in Stockholm and impressed the Riksdag of the Estates,
the Swedish national assembly, who until then had refused to agree to an oensive war against Russia. The
Puumala incident allowed King Gustav III of Sweden,
who lacked the constitutional authority to initiate unprovoked hostilities without the Estates consent, to launch
the Russo-Swedish War (17881790)[13]
Alfred Naujocks
17.2.2
Gleiwitz incident
The Gleiwitz incident in 1939 involved Reinhard Heydrich fabricating evidence of a Polish attack against
Germany to mobilize German public opinion for war and
to justify the war with Poland. Alfred Naujocks was a
key organiser of the operation under orders from Heydrich. It led to the deaths of Nazi concentration camp
victims who were dressed as German soldiers and then
shot by the Gestapo to make it seem that they had been
shot by Polish soldiers. This, along with other false ag
operations in Operation Himmler, would be used to mobilize support from the German population for the start
of World War II in Europe.[15]
17.2.3
World War II
91
17.3.1 Reichstag re
Main article: Reichstag re
The Reichstag re was an arson attack on the Reichstag
building in Berlin on 27 February 1933. The re started
in the Session Chamber,[22] and, by the time the police
and remen arrived, the main Chamber of Deputies was
engulfed in ames. Police searched the building and
found Marinus van der Lubbe, a young Dutch council
communist and unemployed bricklayer, who had recently
arrived in Germany to carry out political activities.
The re was used as evidence by the Nazis that the
Communists were beginning a plot against the German
government. Van der Lubbe and four Communist leaders
were subsequently arrested. Adolf Hitler, who was sworn
in as Chancellor of Germany four weeks before, on 30
January, urged President Paul von Hindenburg to pass an
emergency decree to counter the ruthless confrontation
of the Communist Party of Germany".[23] With civil liberties suspended, the government instituted mass arrests
of Communists, including all of the Communist parliamentary delegates. With their bitter rival Communists
gone and their seats empty, the National Socialist German Workers Party went from being a plurality party to
the majority; subsequent elections conrmed this position
and thus allowed Hitler to consolidate his power.
92
17.3.3
In 2008 there was a shooting against two minibuses driving along in a volatile area right on the border between
Abkhazia and the republic of Georgia. The buses were
carrying Georgians who lived in Abkhazia and wanted to
cross the border so they could go and vote in the parliamentary election that day.
forces are usually best suited to intelligence tasks; however, military provide the structure needed to back up
such pseudo-ops with military response forces. According to US military expert Lawrence Cline (2005), the
teams typically have been controlled by police services,
but this largely was due to the weaknesses in the respective military intelligence systems.
The country had been experiencing internal political turmoil for the last year, and in an attempt to calm the
situation, president Mikheil Saakashvili moved forward
both presidential and parliamentary elections. However
the presidential election in January that year was strongly
contested, with hundreds of thousands attending protest
rallies. When the parliamentary election came up in May,
the mood was still tense.
On mid day 21 May the two minibuses came under attack
with small arms and grenades, and though there were no
casualties, three people were taken to a hospital in Zugdidi, where president Saakashvili later arrived and was
lmed by TV at the patients bedside.
In his comments on TV, which dominated the news during election day, Saakashvili indicated that the attack had
been an attempt to disrupt the election, implying that it
had been Abkhaz or Russian forces who had been behind
it. This provided for a favorable opportunity for the president to focus the nations attention on an external enemy,
thereby leading attention away from his domestic critics,
as well as making use of his position as leader to rally the
Georgians around his candidates in the election.
An investigation by the United Nations Observer Mission
in Georgia found that the attackers were located on the
Georgian side of the ceasere line, about 100m from the
buses, and that although hard evidence of the attackers
identities was lacking, inconsistencies merited further investigation, particularly the suggestion that the lming of
the attack seemed anticipatory.[29]
17.4 Pseudo-operations
Pseudo-operations are those in which forces of one power
disguise themselves as enemy forces. For example, a state
power may disguise teams of operatives as insurgents and,
with the aid of defectors, inltrate insurgent areas.[30] The
aim of such pseudo-operations may be to gather short or
long-term intelligence or to engage in active operations, in
particular assassinations of important enemies. However,
they usually involve both, as the risks of exposure rapidly
increase with time and intelligence gathering eventually
leads to violent confrontation. Pseudo-operations may
be directed by military or police forces, or both. Police
17.5. ESPIONAGE
a retired British General), published Gangs and Countergangs, an account of his experiences with the technique
in Kenya; information included how to counter gangs and
measures of deception, including the use of defectors,
which brought the issue a wider audience.
Another example of combined police and military oversight of pseudo-operations include the Selous Scouts in
the former country Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), governed
by white minority rule until 1980. The Selous Scouts
were formed at the beginning of Operation Hurricane,
in November 1973, by Major (later Lieutenant Colonel)
Ronald Reid-Daly. As with all Special Forces in Rhodesia, by 1977 they were controlled by COMOPS (Commander, Combined Operations) Commander Lieutenant
General Peter Walls. The Selous Scouts were originally
composed of 120 members, with all ocers being white
and the highest rank initially available for black soldiers
being colour sergeant. They succeeded in turning approximately 800 insurgents who were then paid by Special Branch, ultimately reaching the number of 1,500
members. Engaging mainly in long-range reconnaissance
and surveillance missions, they increasingly turned to offensive actions, including the attempted assassination of
Zimbabwe Peoples Revolutionary Army leader Joshua
Nkomo in Zambia. This mission was nally aborted by
the Selous Scouts, and attempted again, unsuccessfully,
by the Rhodesian Special Air Service.[31]
Some oensive operations attracted international condemnation, in particular the Selous Scouts raid on a
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA)
camp at Nyadzonya Pungwe, Mozambique in August
1976. ZANLA was then led by Josiah Tongogara. Using
Rhodesian trucks and armored cars disguised as Mozambique military vehicles, 84 scouts killed 1,284 people in
the camp-the camp was registered as a refugee camp by
the United Nations (UN). Even according to Reid-Daly,
most of those killed were unarmed guerrillas standing
in formation for a parade. The camp hospital was also
set ablaze by the rounds red by the Scouts, killing all
patients.[32] According to David Martin and Phyllis Johnson, who visited the camp shortly before the raid, it was
only a refugee camp that did not host any guerrillas. It
was staged for UN approval.[33]
93
operations, or the use of organized teams which are disguised as guerrilla groups for long- or short-term penetration of insurgent-controlled areas.
Pseudo Operations should be distinguished, notes Cline,
from the more common police or intelligence inltration
of guerrilla or criminal organizations. In the latter case,
inltration is normally done by individuals. Pseudo
teams, on the other hand, are formed as needed from organized units, usually military or paramilitary. The use of
pseudo teams has been a hallmark of a number of foreign
counterinsurgency campaigns.[30]
Similar false ag tactics were also employed during the
Algerian civil war, starting in the middle of 1994. Death
squads composed of Dpartement du Renseignement et
de la Scurit (DRS) security forces disguised themselves as Islamist terrorists and committed false ag terror attacks. Such groups included the Organisation of
Young Free Algerians (OJAL) or the Secret Organisation
for the Safeguard of the Algerian Republic (OSSRA)[35]
According to Roger Faligot and Pascal Kropp (1999),
the OJAL was reminiscent of the Organization of the
French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counterterrorists created in December 1956 by the Direction de
la surveillance du territoire (Territorial Surveillance Directorate, or DST) whose mission was to carry out terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political
compromise.[36]
17.5 Espionage
Main article: False ag penetrator
In espionage the term false ag describes the recruiting of agents by operatives posing as representatives of a
cause the prospective agents are sympathetic to, or even
the agents own government. For example, during the
Cold War, several female West German civil servants
were tricked into stealing classied documents by agents
of the East German Stasi intelligence service, pretending
to be members of West German peace advocacy groups
(the Stasi agents were also described as "Romeos, indicating that they also used their sex appeal to manipulate
According to a 1978 study by the Directorate of Military
their targets, making this operation a combination of the
Intelligence, 68% of all insurgent deaths inside Rhodesia
false ag and "honey trap" techniques).[37]
could be attributed to the Selous Scouts, who were disThe technique can also be used to expose enemy agents in
banded in 1980.[34]
ones own service, by having someone approach the susIf the action is a police action, then these tactics would
pect and pose as an agent of the enemy. Earl Edwin Pitts,
fall within the laws of the state initiating the pseudo, but if
a 13-year veteran of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigasuch actions are taken in a civil war or during a belligerent
tion and an attorney, was caught when he was approached
military occupation then those who participate in such
by FBI agents posing as Russian agents.
actions would not be privileged belligerents. The principle of plausible deniability is usually applied for pseudo- British intelligence ocials in World War II allowed douteams. (See the above section Laws of war). Some ble agents to re-bomb a power station and a food dump
false ag operations have been described by Lawrence E. in the UK to protect their cover, according to declassied
Cline, a retired US Army intelligence ocer, as pseudo- documents. The documents stated the agents took precautions to ensure they did not cause serious damage.
94
One of the documents released also stated: It should be If you could employ an associate who pretends to be
recognised that friends as well as enemies must be com- sympathetic to the unions cause to physically attack you
pletely deceived.[38]
(or even use a rearm against you), you could discredit
the unions, read the email. It went on to say that the
eort would assist in undercutting any support that the
media may be creating in favor of the unions. The press
17.6 Civilian usage
had acquired a court order to access all of Walkers emails
and Lams email was exposed. At rst, Lam vehemently
While false ag operations originate in warfare and govdenied it, but eventually admitted it and resigned.[43]
ernment, they also can occur in civilian settings among
certain factions, such as businesses, special interest
groups, religions, political ideologies and campaigns for 17.6.3 Ideological
oce.
Proponents of political or religious ideologies will sometimes use false ag tactics. This can be done to discredit
17.6.1 Businesses
or implicate rival groups, create the appearance of enemies when none exist, or create the illusion of organized
In business and marketing, similar operations are beand directed opposition when in truth, the ideology is
ing employed in some public relations campaigns (see
simply unpopular with society.
Astroturng). Telemarketing rms practice false ag
type behavior when they pretend to be a market research
rm (referred to as "sugging"). In some rare cases, members of an unsuccessful business will destroy some of their
own property to conceal an unrelated crime (e.g., safety
violations, embezzlement) but make it appear as though
the destruction was done by a rival company.
17.6.2
Political campaigning
Agent provocateur
Black propaganda
Casus belli
Covert operation
Denial and deception
Front organization
17.7.2
Examples
195051 Baghdad bombings where Iraqi Zionist underground members targeted the Baghdad Jewish
community
Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Flemish neo-Nazi
group preparing false ag attacks)
Canuck letter
Celle Hole
CIA Operation Ajax (United States overthrowing of
Mohammed Mossadeq, Prime Minister of Iran, in
1953)[27]
Gleiwitz incident aka Operation Himmler
Lavon Aair Israeli attempt to plant bombs in Western targets in Egypt, in blaming Arab elements
Marxist-Leninist Party of the Netherlands (fake
party set up by the Dutch security service)
Masada Action and Defense Movement (French
white supremacists, under the guise of a fake extremist Zionist movement, conducted bombings of
Arab targets in France in an attempt to start a war
between French Arabs and Jews.)
Operation Gladio
95
[5] the use of a false ag has always been accepted as a legitimate ruse de guerre in naval warfare, the true battle
ag being run up immediately before engaging (Thomas,
Rosamund M., ed. (1993), Teaching Ethics: Government ethics, Centre for Business and Public, p. 80, ISBN
9781871891034).
96
[39] http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&
dat=19951211&id=gZosAAAAIBAJ&sjid=
wfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4981,49418 Lakeland Times
1995
[40] Steele, Allison, "Bass staer in D.C. poses as blogger: Bogus posts aimed at his political opponent", Concord Monitor, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October
2006).
[41] Saunders, Anne, Bass aide resigns after posing as opponents supporter online, The Boston Globe, 26 September
2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006).
[42] Miller, Jonathan, Blog Thinks Aide to Kean Posted Jabs At
Menendez, New York Times, 21 September 2006 (URL
last accessed 24 October 2006).
[43] Montopoli, Brian (25 March 2011). Indiana prosecutor
resigns for encouraging fake attack on Wisconsin governor. CBS News.
[44] United States of America v. Jane Kember, Morris Budlong, Sentencing Memorandum; pp. 2325.
Chapter 18
Field agent
In espionage, a eld agent is an agent who works in
the eld as opposed to one who works at the oce or
headquarters. A eld agent can work alone or in a group
but usually has a case ocer who is in charge.
Field agents can be undercover, and travel using fake
passports that may be under the name of a front organization or shell corporation.
Field agents are often present in ction,[1][2] though their
duties and actions can be quite dierent in reality.[3]
18.2 References
[1] Mazzetti, Mark; Elliott, Justin (9 December 2013). Spies
Inltrate a Fantasy Realm of Online Games. New York
Times. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
[2] Alex Garofalo (18 February 2015). "'The Americans
Creators Blend Family Drama With Espionage For A Different Kind Of Spy Show. International Business Times.
Retrieved 2015-03-28.
[3] Vaughn Sherman (2013-01-10). How Accurate Are
Bourne and Bond? Ask an Ex-CIA Ocer. The Hungton Post. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
97
Chapter 19
Industrial espionage
plication of principles and practices from military and national intelligence to the domain of global business";[5] it
is the business equivalent of open-source intelligence.
The dierence between competitive intelligence and economic or industrial espionage is not clear; one needs to
understand the legal basics to recognize how to draw the
line between the two.[6][7] Others maintain it is sometimes
quite dicult to tell the dierence between legal and illegal methods, especially if considering the ethical side of
information gathering, making the denition even more
elusive.
Industrial espionage, economic espionage or corporate espionage is a form of espionage conducted for
commercial purposes instead of purely national security.[1] Economic espionage is conducted or orchestrated
by governments and is international in scope, while industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and
occurs between companies or corporations.[2]
99
100
sions, enabling others to access and steal information.[19] 19.6.5 Distributed denial of service
A bag-op refers to the use of hotel sta to access data,
(DDoS) attack
such as through laptops, in hotel rooms. Information may
be stolen in transit, in taxis, at airport baggage counters,
The distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack uses
baggage carousels, on trains and so on.[17]
compromised computer systems to orchestrate a ood of
requests on the target system, causing it to shut down
and deny service to other users.[25] It could potentially be
19.6.2 The Internet
used for economic or industrial espionage with the purpose of sabotage. This method was allegedly utilized by
The rise of the internet and computer networks has ex- Russian secret services, over a period of two weeks on a
panded the range and detail of information available cyberattack on Estonia in May 2007, in response to the
and the ease of access for the purpose of industrial removal of a Soviet era war memorial.[26]
espionage.[20] Worldwide, around 50,000 companies a
day are thought to come under cyberattack with the rate
estimated as doubling each year.[21] This type of operation is generally identied as state backed or sponsored,
because the access to personal, nancial or analytic re- 19.7 History
sources identied exceed that which could be accessed
by cybercriminals or individual hackers. Sensitive military or defense engineering or other industrial informa- 19.7.1 Origins of industrial espionage
tion may not have immediate monetary value to criminals, compared with, say, bank details. Analysis of cyberattacks suggests deep knowledge of networks, with targeted attacks, obtained by numerous individuals operating in a sustained organized way.[22]
19.6.3
The rising use of the internet has also extended opportunities for industrial espionage with the aim of sabotage.
