Managing Urban Run Off
Managing Urban Run Off
Urban Runoff
DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Managing
Urban Runoff
DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Managing Urban Runoff – Drainage Handbook 1st Edition: June 2013 © PUB, the national water agency.
This handbook is jointly produced by PUB, the national water agency and The Institution of Engineers Singapore (IES).
No reproduction is permitted in whole or in part without written permission from PUB and IES.
Foreword
1.3 The Need for Holistic 2.2 The Code of Practice on 3.2 The Need for Managing
Stormwater Management 9 Surface Water Drainage 15 Runoff at Source 19
1.4 Benefits of Holistic 2.3 ABC Waters Design 3.3 Strategies for Planning,
Stormwater Management 10 Guidelines 15 Designing and Implementing
2.4 Other Resources 17 Source Solutions 21
1.5 Goals of the Handbook 11
3.4 General Design Considerations
for Stormwater Detention
and Retention 23
3.5 Options for Detention and
Retention within the
Development Site 24
3.6 Interfacing between Source
Elements and Public Drains 31
4. RECEPTOR SOLUTIONS TO 5. SAFETY, OPERATIONS 7. FREQUENTLY ASKED
PROTECT DEVELOPMENTS AND MAINTENANCE QUESTIONS
FROM FLOODS CONSIDERATIONS 7.1 General 75
4.1 Where is the Receptor? 33 5.1 Safety Considerations 51 7.2 Source Solutions: Tools
4.2 The Need for Implementing 5.2 Operations and to Manage Stormwater
Receptor Solutions 33 Maintenance On-site 75
4.3 Planning Receptor Considerations 54 7.3 Receptor Solutions:
Solutions 33 Flood Protection Strategies 76
4.4 Designing Structural 6. CASE STUDIES
Solutions 36 GLOSSARY 77
6.1 Waterway Ridges, 59
4.5 Non-Structural Receptor Singapore
Solutions 48
6.2 Tanglin Mall, Singapore 63 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 78
6.3 Wisma Atria, Singapore 66
6.4 The Prisma, Germany 70 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 79
06 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Introduction
1
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 07
250
As a tropical island located 1.5° north of the Equator,
1
Singapore experiences a hot and wet climate, with about
INTRODUCTION
2400 millimetres of precipitation annually. Storms come
200
in the form of monsoon surges, Sumatra Squalls and
150 sea breeze-induced thunderstorms. December is usually
the wettest month of the year in Singapore (Figure 1.1).
100
Singapore is relatively flat, with pockets of low-lying areas
50 located along the southern and eastern coastal fronts,
and some further inland (Figure 1.2). These areas face
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec higher flood risks, especially when heavy rains coincide
with high tides.
Figure 1.1 Mean monthly rainfall in Singapore.
Low-lying areas
Waterbodies
Figure 1.3 View of the Marina Reservoir, Singapore’s first reservoir in the heart of the city. With a catchment area of 10,000 hectares,
or one-sixth the size of Singapore, the Marina catchment is the island’s largest and most urbanised catchment.
08 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Post-development
At the same time, like many other Asian cities, Singapore hydrograph
Runoff
has undergone rapid urbanisation over the last few Peak runoff from Pre-development
hydrograph
a developed site
decades, with the population increasing from 1.6 million
people in 1960 to 5.31 million people in 20121. Over
time, the development of high-density satellite towns,
residential and commercial developments, has resulted in
an increase in paved (impervious) areas and a reduction Peak runoff from
pre-development
in green spaces. During a storm event, this results in an site
These strategies have been effective in reducing the extent and duration of floods in Singapore such that floods
experienced today mostly occur in a small locality and subside within an hour.
Note
1
Data from Department of Statistics, Singapore.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 09
1
160
1.3 The Need for Holistic Stormwater Management
140 Rainfall data from 1980 to 2012 has shown a trend towards
higher rainfall intensities (Figure 1.6) and an increasing
INTRODUCTION
frequency of high intensity rain events. In addition, climate
Rainfall (in mm)
120
PATHWAY
Diversion Canal
SOURCE
Rain Garden
PATHWAY
Canal Improvement
RECEPTOR
RECEPTOR Minimum Platform
Flood Barrier and Crest Levels
Figure 1.7 Examples of Source, Pathway and Receptor solutions to slow down and reduce peak runoff and to
protect developments (receptors) from flood hazards.
10 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Recognising that expanding canals and drains will not be sufficient, especially
for areas that are more developed and have site constraints, PUB will go beyond
implementing pathway solutions (e.g. drain capacity improvements, diversion
canals, centralised detention tanks and ponds, etc.) to working with developers
to put in place source solutions (e.g. decentralised detention tanks and ponds,
green roofs, rain gardens, porous pavements, etc.) to better manage stormwater
runoff, and receptor solutions (e.g. urban flood plains, raised platform levels,
flood barriers, etc.) to protect developments from floods. By implementing a
range of appropriate measures that covers every spectrum of the drainage
system, flood risks can be more significantly reduced and effectively managed
(Refer to Figure 1.7)2.
Figure 1.8 Acting both as a pathway and source solution along Kallang River, Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park is an integrated multi-functional
space that provides active recreational spaces for park users during dry conditions, but morphs into a floodplain during rain events,
providing additional drainage capacity for the waterway.
Note
2
One of the key recommendations from the Expert Panel Report on Drainage Design and Flood Protection Measures, released by MEWR in
January, 2012.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 11
INTRODUCTION
schemes like the Building and Construction Authority’s (BCA) Green
Mark Scheme and PUB’s Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters)
Certification Programme.
SOLUTIONS AT
SOURCE THE SOURCE
The location where refer to the slowing down and
stormwater runoff capturing of urban runoff
is generated, on-site, e.g. via ABC Waters
i.e. origin of the design features, detention
stormwater flows tanks/ponds, etc.
