Beekeeping
Beekeeping
At some point humans began to attempt to domesticate wild bees in articial hives made from hollow logs,
wooden boxes, pottery vessels, and woven straw baskets or "skeps". Honeybees were kept in Egypt from
antiquity.[2] On the walls of the sun temple of Nyuserre
Ini from the Fifth Dynasty, before 2422 BCE, workers
1
2
are depicted blowing smoke into hives as they are removing honeycombs.[3][4] Inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from
the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 650 BCE), depicting pouring honey in jars and cylindrical hives.[5] Sealed pots of
honey were found in the grave goods of pharaohs such as
Tutankhamun.
There was an unsuccessful attempt to introduce bees to
Mesopotamia in the 8th century BCE by Shamash-reshuur, the governor of Mari and Suhu. His ambitious plans
were detailed in a stele of 760 BCE:[4]
In prehistoric Greece (Crete and Mycenae), there existed a system of high-status apiculture, as can be concluded from the nds of hives, smoking pots, honey extractors and other beekeeping paraphernalia in Knossos.
Beekeeping was considered a highly valued industry controlled by beekeeping overseersowners of gold rings
depicting apiculture scenes rather than religious ones as
they have been reinterpreted recently, contra Sir Arthur
Evans.[7]
Archaeological nds relating to beekeeping have been
discovered at Rehov, a Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site in the Jordan Valley. Thirty intact hives, made of
straw and unbaked clay, were discovered by archaeologist
Amihai Mazar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in
the ruins of the city, dating from about 900 BCE. The
hives were found in orderly rows, three high, in a manner
that could have accommodated around 100 hives, held
more than 1 million bees and had a potential annual yield
of 500 kilograms of honey and 70 kilograms of beeswax,
according to Mazar, and are evidence that an advanced
honey industry existed in ancient Israel 3,000 years ago.[8]
Ezra Marcus, an expert from the University of Haifa, said
the nding was a glimpse of ancient beekeeping seen in
texts and ancient art from the Near East.[9][10]
ORIGINS
2 Origins
There are more than 20,000 species of wild bees.[11]
Many species are solitary[12] (e.g., mason bees, leafcutter
bees (Megachilidae), carpenter bees and other groundnesting bees). Many others rear their young in burrows
and small colonies (e.g., bumblebees and stingless bees).
Some honey bees are wild e.g. the little honeybee (Apis
orea), giant honeybee (Apis dorsata) and rock bee (Apis
laboriosa). Beekeeping, or apiculture, is concerned with
the practical management of the social species of honey
bees, which live in large colonies of up to 100,000 individuals. In Europe and America the species universally managed by beekeepers is the Western honey bee
(Apis mellifera). This species has several sub-species or
regional varieties, such as the Italian bee (Apis mellifera
ligustica ), European dark bee (Apis mellifera mellifera),
and the Carniolan honey bee (Apis mellifera carnica). In
the tropics, other species of social bees are managed for
honey production, including the Asiatic honey bee (Apis
cerana).
All of the Apis mellifera sub-species are capable of interbreeding and hybridizing. Many bee breeding companies
strive to selectively breed and hybridize varieties to produce desirable qualities: disease and parasite resistance,
good honey production, swarming behaviour reduction,
prolic breeding, and mild disposition. Some of these
hybrids are marketed under specic brand names, such
as the Buckfast Bee or Midnite Bee. The advantages of
the initial F1 hybrids produced by these crosses include:
hybrid vigor, increased honey productivity, and greater
disease resistance. The disadvantage is that in subsequent
generations these advantages may fade away and hybrids
tend to be very defensive and aggressive.
In ancient Greece, aspects of the lives of bees and beekeeping are discussed at length by Aristotle. Beekeeping
was also documented by the Roman writers Virgil, Gaius
Julius Hyginus, Varro, and Columella.
Beekeeping has also been practiced in ancient China since
antiquity. In the book Golden Rules of Business Suc-
2.3
3
sic scientic truths for the biology and ecology of honeybees.