In the early 2000s, it was noticed that energy companies
were increasingly coming under attack from hackers. Energy power systems, doing jobs like monitoring power
grids or water ow, once isolated from the other computer
networks, were now being connected to the internet, leaving them more vulnerable, having historically few built-in
security features.[23] The use of these methods of industrial espionage have increasingly become a concern for
governments, due to potential attacks by terrorist groups
or hostile foreign governments.
19.6.4
Malware
19.7.2
101
The Soviet military was recognised as making much better use of acquired information, compared to civilian inEast-West commercial development opportunities after dustry, where their record in replicating and developing
World War I saw a rise in Soviet interest in American industrial technology was poor.[32]
and European manufacturing know-how, exploited by
Amtorg Corporation.[31] Later, with Western restrictions
on the export of items thought likely to increase military
capabilities to the USSR, Soviet industrial espionage was 19.7.3 The legacy of Cold War espionage
a well known adjunct to other spying activities up until the
1980s.[32] BYTE reported in April 1984, for example, that Following the demise of the Soviet Union and the
although the Soviets sought to develop their own micro- end of the Cold War, commentators, including the US
electronics, their technology appeared to be several years Congressional Intelligence Committee, noted a redibehind the Wests. Soviet CPUs required multiple chips rection amongst the espionage community from miland appeared to be close or exact copies of American itary to industrial targets, with Western and former
communist countries making use of underemployed
products such as the Intel 3000 and DEC LSI-11/2.[33]
spies and expanding programs directed at stealing such
information.[37][38]
Operation Brunnhilde
The legacy of Cold War spying included not just the redirection of personnel but the use of spying apparatus such
Some of these activities were directed via the East Ger- as computer databases, scanners for eavesdropping, spy
man Stasi (Ministry for State Security). One such oper- satellites, bugs and wires.[39]
ation, known as Operation Brunnhilde operated from
the mid-1950s until early 1966 and made use of spies
from many Communist Bloc countries. Through at least
20 forays, many western European industrial secrets were 19.8 Notable cases
compromised.[34] One member of the Brunnhilde ring
was a Swiss chemical engineer, Dr. Jean Paul Soupert
(also known as Air Bubble), living in Brussels. He 19.8.1 France and the United States
was described by Peter Wright in Spycatcher as having
been doubled by the Belgian Sret de l'tat.[34][35] Between 1987 and 1989, IBM and Texas Instruments
He revealed information about industrial espionage con- were thought to have been targeted by French spies with
ducted by the ring, including the fact that Russian agents the intention of helping Frances Groupe Bull.[40] In
had obtained details of Concorde's advanced electronics 1993, US aerospace companies were also thought to have
system.[36] He testied against two Kodak employees, liv- been targeted by French interests.[41] During the early
ing and working in Britain, during a trial in which they 1990s, France was described as one of the most aggreswere accused of passing information on industrial pro- sive pursuers of espionage to garner foreign industrial and
cesses to him, though they were eventually acquitted.[34] technological secrets.[40] France accused the U.S. of attempting to sabotage its high tech industrial base.[40] The
government of France has been alleged to have conducted
Soviet spetsinformatsiya system
ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies.[42]
A secret report from the Military-Industrial Commission of the USSR (VPK), from 197980, detailed how
spetsinformatsiya (Russian: i.e. special records) could be utilised in twelve dierent military 19.8.2 Volkswagen
industrial areas. Writing in the Bulletin of the Atomic
Scientists, Philip Hanson detailed a spetsinformatsiya sys- In 1993, car manufacturer Opel, the German divitem in which 12 industrial branch ministries formulated sion of General Motors, accused Volkswagen of indusrequests for information to aid technological development trial espionage after Opels chief of production, Jose
in their military programs. Acquisition plans were de- Ignacio Lopez, and seven other executives moved to
scribed as operating on 2 year and 5 year cycles with Volkswagen.[14] Volkswagen subsequently threatened to
about 3000 tasks under way each year. Eorts were sue for defamation, resulting in a four-year legal battle.[14]
aimed at civilian as well as military industrial targets, such The case, which was nally settled in 1997, resulted in
as in the petrochemical industries. Some information was one of the largest settlements in the history of industrial
garnered so as to compare levels of competitor to Soviet espionage, with Volkswagen agreeing to pay General Motechnological advancement. Much unclassied informa- tors $100 million and to buy at least $1 billion of car parts
tion was also gathered, blurring the boundary with com- from the company over 7 years, although it did not explicpetitive intelligence.[32]
itly apologize for Lopezs behavior.[43]
102
19.8.3
19.8.4
GhostNet
In May 2010, the federal jury convicted Chordiant Software, Inc., a U.S. corporation, of stealing Dongxiao Yues
JRPC technologies and used them in a product called
Chordiant Marketing Director. Yue previously led lawsuits against Symantec Corporation for a similar theft.[55]
Brazil
103
most active in the use of internet spying, up to 120 other
countries were said to be using similar techniques.[63]
The Chinese government responded to UK accusations of
economic espionage by saying that the report of such activities was 'slanderous and that the government opposed
hacking which is prohibited by law.[64]
19.9.2
United States
19.11 References
[1] Unusual suspects: Cyber-spying grows bigger and more
boring. The Economist. 25 May 2013. Retrieved 25
May 2013.
[2] Nasheri 2005, p. 10.
[3] Nasheri 2005, p. 73.
[4] Nasheri 2005, p. 74.
[5] Walker 1996.
19.9.3
United Kingdom
104
19.12 Bibliography
Ahmed, Murad (2010-01-18).
Google cyber-attack from China
'an inside job'".
The Times.
Retrieved 2010-01-22.
Anderson, Nate (2007-05-14).
Massive DDoS attacks target
Estonia; Russia accused. Ars
Technica. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
Barry, Marc; Penenberg, Adam L
(2000). Spooked: Espionage in Corporate America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. p.
208. ISBN 978-0-7382-0593-9.
Chinese stealth ghter jet may use
US technology. The Guardian
19.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(London). Associated Press. 201101-23. Retrieved 2011-01-23.
BBC,
News
(2010-09-26).
Stuxnet worm hits Iran nuclear plant sta computers. BBC.
Retrieved 2010-09-27.
Beaumont, Claudine (2010-01-18).
Google China hacks 'a possible inside job'". The Daily Telegraph
(London). Retrieved 2010-01-30.
Blakely, Rhys (2007-12-01). MI5
alert on Chinas cyberspace spy
threat. The Times. Retrieved
2010-01-30.
Blakely,
Rhys (2007-12-05).
China says it is cyber-espionage
victim. The Times. Retrieved
2010-01-30.
Boggon, Steve (1996-01-01). The
spy who loved me (and my laptop)". The Independent (London).
Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Branigan, Tania (2010-01-13).
Google to end censorship in China
over cyber attacks. The Guardian
(London). Retrieved 2010-01-22.
Clark, Andrew (2009-04-17).
Starwood sues Hilton for 'stealing
trade secrets".
The Guardian
(London). Retrieved 2010-02-24.
Connolly, Kate (2009-07-22).
Germany accuses China of industrial espionage. The Guardian
(London). Retrieved 2010-01-18.
DeWeese, Steve; Krekel, Bryan;
Bakos, George; Barnet, Christopher (9 October 2009). Capability
of the Peoples Republic of Conduct Cyber Warfare and Computer
Network Exploitation: Prepared for
The US-China Economic and Security Review Commission (PDF).
McLean, Virginia, USA: Northrop
Grumman Corporation.
Dongxiau Yue, et al., v. Chordiant
Software, Inc., No. C08-00019
JW U.S. (In the United States District Court for the Northern District of California San Jose Division. 2010-05-14).
Fink, Steven (2002). Sticky Fingers:
Managing the Global Risk of Economic Espionage. Chicago: Dearborn Trade. p. 368. ISBN 978-07931-4827-1.
Fitchett, Joseph (1995-07-19).
French Report Accuses U.S. of
105
Industrial Sabotage Campaign.
New York Times.
Retrieved
2010-02-13.
Glover,
Tony (2010-01-17).
Chinese hackers blamed for cyber
attack wave.
This is Money.
Retrieved 2010-01-31.
Guynn, Jessica (2010-01-15).
Chinese hackers pose a growing
threat to U.S. rms. Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved 2010-01-31.
Hanson, Philip (April 1987),
Soviet industrial espionage,
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 43
(3): 2529
Byron, Betty (2013). The Iris
Covenant. New York: Tate Publishing. p. 454. ISBN 978-162295-014-0.
Harris, John (1998). Industrial Espionage and Technology Transfer:
Britain and France in the Eighteenth
Century. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 680. ISBN 07546-0367-9.
Harvey,
Mike (2010-01-16).
China accused of cyber attack
on Google and 'global industrial
targets". The Times. Retrieved
2010-01-30.
Helft, Miguel; Marko, John
(2010-01-13).
In Rebuke of
China, Focus Falls on Cybersecurity. New York Times. Retrieved
2010-01-30.
Javers, Eamon (2010). Broker,
Trader, Lawyer, Spy: The Secret World of Corporate Espionage.
New York: Harper Collins Business. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-06169720-3.
Jehl, Douglas (1993-04-30). U.S.
Expanding Its Eort to Halt Spying
by Allies. New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Keizer,
Gregg (2010-12-09).
Pro-WikiLeaks
cyber
army
gains strength; thousands join
DDoS attacks. Computer World.
Retrieved 2010-12-11.
Kennedy, John (2010-12-10). Is
your kid part of the Operation Payback army?". Silicon Republic.
Retrieved 2010-12-11.
Lawson, Dominic (2010-01-17).
Be afraid, China, the Google
106
107
Chapter 20
Intelligence assessment
This article is about evaluating sensitive state, military, The RFI may indicate in what format the requester prefers
commercial, or scientic information. For other uses, to consume the product.
see Intelligence (disambiguation).
The RFI is reviewed by a Requirements Manager, who
will then direct appropriate tasks to respond to the reIntelligence assessment is the development of forecasts quest. This will involve a review of existing material, the
of behavior or recommended courses of action to the tasking of new analytical product or the collection of new
leadership of an organization, based on a wide range of information to inform an analysis.
available information sources both overt and covert. As- New information may be collected through one or more
sessments are developed in response to requirements de- of the various collection disciplines; human source,
clared by the leadership in order to inform decision mak- electronic and communications intercept, imagery or
ing. Assessment may be carried out on behalf of a state, open sources. The nature of the RFI and the urgency
military or commercial organization with a range of avail- placed on it may indicate that some collection types are
able sources of information available to each.
unsuitable due to the time taken to collect or validate
An intelligence assessment reviews both available information and previous assessments for relevance and currency. Where additional information is required, some
collection may be directed by the analyst.
the information gathered. Intelligence gathering disciplines and the sources and methods used are often highly
classied and compartmentalized, with analysts requiring
an appropriate high level of security clearance.
The process of taking known information about situations and entities of importance to the RFI, characterizing
what is known and attempting to forecast future events
is termed all source assessment, analysis or processing. The analyst uses multiple sources to mutually corroborate, or exclude, the information collected, reaching
a conclusion along with a measure of condence around
that conclusion.
20.1 Process
Intelligence assessment is based on a customer requirement or need, which may be a standing requirement or
tailored to a specic circumstance or a Request for Information (RFI). The requirement is passed to the assessing agency and worked through the intelligence cycle, a
structured method for responding to the RFI.
108
109
Andrew, Christopher. For the Presidents Eyes Only:
Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from
Washington to Bush (1996)
Black, Ian and Morris, Benny Israels Secret Wars:
A History of Israels Intelligence Services (1991)
Bungert, Heike et al. eds. Secret Intelligence in the
Twentieth Century (2003) essays by scholars
Dulles, Allen W. The Craft of Intelligence: Americas Legendary Spy Master on the Fundamentals of
Intelligence Gathering for a Free World (2006)
Kahn, David The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient
Times to the Internet (1996), 1200 pages
Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds.
Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security
(2003), 1100 pages. 850 articles, strongest on technology
Odom, Gen. William E. Fixing Intelligence: For
a More Secure America, Second Edition (Yale Nota
Bene) (2004)
O'Toole, George. Honorable Treachery: A History
of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from
the American Revolution to the CIA (1991)
Owen, David. Hidden Secrets: A Complete History
of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It
(2002), popular
Richelson, Jeery T. A Century of Spies: Intelligence
in the Twentieth Century (1997)
Richelson, Jeery T. The U.S. Intelligence Community (4th ed. 1999)
Shulsky, Abram N. and Schmitt, Gary J. Silent
Warfare: Understanding the World of Intelligence
(3rd ed. 2002), 285 pages
West, Nigel. MI6: British Secret Intelligence Service
Operations 19091945 (1983)
West, Nigel. Secret War: The Story of SOE, Britains
Wartime Sabotage Organization (1992)
Wohlstetter, Roberta. Pearl Harbor: Warning and
Decision (1962)
World War I
Military intelligence
Surveillance
110
Kahn, David. Hitlers Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (1978)
Lewin, Ronald. The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan (1982)
May, Ernest (ed.) Knowing Ones Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars (1984)
Smith, Richard Harris. OSS: the Secret History of
Americas First Central Intelligence Agency (2005)
Stanley, Roy M. World War II Photo Intelligence
(1981)
Stevenson, William. A Man Called Intrepid: The Incredible WWII Narrative of the Hero Whose Spy Network and Secret Diplomacy Changed the Course of
History (2009)
Wark, Wesley K. The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 19331939 (1985)
Wark, Wesley K. Cryptographic Innocence: the
Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War, in: Journal of Contemporary History 22 (1987)
Cold War Era 19451991
Aldrich, Richard J. The Hidden Hand: Britain,
America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (2002).
Prados, John. Presidents Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II (1996)
Rositzke, Harry. The CIAs Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action (1988)
Trahair, Richard C. S. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations (2004), by an
Australian scholar; contains excellent historiographical introduction
Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev. The
Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in AmericaThe
Stalin Era (1999).
111
Chapter 21
21.1 Overview
21.1.1
Intelligence dened
21.2. REQUIREMENTS
113
production phase, the information is converted into
intelligence.[5]
A distinct intelligence ocer is often entrusted with managing each level of the process.
21.2 Requirements
Leaders with specic objectives communicate their requirements for intelligence inputs to applicable agencies
or contacts. An intelligence consumer might be an infantry ocer who needs to know what is on the other side
of the next hill, a head of government who wants to know
the probability that a foreign leader will go to war over
a certain point, a corporate executive who wants to know
what his or her competitors are planning, or any person or
organization (for example, a person who wants to know
if his or her spouse is faithful).
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) describes an activity that synchronizes and integrates the
planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing,
exploitation, and dissemination systems in direct support
of current and future operations. This is an integrated
intelligence and operations function.[5]
Sensors (people or systems) collect data from the operational environment during the collection phase, which
is then converted into information during the processing and exploitation phase. During the analysis and
21.2.1 National/strategic
Establishing the intelligence requirements of the policymakers ... is management of the entire intelligence cycle, from identifying the need for data to delivering an
intelligence product to a consumer, according to a report
by the U.S. Intelligence Board. It is the beginning and
the end of the cyclethe beginning because it involves
drawing up specic collection requirements and the end
114
because nished intelligence, which supports policy deci- sider either counterintelligence or covert action.[7] " The
sions, generates new requirements.