SOLUTIONS AT
PATHWAYS
PATHWAY
refer to enhancing the capacity
The means or routes
of conveyance systems and
through which
includes drain widening,
stormwater
deepening, catchment level
is conveyed
detention systems etc.
SOLUTIONS AT
RECEPTORS
RECEPTOR
refer to measures to
Where stormwater
protect areas where the
flows may propagate
storm water flows may
to and affect
end up, e.g. flood barriers
infrastructure
for buildings, etc.
2
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 13
2.1 Overview
In accordance with the Sewerage and Drainage Act, PUB has established a
2
Code of Practice on Surface Water Drainage (COP) that specifies the minimum
PUB has also developed the Active, Beautiful and Clean Waters (ABC Waters)
Design Guidelines and Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features
to provide developers and industry professionals with a reference on how to
implement environmentally sustainable green features or ABC Waters design
features in their developments.
This chapter will also briefly introduce other relevant resources pertaining to
the design and implementation of stormwater drainage systems.
The list of resources and regulatory references provided in this Handbook are
not exhaustive. Qualified Persons (QPs) designing these systems are responsible
for verifying all other applicable agency regulations for their developments and
ensuring that their designs comply with other regulatory requirements.
Figure 2.1 PUB’s Code of Practice on Surface Water Drainage and ABC Waters Design Guidelines.
14 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Before proceeding with the design of a proposed development, Qualified Persons (QPs)
1 will approach the Central Building Plan Department of the National Environment Agency
(CBPD/NEA) to obtain drainage information related to the development site, such as
the location and size of drainage reserves, minimum platform level (MPL) and land
safeguarded for future drainage schemes. QPs will also verify drains on-site and MPL
for effectual surface water drainage.
QPs submit Development Control (DC) plans for clearance with CBPD. For drainage
2 consultations, PUB (through CBPD) will check to ensure that:
1. Proposed buildings/structures do not encroach into drainage reserves and common
drains;
2. Platform level of the development complies with the MPL for effective surface water
drainage;
3. Minimum crest level is provided for underground facilities and linkages; and
4. Additional drainage facilities such as pumped drainage systems and detention tanks
are provided where necessary.
QPs submit Building Plans (BPs) and Detailed Plans (DPs) of building works as well as
3 related building services. PUB (through CBPD) will check for compliance with the COP.
During Temporary Occupation Permit (TOP) clearance, QPs are required to declare
4 that their platform and crest levels comply with the COP. This declaration shall be
supported by as-built survey plans prepared by a Registered Surveyor and submitted
to CBPD.
Upon completion of works, the QPs shall certify and submit a Certification of
5 Inspection for Drainage Works to PUB as part of the requirements for Certificate of
Statutory of Completion (CSC) stage. Drainage works to be handed over to PUB shall
have a one year Defects Liability Period. The Defects Liability Period shall commence
from the date PUB gives no objection to the issue of the CSC.
Note
“QP” refers to a Qualified Person who is an Architect or a Professional Engineer or a suitably qualified person registered under relevant
legislation (e.g. Architects Act 1991, Professional Engineers Act 1991)
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 15
1 2 3
Planning Design Guidelines to ensure
requirements requirements the integrity of
stormwater drainage
systems
The ABC Waters design guidelines were developed based on the following
principles:
b) Improving runoff water quality from the development site into the
receiving environment.
In its inception phase, the ABC Waters programme focused on public areas
where blue and green elements could be woven into the urban fabric. In this
Handbook, the initiative is now extended to private development parcels where
stormwater begins its course. Source solutions can utilise the ABC Waters
concept by detaining stormwater and treating it closer to the source before it is
discharged into public waterways.
Vegetated
swale
The BCA Green Mark Scheme is an initiative that aims to drive Singapore’s
construction industry towards more environmentally friendly buildings.
It is intended to promote sustainability in the built environment and raise
environmental awareness among developers, designers and builders when
they start project conceptualisation and design, as well as during construction.
The Code for Environment Sustainability
of Buildings and information on the Under this scheme, stormwater management within development sites
Green Mark Scheme is available on the can be considered for potential Green Mark points under Building Control
BCA website: http://www.bca.gov.sg (Environmental Sustainability) Regulations 2008, RB 3-6, NRB 3-7 Stormwater
Management; RB 2-3 Irrigation System and Landscape.
Private Public
Bioretention
basin
Surface discharge
to public waterway
or canal
Public
waterway
or canal
INTERFACE
Gravel BETWEEN
trench PRIVATE
PROPERTY AND
PUBLIC LAND
18 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Source Solutions to
Manage Stormwater On-site
3
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 19
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
Figure 3.1 Example of Source (park and nearby developments) which contributes
runoff to the Pathway (waterway) in Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park.
Pre-development Post-development
Evapo-
transpiration
Evaporation
Runoff Runoff
Infiltration Infiltration
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
designing and implementing stormwater detention facilities and features.
Although the process is presented as a series of steps, in practice it should
be iterative.
Individual development parcels Larger developments can use a Peak flow attenuation at
should implement on-site detention wider range of detention strategies different scales of development
and conveyance measures to (e.g. centralised detention) to slow ensures controlled releases to
reduce discharge rates from down and reduce peak runoff. the public drainage system.
the development.
Figure 3.3 Varying scales of stormwater detention measures implemented on-site help to attenuate peak runoff in the public
drainage system.
Inflow
Runoff
hydrograph
Outflow
hydrograph
Peak inflow
Time
Time to Peak
Figure 3.4 The inflow hydrograph depicts post-development runoff without runoff
control. The outflow hydrograph is determined by the design of the outflow structure.
The red line indicates the maximum allowable peak discharge to the public drains.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 23
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
basin is whether or not it has a permanent pool of objectives. Both detention and retention basins are
water. Detention basins are also known as “dry” basins important for storing and slowing (attenuating) the
where the water is drained out in between storms, peak runoff from impervious surfaces.
while retention basins usually retain a certain amount
Figure 3.5 Detention pond in the Arkadien Winnenden Figure 3.6 Yishun Pond, a stormwater retention pond
residential development in Germany. adjoining Khoo Teck Puat Hospital.
