Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Radio Afición (Vol. 1)
Radio Afición (Vol. 1)
1)
Facets of a Hobby for Life
Contents
1
Introduction
1.1
1.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
1.1.3
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Modes of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.1.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
DXing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.1
Types of DXing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.2
DX Clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.3
QSL cards
11
1.2.4
SINPO report
1.2.5
DX Communication
1.2.6
DXing equipment
1.2
1.3
1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Field Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3.1
13
1.3.2
IARU Region 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3.3
IARU Region 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.4
IARU Region 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.5
Emergency preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3.6
14
1.3.7
15
1.3.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Radiosport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4.1
15
1.4.2
15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
ii
CONTENTS
1.5
16
1.4.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.4.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
16
1.5.1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.5.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
19
2.1
19
2.1.1
Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.1.2
Silent Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.1.3
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
20
2.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.2
21
2.2.3
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.2.4
Modes of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
29
2.3.1
Types of stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.3.2
Computer-control software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.3
Station identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.4
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.6
General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
QSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.4.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
2.5.1
34
2.5.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.5.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
1.4.3
Technics Involved
35
3.1
Call sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.1.1
35
CONTENTS
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
iii
3.1.2
Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.1.3
Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.1.4
Amateur radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.1.5
39
3.1.6
43
3.1.7
44
3.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
45
45
Transceiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.1
Radio technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.2
RF Transceiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.3
Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.4
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.7
External articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.1
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.3
Reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.4
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.5
55
3.3.6
56
3.3.7
Eect of ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.3.8
58
3.3.9
Antenna gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
60
3.3.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
62
Radio propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.4.1
62
3.4.2
Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.4.3
Measuring HF propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.4.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.4.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
RST code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
iv
CONTENTS
3.5.1
Readability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.2
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.3
Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.5.4
Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.5.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
Specialist Groups
73
4.1
73
4.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.2
Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.3
QRP homebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.4
74
4.1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
75
4.2.1
Appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.2
AM activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.2.3
Classic gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.2.4
77
4.2.5
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
Amateur television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.3.1
79
4.3.2
European context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.3.3
Transmission characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.3.4
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
QRP operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.4.1
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.4.2
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.4.3
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.4
84
4.4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.2
4.3
4.4
CONTENTS
4.5
Contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
4.5.1
Contesting basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.5.2
Types of contests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
4.5.3
History of contesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4.5.4
Contesting activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.5.5
Station locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.5.6
89
4.5.7
90
4.5.8
90
4.5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Means of Communication
92
5.1
92
5.1.1
Modes of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.1.2
93
5.1.3
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
94
6.1
Morse code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.1.1
94
6.1.2
User prociency
96
6.1.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
6.1.4
99
6.1.5
6.1.6
Learning methods
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.1.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3
PSK31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.2
6.2.3
Resistance to interference
6.2.4
Technical information
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.2.8
6.2.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
D-STAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
vi
CONTENTS
6.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3.2
6.3.3
D-RATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.4
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.3.7
6.3.8
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.9
7.2
7.3
115
7.1.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.1.7
OSCAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.1
Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.2
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2.3
Launches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2.4
Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2.7
EME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
124
CONTENTS
8.1
vii
Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.1.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.3
8.1.4
Services
8.1.5
Controversy
8.1.6
Elser-Mathes Cup
8.1.7
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.8
8.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.2.2
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.2.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.4
8.2.5
Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2.6
Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2.7
8.2.8
Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.2.9
8.4
QST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.2
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.3.4
WorldRadio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.3
144
9.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.3
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Amateur radio license
Ham radio redirects here. For other uses, see Ham radio (disambiguation).
Amateur radio (also called ham radio) is the use of Amateur radio is ocially represented and coordinated
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU),
which is organized in three regions and has as its members the national amateur radio societies which exist in
most countries. According to an estimate made in 2011
by the American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved with amateur radio.[1] About 830,000 amateur radio stations are
located in IARU Region 2 (the Americas) followed by
IARU Region 3 (South and East Asia and the Pacic
Ocean) with about 750,000 stations. A signicantly
smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1 (Europe, Middle East, CIS, Africa).
1.1.1 History
An example of an amateur radio station with four transceivers,
ampliers, and a computer for logging and for digital modes.
On the wall are examples of various awards, certicates, and a
reception report card (QSL card) from a foreign amateur station.
designated radio frequency spectra for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages,
wireless experimentation, self-training, and emergency
communication. The term amateur is used to specify
persons interested in radio technique solely with a personal aim and without direct monetary or other similar
reward, and to dierentiate it from commercial broadcasting, public safety (such as police and re), or professional two-way radio services (such as maritime, aviation,
taxis, etc.).