OODA loop developed by military strategist John Boyd,
The whole process depends on guidance from public discussed in the context of the Intelligence Cycle, may
ocials. Policy-makersthe president, his aides, the come somewhat closer, as OODA is action-oriented and
National Security Council, and other major departments spiraling, rather than a continuing circle.
and agencies of governmentinitiate requests for intelligence. Issue coordinators interact with these public of21.3.1 Budgeting
cials to establish their core concerns and related information requirements. These needs are then used to guide
The architectural design must then be funded. While each
collection strategies and the production of appropriate innation has its own budgeting process, the major divisions
[6]
telligence products ".
of the US process are representative:
21.2.2
Military/operational
Depending on the nation, at some level of detail, budgetary information will be classied, as changes in budget
indicate changes in priorities. After considerable debate,
the U.S. now publishes total budgets for the combination
of its intelligence agencies. Depending on the sensitivity
In rare cases, intelligence is taken from such extremely of a line item, it may be identied simply as classied
sensitive sources that it cannot be used without expos- activity,"not broken out, but briefed to full oversight coming the methods or persons providing such intelligence. mittees, or only revealed to a small number of ocials.
One of the strengths of the British penetration of the
German Enigma cryptosystem was that no information It should be possible to empower a committee composed
learned from it was ever used for operations, unless there of mid-level ocials (or aides to senior ocials) from the
was a plausible cover story that the Germans believed was intelligence and policy-making communities to convene
the reason for Allied victories. If, for example, the move- regularly to determine and revise priorities. The key is
ment of a ship was learned through Enigma COMINT, a to try to get policymakers to provide guidance for both
reconnaissance aircraft was sent into the same area, and collection and analysis, to communicate not just what they
allowed to be seen by the Axis, so they thought the result- want but also what they do not.
ing sinking was due to IMINT.
The CFR proposed a market constraint on consumers,
in which they could only get a certain amount of intelligence from the intelligence community, before they had
to provide additional funding.[8] A dierent constraint
21.3 Intelligence architecture
would be that an agency, to get information on a new
The intelligence cycle is only a model. Budgetary and topic, must agree to stop or reduce coverage on somepolicy direction are hierarchically above it. In reality, it thing currently being monitored for it. Even with this
is not a cycle, but a series of parallel activities. Accord- consumer-oriented model, the intelligence community iting to Arthur S. Hulnick, author of Whats Wrong with self needs to have a certain amount of resources that it
the Intelligence Cycle, Collection and analysis, which are can direct itself, for building basic intelligence and idensupposed to work in tandem, in fact work more properly tifying unusual threats.
in parallel. Finally, the idea that decision-makers wait
for the delivery of intelligence before making policy decisions is equally incorrect. In the modern era, policy ofcials seem to want intelligence to support policy rather
than to inform it. The Intelligence Cycle also fails to con-
It is important that intelligence ocers involved in articulating requirements represent both analysts and collectors, including those from the clandestine side. In addition, collection should be aected by the needs of policymakers and operators. All of this argues strongly against
115
any organizational reforms that would isolate the collec- policy to sort out individual cases. One now exists; the
tion agencies further or increase their autonomy.
challenge is to make it work.
Especially in nations with advanced technical sensors,
there is an interaction between budgeting and technology. For example, the US has tended, in recent years,
to use billion-dollar SIGINT satellites, where France has
used swarms of microsatellites. The quantity versus
quality battle is as evident in intelligence technology as in
weapons systems. The U.S. has fought a stovepipe battle,
in which SIGINT and IMINT satellites, in a given orbit,
were launched by dierent agencies. New plans put SIGINT, MASINT, and IMINT sensors, corresponding to a
type of orbit, on common platforms.
21.3.3
There is an opposition between law enforcement and intelligence, because the two entities are very dierent. Intelligence is oriented toward the future and seeks to inform policy-makers. It lives in an area of uncertainty
where the truth may be uncertain. Because intelligence
strives to protect its sources and methods, intelligence ofcials seek to stay out of the chain of evidence so they
will not have to testify in court. By contrast, law enforcements business is the prosecution of cases, and if law enforcement is to make a case, it must be prepared to reveal
how it knows what it knows.
The Council on Foreign Relations[8] recommended that
foreign policy ought to take precedence over law enforcement when it comes to overseas operations. The
bulk of U.S. intelligence eorts overseas are devoted to
traditional national security concerns; as a result, law enforcement must ordinarily be a secondary concern. FBI
and DEA agents operating abroad should not be allowed
to act independently of either the ambassador or the CIA
lest pursuit of evidence or individuals for prosecution
cause major foreign policy problems or complicate ongoing intelligence and diplomatic activities. (The same
should hold for any Defense Department personnel involved in intelligence activity overseas.) There are likely
to be exceptions, and a degree of case-by-case decisionmaking will be inevitable. What is needed most is a
Washington-based interagency mechanism involving ofcials from intelligence, law enforcement, and foreign
116
21.4.1
CCIRM
elements
the force commander. Senior NATO commanders receive intelligence information in the form of briengs,
summaries, reports and other intelligence estimates. According to authors Roberto Desimone and David Charles,
Battleeld commanders receive more specic documents, entitled intelligence preparation of the battleeld
(IPB). While these reports and briengs convey critical
information, they lack the full context in which the intelligence cell assembled them. In coalition warfare, not all
sources may be identied outside that cell. Even though
the material presented gives key information and recommendations, and assumptions for these interpretations
are given, the context "...not in a strong evidential sense,
pointing exactly to the specic intelligence information
that justies these interpretations. As a result, it is not always easy for the commander to determine whether a particular interpretation has been compromised by new intelligence information, without constant interaction with
the intelligence analysts. Conversely, security constraints
may prevent the analyst from explaining exactly why a
particular command decision might compromise existing intelligence gathering operations. As a result, most
of the detailed intelligence analyses, including alternative
hypotheses and interpretations, remain in the heads of intelligence ocers who rely on individual communication
skills to present their brief and keep the commander informed when the situation changes.[11]
Experience in Bosnia and Kosovo demonstrated strain between CCIRM and U.S. procedures, although the organizations learned by experience. Operation Joint Endeavor
began in 1995, with Operation Deliberate Force going to
a much higher level of combat. Operation Allied Force,
a more intense combat situation in Kosovo, began on 24
March 1999.
At the highest level of direction, rational policies, the effects of personalities, and culture can dominate the assignments given to the intelligence services.
117
versus
118
warfare.
HUMINT resources have been abused, even in democracies. In the case of the U.S., these abuses of resources
involved instances such as Iran-Contra and support to
the plumbers unit of the Nixon campaign and administration, as well as inltrating legal groups using a justication of force protection. British actions in Northern Ireland, and against terror groups in Gibraltar and
elsewhere, have been criticized, as have French actions
against Greenpeace. "... Contrary to widespread impressions, one problem with the clandestine services has been
a lack of initiative brought about by a fear of retroactive
discipline and a lack of high-level support. This must be
rectied if the intelligence community is to continue to
produce the human intelligence that will surely be needed
in the future.[8]
Other cycles
Boyd OODA Loop
Military strategist John Boyd created a model of decision and action, originally for air-to-air ghter combat,
but which has proven useful in many areas of conict. His
model has four phases, which, while not usually stated in
terms of the intelligence cycle, do relate to that cycle:
21.9. REFERENCES
119
[4] US Department of Defense (12 July 2007). Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (PDF). Retrieved 2007-1001.
[5] Joint Publication 2-0, Joint Intelligence (PDF). Defense
Technical Information Center (DTIC). Department of Defense. 22 June 2007. pp. GL11. Retrieved February 22,
2013.
[6] US Intelligence Board (2007). Planning and Direction.
Archived from the original on 2007-09-22. Retrieved
2007-10-22.
Interactions between the intelligence cycle and the Boyd loop
After the action, the actor observes again, to see the efrience, IV. Intelligence Operations. Retrieved 2007-10fects of the action. If the cycle works properly, the actor
26.
has initiative, and can orient, decide, and act even faster
in the second and subsequent iterations of the Boyd loop. [11] Desimone, Roberto; David Charles. Towards an On-
21.9 References
[1] Sun Tzu (6th Century BCE). "The Art of War". multiple
publications and translations. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[2] Richelson, Jerey T. (2001). The Wizards of Langley:
Inside the CIAs Directorate of Science and Technology.
Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-6699-2.
[3] Johnston, Rob (2005). Analytic Culture in the US Intelligence Community: An Ethnographic Study. Center
for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency.
Retrieved 2007-10-29.
Chapter 22
Interrogation
For other meanings of this and similar words
(words starting Interrog...) see Interrogation
(disambiguation).
22.1.1 Suggestibility
A persons suggestibility is how willing they are to accept and act on suggestions by others. Interrogators seek
to increase a subjects suggestibility. Methods used to
increase suggestibility may include moderate sleep deprivation, exposure to constant white noise, and using
GABAergic drugs such as sodium amytal or sodium
thiopental. It should be noted that attempting to increase
a subjects suggestibility through these methods may violate local and national laws concerning the treatment of
detainees, and in some areas may be considered torture.
Sleep deprivation, exposure to white noise, and the use
of drugs may greatly inhibit a detainees ability to provide
truthful and accurate information.
A police interrogation room in Switzerland.
22.1.2 Deception
Interrogation (also called questioning) is interviewing
as commonly employed by law enforcement ocers,
military personnel, and intelligence agencies with the goal
of eliciting useful information. Interrogation may involve
a diverse array of techniques, ranging from developing a
rapport with the subject, to outright torture.
Deception can form an important part of eective interrogation. In the United States, there is no law or regulation that forbids the interrogator from lying about the
strength of their case, from making misleading statements
or from implying that the interviewee has already been
implicated in the crime by someone else. See case law on
trickery and deception (Frazier v. Cupp).[1]
22.1 Techniques
22.1. TECHNIQUES
121
22.1.3
Omar Khadr pulling his hair in frustration during an interrogation by Canadian ocials, February 2003
the ocers take dierent sides. The 'bad cop' takes a negative stance on the subject. This allows for the 'good cop'
to sympathize with and defend the subject. The idea is
to get the subject to trust the 'good cop' and provide him
with the information they are looking for.
22.1.4
Pride-and-ego down
22.1.5
Reid technique
122
During the War on Terror, torture has never been authorized or permitted for use at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp or any other U.S. Department of Defense detention/internment facility on captives, whether
123
they are enemy prisoners of war, detainees, and unlawful 22.3 Resistance training
enemy combatants, though there have been people who
have reported being tortured at Guantanamo Bay.
Main article: Resistance to interrogation
Torture, in this context, is a war crime. Specically, a See also: Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape
grave violation of the Law of Land Warfare. War crimes
are punishable under U.S. Code as well as the U.S. Code Resistance training is often a prerequisite for some milof Military Justice. There is no statute of limitations for itary personnel since prisoners of war (POWs) routinely
war crimes. Instances of criminal behavior by military, undergo interrogation.
civilian, and contract personnel of the U.S. Department
of Defense has happened and has happened with regard
to Geneva Category regarding prisoners and detainees.
for increased
Criminal behavior in this context may range from mis- 22.4 Movement
handling to abuse to torture. Military Commanders inrecording of interrogations in
vestigate rigorously any accusation of prisoner mishanthe U.S.
dling, abuse, or torture. The military continues to vigorously prosecute any such unlawful activity.
Army regulations and policy have always been clear, the Currently, there is a movement for mandatory elecof all custodial interrogations in the
torture or coercion of an enemy prisoner of war during tronic recording
[22]
United
States.
Electronic recording describes the
interrogation, or in any other circumstance, is not only
process
of
recording
interrogations from start to nish.
unlawful but also an unproductive and unreliable method
This
is
in
contrast
to
a taped or recorded confesfor gaining information. In addition, U.S. Army interrosion,
which
typically
only
includes the nal statement
gation procedures continue to stress that all detained or
of
the
suspect.
Taped
interrogation
is the traditional
captured persons will be treated as Geneva Category Enterm
for
this
process;
however,
as
analog
is becoming
emy Prisoners of War until determined otherwise by a
less
and
less
common,
statutes
and
scholars
are referduly constituted military tribunal.
ring to the process as electronically recording interU.S. Air Force General Jack L. Rives (Deputy Judge Ad- views or interrogations. Alaska,[23] Illinois,[24] Maine,[25]
vocate General) advised a U.S. government task force Minnesota,[23] and Wisconsin[26] are the only states to rethat many of the extreme methods of interrogation would quire taped interrogation. New Jerseys taping requireleave service personnel open to legal sanction in the U.S. ment started on January 1, 2006.[23][27] Massachusetts
and foreign countries.
allows jury instructions that state that the courts prefer taped interrogations.[28] Commander Neil Nelson of
the St. Paul Police Department, an expert in taped
interrogation,[29] has described taped interrogation in
Minnesota as the best thing ever rammed down our
22.2.3 Inquisition
throats.[30]
Main article: Inquisition
22.6 References
[1] J. D. Obenberger (October 1998). Police Deception:
The Law and the Skin Trade in the Windy City.
Inquisition torture chamber. Mmoires Historiques (1716)
124
Judi-
[5] McCoy, Alfred (2007). A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror. Henry
Holt & Co. pp. 1617. ISBN 978-0-8050-8248-7.
[30] Wagner, Dennis (December 6, 2005). FBIs policy drawing re. The Arizona Republic. Retrieved October 16,
2013.
Chapter 23
Non-ocial cover
In espionage, agents under non-ocial cover (NOC) are
operatives who assume covert roles in organizations without ties to the government for which they work. Such
agents or operatives are typically abbreviated in espionage lingo as a NOC (pronounced knock).[1] These
agents are also known as illegals.[2] Non-ocial cover
is contrasted with ocial cover, where an agent assumes a
position at an otherwise benign department of their government, such as the diplomatic service. This provides
the agent with ocial diplomatic immunity, thus protecting them from the steep punishments normally meted out
to captured spies. Upon discovery of an ocial cover
agents secret hostile role, the host nation often declares
the agent persona non grata and orders them to leave the
country.
An agent sent to spy on a foreign country might, for instance, work as a businessperson, a worker for a nonprot organization (such as a humanitarian group), or an
academic. For example, the CIA's Ishmael Jones spent
nearly two decades as a NOC.[3]
126
23.3 References
[1] Shannon, Elaine (February 20, 1995). Spies for the New
Disorder. Time. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
[2] Clandestine HUMINT operational techniques
[3] John Weisman (September 7, 2010). Tripping Over
CIAs Bureaucratic Hurdles. Washington Times. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
[4] Dr Udo Ulfkotte, journalist and author, on RT. September 29, 2014.
Chapter 24
Numbers station
A numbers station is a type of shortwave radio station
characterized by unusual broadcasts, reading out lists of
numbers or incomprehensible morse code messages.[1]
The voices are often created by speech synthesis and are
transmitted in a wide variety of languages. The voices are
usually female, although sometimes mens or childrens
voices are used. Some voices are synthesized and created
by machines; however, some stations used to have live
readers.[2] Many numbers stations went o the air due
to the end of the Cold War in 1989, but many still operate and some have even continued operations but changed
schedules and operators.