The space available within a development parcel will also determine the type
of conveyance system that is most appropriate. If there is adequate open space
between buildings within a development site, surface detention systems like
vegetated swales or bioretention swales can be implemented as alternatives
to conventional drains. Where space permits, these systems can be linked to
each other to form a treatment train for water quality improvement functions.
24 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
3.4.2 TOPOGRAPHY
Topography determines how fast water moves from Point A to Point B. On steep
topography, runoff will have higher flow rates compared with runoff on a gentle
slope. Topography also determines how runoff will travel within and eventually
out of the site. Runoff will naturally travel towards indentations in the terrain. As
such, site topography can be adjusted to create favourable zones for conveyance
and detention of runoff. For example, topographical adjustments can be made Topographical characteristics
to direct runoff to a central location such as a detention or retention pond, or an
indentation in the land can be a site for a swale that will transport water from
Point A to Point B.
If the site has existing stormwater drains, they can be retrofitted or substituted
with more naturalised conveyance elements like vegetated swales or
bioretention swales. If the site constraints are too significant, other detention or
retention options can be introduced or intensified. Stormwater management
is a composite system and a combination of elements can be developed to
address the opportunities and constraints of each site.
Vegetated and
bioretention
swales Bioretention
basins
Figure 3.7 Options for on-site detention and retention of stormwater runoff within the development site.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 25
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
of maintenance required, and costs (e.g. capital, operational and maintenance
costs) have to be considered.
3.5.1 ON BUILDINGS
Figure 3.8 Landscaped green roof and rooftop garden area on top of Orchard Central
Mall.
GREEN ROOFS
The rooftop is where rainwater usually lands first and begins its journey
towards the public waterways. Rooftop systems allow for maximised building
footprints and are an ideal place to harvest rainwater for reuse. Green roofs
are typically constructed with a waterproof membrane, drainage material, a
lightweight layer of soil and a cover of plants. The rooftop vegetation captures
rainwater allowing evaporation and evapotranspiration processes to reduce
the amount of runoff entering downstream systems, effectively reducing
stormwater runoff volumes and attenuating peak flows. The amount of storage
provided by green roofs is limited by the drainage layers and the controlling
weir elevation of the roof drain.
ROOF GARDENS
A roof garden (refer to Figure 3.9) is usually designed to be accessible and
utilised as a communal rooftop space, with other features such as pathways,
lighting and benches. The soil layer in roof gardens can be deeper to support
a diverse range of vegetation, which serve the same functions as a green roof.
However, it is important to check the loading capacity of the rooftop to ensure
that it can cater to the heavier loads. The main difference between a rooftop
garden and a green roof system is the former’s more substantial thickness of
the substrate and media layer.
26 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Figure 3.9 Roof garden at Central Horizon HDB development in Toa Payoh.
PLANTER BOXES
Planter boxes (Figure 3.10) can also be implemented on building façades or
roofs as additional surface area for stormwater management. Apart from
being space-efficient systems that can help reduce peak runoff from the
building during rain events, stormwater treatment benefits can also be
achieved by incorporating a cleansing biotope or bioretention system into the
planter boxes.
Figure 3.10 Planter boxes on the sides of the building and along pedestrian bridges at Khoo Teck Puat Hospital.
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
Detention
tank Bioretention
basins
Figure 3.12 On-site stormwater detention and retention options on ground level.
Figure 3.13 Dry pond at Greenwood Sanctuary - During rain events, stormwater runoff flows from the surrounding ground to the dry
pond and filters to underground percolation tanks encased in a permeable membrane layer. During dry weather, the lawn area in the
dry pond can also be used for recreational activities.
Overflow pit
Treated water
and outflow Infiltration
Perforated pipe
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
within a catchment: firstly, to collect runoff and deliver it the secondary system(s) they are connected to. This
to detention areas and secondly to channel water from means that if a conveyance swale receives water
detention areas towards discharge points. They are the from a surface detention system, it needs to be sized
most commonly used tools to manage runoff in urban so that it can receive or discharge the desired flows
areas as they can be designed to slow down and reduce without creating problems upstream or downstream.
peak flows. A well-designed stormwater management The regulation of flow volumes can be achieved by
system could utilise conveyance elements that are understanding the operating rules of the detention
linked to detention and retention zones in order to system and designing the appropriate conveyance
achieve the required targets for peak flow reduction. element to support its drainage.
Figure 3.16 Illustration showing the reduction in peak flows and flow volumes as runoff flows through a conveyance system
that connects detention and retention features.
GRAVEL TRENCHES
A gravel trench (Figure 3.18) is a non-vegetated trench usually filled with
stone to create an underground reservoir for stormwater runoff. The runoff
volume gradually exfiltrates through the bottom and sides of the trench into the
subsoil. The gravel trench is usually part of a conveyance network and is
designed with an overflow pipe so that excess flows can be conveyed through
the pipe to the drainage system if the detention capacity of the trench is reached.
Gravel trenches are not intended to trap sediment and should be designed with
a sediment forebay and grass channel or filter strip or other appropriate pre-
treatment measures to prevent clogging and failure.
STORMWATER ON-SITE
SOURCE SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE
Figure 3.19 Schematic of an
underground detention tank.
Conveyance elements like swales are typically connected to public drains via
outflow channels that discharge runoff at a controlled rate. They should be
designed to ensure that the discharge of peak runoff from the site does not
exceed the maximum allowable rate.
Similarly, detention systems hold back water only to be released slowly after
the rain subsides. The outlet structure must be designed to allow for a release
rate that does not exceed the maximum allowable peak flow. Detention zones
should also be equipped with emergency overflow outlets that can release
water in a controlled way to the public drains.