Natural beehive
2.2
It was not until the 18th century that European natural philosophers undertook the scientic study of bee
colonies and began to understand the complex and hidden world of bee biology. Preeminent among these scientic pioneers were Swammerdam, Ren Antoine Ferchault de Raumur, Charles Bonnet, and Francois Huber. Swammerdam and Raumur were among the rst to
use a microscope and dissection to understand the internal biology of honey bees. Raumur was among the rst
to construct a glass walled observation hive to better observe activities within hives. He observed queens laying
eggs in open cells, but still had no idea of how a queen
was fertilized; nobody had ever witnessed the mating of a
queen and drone and many theories held that queens were
"self-fertile, while others believed that a vapor or miasma emanating from the drones fertilized queens without direct physical contact. Huber was the rst to prove
by observation and experiment that queens are physically
inseminated by drones outside the connes of hives, usually a great distance away.
Following Raumurs design, Huber built improved glasswalled observation hives and sectional hives that could
be opened like the leaves of a book. This allowed inspecting individual wax combs and greatly improved direct observation of hive activity. Although he went blind
before he was twenty, Huber employed a secretary, Francois Burnens, to make daily observations, conduct careful experiments, and keep accurate notes over more than
twenty years. Huber conrmed that a hive consists of one
queen who is the mother of all the female workers and
male drones in the colony. He was also the rst to conrm that mating with drones takes place outside of hives
and that queens are inseminated by a number of successive matings with male drones, high in the air at a great
distance from their hive. Together, he and Burnens dissected bees under the microscope and were among the
rst to describe the ovaries and spermatheca, or sperm
store, of queens as well as the penis of male drones. Huber is universally regarded as the father of modern beescience and his Nouvelles Observations sur Les Abeilles
(or New Observations on Bees) [13] revealed all the ba-
Early forms of honey collecting entailed the destruction of the entire colony when the honey was harvested.
The wild hive was crudely broken into, using smoke to
suppress the bees, the honeycombs were torn out and
smashed up along with the eggs, larvae and honey they
contained. The liquid honey from the destroyed brood
nest was strained through a sieve or basket. This was
destructive and unhygienic, but for hunter-gatherer societies this did not matter, since the honey was generally
consumed immediately and there were always more wild
colonies to exploit. But in settled societies the destruction of the bee colony meant the loss of a valuable resource; this drawback made beekeeping both inecient
and something of a stop and start activity. There could
be no continuity of production and no possibility of selective breeding, since each bee colony was destroyed at
harvest time, along with its precious queen.
During the medieval period abbeys and monasteries were
centers of beekeeping, since beeswax was highly prized
for candles and fermented honey was used to make alcoholic mead in areas of Europe where vines would not
grow. The 18th and 19th centuries saw successive stages
of a revolution in beekeeping, which allowed the bees
themselves to be preserved when taking the harvest.
Intermediate stages in the transition from the old beekeeping to the new were recorded for example by Thomas
Wildman in 1768/1770, who described advances over the
destructive old skep-based beekeeping so that the bees no
longer had to be killed to harvest the honey.[14] Wildman
for example xed a parallel array of wooden bars across
the top of a straw hive or skep (with a separate straw
top to be xed on later) so that there are in all seven
bars of deal [in a 10-inch-diameter (250 mm) hive] to
which the bees x their combs.[15] He also described using such hives in a multi-storey conguration, foreshadowing the modern use of supers: he described adding (at
a proper time) successive straw hives below, and eventually removing the ones above when free of brood and
4
lled with honey, so that the bees could be separately
preserved at the harvest for a following season. Wildman
also described[16] a further development, using hives with
sliding frames for the bees to build their comb, foreshadowing more modern uses of movable-comb hives.
Wildmans book acknowledged the advances in knowledge of bees previously made by Swammerdam, Maraldi,
and de Raumurhe included a lengthy translation of
Raumurs account of the natural history of beesand he
also described the initiatives of others in designing hives
for the preservation of bee-life when taking the harvest,
citing in particular reports from Brittany dating from the
1750s, due to Comte de la Bourdonnaye. However, the
forerunners of the modern hives with movable frames that
are mainly used today are considered the traditional basket top bar (movable comb) hives of Greece, known as
Greek beehives. The oldest testimony on their use dates
back to 1669 although it is probable that their use is more
than 3000 years old.[17]
ORIGINS
2.5
5
Amos Root, author of the A B C of Bee Culture, which
has been continuously revised and remains in print. Root
pioneered the manufacture of hives and the distribution
of bee-packages in the United States.
A. J. Cook, author of The Bee-Keepers Guide; or Manual
of the Apiary, 1876.