The amateur radio service (amateur service and amateur satellite service) is established by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) through the International Telecommunication Regulations. National governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue individual stations licenses
with an identifying call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested for their understanding of key concepts in
electronics and the host governments radio regulations.
Radio amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and
2
graph stations in Canada and the United States, including 89 amateur radio stations. As with radio in general,
the birth of amateur radio was strongly associated with
various amateur experimenters and hobbyists. Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have signicantly contributed to science, engineering, industry, and
social services. Research by amateur radio operators has
founded new industries,[3] built economies,[4] empowered
nations,[5] and saved lives in times of emergency.[6][7]
Ham radio can also be used in the classroom to teach English, map skills, geography, math, science and computer
skills.[8]
Ham radio
Main article: Etymology of ham radio
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
who speak dierent languages. It is also popular with
homebrewers and in particular with QRP or very-lowpower enthusiasts, as CW-only transmitters are simpler
to construct, and the human ear-brain signal processing system can pull weak CW signals out of the noise
where voice signals would be totally inaudible. A similar legacy mode popular with home constructors is
amplitude modulation (AM), pursued by many vintage
amateur radio enthusiasts and acionados of vacuum tube
technology.
Demonstrating a prociency in Morse code was for many
years a requirement to obtain an amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes
in international regulations in 2003, countries are no
longer required to demand prociency.[10] The United
States Federal Communications Commission, for example, phased out this requirement for all license classes on
February 23, 2007.[11][12]
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
currently oered, which allow operators who pass them bers of amateur radio licensees, such as Japan, the United
access to larger portions of the Amateur Radio spectrum States, Canada, and most of the countries in Europe, there
and more desirable (shorter) call signs.
are frequent license examinations opportunities in major
In some countries, an amateur radio license is nec- cities.
essary in order to purchase or possess amateur radio
equipment.[22] An amateur radio license is only valid in
the country in which it is issued or in another country
that has a reciprocal licensing agreement with the issuing
country.
Both the requirements for and privileges granted to a licensee vary from country to country, but generally follow
the international regulations and standards established
by the International Telecommunication Union[23] and
World Radio Conferences.
Granting a separate license to a club or organization generally requires that an individual with a current and valid
amateur radio license who is in good standing with the
telecommunications authority assumes responsibility for
any operations conducted under the club license or club
call sign. A few countries may issue special licenses to
novices or beginners that do not assign the individual a
call sign but instead require the newly licensed individual
to operate from stations licensed to a club or organization
for a period of time before a higher class of license can
be acquired.
5
originates and may also indicate the license class.
(This call sign is licensed in South Africa. CEPT
Class is no longer encoded in South African callsigns. Where specic classes of amateur radio license exist, the call signs may be assigned by class,
but the specics vary by issuing country.)
2. 1 Gives the subdivision of the country or territory
indicated in the rst part (this one refers to the Western Cape).
3. NAT The nal part is unique to the holder of the
license, identifying that station specically.
Many countries do not follow the ITU convention for
the numeral. In the United Kingdom the original calls
G0xxx, G2xxx, G3xxx, G4xxx, were Full (A) License
Holders along with the last M0xxx full call signs issued by the City & Guilds examination authority in December 2003. Additional full licenses were originally
granted in respect of (B) Licensees with G1xxx, G6xxx,
G7xxx, G8xxx and 1991 onward with M1xxx calls. The
newer three level Intermediate licensees are 2E1xxx and
2E0xx and basic Foundation license holders are granted a
M6xxx call sign.[30] In the United States, for non-Vanity
licenses, the numeral indicates the geographical district
the holder resided in when the license was issued. Prior
to 1978, US hams were required to obtain a new call sign
if they moved out of their geographic district.
Also, for smaller entities, a numeral may be part of
the country identication. For example, VP2xxx is in
the British West Indies (subdivided into VP2Exx Anguilla, VP2Mxx Montserrat, and VP2Vxx British Virgin Islands), VP5xxx is in the Turks and Caicos Islands,
VP6xxx is on Pitcairn Island, VP8xxx is in the Falklands,
and VP9xxx is in Bermuda.