All remaining ABC Waters elements such as green roofs, façade planters and
other detention or retention systems sited on buildings must be connected
to public drains via drainage downpipes that transport water to designated
outflow channels.
32 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
4
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 33
Figure 4.1 Minimum platform levels for developments and crest levels for entrances to basements are some examples of structural
receptor solutions.
PUB’s website provides a map (Figure 4.2) and table showing flood prone areas
and hotspots in Singapore.
The highest level of the four will determine the minimum platform level of the
development.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 35
Southern Coast
š General developments:
300 mm above the adjacent road/ground level
development
with basements:
600 mm above the adjacent road/ground level
Meng Suan
Hong Kah
Buangkok
Upper
Halus Changi
š Commercial/Multi-Unit Residential developments
Serangoon
Lor Chuan with basements:
MacPherson Tanah Merah
Jurong Industrial
Bt Timah
Farrer Pk Upp East Coast 600 mm above the highest recorded flood level
Commonwealth Jln Besar Telok Kurau
Tg Katong
Alexandra
Figure 4.4 Additional crest protection levels are required for developments with underground linkages to MRT stations
(e.g. Ion Orchard Link) and for all openings to basement facilities, including ventilation ducts (e.g. Wisma Atria)
1. Understand the proposed building typologies for the site and the amount
of space available between minimum platform requirements and adjacent
road/ground levels;
2. Review the design options suitable for migitating level differences, taking
into consideration requirements from various government agencies
concerning slope gradients, barrier-free accessibility, pedestrian access,
etc.; and
3. Determine the type of tools to be used for minimum platform and crest
level requirements to be met through structural means, which could
include raising the platform level of the development site, adding ramps
or stairs, or by installing mechanical flood barriers.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 37
DESIGN TOOLBOX
Figure 4.5 There are various design options for different building types to meet minimum platform and crest levels.
š 7KHUHLVOLPLWHGVSDFHDYDLODEOHIRUPLWLJDWLQJOHYHOGLijHUHQFHVDVWKHID×DGHDQGIJRRU
levels of the conserved building cannot be altered.
š $OWKRXJKWKHUHLVDFRPPRQDFFHVVZD\DQGID×DGHIRUWKHIURQWDJHLWLVSRVVLEOHWR
mitigate level differences internally.
Shop/Retail
requirements must be met to ensure that floodwaters does not enter these
facilities through their connecting basements or ground level entrances, exits
and openings. The development may have different platform and crest levels
4
based on the locations of points of access to the different parts of the building
CHANGING LEVELS ON
COMMON ACCESS WAYS
In cases where the building shares a common access way with other buildings,
it may be possible to design the access level for the building entrance to match
adjacent levels by changing the entrance level and providing stairs or ramps to
connect with pedestrian sidewalks (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 For this corner unit shophouse, the five-foot way was raised to match entrance levels. Steps were created to lead down to
the road and common sidewalk area for the side entrances.
USE OF
ANCILLARY AREAS
i. entrance driveways;
ii. bin centres;
iii. turfed compound areas;
iv. car porches for single unit developments; and
v. other areas as may be approved by PUB.
40 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Figure 4.8 The ancillary area outside this development is used to showcase street art,
adding vibrancy to the entrance of the building.
ALIGNMENT OF
ENTRANCE LOCATIONS
On development sites that are sloped, it may be easier to align entrances and
access on the higher elevation side of the slope compared to the lower elevation
side so as to mitigate between the minimum platform level requirements and
adjacent levels (Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9 The development incorporates an urban park with a sloped access to act
as an intermediary area to mitigate the level difference between the road and the
platform level of the development, where the entrances are located.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 41
STAIRCASES
AND RAMPS
Staircases and ramps may be used to mitigate differences between the ground
level and the development’s platform level. In space-constrained developments,
stairs may be a space-efficient means of providing accessibility from the street
level to the building. However, tall staircases could potentially create visual
barriers to the landscape. Designers should take into consideration the various
uses of access points into the building and determine the locations where these
features would be appropriate.
MECHANICAL LIFTS
FLOOD BARRIERS
Flood barriers are mechanical barrier systems that are installed to prevent
4
water from flooding the protected area behind the barrier. These barriers are
For developments that are unable to meet the minimum platform and
crest levels through structural design tools alone, flood barriers could be
implemented on-site to achieve an equivalent level of flood protection.
However, it must be emphasised that the platform and crest levels should be
raised to the highest possible levels before considering the implementation of
flood barriers. Flood barrier systems should be combined with other structural
measures to ensure that the development is adequately protected from flooding.
These flood protection measures are cost-effective solutions compared with
the potential economic costs of flood damages and inconvenience caused to
building users.
1. Response Time: the time from the issue of the flood alarm to the onset of
flooding and the readiness and availability of personnel;
Type of Manual Slot-in Manual Swing Manual Pivot Manual Manual/Automatic Manual/Automatic Automatic
Flood Barriers Watertight Door Flip-up Sliding Drop-down
(Shuttle door)
Description Piece(s) that are Barrier that Flood barrier Watertight version Flood barrier is Flood barrier Flood barrier
manually deployed operates on a is lowered into of doors. recessed in the that slides across that is kept in a
prior to a flood “swing door” place using a ground and raised an opening raised position
event. Slots must concept. pivot system. into position during into position. under normal
be installed to flooding conditions. conditions and is
guide installation lowered during
of barrier(s). flood event.
There are also more permanent options available, such as building low flood
walls along the perimeter of the development site with provisions (e.g. gaps
or slots) for flood barrier systems. Gaps between the walls would provide
pedestrian access during normal conditions. During flood situations, flood
barriers would be installed or activated to close the gaps and ensure that
the areas around the building are fully watertight. Flood barriers can also be
integrated into the design of entrance gates (Figure 4.16).