Dr. C.C. Miller was one of the rst entrepreneurs to actually make a living from apiculture. By 1878 he made
beekeeping his sole business activity. His book, Fifty
Years Among the Bees, remains a classic and his inuence
on bee management persists to this day.
MODERN BEEKEEPING
Egyptian poet, medical doctor, bacteriologist and bee scientist who was active in England and in Egypt in the
early part of the twentieth century. In 1919, Abushady
patented a removable, standardized aluminum honeycomb. In 1919 he also founded The Apis Club in Benson,
Oxfordshire, and its periodical Bee World, which was to
be edited by Annie D. Betts and later by Dr. Eva Crane.
The Apis Club was transitioned to the International Bee
Research Association (IBRA). Its archives are held in
the National Library of Wales. In Egypt in the 1930s,
Abushady established The Bee Kingdom League and its
organ, The Bee Kingdom.
In India, R. N. Mattoo was the pioneer worker in starting
beekeeping with Indian honeybee, (Apis cerana indica) in
early 1930s. Beekeeping with European honeybee, (Apis
mellifera) was started by Dr. A. S. Atwal and his team
members, O. P. Sharma and N. P. Goyal in Punjab in
early 1960s.It remained conned to Punjab and Himachal
Pradesh up to late 1970s. Later on in 1982, Dr. R. C. Sihag, working at Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar
(Haryana), introduced and established this honeybee in
Haryana and standardized its management practices for
semi-arid-subtropical climates.On the basis of these practices, beekeeping with this honeybee could be extended
to the rest of the country. Now beekeeping with Apis
mellifera predominates in India.
Traditional beekeeping
such as varroa and American foulbrood. In many developing countries xed comb hives are widely used and, because they can be made from any locally available material, are very inexpensive. Beekeeping using xed comb
hives is an essential part of the livelihoods of many communities in poor countries. The charity Bees for Development recognizes that local skills to manage bees in xed
comb hives[19] are widespread in Africa, Asia, and South
America.
4 Modern beekeeping
4.1 Movable frame hives
3.1
4.4
Smoker
4.4 Smoker
4.3
Protective clothing
beekeepers use a smokera device designed to generate smoke from the incomplete combustion of various
fuels. Smoke calms bees; it initiates a feeding response
in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to re.
Smoke also masks alarm pheromones released by guard
bees or when bees are squashed in an inspection. The ensuing confusion creates an opportunity for the beekeeper
to open the hive and work without triggering a defensive
reaction. In addition, when a bee consumes honey the
bees abdomen distends, supposedly making it dicult to
make the necessary exes to sting, though this has not
been tested scientically.
Smoke is of questionable use with a swarm, because
swarms do not have honey stores to feed on in response.
Usually smoke is not needed, since swarms tend to be less
Most beekeepers also wear some protective clothing. defensive, as they have no stores to defend, and a fresh
Novice beekeepers usually wear gloves and a hooded suit swarm has fed well from the hive.
Beekeepers often wear protective clothing to protect themselves
from stings
6 BEE COLONIES
movable-frame hive.
The most popular vertical top-bar hive is probably the
Warr hive, based on a design by the French priest
Abb mile Warr (18671951) and popularized by Dr.
David Heaf in his English translation of Warr's book
L'Apiculture pour Tous as Beekeeping For All[24] .
Some beekeepers are using liquid smoke as a safer, Main article: Urban beekeeping
more convenient alternative. It is a water-based solution Related to natural beekeeping, urban beekeeping is an
that is sprayed onto the bees from a plastic spray bottle.
Torpor may also be induced by the introduction of chilled
air into the hive - while chilled carbon dioxide may have
harmful long-term eects.[21]
4.5
4.6
Natural beekeeping
attempt to revert to a less industrialized way of obtaining honey by utilizing small-scale colonies that pollinate
urban gardens. Urban apiculture has undergone a renaissance in the rst decade of the 21st century, and urban
beekeeping is seen by many as a growing trend; it has
recently been legalized in cities where it was previously
banned. Paris, Berlin, London, Tokyo, Melbourne, New
York, and Washington DC are among beekeeping cities.