Kendall Myers with conspiracy to spy for Cuba and receiving and decoding messages broadcast from a numbers
station operated by the Cuban Intelligence Directorate to
further that conspiracy.[11][12]
127
128
Others speculate that some of these stations may be related to illegal drug smuggling operations.[20] Unlike government stations, smugglers stations would need to be
lower powered and irregularly operated, to avoid location by triangulated direction nding. However, numbers
stations have transmitted with impunity for decades, so
they are generally presumed to be operated or sponsored
by governments. Additionally, numbers station transmissions in the international shortwave bands typically
transmit at high power levels that might be unavailable
to ranches, farms, or plantations in isolated drug-growing
regions.
High frequency radio signals transmitted at relatively
low power can travel around the world under ideal
propagation conditions, which are aected by local RF
noise levels, weather, season, and sunspots, and can then
be received with a properly tuned antenna of adequate
size, and a good receiver. However, spies often have
to work only with available hand-held receivers, sometimes under dicult local conditions, and in all seasons
and sunspot cycles.[10] Only very large transmitters, perhaps up to 500,000 watts, are guaranteed to get through
to nearly any basement-dwelling spy, nearly any place on
earth, nearly all of the time. Some governments may not
need a numbers station with global coverage if they only
send spies to nearby countries.
According to an internal Cold War era report of the Polish Ministry of Interior, numbers stations DCF37 (3370
A 1998 article in The Daily Telegraph quoted a kHz) and DFD21 (4010 kHz) transmitted from West
[25]
spokesperson for the Department of Trade and Indus- Germany since the early 1950s.
try (the government department that, at that time, regulated radio broadcasting in the United Kingdom) as saying, These [numbers stations] are what you suppose they 24.2 The Atencin spy case eviare. People shouldn't be mystied by them. They are not
dence
for, shall we say, public consumption.[21]
On some stations, tones can be heard in the background.
In such cases, the voice may simply be an aid to tuning
to the correct frequency, with the actual coded message
being sent by modulating the tones, using a technology
such as burst transmission.
129
usually either four or ve digits or radio-alphabet letters. The groups are typically repeated, either by reading
each group twice, or by repeating the entire message as a
whole.
Some stations send more than one message during a transmission. In this case, some or all of the above process is
repeated, with dierent contents.
Finally, after all the messages have been sent, the station will sign o in some characteristic fashion. Usually
it will simply be some form of the word end in whatever language the station uses (e.g., End of message;
End of transmission, Ende, Fini, Final, "").
Some stations, especially those thought to originate from
Congratulate all the female comrades for Interna- the former Soviet Union, end with a series of zeros,
tional Day of the Woman. [71 characters] (Probably e.g., 00000 000 000"; others end with music or other
a simple greeting for International Womens Day on sounds.[2]
8 March)
Because of the secretive nature of the messages, the
cryptographic function employed by particular stations is
At the rate of one spoken number per character per secnot publicly known, except in one (or possibly two[26] )
ond, each of these sentences takes more than a minute to
cases. It is assumed that most stations use a one-time pad
transmit.
that would make the contents of these number groups inThe moderator of an e-mail list for global numbers station distinguishable from randomly generated numbers or dighobbyists claimed, Someone on the Spooks list had al- its. In one conrmed case, West Germany did use a oneready cracked the code for a repeated transmission [from time pad for numbers transmissions.[27]
Havana to Miami] if it was received garbled. Such codebreaking is possible if a one-time pad decoding key is
used more than once.[10] If used properly, however, the 24.4 Transmission technology
code cannot be broken.
24.3 Formats
Generally, numbers stations follow a basic format, although there are many dierences in details between sta- Amplitude modulated (AM) transmitters with
tions. Transmissions usually begin on the hour or half- optionallyvariable frequency, using class-C power
output stages with plate modulation, are the workhorses
hour.
of international shortwave broadcasting, including
The prelude, introduction, or call-up of a transmission numbers stations.
(from which stations informal nicknames are often derived) includes some kind of identier,[2] either for the Application of spectrum analysis to numbers station
signals has revealed the presence of data bursts, RTTYstation itself and/or for the intended recipient. This
can take the form of numeric or radio-alphabet code modulated subcarriers, phase-shifted carriers, and other
unusual transmitter modulations like polytones.[28]
names (e.g. Charlie India Oscar, 250 250 250, SixNiner-Zero-Oblique-Five-Four), characteristic phrases (RTTY-modulated subcarriers were also present on
commercial radio transmissions during the
(e.g. "Atencin!", Achtung!", Ready? Ready?", some U.S.[29]
)
Cold
War.
1234567890), and sometimes musical or electronic
sounds (e.g. The Lincolnshire Poacher, Magnetic The frequently reported use of high tech modulations like
Fields). Sometimes, as in the case of the Israeli radio- data bursts, in combination or in sequence with spoken
alphabet stations, the prelude can also signify the nature numbers, suggests varying transmissions for diering inor priority of the message to follow (e.g., [hypothetically] telligence operations.[30]
Charlie India Oscar-2, indicating that no message fol- For spies in the eld, low-tech spoken number translows). Often the prelude repeats for a period before the missions continue to have advantages in the 21st cenbody of the message begins.
tury. High-tech data receiving equipment is dicult to
After the prelude, there is usually an announcement of
the number of number-groups in the message,[2] the page
to be used from the one-time pad, or other pertinent information. The groups are then recited. Groups are
130
Speech/Morse generator
Numbers station transmissions have often been the target of intentional jamming attempts. Despite this targeting, many numbers stations continue to broadcast unhindered. Several theories exist that aid in explaining the
inability to eectively jam the transmissions. With only
a nite number of jamming transmitters available at any
given time, it may be more ecient to block clandestine stations intended for a large audience rather than a
message intended for a single person. Another theory is
24.5 Interfering with numbers sta- that there may be a "gentlemens agreement" in place; i.e.,
We won't jam yours if you don't jam ours. In addition,
tions
the haphazard nature of some stations, e.g., not having a
xed schedule or frequency, also makes jamming more
24.5.1 Documented instances of interfer- dicult because the broadcast may go undetected.
Historical examples of jamming:
ence to broadcasts
The North Korean foreign language service Voice of Ko The YHF being jammed by the mysterious Chinese
rea began to broadcast on the Lincolnshire Poachers forMusic Station.[33]
mer frequency, 11545 kHz, in 2006, possibly to deliberately interfere with its propagation. However, Lincolnshire Poacher is broadcasting not only on one, but
24.6 Classication
on three dierent frequencies, of which the remaining
two have not been interfered and the apparent target zone
for the Lincolnshire Poacher signals originating in Cyprus Although many numbers stations have various nicknames
was the Middle East, not the Far East which is covered by which usually describe some aspect of the station itself,
these nicknames sometimes led to confusion among lisits sister station Cherry Ripe.
teners, particularly when discussing stations with simOn 27 September 2006, amateur radio transmissions in ilar traits. M. Gauman of the E.N.I.G.M.A. numthe 30 m band were aected by an English-language bers stations monitoring group[34] originally assigned a
Russian Man numbers station at 17:40 UTC.
code to each known station. Portions of the original
The late Havana Moon reported in his own publica- E.N.I.G.M.A. group moved on to other interest in 2000
tion The Numbers Factsheet in October 1990 that one and the classication of numbers stations was continparticularly dangerous station has been interfering with ued by the follow-on group ENIGMA 2000.[35] The docair to ground trac on 6577 kHz, a frequency allocated ument containing the description of each station and
to international aeronautical communications in the busy its code designation is called the ENIGMA Control
Caribbean sector. On at least one monitored transmis- List,[36] currently in its 25th edition. This classication
sion, the air trac controller at ARINC moved the pilot scheme takes the form of a letter followed by a number
to an alternate frequency as the numbers transmission was (or, in the case of some X stations, more numbers).[37]
The letter indicates the language used by the station in
totally blocking the frequency from eective use.
131
The band Wilco named its album Yankee Hotel Foxtrot (2001) after a segment of a recorded numbers
station transmission. The recording is also sampled
in the song Poor Places on the album.[42]
SK Digital Mode
HM Hybrid Mode
DP Digital-Pseudo Polytone
For example, the well known, defunct Lincolnshire
Poacher station has the designation E3 (or E03), the
Cuban Atencin station has designation V2 (or V02).
The most recent station to be given a designation is the
Vietnamese language station V30.
Some stations have also been stripped of their designation
if they are discovered not to be a numbers station. This
was the case for E22 which was discovered in 2005 to be
test transmissions for All India Radio.
24.7 Recordings
The Conet Project: Recordings of Shortwave Numbers Stations is a four-CD set of recordings of numbers stations. It was rst released in 1997 by the
Irdial-Discs record label. Broadcast of these recordings can be heard here:
24.10 References
132
[6] Catinka Mannerfelt Agneskog. Spos hemliga radiotelegram (in Swedish). SvD Nyheter. Retrieved 23
January 2015.
[7] stations KKN44, BFBX and OLX Mason, Simon.
Shortwave Espionage. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
[8] Helms, Harry L. (1981). Espionage Radio Activity.
How to Tune the Secret Shortwave Spectrum. Blue Ridge
Summit, PA: TAB Books Inc. p. 52. ISBN 0830611851.
[9] E03 The LincolnShire Poacher. Retrieved 6 September
2014.
[10] Sokol, Brett (February 8, 2001). Espionage Is in the Air.
Miami New Times. Archived from the original on 200102-21.
[11] Rijmenants, Dirk (2013). Cuban Agent Communications (PDF). Cipher Machines & Cryptology (PDF). Retrieved 2013-12-30.
[31] Even a non-standard civilian shortwave radio can be dicult to obtain in a totalitarian state. See If It Had Not Been
For 15 Minutes, chapter 6 for the problems of obtaining
a numbers station receiving radio in East Germany during
the Cold War.
[13] Helms, Harry L. (1981). Government and Military Communications. How to Tune the Secret Shortwave Spectrum. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books Inc. p. 58.
ISBN 0830611851.
[14] Schimmel, Donald W. (1994). The Underground Frequency Guide: A Directory of Unusual, Illegal, and Covert
Radio Communications (3 ed.). Solana Beach, California:
High Text Publications, Inc. pp. 8895. ISBN 1-87870717-5.
[15] Segal, David (August 3, 2004). The Shortwave And the
Calling: For Akin Fernandez, Cryptic Messages Became
Music To His Ears. The Washington Post. p. C01.
[16] Mason 1991, pp. 56
Simonmason.karoo.net.
Retrieved
http://www.apul64.dsl.pipex.com/
[36] http://www.apul64.dsl.pipex.com/enigma2000/docs/
ECL.pdf
[40] Stereolabs Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements"". discogs. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
[41] Murray, Noel. 6955kHz Fringe. AV Club. Retrieved
October 1, 2012.
[42] Wired, 23 June 2004: Wilco Pays Up for Spycasts Retrieved 2013-02-28
[43] Matador Pictures: The Numbers Station Retrieved 201302-28
[44] Blitter and Twisted, December 1, 2010 Retrieved 201401-22
[45] Porcupine Tree - Community. Retrieved February 4,
2015.
133
The Numbers Stations Research and Information
Center
Mason, Simon (1991). Secret Signals The Euronumbers Mystery. Lake Geneva, WI: Tiare Publications. ISBN 0-936653-28-0. Retrieved 2013-1224.
Priyom website
Chapter 25
Ocial cover
In espionage, an ocial cover operative is one who assumes a position in an organization with diplomatic ties
to the government for which the operative works.
Ocial cover operatives are granted a set of governmental
protections, and if caught in the act of espionage, they can
request diplomatic protection from their government. In
other words, ocial cover operatives are agents ocially
recognized by their country.
25.2 References
How the CIA Works - HowStuWorks article on the
Central Intelligence Agency explaining this term.
134
Chapter 26
Shortwave frequencies were and are generally highly preferred for their long range, as a communications link of
1200 km is easily possible. VHF and UHF frequencies
can be used for one-way voice circuits, but are generally
not preferred as their range is at best 300 km (on at terrain). Since the 1970s infrared point-to-point communication systems have been used that oer OWVLs, but the
number of users was always limited.
This communications system often employs recorders to
transmit pre-recorded messages in real time or in burst
transmissions, which minimize the time that a spy needs
to be on the air. Voice-scrambling systems have been
selectively used for this kind of communications circuit
since the 1980s, based on operational needs.
Since personal computers became cheap and readily
available in the 2000s, time compressed voice scrambling
for one-way and bi-directional circuits is a practically free
technology.
OWVLs have existed outside of espionage, for example
the NICAM transmission system was modied in the UK
to allow for an OWVL to BBC mobile units. This OWVL
was typically used for sports events, as it was highly exible.
Numbers station
Chapter 27
Resident spy
In espionage, a resident spy is an agent operating within
a foreign country for extended periods of time. A base
of operations within a foreign country which a resident
spy may liaise with is known as a station in English and a
rezidentura (residency) in Russian parlance;[1][2] accordingly, what the U.S. would call a station chief, the head
spy, is known as a rezident in Russian.[1]
27.3 References
136
27.3.1
Cross-reference
27.3.2
Sources used
137
Chapter 28
Special reconnaissance
Convention of 1907,[2] or the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949.[3] However, some countries do not honor
these legal protections, as was the case with the Nazi
"Commando Orders" of World War II, which were held
to be illegal at the Nuremberg Trials.
This article is a subset article under Human Intelligence. For a complete hierarchical list of
articles, see the intelligence cycle management
hierarchy.
28.1 History
139
Services (OSS), modelled on the British SOE, in June means of collecting technical intelligence, and usually at
1942. Following the end of the war OSS became the basis least one medical technician who can do more than basic
for the CIA.
rst aid.
During the Vietnam War, respective division and
brigades in-country trained their Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members (now known as the Long Range
Surveillance units). However, the US Armys 5th Special Forces Group held an advanced course in the art of
patrolling for potential Army and Marine team leaders
at their Recondo School in Nha Trang, Vietnam, for the
purpose of locating enemy guerrilla and main force North
Vietnamese Army units, as well as artillery spotting, intelligence gathering, forward air control, and bomb damage
assessment.[4]
SR units are well armed, since they may have to defend themselves if they are detected as their exltration
support needs time to get to them.[6] During the 1991
Gulf War, British SAS and United States Army and Air
Force Special Operations Forces units were sent on SR to
nd mobile Iraqi SCUD launchers, originally to direct air
strikes onto them. When air support was delayed, how- 28.3 Appropriate missions
ever, the patrols might attack key SCUD system elements
with their organic weapons and explosives. See The Great Special forces units that perform SR are usually polySCUD Hunt.
valent, so SR missions may be intelligence gathering in
[3]
While there are obvious risks to doing so, SR-trained support of another function, such as counter-insurgency,
units can operate out of uniform. They may use motor- foreign internal defense (FID), guerrilla/unconventional
cycles, four-wheel-drive vehicles, or multiple helicopter warfare (UW), or direct action (DA).
lifts in their area of operations, or have mountaineering or
underwater capability. Most SR units are trained in advanced helicopter movement and at least basic parachuting; some SR will have HAHO and HALO advanced
parachute capability.