Shortfall
between
road level
and minimum
crest level
Figure 4.16 The entrance gate of this development leading directly to the basement car park was designed with a solid bottom section,
with openings (for aesthetics) starting at the level above the required minimum crest level. A cross-section schematic of the gate is shown
on the right.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 47
Automatic flood barriers are permanently installed in place and can be activated
very quickly compared with manual flood barriers (Figure 4.17). There are
several types of automatic barriers, including automatic flip-up, self-closing
or drop-down systems. The normal position of these automatic flood barriers
is flush with the pavement, road surface or side walls, providing seamless
pedestrian or vehicular access. When activated, the barrier will be raised,
lowered or closed to protect the premises from flooding. When the floodwaters
recede, the barrier will return to its original location allowing for vehicle and
pedestrian passage.
The Heavy Rain Warning SMS alert service is part of the Integrated Heavy Rain
and Water Level Alert Service jointly operated by the MSS and PUB. Members
RIWKHSXEOLFFDQVXEVFULEHWRHLWKHURQHRUERWKDOHUWVWKURXJK1($ŖV0\(19
mobile app or PUB’s MyWaters mobile app, or via the PUB website.
The Heavy Rain Warning information is
available on PUB’s website:
SMS alerts received can be used to trigger standard operating procedures or http://www.pub.gov.sg
flood contingency plans for the operation of flood protection measures and DQG1($ŖVZHEVLWH
activation of alert or warning systems so as to reduce the risk of flood damage http://app2.nea.gov.sg
to property or safety hazards to occupants and members of the public.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 49
5
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 51
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
SAFETY, OPERATIONS AND
Figure 5.1 A crossing installed across When designing source and receptor solutions, it is important to keep in mind
a grass conveyance swale ensures a the safety, operations and maintenance aspects of the proposed solutions. By
smooth transition between the two considering these aspects right from the design stage, innovative and cost-
walkways, and also protects the soil
effective source and receptor solutions that not only meet public agencies’
beneath from being compacted by
pedestrians, which would otherwise requirements, but are well integrated into the development to create a safe
reduce the infiltration capacity of and beautiful environment for users can be implemented.
the swale.
5.1 Safety Considerations
A risk and safety assessment can be conducted to identify potential safety
hazards that might occur after the completion and implementation of
stormwater management measures. It is paramount to put public safety as the
most important consideration and is the responsibility of the developer and/or
Qualified Person (QP) to ensure that all applicable safety standards are met and
that a system of safety checks is set up and continues to be in place after the
development project is completed.
Some key considerations for designing for public safety are listed below (not
an exhaustive list):
Project Approved by
(Name, Designation, Signature)
Item Hazards Potential Current Risk Severity Likelihood Risk Additional Risk Control Action by
Consequence(s) Control Measures Measures
Areas designed Slowly fluctuating Water safety Moderate Occasional Medium š'HVLJQDWHGHQWU\
to be accessed water depth of signage/hazard points
directly by approx. 0.1 m warning will š/RZZKHHOVWRSVRU
users that have during extreme be placed at a raised kerbs for
a waterbody/ storm events strategic location areas of circulation
waterbodies of creates potential to promote public between 500mm -
varying depth injury/drowning awareness of the 1000mm
and velocity. hazard. potential dangers š5DLOLQJVRUSODQWHG
and proper use edges to be provided
of facilities. where level
Design difference is
Considerations 1000mm and above
Water edges Park users may Higher intensity Moderate Occasional Medium At some locations
that are hard to inadvertently lighting to be with steeper banks or
discern at night. wander or fall provided at higher flow volumes,
into the water hotspot activity softscape will be used
during or just areas, lighting to shield the user from
after rain events. along pathways, the water edge.
uplighting of trees
will also
illuminate water
surface and edge.
Operations & Stagnant water 5LVNRIPRVTXLWR Checks to be Minor Frequent Low Detention facilities:
Maintenance that could related diseases. carried out twice š&KHFNIRUFKRNDJHV
and Monitoring possibly be a a week for and stagnant water
mosquito stagnant water
5HWHQWLRQIDFLOLWLHV
breeding site. and mosquito
with permanent
larvae.
water body:
š(QVXUHFRQVWDQW
water circulation
š,QWURGXFHZLOGOLIH
which would eat
larvae or introduce
anti mosquito agent
HJ%7,
,QWHULPGHWHQWLRQ Poor water Users are Minor Occasional Low Where necessary
facilities or quality affecting informed on water (eg if used for play
other detention public health. quality of facilities DUHDIRUFKLOGUHQ
facilities where and proper use of create wash point.
people are facilities.
encouraged to
enter and play in.
5HFHLYHGE\ Date
5LVN50DWUL[
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
SAFETY, OPERATIONS AND
Figure 5.3 Using a combination of
gradual slopes and clear signage, this
dry pond allows users to move out of
the area safely and easily during a
rain event.
For retention elements which have a permanent pool of water (e.g wetlands),
barriers such as railings should be provided to prevent people from falling in.
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
SAFETY, OPERATIONS AND
Figure 5.6 Sedimentation and
excessive vegetation have grown inside
the swale, obstructing flow and reducing
conveyance capacity during rain events.
This could also potentially be a breeding
ground for mosquitoes when stagnant
ZDWHULVWUDSSHGLQWKHVZDOH5HJXODU
maintenance of the swale is required to
ensure its functionality.
DETENTION SYSTEMS
Detention systems which discharge stored water to the public drains are only
allowed to do so when water levels in the public drains have dropped below
75%. Water levels in the public drains will be monitored via a water level sensor.
It is important to understand how the system of storing and discharging runoff
works, so that the operations and maintenance plan for the detention system
can be developed accordingly.
Designers and operators should also refer to Chapter 13 of the COP, which
contains clauses on maintaining the integrity of the stormwater drainage
system, including flood protection measures.