6.1
Castes
a large number of female worker bees, typically non-performing queen and produce another. Without a
30,00050,000 in number;
properly performing queen, the hive is doomed.
a number of male drones, ranging from thousands in Mating takes place at some distance from the hive and
a strong hive in spring to very few during dearth or often several hundred feet in the air; it is thought that this
separates the strongest drones from the weaker ones, encold season.
suring that only the fastest and strongest drones get to pass
on their genes.
6.1.2 Worker bees
Mating of queens
The queen emerges from her cell after 15 days of development and she remains in the hive for 37 days before
venturing out on a mating ight. Mating ight is otherwise known as 'nuptial ight'. Her rst orientation ight
may only last a few seconds, just enough to mark the position of the hive. Subsequent mating ights may last
from 5 minutes to 30 minutes, and she may mate with
a number of male drones on each ight. Over several
matings, possibly a dozen or more, the queen receives
and stores enough sperm from a succession of drones to
fertilize hundreds of thousands of eggs. If she does not
manage to leave the hive to matepossibly due to bad
weather or being trapped in part of the hiveshe remains
infertile and become a drone layer, incapable of producing female worker bees. Worker bees sometimes kill a
Drones are the largest bees in the hive (except for the
queen), at almost twice the size of a worker bee. They
do not work, do not forage for pollen or nectar and have
no other known function than to mate with new queens
10
6.2
6.3
A domesticated bee colony is normally housed in a rectangular hive body, within which eight to ten parallel
frames house the vertical plates of honeycomb that contain the eggs, larvae, pupae and food for the colony. If
one were to cut a vertical cross-section through the hive
from side to side, the brood nest would appear as a roughly
ovoid ball spanning 5-8 frames of comb. The two outside
combs at each side of the hive tend to be exclusively used
for long-term storage of honey and pollen.
Within the central brood nest, a single frame of comb typically has a central disk of eggs, larvae and sealed brood 7 Formation of new colonies
cells that may extend almost to the edges of the frame.
Immediately above the brood patch an arch of pollenlled cells extends from side to side, and above that again 7.1 Colony reproduction: swarming and
supersedure
a broader arch of honey-lled cells extends to the frame
tops. The pollen is protein-rich food for developing larvae, while honey is also food but largely energy rich rather Main article: Swarming (honey bee)
than protein rich. The nurse bees that care for the devel- All colonies are totally dependent on their queen, who
oping brood secrete a special food called 'royal jelly' after
feeding themselves on honey and pollen. The amount of
royal jelly fed to a larva determines whether it develops
into a worker bee or a queen.
Apart from the honey stored within the central brood
frames, the bees store surplus honey in combs above the
brood nest. In modern hives the beekeeper places separate boxes, called 'supers, above the brood box, in which
a series of shallower combs is provided for storage of
honey. This enables the beekeeper to remove some of
the supers in the late summer, and to extract the surplus
honey harvest, without damaging the colony of bees and
its brood nest below. If all the honey is 'stolen', including
the amount of honey needed to survive winter, the beekeeper must replace these stores by feeding the bees sugar
A swarm about to land
or corn syrup in autumn.
6.4
The development of a bee colony follows an annual cycle of growth that begins in spring with a rapid expansion
of the brood nest, as soon as pollen is available for feeding larvae. Some production of brood may begin as early
as January, even in a cold winter, but breeding accelerates towards a peak in May (in the northern hemisphere),
producing an abundance of harvesting bees synchronized
to the main nectar ow in that region. Each race of bees All the time that the queen is fertile and laying eggs she
7.2
11
produces a variety of pheromones, which control the behavior of the bees in the hive. These are commonly called
queen substance, but there are various pheromones with
dierent functions. As the queen ages, she begins to run
out of stored sperm, and her pheromones begin to fail.
Inevitably, the queen begins to falter, and the bees decide to replace her by creating a new queen from one of
her worker eggs. They may do this because she has been
damaged (lost a leg or an antenna), because she has run
out of sperm and cannot lay fertilized eggs (has become
a 'drone laying queen'), or because her pheromones have
dwindled to where they cannot control all the bees in the
hive.
At this juncture, the bees produce one or more queen cells
by modifying existing worker cells that contain a normal New wax combs between basement joists
female egg. However, the bees pursue two distinct behaviors:
number of virgin queens accompany the rst swarm (the
'prime swarm'), and the old queen is replaced as soon as a
1. Supersedure: queen replacement within one hive daughter queen mates and begins laying. Otherwise, she
without swarming
is quickly superseded in the new home.