Other missions may deal with locating targets and planning, guiding, and evaluating attacks against them.
140
28.3.1
Every SR mission will collect intelligence, even incidentally. Before a mission, SR teams will usually study all
available and relevant information on the area of operations (AO). On their mission, they then conrm, amplify,
correct, or refute this information.
Assessment, whether by clandestine SR or overt study
teams, is a prerequisite for other special operations missions, such as UW or FID. DA or counter-terror (CT),
usually implies clandestine SR.
IMINT
Basic photography[7] and sketching is usually a skill for
everyone performing SR missions. More advanced photographic technique may involve additional training or attaching specialists.
Lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles with imagery and
other intelligence collection capability are potentially
useful for SR, since small UAVs have low observability.
SR team members can be trained to use them, or specialists can be attached. The UAV may transmit what it
sees, using one or more sensors, either to the SR team or a
monitoring headquarters. Potential sensors include stabilized and highly magnied photography, low-light television, thermal imagers and imaging radar. Larger UAVs,
which could be under the operational control of the SR
team, could use additional sensors including portable
acoustic and electro-optical systems.
141
TECHINT
Capture of enemy equipment for TECHINT analysis is a
basic SR mission. Capture of enemy equipment for examination by TECHINT specialists may be a principal
part of SR patrols and larger raids, such as the World War
II Operation Biting raid on Saint-Jouin-Bruneval, France,
to capture a German Wrzburg radar. They also captured
a German radar technician.
Not atypically for such operations, a technical specialist (radar engineer Flight Sergeant C.W.H. Cox) was atThe very limited results from LEAPING LENA led to tached to the SR unit. Sometimes technical specialists
two changes. First, US-led SR teams, under Project without SR training have taken their rst parachute jump
DELTA sent in US-led teams. Second, these Army teams on TECHINT-oriented missions.
worked closely with US Air Force Forward Air ConCox told them what to take, and what that could not
trollers (FAC) which were enormously helpful in directbe moved to photograph. Cox had signicant knowling US air attacks by high-speed ghter-bombers, BARedge of British radar, and conicting reports say that the
REL ROLL in northern Laos and Operation STEEL
force was under orders to kill him rather than let him be
TIGER. While the FACs immediately helped, air-ground
captured.[18] This was suggested an after-the-action rucooperation improved signicantly with the use of remor, as Cox was a technician, and the true radar expert
mote geophysical MASINT sensors, although MASINT
that could not be captured, Don Preist, stayed oshore
had not yet been coined as a term.[15]
but in communications with the raiders.[18] Preist also had
The original sensors, a dim ancestor of todays technolo- ELINT equipment to gain information on the radar.
gies, started with air-delivered sensors under Operation
Publicising this operation helped British morale but was
Igloo White, such as air-delivered Acoubuoy and Spikepoor security. Had the force destroyed the site and re[16]
buoy acoustic sensors. These cued monitoring aircraft,
treated without any notice, the Germans might have suswhich sent the data to a processing center in Thailand,
pected what technology had been compromised. So the
from which target information was sent to the DELTA
Germans fortied their radar sites, and the British, realteams.
ising similar raids could target them, moved their radar
Closer to todays SR-emplaced sensors was the Mini- research center, TRE farther inland.[18]
Seismic Intrusion Detector (MINISID). Unlike other senA mixture of SR, DA, and seizing opportunities charsors employed along the trail it was specically designed
acterized Operation Rooster 53, originally planned as a
to be hand delivered and implanted. The MINISID
mission to locate and disable a radar. It turned into an
and its smaller version the MICROSID were personnel
opportunity to capture the radar and, ying overloaded
detection devices often used in combination with the
helicopter, bring the entire radar back to the electronic
magnetic intrusiondetector (MAGID). Combining senTECHINT analysts. The Sayeret Matkal reconnaissance
sors in this way improved the ability of individual senunit was central to this Israeli mission.
sors to detect targets and reduced false alarms. Todays
AN/GSQ-187 Improved Remote Battleeld Sensor System (I-REMBASS) is a passive acoustic sensor which Specic Data Collection
with other MASINT sensors detects vehicles and humans
on a battleeld,[17] multiple acoustic, seismic, and magSR teams may be assigned to observe and measure spenetic sensors combine modes to discriminate real targets.
cic site or enemy facility information as done for tarIt will be routine for SR units both to emplace such sengeting, but in this case for ground operations rather than
sors for regional monitoring by higher headquarters resuppression by re. Regular ground forces, for example,
mote sensing centers, but also as an improvement over
might need a road and bridge surveyed to know whether
tripwires and other improvised warnings for the patrol.
heavy vehicles can cross it. The SR may be able help
Passive acoustic sensors provide additional measure- with observation, photography, and other measurements.
ments that can be compared with signatures and used to An engineering specialist, preferably from a special opcomplement other sensors. For example, a ground search erations organization may need to augment the team.
radar may not be able to dierentiate between a tank and
SR commanders need to ensure such missions cannot be
a truck moving at the same speed. Adding acoustic inforperformed by organic reconnaissance and other elements
mation may quickly help dierentiate them.
of a maneuver force commander supported by the SR
organization, as well as other supporting reconnaissance
services such as IMINT.
For example, during the Falklands War of 1982, UK
142
Special Air Service delivered using helicopters eight 4man patrols deep into enemy-held territory up to 20 miles
(32 km) from their hide sites several weeks before the
main conventional force landings. Each man carried
equipment needed for up to 25 days due to resupply limitations (cf. the 7-day limits of conventional LRS patrols
discussed above). These patrols surveyed major centers
of enemy activity. The patrols reconnoitered Argentinian
positions at night, and then due to the lack of cover moved
to distant observation posts (OPs). Information gathered
was relayed to the eet by secure radio not impervious
from SIGINT that could locate their OPs. No common
understanding of the threat of Argentine direction nding existed, and dierent teams developed individual solutions. The value of the information and the stress on
the SR teams were tremendous. Their activities helped
the force, limited in its sensors, develop an accurate operational picture of the opposition.[7]
143
sual and voice communications, without any electronics to make the delivery precise. SR teams could throw
colored smoke grenades as a visual reference, but they
needed to be in dangerously close range to the enemy to
do so. A slightly improved method involved their directing a Forward Air Controller aircraft to re marking rockets onto the target, but the method was fraught with error.
In Vietnam, the support was usually aircraft-delivered, although in some cases the target might be in range of artillery. Today, the distance to which SR teams penetrate
will usually be out of the range of artillery, but groundlaunched missiles might support them. In either case, directing any support relies on one of two basic guidance
paradigms:
Oset GOLIS
A less preferred because it was much more error-prone
alternative was to put a reference point on the ground that
told the weapon hit over there in relation to my position.
A smoke grenade for instance was a reference point, but
imprecise from the air.
Oset beacons work reasonably well for direct-re helicopter and xed-wing gunships (e.g., AC-130) and for
dumb bomb drops by ghter-bombers. Oset is not as
accurate as straight-line ring, but especially when night
or weather eects limit visibility, it may be the only alternative. Oset beacons as well as passive reectors can
be used for radar attack, although it is not as accurate as
radar. Gunships typically make multiple passes with the
SR team air controller giving corrections by voice.
Oset ring is not as accurate as direct mode of re and
are normally used in poor weather conditions with the
ground commander or team leader calling misses and corrections to the aircraft. As a rule, the shorter the oset
distance, the more accurate the weapon.[23]
The early Afghanistan attempts still required voice coordination to give the bomber the coordinates.[24] This
led to one friendly re incident that killed three Special Forces soldiers and wounded 19 others. A controller
had been using a hand-held GPS receiver, whose battery failed. On replacing the battery, the unit reinitialized to show the controllers own position, not the oset
144
At rst, US Special Forces teams used COTS device,
called the Viper, which combined o-the-shelf Leica
Geosystems Viper laser rangender binoculars, with integral compass and inclinometer but no GPS, to triangulate
targets in Afghanistan. The Viper is capable of a lasing
distance from 25 meters to 4,000 meters. The unit runs
o of a commercial camera battery.
Reducing friendly re incidents The friendly re incident caused by human factors failures in addition to
battery replacement and reinitialization of the GPS (to
not to the target location but that of the SR team) could
have been avoided if someone on the bomber, on a comGeneral Chuck Horner, the joint air commander during mand & control aircraft, or at an operations center, had
Desert Storm, likened it to giving infantrymen a 2000 full awareness of the situation. Situational awareness in
pound hand grenade (i.e., a 2000 pound JDAM guided this case means having positive conrmation of several
bomb) from a long-range bomber loitering overhead.[26] key data:
Enhanced GAPS
In the Air Force GAPS doctrine, Army SR teams are augmented with Air Force combat controllers. While Army
SR can call in support, air force combat controllers [improved accuracy] in calling in air strikes to reduce the enemy threat and minimize the ground resistance in the battle for the Balk Valley in northern Afghanistan.
The Viper system, however, allowed communications between one team and only one aircraft. More advanced
systems allow network-centric warfare that can send the
optimal aircraft to the target, using linkages with the Joint
Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), especially the Link-16[27] variant that can send information to
ghters and Army Enhanced Position-Location Reporting System (EPLRS) terminals.
The current combined Modular Advance Reconnaissance
System (MARS) combines the Viper laser rangender,
GPS receiver, and appropriate computing and display.
The terminal controller would then transmit the coordinates via voice radio to the aircraft. Systems that give
better situation awareness are under development.
145
28.4.1 Inltration
Special reconnaissance teams, depending on training and
resources, may enter the area of operations in many ways.
They may stay behind, where the unit deliberately stays
hidden in an area that is expected to be overrun by advancing enemy forces. They may inltrate by foot, used
when the enemy does not have full view of his own lines,
such that skilled soldiers can move through their own
front lines and, as a small unit, penetrate those of the enemy. Such movement is most often by night.
They may have mechanical help on the ground, such
as tactical four-wheel-drive vehicles (e.g., dune buggies
or long-wheelbase Land Rovers) or motorcycles. The
British Special Air Service pioneered in vehicle SR, going
back to North Africa in World War II. In Desert Storm,
US SR forces used medium and heavy helicopters to carry
in vehicles for the Scud Hunt.
JDAM has brought a new dimension to the GAPS mission, requiring Rules of Engagement changes for unrestricted use.[25] Bombers and other aircraft can deliver
the JDAM precisely on known coordinates through the
weather, miles away from the target. The terminal controller will not have the delivering aircraft in sight. Different ROE that are exible enough to support JDAM US Army Special Forces units working with the Afghan
deliveries must be instituted to allow future use of this Northern Alliance did ride horses, and there may be other
pack or riding animals capabilities.
unique capability.
The decision to fully develop which system is long over- SR units can move by air. They can use a variety of
due. If GAPS is to mature, it requires a positive means helicopter techniques, using fast disembarking by rope,
for identifying the friendly ground forces to the attack- ladder, or fast exit, at night. Alternatively, they can
ing aircraft. A common system that allows the services parachute, typically by night, and using the HALO or
to talk to one another is necessary. This is the only way HAHO jump technique so their airplane does not alert
the enemy.
to ensure reduction of friendly re incidents.
Appropriately trained and equipped SR personnel can
come by sea. They can use boats across inland water or
from a surface ship or even a helicopter-launched boat.
Another option is underwater movement, by swimming or
delivery vehicle, from a submarine or an oshore surface
28.4 Operational techniques
ship. Some highly trained troops, such as United States
Navy SEALs or British Special Boat Service or Indian
Their mission is not to engage in direct combat. It may MARCOS may parachute into open water, go underwabe to observe and report, or it may include directing air ter, and swim to the target.
or artillery attacks on enemy positions. If the latter is the
case, the patrol still tries to stay covert; the idea is that the
enemy obviously knows they are being attacked, but not 28.4.2 Support
who is directing re.
While it is rare for a single man to do a special reconnaissance mission, it does happen. More commonly, the
smallest unit is a two-man sniper team. Even though
snipers teams basic mission is to shoot enemy personnel
or equipment, they are skilled in concealment and observation, and can carry out pure reconnaissance missions of
limited durations. The US Marine Corps often detaches
sniper teams organic to combat units, to establish clandestine observation posts.
146
28.4.3 Exltration
Most of the same methods used to inltrate may be used
to exltrate. Stay-behind forces may wait until friendly
forces arrive in their area.
One of the more common means of exltration is by special operations helicopters. There are a number of techniques that do not require the helicopter to land, in which
the SR team clips harnesses to ropes or rope ladders, and
the helicopter ies away to an area where it is safe for
them to come aboard. Small helicopters, such as the MH6, have benches outside the cabin, onto which trained soldiers can quickly jump and strap in.
28.5 SR
CommunicationsElectronics
Without modern military electronics, and occasionally
civilian ones, modern SR is fundamentally dierent from
special soldiers that took on such risky missions, but with
unreliable communications and a constant danger of being located through them. Human-to-human electronics
are not the only critical advance. Navigational systems
such as GPS, with backups to them, have immense value.
GPS tells the patrol its location, but laser rangenders
and other equipment can tell them the exact location of a
target, which they can then send to a re support unit.
Strong encryption, electronic counter-countermeasures,
and mechanisms, such as burst transmission to reduce the
chance of being located all play a role.
Current trends in secure communications, light and exible enough for SR patrols to carry, are based on the evolving concept of software dened radio. The immensely
exible Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) is deployed
with NATO special operations units, and can provide
low-probability-of-intercept encrypted communications
between ground units, from ground to aircraft, or from
ground to satellite. It lets a SR team use the same radio
to operate on several networks, also allowing a reduced
number of spare radios. Some of the raiders on the Son
Tay raid carried as many as ve radios.
JTRS closely integrates with target designators that plug
into it, so that a separate radio is not required to communicate with precision-guided munition launchers. While
unmanned aerial vehicles obviously involve more technologies than electronics, the availability of man-portable
UAVs for launch by the patrol, as well as communications
between the patrol and a high-performance UAV, may result in fundamentally new tactical doctrines.
US Marines from 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion practicing Special Purpose Insert and Extraction (SPIE), 2006.
28.7. EXAMPLES
Air Force Situation Awareness Data Link (SADL) device that communicates between aircraft doing close air
support, but also can exchange mission data with Army
Enhanced Position Location Reporting System (EPLRS)
equipment. Again, the same basic equipment interconnects EPLRS ground units.
147
Canada:
Canadian Special Operations Regiment
Joint Task Force 2
Denmark:
Jgerkorpset
Frmandskorpset
Sirius Patrol (two-man arctic patrols)
Special Support and Reconnaissance Company.
France:
13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment
2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment
Commando Parachute Group
India:
Para Commandos
MARCOS
Special Frontier Force
Garud Commando Force
Ghatak Force
Ireland:
Army Ranger Wing (ARW)
Directorate of Intelligence (G2)
Israeli:
Sayeret Matkal
Shaldag Unit
Shayetet 13
Maglan.
New Zealand:
Special Air Service Group.
Poland:
GROM
28.7 Examples
Many countries have units with an ocial special reconnaissance role, including:
Australia:
Special Air Service Regiment.
Italy:
185th Parachute Regiment special reconnaissance and target acquisition.