56 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Before
Identify Potential
During
Flood Warning/Monitoring
After
Termination and Recovery 5
Risk/Source š'HWHUPLQHIJRRGWKUHDWDQG š7UDQVLWLRQLQJIURPHPHUJHQF\SKDVH
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
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š(VWDEOLVK$FWLRQDQG(PHUJHQF\ monitoring of flood into recovery phase
Response Plan including chain of š5HPRYDORIGHEULVLQVSHFWLQJ
command and responsibility Action and Emergency Response property damage, condition of
š(TXLSPHQWRSHUDWLRQDQG Action development
maintenance of flood safety š$OHUWUHVSRQVH š3RVWPRUWHPRI)ORRG$FWLRQDQG
equipment (e.g. flood barriers, sand Emergency Response
š'LVVHPLQDWLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQDQG
bags, etc. if any)
warnings
š3ODQQLQJDQGFRQGXFWLQJIJRRGGULOO
š'HSOR\PHQWDFWLYDWLRQRIIJRRG
exercises in implementation of flood
protection measures or safety
barriers (if any)
equipment (if any)
š3ODQQLQJDQGFRQGXFWLQJIJRRGGULOO
š5RXWLQJWKHSXEOLFWRDUHDVRIVDIHW\
exercises in public evacuation
and away from potential dangers
FLOOD MONITORING
Owners and operations and maintenance personnel of developments located
in low-lying or flood prone areas can improve their readiness in activating
flood protection systems through close monitoring of weather forecasts and
Subscribe to SMS Alerts: water level information, available on the NEA and PUB websites respectively.
http://www.pub.gov.sg In addition to monitoring websites, building owners, occupants and building
managingflashfloods/ management can also subscribe to the SMS alert systems for Heavy Rain
or download the ‘MyWaters’ mobile app
Warning and water level alerts, so as to determine which actions they need to
to receive heavy rain or water level alerts.
take to protect themselves and their premises from flood risks.
Figure 5.9 Members of the public can subscribe to free heavy rain warning and water
level SMS alerts through PUB’s website.
58 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Case Studies
6
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 59
Legend
6
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: WATERWAY RIDGES,
Apron inlet
Vegetated
Swale
Bioretention
Basin
Discharge/
overflow
Roadside
Drain
Discharge
points
Existing
discharge
points
Treated
water
Bioretention
Basin
showcasing
treated water
(Educational)
Figure 6.1.2 Bioretention basin during dry weather (left). During a rain event (right), stormwater is directed into the swale, reducing
the velocity and volume of runoff into the drainage system.
As space at the ground level had to be set aside for public amenities (e.g.
playgrounds, lawns, etc.), the amount of space available for surface detention
was limited. Thus, underground detention space was implemented in addition
to surface detention. This was done through the use of gravel storage layers,
with depths ranging from 400 to 850 mm, which were located within or
below the bioretention basins and integrated with the drainage layer (refer
to Figures 6.1.2 and 6.1.3).
Max WL 200 mm
Total depth 400mm
400mm filter media
100mm transition
layer
400-850mm
Discharge outlet Perforated pipe gravel layer
Sized to cater to runoff from a storm with a return period of 10 years, runoff
from the sub-catchment flows into the basin, and water is allowed to pond up
to a maximum detention depth of 200 mm. Above that, runoff will overflow into
6
the manhole and be directed into the underground gravel layer for detention
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: WATERWAY RIDGES,
through the perforated pipes. Meanwhile the amount of overflow entering
the discharge overflow pipe will be regulated through the reduced outlet, the
opening size of which was predetermined through calculations to maintain
the pre-development peak flow. When the underground gravel layer is full, the
water level in the manhole rises to the standing overflow pipe and is discharged
via the discharge outlet that connects to the roadside drains.
Pre-development
peak runoff from
Total site area = 3.98 ha a greenfield site
1.04m3/s
Post-development peak
runoff from a developed
site served solely
by conventional
drainage system
1.85m3/s
Post-development peak
runoff from a developed
site that incorporates
on-site stormwater
detention and retention,
in addition to conventional
drainage systems
1.16m3/s
Figure 6.1.4 Comparison of the different peak runoff rates for different drainage
systems adopted for the precinct.
62 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Besides detaining stormwater runoff, the ABC Waters design features in the
precinct also function as natural filters which remove fine to colloidal particles
and dissolved pollutants in water with the following treatment objectives:
For 90% of all storm events:
TSS (Total suspended solids): 80% removal or less than 10 ppm
(parts per million)
TP (Total phosphorus): 45% removal or less than 0.08 ppm
TN (Total nitrogen): 45 % removal or less than 1.2 ppm
Since aesthetics and public amenities on the ground level are important for
such a development, plants of high aesthetic value and which encourage
biodiversity were incorporated into the design of the ABC Waters design
features for conveyance and detention. The ABC Waters design features were
also designed as multi-functional spaces, able to be used during dry weather
as public amenities. For example, selected bioretention basins would serve
as communal lawns, where residents can enjoy recreational activities during
dry weather. As such, through holistic planning, peak runoff reduction and
runoff water quality improvement can be achieved, while creating a beautiful
environment rich in biodiversity for residents to enjoy.
Figure 6.1.5 Bioretention basin serving as a multi-purpose lawn during dry weather.
During a rain event, it acts as a temporary detention feature for stormwater runoff.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 63
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: TANGLIN MALL,
Figure 6.2.1 Tanglin Mall, located 6.2.1 BACKGROUND
at the junction of Tanglin Road and
Grange Road.
Tanglin Mall is a 0.57 hectare commercial development located at the
junction of Tanglin Road and Grange Road. Completed in 1994, Tanglin Mall
complied with the minimum platform level requirement imposed by PUB.
Notwithstanding this, in light of changes in the surroundings and weather
patterns, Tanglin Mall has taken further measures to meet the higher flood
protection requirements specified by PUB in the COP (revised in December
2011).