2. Swarm cell production: the division of the hive into
two colonies by swarming
Supersedure is highly valued as a behavioral trait by beekeepers because a hive that supersedes its old queen does
not swarm and so no stock is lost; it merely creates a new
queen and allows the old one to fade away, or alternatively she is killed when the new queen emerges. When
superseding a queen, the bees produce just one or two
queen cells, characteristically in the center of the face of
a broodcomb.
Another important factor in swarming is the age of the
In swarming, by contrast, a great many queen cells are queen. Those under a year in age are unlikely to swarm
unless they are extremely crowded, while older queens
createdtypically a dozen or moreand these are located around the edges of a broodcomb, most often at have swarming predisposition.
the sides and the bottom.
12
9 WORLD APICULTURE
gloves or veil.
7.3
Articial swarming
Serbia[38]
13
10
11
See also
Africanized bee
Agriculture
Beekeeping in New Zealand
Beekeeping in the United Kingdom
Beekeeping in the United States
Biosecurity
Western honey bee life cycle
[7] Haralampos V. Harissis, Anastasios V. Harissis. Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean. Minoan and Mycenaean
Symbols Revisited. British Archaeological Reports,
Oxford 2009 https://www.academia.edu/1259037/
Apiculture_in_the_Prehistoric_Aegean._Minoan_and_
Mycenaean_Symbols_Revisited
[8] Mazar, Amihai and Panitz-Cohen, Nava, (December
2007) It Is the Land of Honey: Beekeeping at Tel Rehov
Near Eastern Archaeology, Volume 70, Number 4, ISSN
1094-2076
[9] Friedman, Matti (September 4, 2007), Israeli archaeologists nd 3,000-year-old beehives in USA Today, Retrieved 2010-01-04
[10] Crane, Eva The World History of Beekeeping and Honey
Hunting, Routledge 1999, ISBN 0-415-92467-7, ISBN
978-0-415-92467-2, 720pp.
[11] Bee Species Outnumber Mammals And Birds Combined
" Biology Online access date: 28/09/2009
[12] solitary bees solitary bees website, access date:
28/09/2009
[13] Franois Huber (1814). Nouvelles observations sur les
abeilles,. Chez J. J. Paschoud, ... et a Geneve. Retrieved
27 March 2014.
[14] Thomas Wildman, A Treatise on the Management of Bees
(London, 1768, 2nd edn 1770).
[15] Wildman, op.cit., 2nd (1770) ed., at pp.9495.
[16] Wildman, op.cit., 2nd (1770) ed., at pp.112-115.
[17] H.V. Harissis, G. Mavrofridis.
A 17th Century Testimony On The Use Of Ceramic Topbar Hives.
Bee World.
September 2012
https://www.academia.edu/1929792/A_17th_Century_
Testimony_On_The_Use_Of_Ceramic_Top-bar_Hives
12
References
[1] Traynor, Kirsten. Ancient Cave Painting Man of Bicorp. MD Bee. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
[2] Beekeeping in Ancient Egypt
[3] Beekeeping in Ancient Egypt
[4] Bodenheimer, F. S. (1960). Animal and Man in Bible
Lands. Brill Archive. p. 79.
[5] Apiculture in Egypt, Dr Tarek Issa Abd El-Wahab
[6] Dalley, S. (2002). Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities (2 ed.). Gorgias Press LLC. p. 203. ISBN
9781931956024.
[21] http://www.jstor.org/pss/3494466
[22] (It was reported that individuals frequently stung by bees,
such as bee keepers, showed high levels of IgG4 anti-PLA
antibodies in their serum, while most (other) patients sensitive to bee venom possessed increased IgE anti-PLA): W
Held, et al., Production of human antibodies to bee venom
phospholipase A2 in vitro, in Scandinavian Journal of Immunology, (1989, Feb), v.29(2), pp.203-9.
[23] Chandler, Philip (2007). The Barefoot Beekeeper. Lulu.
p. 111. ISBN 978-1-4092-7114-7.
[24] Heaf, David (2009). Beekeeping For All.
[25] Tanguy, Marion (2010-06-23).
bees?". The Guardian.
14
13
Apiculture
Den-
13
External links
EXTERNAL LINKS
15
14
14.1
14.2
Images
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