148
Sri Lanka:
Sri Lanka Army Commando Regiment
Sri Lanka Army Special Forces Regiment
Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)
Sri Lanka Air Force Regiment Special Force
Sweden:
Srskilda Operationsgruppen (Special Operations Task Group)
United Kingdom:
Special Air Service
Special Boat Service
Special Reconnaissance Regiment.
The Pathnder Platoon
United States:
CIA Paramilitary Operations Teams
US Army Special Forces
75th Ranger Regiment
US Army Long Range Surveillance Companies (LRS)
US Army Battleeld Surveillance Brigade
(BfSB)
US Army Reconnaissance & Surveillance
Squadron (R&S Squadrons)
US Army Regimental Reconnaissance Company (RRC, formerly RRD)
US Marine Corps Force Recon
US Marine Corps Special Operations Command
US Navy SEALs
US Army Special Missions Combat Applications Group (CAG), a/k/a Delta Force
United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group, a/k/a DEVGRU and SEAL
Team 6
28.9 References
[1] William J. Perry. 1996 Annual Defense Report, Chapter
22, Special Operations Forces. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
[2] Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of
War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the
Laws and Customs of War on Land, Article 29.. International Red Cross. 18 October 1907. Retrieved 200711-11.
[3] Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August
1949, Article 29.. International Red Cross. Retrieved
2007-11-11.
[4] Ankony, Robert C., Lurps: A Rangers Diary of Tet, Khe
Sanh, A Shau, and Quang Tri, revised ed., Rowman &
Littleeld Publishing Group, Lanham, MD (2009)
[5] Department of the Army. Field Manual 7-93 - LongRange Surveillance Unit Operations Reconnaissance and
Surveillance Units.
[6] Suvorov, Viktor (1990). SPETSNAZ: The Inside Story Of
The Special Soviet Special Forces. Pocket. ISBN 0-67168917-7.
[7] Field Manual 31-20-5 - Special Reconnaissance Tactics,
Techniques, and Procedures for Special Forces. 7 March
1990. FM 31-20-5. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
[8] U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Special Operations Command(MARSOC)" (PDF). Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2007-12-16. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
[9] FM 3-05.102 Army Special Forces Intelligence (PDF).
July 2001.
[10] L3/Linkabit Communications. The AN/PRD-13 (V1)
Man Portable Signal Intelligence System.
[11] 18 (UKSF) Signals Regiment. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
[12] TASK FORCE BLACK. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
[13] Department of the Army (30 September 1991). 4: Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Support to Special Forces
Group (Airborne)". FM 34-36: Special Operations Forces
Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations.
[14] Rosenau, William (2000). Special Operations Forces
and Elusive Enemy Ground Targets: Lessons from Vietnam and the Persian Gulf War. U.S. Air Ground Operations Against the Ho Chi Minh Trail, 1966-1972 (PDF).
RAND Corporation. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
[15] Haas, Michael E. (1997). Apollos Warriors: US Air
Force Special Operations during the Cold War (PDF).
Air University Press. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
[16] John T. Correll (November 2004). Igloo White
(– SCHOLAR SEARCH ). Air Force Magazine 87
(11).
[17] CACI (9 April 2002). AN/GSQ-187 Improved Remote
Battleeld Sensor System (I-REMBASS)". Retrieved
2007-10-15.
149
Riding With the Posse Part I by Mike Giord
International Special Training Center and NATO
celebrate 30 years of teaching special forces (July
2, 2009) by Maj. Jennifer Johnson, 7th Army Joint
Multinational Training Command Public Aairs
Chapter 29
Steganography
29.1 History
29.2 Techniques
29.2.1 Physical
150
29.2. TECHNIQUES
151
Digital messages
Hidden messages on paper written in secret inks, under other messages or on the blank parts of other
messages
Messages written in Morse code on yarn and then
knitted into a piece of clothing worn by a courier.
Messages written on envelopes in the area covered
by postage stamps.
In the early days of the printing press, it was common to mix dierent typefaces on a printed page
due to the printer not having enough copies of some
letters in one typeface. Because of this, a message
could be hidden using two (or more) dierent typefaces, such as normal or italic.
During and after World War II, espionage agents
used photographically produced microdots to send
information back and forth. Microdots were typically minute (less than the size of the period produced by a typewriter). World War II microdots
were embedded in the paper and covered with an
adhesive, such as collodion. This was reective, and
thus detectable by viewing against glancing light.
Alternative techniques included inserting microdots
into slits cut into the edge of post cards.
Image of a tree with a steganographically hidden image. The hidden image is revealed by removing all but the two least signicant
bits of each color component and a subsequent normalization.
The hidden image is shown below.
152
Digital text
or more dierent network protocols to enable secret communication. These applications fall under the term interprotocol steganography.[18]
Network steganography covers a broad spectrum of techniques, which include, among others:
153
up in software specically, and are easily confused. These
are most relevant to digital steganographic systems.
154
29.5 Applications
29.5.1
electronics that digitize an analog signal suer from several noise sources such as thermal noise, icker noise, and
shot noise. This noise provides enough variation in the
captured digital information that it can be exploited as a
noise cover for hidden data. In addition, lossy compression schemes (such as JPEG) always introduce some error
into the decompressed data; it is possible to exploit this
for steganographic use as well.
Steganography can be used for digital watermarking,
where a message (being simply an identier) is hidden in
an image so that its source can be tracked or veried (for
example, Coded Anti-Piracy), or even just to identify an
image (as in the EURion constellation).
Some modern computer printers use steganography, including HP and Xerox brand color laser printers. These
printers add tiny yellow dots to each page. The barelyvisible dots contain encoded printer serial numbers and
date and time stamps.[23]
29.5.2
The larger the cover message (in binary data, the number of bits) relative to the hidden message, the easier it is
to hide the latter. For this reason, digital pictures (which
contain large amounts of data) are used to hide messages
on the Internet and on other communication media. It is
not clear how commonly this actually is. For example:
a 24-bit bitmap uses 8 bits to represent each of the three
color values (red, green, and blue) at each pixel. The blue
alone has 28 dierent levels of blue intensity. The dierence between 11111111 and 11111110 in the value for
blue intensity is likely to be undetectable by the human
eye. Therefore, the least signicant bit can be used more
or less undetectably for something else other than color
information. If this is repeated for the green and the red
elements of each pixel as well, it is possible to encode one
letter of ASCII text for every three pixels.
Stated somewhat more formally, the objective for making steganographic encoding dicult to detect is to ensure that the changes to the carrier (the original signal)
due to the injection of the payload (the signal to covertly
embed) are visually (and ideally, statistically) negligible;
that is to say, the changes are indistinguishable from the
noise oor of the carrier. Any medium can be a carrier,
but media with a large amount of redundant or compressible information are better suited.
From an information theoretical point of view, this means
that the channel must have more capacity than the surface signal requires; that is, there must be redundancy.
For a digital image, this may be noise from the imaging
element; for digital audio, it may be noise from recording techniques or amplication equipment. In general,
There are distributed steganography methods,[25] including methodologies that distribute the payload through
multiple carrier les in diverse locations to make detection more dicult. For example, U.S. Patent 8,527,779
by cryptographer William Easttom (Chuck Easttom).
29.8. REFERENCES
155
29.8 References
Wayner, Peter (2002). Disappearing cryptography:
information hiding: steganography & watermarking. Amsterdam: MK/Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 1-558-60769-2.
Wayner, Peter (2009). Disappearing cryptography
3rd Edition: information hiding: steganography &
watermarking. Amsterdam: MK/Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 978-0-123-74479-1.
Petitcolas, Fabien A.P.; Katzenbeisser, Stefan
(2000).
Information Hiding Techniques for
Steganography and Digital Watermarking. Artech
House Publishers. ISBN 1-580-53035-4.
Johnson, Neil; Duric, Zoran; Jajodia, Sushil (2001).
Information hiding: steganography and watermarking: attacks and countermeasures. Springer. ISBN
978-0-792-37204-2.
156
Covert Channels in the TCP/IP Suite1996 paper
by Craig Rowland detailing the hiding of data in
TCP/IP packets.
Network Steganography Centre Tutorials. Howto articles on the subject of network steganography (Wireless LANs, VoIP - Steganophony, TCP/IP
protocols and mechanisms, Steganographic Router,
Inter-protocol steganography). By Krzysztof Szczypiorski and Wojciech Mazurczyk from Network Security Group.
Invitation to BPCS-Steganography.
Steganography by Michael T. Raggo, DefCon 12 (1
August 2004)
File Format Extension Through Steganography by
Blake W. Ford and Khosrow Kaikhah
Computer steganography. Theory and practice with
Mathcad (Rus) 2006 paper by Konakhovich G. F.,
Puzyrenko A. Yu. published in MK-Press Kyiv,
Ukraine
Chapter 30
Surveillance
This article is about observing peoples actions and communications. For the article about monitoring the spread
of diseases, see disease surveillance. For other uses, see
Surveillance (disambiguation).
Electronic surveillance redirects here. For surveillance
of electronic computer systems, see Computer surveillance.
Surveillance (/srve.ns/ or /srvelns/)[1] is the
Surveillance is often a violation of privacy, and is opposed by various civil liberties groups and activists.[7][8]
Liberal democracies have laws which restrict domestic
government and private use of surveillance, usually limiting it to circumstances where public safety is at risk.
Authoritarian government seldom have any domestic restrictions; and international espionage is common among
all types of countries.
30.1 Types
30.1.1 Computer
157
158
peded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement companies such as Verint, and Narus, which search for
agencies.[10][11][12]
certain words or phrases, to decide whether to dedicate a
[22]
There is far too much data on the Internet for human in- human agent to the call.
vestigators to manually search through all of it. So automated Internet surveillance computers sift through the
vast amount of intercepted Internet trac and identify
and report to human investigators trac considered interesting by using certain trigger words or phrases, visiting certain types of web sites, or communicating via
email or chat with suspicious individuals or groups.[13]
Billions of dollars per year are spent, by agencies such as
the Information Awareness Oce, NSA, and the FBI, to
develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such
as Carnivore, NarusInsight, and ECHELON to intercept
and analyze all of this data, and extract only the information which is useful to law enforcement and intelligence
agencies.[14]
Computers can be a surveillance target because of the
personal data stored on them. If someone is able to install
software, such as the FBIs Magic Lantern and CIPAV,
on a computer system, they can easily gain unauthorized
access to this data. Such software could be installed
physically or remotely.[15] Another form of computer
surveillance, known as van Eck phreaking, involves reading electromagnetic emanations from computing devices
in order to extract data from them at distances of hundreds of meters.[16][17] The NSA runs a database known
as Pinwale, which stores and indexes large numbers of
emails of both American citizens and foreigners.[18][19]
30.1.2
Telephones
30.1. TYPES
159
can hold on to it for up to two years. The deadline can be In the United States, the Department of Homeland Seextended with the permission of a senior UK ocial.[35] curity awards billions of dollars per year in Homeland
Security grants for local, state, and federal agencies to
install modern video surveillance equipment. For exam30.1.3 Cameras
ple, the city of Chicago, Illinois, recently used a $5.1
million Homeland Security grant to install an additional
Main article: Closed-circuit television
250 surveillance cameras, and connect them to a cenSurveillance cameras are video cameras used for the pur- tralized monitoring center, along with its preexisting network of over 2000 cameras, in a program known as
Operation Virtual Shield. Speaking in 2009, Chicago
Mayor Richard Daley announced that Chicago would
have a surveillance camera on every street corner by the
year 2016.[36][37]
160
30.1.4
A graph of the relationships between users on the social networking site Facebook. Social network analysis enables governments
to gather detailed information about peoples friends, family, and
other contacts. Since much of this information is voluntarily
made public by the users themselves, it is often consider to be
a form of open-source intelligence
AT&T developed a programming language called Hancock, which is able to sift through enormous databases
of phone call and Internet trac records, such as the NSA
call database, and extract communities of interest
groups of people who call each other regularly, or
groups that regularly visit certain sites on the Internet.
AT&T originally built the system to develop marketing
leads,[61] but the FBI has regularly requested such information from phone companies such as AT&T without a
warrant,[61] and after using the data stores all information
received in its own databases, regardless of whether or not
the information was ever useful in an investigation.[62]
30.1. TYPES
Some people believe that the use of social networking
sites is a form of participatory surveillance, where users
of these sites are essentially performing surveillance on
themselves, putting detailed personal information on public websites where it can be viewed by corporations and
governments.[52] In 2008, about 20% of employers reported using social networking sites to collect personal
data on prospective or current employees.[63]
30.1.5
Biometric
161
facial recognition data, iris/retina (eye) data, ngerprints,
palm prints, and other biometric data of people living in
the United States. The computers running the database
are contained in an underground facility about the size of
two American football elds.[67][68][69]
The Los Angeles Police Department is installing automated facial recognition and license plate recognition devices in its squad cars, and providing handheld face scanners, which ocers will use to identify people while on
patrol.[70][71][72]
Facial thermographs are in development, which allow
machines to identify certain emotions in people such as
fear or stress, by measuring the temperature generated
by blood ow to dierent parts of their face.[73] Law enforcement ocers believe that this has potential for them
to identify when a suspect is nervous, which might indicate that they are hiding something, lying, or worried
about something.[73]
30.1.6 Aerial
Further information: Surveillance aircraft
Aerial surveillance is the gathering of surveillance, usuFingerprints being scanned as part of the US-VISIT program
162
devices that can detect the heat from a human body at distances of up to 60 kilometers.[75] In an earlier instance of
commercial aerial surveillance, the Killington Mountain
ski resort hired 'eye in the sky' aerial photography of its
competitors parking lots to judge the success of its marketing initiatives as it developed starting in the 1950s.[76]
30.1. TYPES
163
companies use software to block non-work related websites such as sexual or pornographic sites, game sites, social networking sites, entertainment sites, shopping sites,
and sport sites. The American Management Association
and the ePolicy Institute also stress that companies tracking content, keystrokes, and time spent at the keyboard
... store and review computer les ... monitor the blogothe company,
Under United States v. Miller (1976), data held by third sphere to see what is being written about
and ... monitor social networking sites.[93] Furthermore,
parties is generally not subject to Fourth Amendment
about 30% of the companies had also red employees for
warrant requirements.
non-work related email and Internet usage such as inappropriate or oensive language and viewing, downloading, or uploading inappropriate/oensive content.[93][94]
30.1.8
Corporate
164
30.1.10
Satellite imagery
One of the simplest forms of identication is the carrying of credentials. Some nations have an identity card
system to aid identication, whilst others are considering it but face public opposition. Other documents, such
as passports, drivers licenses, library cards, banking or
credit cards are also used to verify identity.
If the form of the identity card is machine-readable,
usually using an encoded magnetic stripe or identication
number (such as a Social Security number), it corroborates the subjects identifying data. In this case it may
create an electronic trail when it is checked and scanned,
which can be used in proling, as mentioned above.