Due to its strategic location at the junction of two major roads, Tanglin
Mall has at least ten entrances, including a basement car park. This
makes it challenging as no single type of flood protection measure can be
NA
implemented across the entire frontage of the building without compromising
SS
IM
HI ST MAR
TIN DRIV
E
pedestrian or vehicular access. Additionally, the new flood protection
LL
TANGLIN
DELIVERY
ST REGIS
RESIDENCES
requirement stipulated in the COP (6th Edition) was 0.7 metres above the
BASE
TANGLIN ROAD TANGLIN
TUDOR COURT PLACE
existing platform level. As such, a combination of flood protection measures
TOM
SHOPPING MALL
TANGLIN had to be designed and implemented to meet PUB’s revised requirements
LIN
MALL
GR
SO
as well as those imposed by other agencies such as the need for seamless
AN
THE REGENT
NR
SINGAPORE
GE
OA
RO
TRADERS
AD
HOTEL OAD
EN R
SINGAPORE CAD
CUS
GRANGE
ORCHAR
RESIDENCES
TOURISM
COURT
A thorough examination of the vulnerabilities of the building was carried out
D SPRING
WESTWOOD
PARK
HOUSE
followed by consultation with agencies, so as to devise a holistic solution
CAMDEN APARTMENTS
MEDICAL that would not only increase Tanglin Mall’s level of flood protection, but also
LANE
CENTRE
VARD
ORCH
ARD B
OULE
preserve its attractiveness as a lifestyle mall at the gateway of the Orchard
Road shopping district.
64 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Figure 6.2.2 Flip-up barrier at the front of Tanglin Mall, in closed (left) and open (right) positions. This barrier was chosen to achieve
seamless connectivity for pedestrians crossing the junction of Tanglin and Grange Road to Tanglin Mall.
Figure 6.2.3 A flip-up barrier at the entrance to the basement carpark in closed (left) and open (right) positions.
Figure 6.2.4 A multi-slot barrier at the front of Tanglin Mall before (left) and after (right) installation. These barriers have to be
installed manually.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 65
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: TANGLIN MALL,
Figure 6.2.5 Swing-type flood barrier
in open (top) and closed (bottom)
positions at access to loading/
unloading areas.
At other areas where there are technical constraints to install flip-up barriers
due to the existing structure of the building, low walls, slot-in barriers or
swing-type flood barriers were used (Figure 6.2.4 and 6.2.5).
Opened in 1986, Wisma Atria is an established shopping mall situated along MARRIOTT
NU
TM
HOTEL
EG
Orchard Road. This 0.62 hectare development also provides access to the
RO
TANG
AD
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: WISMA ATRIA,
Crest
protection
1. At areas with direct entry to the basement levels from the pedestrian
walkways, a 1m high crest was created using steps. Pedestrians would
have to first climb a flight of steps before descending to the basement.
The steps leading to the shops at the basement and the mechanical flood
barrier were replaced by a raised platform, integrated with accessibility
ramps that are linked to the second level of Wisma Atria. This continuous
raised platform has further enhanced the level of flood protection for the
development and eliminated the risk of floodwaters entering the building due
to mechanical failure of the flood barrier. In addition to enhancing Wisma
Atria’s flood protection levels, this transformation complies with BCA’s barrier
free access, while taking advantage of URA’s Façade Articulation Guidelines
to refresh their façade.
Entrance
107.25m RL
Existing
Pedestrian
Mall
105.3 m RL
Figure 6.3.5 Wisma Atria’s continuous raised platform (left) and section view (right).
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 69
SINGAPORE
CASE STUDY: WISMA ATRIA,
Figure 6.3.6 Wisma Atria’s continuous raised platform next to the main pedestrian walkway.
6.4.1 BACKGROUND
The Prisma is a 1.7 hectare mixed-use building complex located in
Nuremberg, Germany, comprising 61 residential units, 32 office spaces,
9 retail stores, a cafe and a public kindergarten. Rainwater that falls within
the development is collected and reused. Surplus stormwater is allowed to
infiltrate into the ground. At the same time, stormwater that is collected within
the site is used to regulate air quality and the climate within the building,
as well as provide visual and acoustic aesthetics to the development. By
integrating these features into the development, water has become the
central theme of the development, creating an oasis in the heart of the city.
GERMANY
CASE STUDY: THE PRISMA,
Figure 6.4.2 Rainwater from the
entire roof area (approximately
4000 m2) is collected and channelled
into the cistern. Approximately 70%
of the cistern serves as stormwater
detention storage, 17% of the storage
is used for emergency purposes
(fire-fighting), and 13% is used to
circulate rainwater throughout the
building as “natural air-conditioning”. Photo: courtesy of Siegfried Gragnato
Cleansing
biotope
Interior
pond
Cleansing
biotope
Water filter
Interior
pond
Exterior
pond
Cistern
GERMANY
CASE STUDY: THE PRISMA,
Photo: courtesy of Siegfried Gragnato
Impact basin
Impact basin
74 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
7
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 75
7
These are some of the commonly asked questions that PUB receives. More
questions pertaining to drainage issues and their answers can be found at
the PUB website: http://www.pub.gov.sg/.
FAQ
Can PUB allow for a change of the existing drainage discharge points
within the development site?
PUB may allow the change of the existing drainage discharge points within
the development site provided that the proposal does not significantly
alter the existing drainage overland flow pattern of the site and give rise
to flooding problems. The applicant has to submit the proposal to PUB
for technical comments and clearance. The QP has to avoid diverting flow
from one catchment to another as this may overload an existing drainage
system, which may result in flooding.
76 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
How do I comply with the minimum platform level if there are site
constraints such as low-lying roads and surrounding ground levels?