30.1.12
RFID tagging
30.1. TYPES
VeriChip Subscriber Number which the scanner uses
to access their personal information, via the Internet,
from Verichip Inc.'s database, the Global VeriChip Subscriber Registry. Thousands of people have already had
them inserted.[108] In Mexico, for example, 160 workers
at the Attorney Generals oce were required to have the
chip injected for identity verication and access control
purposes.[109][110]
In a 2003 editorial, CNET News.coms chief political
correspondent, Declan McCullagh, speculated that,
soon, every object that is purchased, and perhaps ID
cards, will have RFID devices in them, which would
respond with information about people as they walk past
scanners (what type of phone they have, what type of
shoes they have on, which books they are carrying, what
credit cards or membership cards they have, etc.). This
information could be used for identication, tracking,
or targeted marketing. As of 2012, this has largely not
come to pass.[111]
165
(whether it is being used or not), using a technique known
multilateration to calculate the dierences in time for a
signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several cell
towers near the owner of the phone.[29][30]
Dr. Victor Kappeler[114] of Eastern Kentucky University
indicates that police surveillance is a strong concern, stating the following statistics from 2013:
Main Article
A human microchip implant is an identifying integrated
circuit device or RFID transponder encased in silicate
glass and implanted in the body of a human being. A
subdermal implant typically contains a unique ID number that can be linked to information contained in an external database, such as personal identication, medical
history, medications, allergies, and contact information.
Several types of microchips have been developed in order
to control and monitor certain individuals such as criminals, political gures and spies, a killer tracking chip
patent was led at the German Patent and Trademark Ofce(DPMA) around May 2009.
30.1.14 Devices
Diagram of GPS satellites orbiting Earth
166
30.1.15
Postal services
Another common argument is: "If you aren't doing something wrong then you don't have anything to fear. Which
follows that if one is engaging in unlawful activities, in
which case they do not have a legitimate justication for
their privacy. However, if they are following the law the
surveillance would not aect them.[121]
Opposition
30.2 Controversy
30.2.1
Support
Some supporters of surveillance systems believe that With the advent of programs such as the Total Informathese tools protect society from terrorists and criminals.
tion Awareness program and ADVISE, technologies such
Supporters argue surveillance can reduce crime by three as high speed surveillance computers and biometrics softmeans: by deterrence, by observation, and by reconstruc- ware, and laws such as the Communications Assistance
tion. Surveillance can deter by increasing the chance of for Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an
being caught, and by revealing the modus operandi. This unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of their
requires a minimal level of invasiveness.[118] Surveillance subjects.[122] Many civil rights and privacy groups, such
can give human operatives a tactical advantage through as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and American Civil
improved situational awareness, or through the use of au- Liberties Union, have expressed concern that by allowing
tomated processes, i.e. video analytics. Surveillance can continual increases in government surveillance of citizens
help reconstruct an incident and prove guilt through the we will end up in a mass surveillance society, with exavailability of footage for forensics experts. Surveillance tremely limited, or non-existent political and/or personal
can also inuence subjective security if surveillance re- freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsources are visible or if the consequences of surveillance suits such as Hepting v. AT&T.[122][123]
can be felt.
Some critics state that the claim made by supporters
Other supporters simply believe that there is nothing that
can be done about it, and that people must become accustomed to having no privacy. As Sun Microsystems CEO
Scott McNealy said: You have zero privacy anyway. Get
over it.[119][120]
30.2. CONTROVERSY
167
ing, so that the government cannot easily subvert their organization, arrest, or kill them. Other critics state that
while a person might not have anything to hide right now,
the government might later implement policies that they
do wish to oppose, and that opposition might then be impossible due to mass surveillance enabling the government to identify and remove political threats. Further,
other critics point to the fact that most people do have
things to hide. For example, if a person is looking for a
new job, they might not want their current employer to
know this. Also if an employer wishes total privacy to
watch over their own employee and secure their nancial
information it may become impossible, and they may not
wish to hire those under surveillance. The most concern
of detriment is securing the lives of those who live under
total surveillance willingly, educating the public to those
under peaceful watch while identifying terrorist and those
who use the same surveillance systems and mechanisms
in opposition to peace, against civilians, and to disclose
lives removed from the laws of the land.
In addition, a signicant risk of private data collection
stems from the fact that this risk is too much unknown
to be readily assessed today. Storage is cheap enough to
have data stored forever, and the models using which it
will be analyzed in a decade from now cannot reasonably
be foreseen.[124]
Totalitarianism
Programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, and laws such as the Communications Assistance
For Law Enforcement Act have led many groups to fear
that society is moving towards a state of mass surveillance
with severely limited personal, social, political freedoms,
where dissenting individuals or groups will be strategically removed in COINTELPRO-like purges.[122][123]
Kate Martin, of the Center For National Security Studies said of the use of military spy satellites being used to
monitor the activities of U.S. citizens: They are laying
A trac camera atop a high pole oversees a road in the Canadian
the bricks one at a time for a police state.[105]
Some point to the blurring of lines between public and
private places, and the privatization of places traditionally seen as public (such as shopping malls and industrial
parks) as illustrating the increasing legality of collecting
personal information.[125] Traveling through many public places such as government oces is hardly optional
for most people, yet consumers have little choice but to
submit to companies surveillance practices.[126] Surveillance techniques are not created equal; among the many
biometric identication technologies, for instance, face
recognition requires the least cooperation. Unlike automatic ngerprint reading, which requires an individual to
press a nger against a machine, this technique is subtle
and requires little to no consent.[126]
city of Toronto.
Psychological/social eects
Some critics, such as Michel Foucault, believe that in addition to its obvious function of identifying and capturing
individuals who are committing undesirable acts, surveillance also functions to create in everyone a feeling of always being watched, so that they become self-policing.
This allows the State to control the populace without having to resort to physical force, which is expensive and otherwise problematic.[127]
The concept of panopticism is a means of indirect control
168
over a large populous through the uncertainty of surveillance. Michel Foucault analyzed the architecture of the
prison panopticon, and realized that its success was not
just in its ability to monitor but also its ability to not monitor without anyone knowing.[128] Critics such as Derrick
Jensen and George Draan, argue that panopticism in the
United States began in World War I when the issuing of
passports became important for the tracking of citizens
and possibly enemies of the state. Such surveillance continues today through government agencies in the form of
tracking internet usage and library usage.[129]
Psychologists have shown that merely giving people the
illusion of being observed can produce signicant voluntary changes in a range of pro-social behaviors.[130] For
example, studies have shown that people donate more and
litter less when they think that they are being watched.
Privacy
Numerous civil rights groups and privacy groups oppose surveillance as a violation of peoples right to privacy. Such groups include: Electronic Privacy Information Center, Electronic Frontier Foundation, American
Civil Liberties Union
There have been several lawsuits such as Hepting v.
AT&T and EPIC v. Department of Justice by groups or
individuals, opposing certain surveillance activities.
Legislative proceedings such as those that took place during the Church Committee, which investigated domestic
intelligence programs such as COINTELPRO, have also
weighed the pros and cons of surveillance.
30.4.2 In music
Countersurveillance is the practice of avoiding surveillance or making surveillance dicult. Developments in 30.4.3 Onscreen
the late twentieth century have caused counter surveillance to dramatically grow in both scope and com- Main article: List of lms featuring surveillance
plexity, such as the Internet, increasing prevalence of
electronic security systems, high-altitude (and possibly
armed) UAVs, and large corporate and government com The movie, Gattaca, portrays a society that uses
puter databases.[131]
biometric surveillance to distinguish between people
who are genetically engineered superior humans
Inverse surveillance is the practice of the reversal of
and genetically natural inferior humans.
surveillance on other individuals or groups (e.g., citizens photographing police). Well-known examples are
George Holliday's recording of the Rodney King beating
and the organization Copwatch, which attempts to monitor police ocers to prevent police brutality. Countersurveillance can be also used in applications to prevent
corporate spying, or to track other criminals by certain
criminal entities. It can also be used to deter stalking
methods used by various entities and organizations.
In the movie Minority Report, the police and government intelligence agencies use micro aerial vehicles
in SWAT operations and for surveillance purposes.
HBO's crime-drama series, The Sopranos, regularly
portrays the FBIs surveillance of the DiMeo Crime
Family. Audio devices they use include "bugs"
placed in strategic locations (e.g., in "I Dream of
169
Reconnaissance
Signals intelligence, intelligence-gathering by interception of communications and electronic signals
Sousveillance (inverse surveillance), the recording
of an activity by a participant in the activity
Surveillance art, the use of surveillance technology
to oer commentary on surveillance or surveillance
technology
Surveillance system monitor, a job that consists of
monitoring closed circuit surveillance systems in order to detect crimes or disturbances
Trapwire, a U.S. counter-terrorism technology company that produces software designed to nd patterns indicative of terrorist attacks
170
[11] CALEA: The Perils of Wiretapping the Internet. Electronic Frontier Foundation (website). Retrieved March 14,
2009.
[12] CALEA: Frequently Asked Questions. Electronic Frontier Foundation (website). Retrieved March 14, 2009.
Stellar Wind, code name for information collected [16] Van Eck, Wim (1985). Electromagnetic Radiation from
Video Display Units: An Eavesdropping Risk?" (PDF).
under the Presidents Surveillance Program
Terrorist Surveillance Program, an NSA electronic
surveillance program
Total Information Awareness, a project of the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA)
30.6 References
[1] OED
[2] Lyon, David. 2007. Surveillance Studies: An Overview.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
[3] The eect of CCTV on public safety: Research
roundup - See more at: http://journalistsresource.
org/studies/government/criminal-justice/
surveillance-cameras-and-crime#sthash.6OqNkNVq.
dpuf". journalistsresource.org. Retrieved 2015-05-06.
[22] Piller, Charles; Eric Lichtblau (July 29, 2002). FBI Plans
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[5] Clarke, R. (1988). Information technology and dataveillance. Communications of the ACM, 31(5), 498-512.
[23] Schneier, Bruce (December 5, 2006). Remotely Eavesdropping on Cell Phone Microphones. Schneier On Security. Retrieved December 13, 2009.
[6] Michael, K., Roussos, G., Huang, G. Q., Gadh, R., Chattopadhyay, A., Prabhu, S., & Chu, P. (2010). Planetaryscale RFID services in an age of uberveillance. Proceedings of the IEEE, 98(9), 1663-1671.
[7] Oppose video surveillance in our nations capital.
ACLU.org. Retrieved 2015-05-06.
[8] Stop watching us - A rally against mass surveillance.
stopwatching.us. Retrieved 2015-05-06.
[9] Die, Whiteld; Susan Landau (August 2008). Internet
Eavesdropping: A Brave New World of Wiretapping.
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[10] CALEA Archive -- Electronic Frontier Foundation.
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[49] EPIC Video Surveillance Information Page. EPIC. Retrieved March 13, 2009.
[51] Keefe, Patrick (March 12, 2006). ", Can Network Theory
Thwart Terrorists?". New York Times.
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[84] Hildebrandt, Mireille; Serge Gutwirth (2008). Proling the European Citizen: Cross Disciplinary Perspectives.
Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6913-0.
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Power. The Center For Democracy & Technology (ofcial site). Retrieved March 20, 2009.
[70] LAPD: We Know That Mug. Wired Magazine. Associated Press. December 26, 2004. Retrieved March 18,
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[89] Butler, Don (February 24, 2009). Surveillance in society. The Star Phoenix (CanWest). Retrieved March 17,
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[100] Ross, Brian (July 25, 2007). FBI Proposes Building Net- [117] Goldstein, Robert. Political Repression in Modern Amerwork of U.S. Informants. Blotter. ABC News. Retrieved
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[101] U.S. Reconnaissance Satellites: Domestic Targets. Na- [118] Deviant Behaviour - Socially accepted observation of behaviour for security, Jeroen van Rest
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[102] Block, Robert (August 15, 2007). U.S. to Expand Do- [119] Sprenger, Polly (January 26, 1999). Sun on Privacy: 'Get
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[120] Baig, Edward; Marcia Stepanek; Neil Gross (April 5,
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[103] Gorman, Siobhan (October 1, 2008).
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[121] Solove, Daniel (2007). "'I've Got Nothing to Hide' and
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[104] Fact Sheet: National Applications Oce. Department
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[122] Is the U.S. Turning Into a Surveillance Society?". AmerRetrieved March 16, 2009.
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[105] Warrick, Joby (August 16, 2007). Domestic Use of Spy
[123] Bigger Monster, Weaker Chains: The Growth of an
Satellites To Widen. Washington Post. pp. A01. ReAmerican Surveillance Society (PDF). American Civil
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[106] Shrader, Katherine (September 26, 2004). Spy imagery
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[124] Against the collection of private data: The unknown risk
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[107] Two Stories Highlight the RFID Debate. RFID Journal.
[125] Marx, G. T., & Muschert, G. W. (2007). Personal inforJuly 19, 2005. Retrieved March 23, 2012.
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[108] Lewan, Todd (July 21, 2007). Microchips in humans
spark privacy debate. USA Today. Associated Press.
[126] Agre, P. (2003). Your Face is not a bar code: arguRetrieved March 17, 2009.
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[109] Gardener, W. David (July 15, 2004). RFID Chips Imucla.edu/pagre/bar-code.html
planted In Mexican Law-Enforcement Workers. Information Week. Retrieved March 17, 2009.
[127] Foucault, Michel (1979). Discipline and Punish. New
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[110] Campbell, Monica (August 4, 2004). Law enforcement
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[128] Foucault, Michel (1995). Discipline and Punish. New
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[111] McCullagh, Declan (January 13, 2003). RFID Tags: Big
[129] Jensen, Derrick (2004). , Welcome to the Machine: SciBrother in small packages. CNET News. Retrieved July
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[112] Claburn, Thomas (March 4, 2009). Court Asked To
[130] van der Linden, Sander (March 2011). How the Illusion
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[113] Hilden, Julie (April 16, 2002). What legal questions [131] The Secrets of Countersurveillance. Security Weekly.
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[132] Birch, Dave (July 14, 2005). The age of sousveillance.
[114] Kappeler, Victor. Forget the NSA: Police May be a
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[115] Wolf, Paul. COINTELPRO. (online collection of historical documents). Retrieved March 14, 2009.
[116] SUPPLEMENTARY DETAILED STAFF REPORTS
ON INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITIES AND THE
RIGHTS OF AMERICANS: ... DOMESTIC CIA AND
FBI MAIL OPENING PROGRAMS. SELECT COMMITTEE TO STUDY GOVERNMENTAL OPERATIONS
WITH RESPECT TO INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITIES
UNITED STATES SENATE. April 23, 1976. Retrieved
March 13, 2009.