The minimum platform level is necessary to protect the new
development against flooding. Therefore, the building structures must
be built above or at the minimum platform level. For walkways, if
there is a large difference between the minimum platform level and
the existing road level, the QP may study and propose a compromised
walkway level that could be lower than the minimum platform level
but higher than the road level to provide barrier-free access. The QP
may also propose lower platform levels for other ancillary areas such
as driveways to tie in with the existing road level. All these deviations
from the minimum platform level are subject to PUB’s approval.
Glossary
Active, Beautiful, are environmentally friendly features that detain and treat stormwater
Clean Waters runoff using natural elements like plants and soil. The features also
(ABC Waters) enhance the surroundings with biodiversity and aesthetic value.
Design Features
Addition & Additions refer to any new construction which increases the floor area
Alteration (A&A) of an existing building, for example rear extensions. Alterations are
physical changes to a building.
Catchment refers to the area which drains into a stormwater drainage system.
Central Building Plan refers to the Central Building Plan Department of the Environmental
Department (CBPD) Protection Division, National Environment Agency.
Certificate of is issued by BCA (Building and Construction Authority) when building
Statutory works are completed and all agencies’ requirements have been
Completion (CSC) complied with.
Commercial/Multi refers to developments with basements such as shopping malls, large
Unit Residential office buildings, condominiums, hotels and hospitals.
Developments
with Basements
Common Drain refers to a drain of less than 1m wide serving more than one premise
and without drainage reserve.
Crest Level refers to the bottom level of any openings (including ventilation and
services openings) or summit level of a ramp or access way leading
into or away from an underground or basement structure or facility,
including the summit level of any exits of the underground facilities.
Drain includes any canal, culvert, conduit, river or watercourse.
Drainage Reserve refers to any land set aside for drainage works pursuant to development
proposals approved by a competent authority.
General refers to developments other than commercial/multi-unit residential
Developments developments with basements and special facilities.
Pathway refers to means or routes through which stormwater is conveyed
(e.g. waterways such as drains and canals).
Platform Level refers to the general ground level of a proposed development.
Qualified Person (QP) refers to a person who is an Architect or a Professional Engineer or a
suitably qualified person registered under other relevant legislation.
Receptor is defined as where stormwater flows may propagate to and affect
infrastructure, for example development sites, building premises, or
other infrastructure such as courtyards, parking lots and basements.
Source is defined as the location where stormwater runoff is generated, i.e. the
origin of stormwater flows.
Stormwater Refers to a system of drains for the conveyance or storage of
Drainage System stormwater and includes
a) Any weir, grating, float boom, gauge, tidegate, sump, storage pond,
pumping station, maintenance access and debris interception and
removal facility related to such system.
b) Any structure constructed to convey, store or measure stormwater or for
flood alleviation; and
c) Any bridge over or railing for any such drain or any appurtenance
thereof.
78 DRAINAGE HANDBOOK
Singapore
BCA (latest edition) Code for Environmental Sustainability for Buildings
(available via the BCA website at http://www.bca.gov.sg).
MEWR (2012) Report by the Expert Panel on Drainage Design and Flood Protection Measures
(available via the PUB website at http://www.pub.gov.sg/managingflashfloods).
NEA (latest edition) Code of Practice on Environmental Health
(available via the NEA website at http://app2.nea.gov.sg/codeofpractice.aspx).
NEA (2011) Guidelines on Mosquito Prevention in Domestic Rainwater Collection System for
Non-Potable Uses (available via the NEA website at http://app2.nea.gov.sg/guidebooks.aspx).
NEA (2008) Guidebook on Prevention of Mosquito Breeding
(available via the website http://www.dengue.gov.sg/).
PUB (latest edition) Code of Practice on Surface Water Drainage
(available via the PUB website at http://www.pub.gov.sg/general/code/).
PUB (2011) ABC Waters Design Guidelines
(available via the PUB website at http://www.pub.gov.sg/abcwaters/).
PUB (2011) Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features
(available via the PUB website at http://www.pub.gov.sg/abcwaters/).
Overseas
Barry Carter (2008) North Shore City Council, 1 The Strand, Takapuna, Auckland NZ.
Stormwater Manager.
Berlin Senate for Urban Development (2010) Rainwater Management Concepts, Greening
Buildings, Cooling Buildings: Planning, Construction, Operation and Maintenance Guidelines.
Clean Water Services (2009) Low Impact Development Approaches Handbook. Hillsboro, OR.
Gold Coast City Council (2005) Land Development Guidelines: Water Sensitive Urban Design
(WSUD) Guidelines.
Hoyer, J., Dickhaut, W., Kronawitter, L., Weber, B. (2011) Water Sensitive Urban Design –
Principles and Inspiration for Sustainable Stormwater Management in the City of the Future.
HafenCity Universität, Hamburg.
Lloyd, S.D., Wong, T.H.F. and Chesterfield, C.J. (2002) Water Sensitive Urban Design –
A Stormwater Management Perspective, Industry Report 02/10, Cooperative Research Centre
for Catchment Hydrology.
Richmond Valley Council (2005) Development Control Plan No. 9 – Water Sensitive Urban
Design.
UACDC (2010) Low Impact Development: A Design Manual for Urban Areas. Fayetteville,
Arkansas.
Wollongong Development Control Plan (2009) Environmental Controls Chapter E15, Part E –
General Controls, Water Sensitive Urban Design.
Woods-Ballard, B., Kellagher, R., Martin, P., Jefferies, C., Bray, R., Shaffer, P. (2007) The
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) Manual, CIRIA, London.
MANAGING URBAN RUNOFF 79
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following agencies and organisations for their valuable suggestions
and input:
Disclaimer
The materials contained in this publication are meant for general information only. PUB assumes no
responsibility or liability in relation to anyone using the information provided in this handbook. If the
user wishes to use any material contained in this publication, the onus is on the user to determine the
suitability and appropriateness of such material for his own purpose.
www.pub.gov.sg