174
Jenkins, Peter Advanced Surveillance Training Manual, Intel Publishing, UK ISBN 0-9535378-1-1
Jensen, Derrick and Draan, George (2004) Wel- 30.8.1 General information
come to the Machine: Science, Surveillance, and the
Special Issue on Surveillance Capitalism - nine arCulture of Control Chelsea Green Publishing Comticles analyzing nancial, social, political, legal, hispany. ISBN 978-1-931498-52-4
torical, security and other aspects of US and international surveillance and spying programs and their re Lyon, David (2001). Surveillance Society: Monitorlation to capitalism. Monthly Review. 2014. (Voling in Everyday Life. Philadelphia: Open University
ume 66, Number 3, JulyAugust)
Press. ISBN 978-0-335-20546-2
Lyon, David (2007) Surveillance Studies: An
Overview. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-07456-3591-0
Fuchs, Christian, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund, and Marisol Sandoval, eds. (2012). Internet
and Surveillance: The Challenges of Web 2.0 and
Social Media. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780-415-89160-8
Parenti, Christian The Soft Cage: Surveillance in
America From Slavery to the War on Terror, Basic
Books, ISBN 978-0-465-05485-5
Harris, Shane. (2011). The Watchers: The Rise of
Americas Surveillance State. London, UK: Penguin
Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-311890-0
Matteralt, Armand. (2010). The Globalization of
Surveillance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN
0-7456-4511-9
Feldman, Jay. (2011). Manufacturing Hysteria: A
History of Scapegoating, Surveillance, and Secrecy in
Modern America. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
ISBN 0-375-42534-9
175
Text
176
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177
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AlexLibman, Phoenixrod, Lent, Generalcp702, Ehistory, CmdrObot, Megaboz, Olaf Davis, Erik Kennedy, Dgw, Outriggr, Cydebot, Treybien, Goldfritha, Gogo Dodo, Manik52, DumbBOT, Patrick O'Leary, Mathew5000, Septagram, Satori Son, Mamalujo, Malleus Fatuorum,
Thijs!bot, Interested2, Ucanlookitup, Hcberkowitz, Bobblehead, Davidhorman, Kingnixon, Oreo Priest, AntiVandalBot, Opelio, JHFTC,
Joe Schmedley, Legitimus, Arkan5, Erxnmedia, JAnDbot, MarritzN, Minitrue, Attarparn, Lsi, Acroterion, Bencherlite, Canjth, Parsecboy,
NeoJudus, LCJ, SSZ, Bryanpeterson, JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, Gwern, Dan Dean, Phantomsnake, General Jazza, Ekotekk, KTo288, Nono64,
Pharaoh of the Wizards, PCock, Rodrigo braz, PalestineRemembered, JPLeonard, Maurice Carbonaro, Hodja Nasreddin, Cop 663, Gross-
179
cha, RenniePet, Chiswick Chap, Spartelite, C1010, DadaNeem, Xyl 54, Vanished user 39948282, Julyda4th, WLRoss, Ashcroftgm,
Morenooso, Indubitably, Nug, TXiKiBoT, Xenophrenic, Zurishaddai, Room429, EnglishDez, Jaqen, Andrewaskew, Enigmaman, Spadgos, THEODICEAN, AlleborgoBot, GavinTing, Guerillamarketing, StAnselm, DarknessEnthroned, Rabbeinu, Pretest, Jc-S0CO, Fredburks, Cicorp, Tensaije, Anakin101, Capitalismojo, ZaneSteez, LarRan, Sab128, Startswithj, Hoplon, MenoBot, ClueBot, MBD123,
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Thouliha, Catastrophe420, Rbrt21, Srich32977, RibotBOT, A Quest For Knowledge, Shadowjams, LucienBOT, Lothar von Richthofen,
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Reading, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Slightsmile, Acidrain4696, Doelleri, ZroBot, Ahears, Dpenn89, MRBigdeli, Lhixson, Wingman4l7,
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JYBot, Mogism, Ranze, XXzoonamiXX, Lugia2453, Keptautokeptauto, 93, Pc1985, Halsingpurg, Kabulbuddha, Jgmoneill, Chris troutman, MopSeeker, Lixinheth, GeeBee60, Ter M. Ahn, Damon161, Darkone123, Monkbot, Magma1983, Gdeblois19, Phantomop, Mister
Sneeze A Lot and Anonymous: 380
Field agent Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%20agent?oldid=653854580 Contributors: Paul A, Interiot, Deathphoenix, Stefanomione, Malcolma, SmackBot, Frap, Mets501, Hebrides, CSeals, MCTales, BarretB, ChenzwBot, Erik9bot, DexDor, Malcolm18,
EdoBot and Anonymous: 12
Industrial espionage Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial%20espionage?oldid=659023925 Contributors: Robert Merkel,
Rmhermen, Nixdorf, Jeejee, Tristanb, Mydogategodshat, Dcoetzee, Ww, WhisperToMe, Tempshill, Joy, ZimZalaBim, Securiger, Lowellian, Michael Snow, Tom harrison, Lode Runner, Niteowlneils, Per Honor et Gloria, Craverguy, Beland, Neutrality, LeoDV, Bender235,
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Mangojuice, Stefanomione, Xydexx, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Stardust8212, Ucucha, FlaBot, Joewithajay, Clintond47, YurikBot, SamuelRiv, BorgQueen, Allens, Sycthos, SmackBot, Ratarsed, McGeddon, Bd84, Eskimbot, Hmains, BesselDekker, Cybercobra, Will Beback,
JzG, Rune93, Jimmy Pitt, MTSbot~enwiki, Dl2000, Stevenpam, Eastlaw, Fvasconcellos, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, The Cake is a Lie, Cydebot,
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Luckas-bot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, 206209nyc, LilHelpa, News4a2, Mr68000, Cnwilliams, Lotje, Minimac,
RjwilmsiBot, 7mike5000, John of Reading, Dinhtuydzao, Sabres87, ZroBot, Michael Essmeyer, H3llBot, EneMsty12, Wingman4l7, Silvermoonspider, Alice Margatroid, Reallawradio, Ipsign, Zabanio, Paddingtonbaer, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Camipedia, Jrdan, Mensch005, Snotbot, Pluign, Widr, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Joolsa123, M0rphzone, Elizabeth Blandra, FxHVC,
Jd.leiser, 23W, BattyBot, Mobileteeth, Jacksin23, Mathutton, Mogism, Ecstaticreligion, XXzoonamiXX, DrManhattan11, Dannyruthe,
Fixuture, ICPSGWU and Anonymous: 111
Intelligence assessment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence%20assessment?oldid=646839174 Contributors: The Epopt,
Malcolm Farmer, Stevertigo, Jeejee, Andres, Olathe, DocWatson42, Edcolins, Loremaster, Piotrus, Mzajac, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough,
ArnoldReinhold, YUL89YYZ, *drew, Remuel, Euniana, John Vandenberg, Kjkolb, Ranveig, Duman~enwiki, Sherurcij, ClockworkSoul,
Danthemankhan, Woohookitty, Kelisi, Wikiklrsc, Eras-mus, SDC, Zzyzx11, GraemeLeggett, Jemiller226, Josh Parris, Ryk, Jared Preston,
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Tonyalbers, CSWarren, Dearlove Menzies, OneEuropeanHeart, Cybercobra, ALR, Hmc3590, FlyHigh, Eliyak, Robosh, Green Giant, Isria, Beetstra, [email protected], DabMachine, Simon12, Iridescent, AndrewHowse, Phippi46, Alanbly, Maziotis, PamD, LuckyOne23,
Hcberkowitz, Bobblehead, WinBot, Random Acts of Language, JAnDbot, Quijote3000, MER-C, Ph.eyes, Joshua, Zorro CX, Snd3054,
Grandia01, CommonsDelinker, Ombudswiki, Maurice Carbonaro, Wxhat1, Lilpinoy 82, Mrg3105, Olegwiki, Dorftrottel, LogicDictates,
Pnoble805, Squids and Chips, Deor, DPr77, Enviroboy, SieBot, Gredil, Sanya3, Axiomatica, Carrt81, Zulanka, SchreiberBike, Bunker
Boots, Miami33139, XLinkBot, Jack Dumpsey, Th3 P0p3, Wikiuser100, Mm40, Sweeper tamonten, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot,
Lucian Sunday, , Htews, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Donovan01, Twohoos, Kookyunii, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Mlduda, Obersachsebot, TheAMmollusc, Peterdx, CyrParis, Traord09, Ex13, Hatherington, Nazeem.Mustapha, Xxglennxx, Yappari, Lotje, Ogaryjr,
DKDexter999, Sabres87, AvicBot, Kharados, MerlIwBot, Dodi 8238, Mruanspain, Hannahlore and Anonymous: 76
Intelligence cycle management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence%20cycle%20management?oldid=647389671 Contributors: Edward, Paul A, Louis-H. Campagna, HaeB, DocWatson42, GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Lockley, Ground Zero, RussBot, Madcoverboy, Welsh, SmackBot, Dave314159, Robosh, AdultSwim, Patrickwooldridge, Goatchurch, Alaibot, Hcberkowitz, Aniyochanan,
Erxnmedia, Srmoon, Magioladitis, R'n'B, Nono64, Maurice Carbonaro, Chiswick Chap, Jevansen, AzureCitizen, DMCer, Roistacher, Andrewaskew, Farcaster, ForeignerFromTheEast, Mild Bill Hiccup, Dthomsen8, WikiDao, Belatrimmel, Yobot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot,
Skylark2008, Citation bot 1, Citation bot 4, LittleWink, Jonesey95, Jandalhandler, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading,
H3llBot, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nickken, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, AK456, Mr. Guye, Epicgenius, Aaallen001, Fwebel, Robert4565,
JudyCS and Anonymous: 16
Interrogation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogation?oldid=655621152 Contributors: The Anome, Roadrunner, Patrick,
DIG~enwiki, Ciphergoth, Lommer, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Altenmann, Hadal, JesseW, DocWatson42, Marcika, Ich, DO'Neil, Toytoy,
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Rjwilmsi, SMC, Vegaswikian, Olessi, Crazycomputers, PhilipR, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Nescio,
WAS 4.250, Sandstein, Modify, SmackBot, Mauls, Xaosux, Chris the speller, Tito4000, Leoni2, The owner of all, Zvar, COMPFUNK2,
Ozdaren, ALR, Acidburn24m, Gobonobo, Peterlewis, Muadd, Meco, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Linuxerist, Rimmer, Neelix,
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RandMC, LordAnubisBOT, McSly, Brian Pearson, Robertgreer, SoundGuy28, Dhaluza, KylieTastic, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Crohnie,
180
Ask123, Charlesdrakew, Wiikipedian, Wthered, Aaron mcd, SieBot, Ouizardus, Flyer22, Nskillen, AMbot, Martarius, ClueBot, Ktr101,
DILNN1, DangerousPotential, ZooFari, Pulyemyet, Addbot, Kevzspeare, Raoring, Kwarpws, , Zorrobot, Aviados, Yobot, THEN
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Schwartzjo, Ipanderi, CW3 Chas and Anonymous: 113
Non-ocial cover Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-official%20cover?oldid=630395777 Contributors: Grouse, Mr100percent,
Vardion, Donreed, Rfc1394, PBP, Bkonrad, Siroxo, Khaosworks, Ukexpat, Georgemg, LeeHunter, Toh, Mitchowen, Dhartung, Danhash, Deathphoenix, Dismas, Tbsmith, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Apokrif, Mangojuice, Eyreland, Stefanomione,
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Jan Hense and Anonymous: 69
Numbers station Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbers%20station?oldid=661746809 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, Camembert,
Leandrod, Patrick, GABaker, Bewildebeast, Shellreef, Taras, Cyde, Tzaquiel, Karada, Skysmith, Paul A, Tregoweth, CatherineMunro,
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Jowe (usurped), Jivecat, Johnsolo, BartonM, Ian Dunster, Ucucha, Titoxd, SchuminWeb, AlastairR, Fragglet, RexNL, Pete.Hurd, D.brodale,
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TotoCZ, Darrylb500, Dxer1963, Weedwhacker128, Tbhotch, MidgleyC, Boundarylayer, Drthatguy, TheXenomorph1, ZroBot, Mkratz,
Jatkinson100, Rails, Wingman4l7, DJSeaking, Brycehughes, Cgt, ClueBot NG, Themarkdolan, Stiofan88, Lyla1205, Orlando Avare,
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Ssscienccce, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Vistawhite, GreenHorne101, Rylee55, Wendell890, TrollerMan1337, Chris troutman, Stratojet94,
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Colonel Hatch, VizL00, Shazepe, FF700 and Anonymous: 418
Ocial cover Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official%20cover?oldid=620493371 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Deathphoenix,
Mangojuice, Stefanomione, Graham87, Megapixie, VederJuda, Frap, Bolivian Unicyclist, Magioladitis, DexDor, Prisoner of Zenda and
Anonymous: 4
One-way voice link Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-way%20voice%20link?oldid=658690479 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
JonMoore, Scott Sanchez, Eyreland, Stefanomione, RxS, Tole, Cobblet, Mmernex, Bluebot, Amalas, Estban, Alaibot, Rruelas,
Jim.henderson, MystBot, Addbot, AnomieBOT, N419BH, Erik9bot, Skyerise, Brambleclawx, Mark Arsten, Springing Up and Anonymous: 3
Resident spy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident%20spy?oldid=660707061 Contributors: Altenmann, Orangemike, OwenBlacker, Espoo, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Stefanomione, SmackBot, Verne Equinox, Marktreut, Bluebot, Arcarius, Trekphiler, Frap,
Aboudaqn, Cesium 133, MARK S., Exhummerdude, J-boogie, Siberian Husky, Cole Dalton, CEngelbrecht, Olegwiki, Wikimandia, Hersfold, Steven J. Anderson, Akerbeltz, StillTrill, ClueBot, Addbot, Lucian Sunday, The Bushranger, Yobot, U b 6 i b 9, Rubinbot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Cantons-de-l'Est, Carrite, Jesse V., Peacemaker67, Benjitheijneb, Mogism and Anonymous: 16
Special reconnaissance Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20reconnaissance?oldid=662598929 Contributors: Edward, Rl,
Cjrother, DocWatson42, Grant65, Klemen Kocjancic, RossPatterson, Bender235, Rackham, Giraedata, Mpeisenbr, Kenyon, Tabletop, JamesBurns, Rjwilmsi, RussBot, Filippof, TDogg310, Nick-D, Colonies Chris, RomanSpa, Ckatz, Beetstra, RelentlessRecusant,
Hcberkowitz, Archangel1, Dawnseeker2000, Erxnmedia, EmericaRon, Hiplibrarianship, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mrg3105, KylieTastic,
181
AzureCitizen, Eyesbehindthelines, BonesBrigade, WRK, Foofbun, Niceguyedc, FreedomFighterXL, Arjayay, Smidsy999, Pgallert, Addbot, Kman543210, Yobot, Orangepippen, Galoubet, Materialscientist, Citation bot, SFBubba, Xqbot, Tragino, Wholemanne, Armyjoe,
FrescoBot, Der rikkk, Citation bot 1, Hellknowz, Alexnip, RjwilmsiBot, IshmaelMarcos, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Danyy0202, H3llBot,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Dainomite, BattyBot, Briancarlton, Jordankiljoy6, Rybec, Irish321, Icemanwcs, Lakun.patra, Monkbot, IrishSpook and
Anonymous: 46
Steganography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganography?oldid=659576804 Contributors: Tbc~enwiki, WojPob, Bryan Derksen, Koyaanis Qatsi, Eclecticology, Arvindn, PierreAbbat, Valhalla, Heron, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, EvanProdromou, Breakpoint, Wwwwolf, Lquilter, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Rodzilla, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, WeiNix, Theresa knott, Smack, Novum, Adam Bishop, Ww, Dysprosia, The Anomebot, Greenrd, Peregrine981, Furrykef, Saltine, Omegatron, Ed g2s, Jose Ramos, Calieber, Robbot, Owain, Donreed,
Securiger, Chris Roy, Stewartadcock, Sverdrup, Hadal, Saforrest, Refdoc, Fargoth~enwiki, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Lunkwill, Sj, Inter,
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30.9.2
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File:16th_century_French_cypher_machine_in_the_shape_of_a_book_with_arms_of_Henri_II.jpg Source:
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184
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