Online callbooks or callsign databases can be browsed
or searched to nd out who holds a specic callsign.[31]
Non-exhaustive lists of famous people who hold or have
held amateur radio callsigns have also been compiled and
published.[32]
Many jurisdictions issue specialty vehicle registration
plates to licensed amateur radio operators often in order
to facilitate their movement during an emergency.[33][34]
The fees for application and renewal are usually less than
the standard rate for specialty plates.[33][35]
Privileges
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
long as they meet certain technical parameters including to experiment with home-constructed or modied equipoccupied bandwidth, power, and maintenance of spurious ment. The use of such equipment must still satisfy naemission.
tional and international standards on spurious emissions.
Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations
throughout the RF spectrum, usually allowing choice of
an eective frequency for communications across a local, regional, or worldwide path. The shortwave bands,
or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and the
VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional
communication, while the microwave bands have enough
space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions
and high-speed computer networks.
In most countries, an amateur radio license grants permission to the license holder to own, modify, and operate
equipment that is not certied by a governmental regulatory agency. This encourages amateur radio operators
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies worldwide, with participation by each nations communications
regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these bandplan
frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as
radio services in other countries do not suer interference. In some countries, specic emission types are restricted to certain parts of the radio spectrum, and in
1.1.4
Modes of communication
Spread spectrum
Radioteletype (RTTY)
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Modes by activity
The following modes use no one specic modulation
scheme but rather are classied by the activity of the communication.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME)
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)
Low Transmitter Power (QRP)
Satellite (OSCAR- Orbiting Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio)
1.1.5
See also
DX Century Club
List of amateur radio magazines
List of amateur radio organizations
Piracy in amateur and two-way radio
Maritime mobile amateur radio
Worked All Continents
Worked All States
Anderson Powerpole connector
1.1.6
References
9
Wireless Institute of Australia
(2005). The Foundation Licence Manual: Your Entry into
Amateur Radio. Wireless Institute of Australia, November, 2005. ISBN 0-97583420-7
Canada
Cleveland-Ilie, John, and
Smith, Georey Read (1995).
The
Canadian
Amateur
Study Guide for the Basic
Qualication. Fifth Edition,
Second Printing.
Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada:
Radio
Amateurs of Canada. ISBN
1-895400-08-2
General References
Australia
India
Amateur radio licensing in India. Retrieved Aug. 13, 2007.
United Kingdom
Betts, Alan (2001). Foundation Licence Now!. London,
United Kingdom: Radio Society of Great Britain, December, 2001. ISBN 1-87230980-1
United States
Straw, R. Dean, Reed, Dana
G., Carman, R. Jan, and Wolfgang, Larry D. (ed.) (2003).
Now You're Talking!. Fifth
Edition. Newington, Connecticut, U.S.: American Radio Relay League, May, 2003.
ISBN 0-87259-881-0
American Radio Relay League
(2003). The ARRL FCC Rule
Book: Complete Guide to the
FCC Regulations. 13th Edition. Newington, Connecticut,
U.S.: American Radio Relay
League, August, 2003. ISBN
0-87259-900-0
Silver, H. Ward (2004). Ham
Radio For Dummies. John
Wiley and Sons, Ltd., April,
2004. ISBN 0-7645-5987-7
10
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.7
Further reading
Haring, Kristen (2007). Ham Radios Technical Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262- AM radio DX
08355-8.
Main article: MW DX
Poole, Ian D (October 2001). HF Amateur Radio.
Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, England: Radio Society
Early radio listeners, often using home made crystal sets
of Great Britain. ISBN 1-872309-75-5.
and long wire antennas, found radio stations few and far
Rohde, Ulrich L; Whitaker, Jerry C (2001). Com- between. With the broadcast bands uncrowded, signals of
munications Receivers: DSP, Software Radios, and the most powerful stations could be heard over hundreds
Design (3rd ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill. of miles, but weaker signals required more precise tuning
or better receiving gear.
ISBN 0-07-136121-9.
By the 1950s, and continuing through the mid-1970s,
The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
many of the most powerful North American "clear chan2010 (87th ed.). Newington, CT: American Radio
nel" stations such as KDKA, WLW, CKLW, CHUM,
Relay League. November 2009. ISBN 0-87259WABC, WJR, WLS, WKBW, KFI, KAAY, KSL and a
144-1.
host of border blasters from Mexico pumped out Top 40
music played by popular disc jockeys. As most smaller,
local AM radio stations had to sign o at night, the big 50
1.1.8 External links
kW stations had loyal listeners hundreds of miles away.
Amateur Radio at DMOZ
The popularity of DXing the medium-wave band has di-
1.2 DXing
Not to be confused with DJing, another audio
and radio hobby.
This article is about the hobby of receiving &
identifying radio or television signals. For the
article about the Philippine FM station in General Santos City, see DXER.
1.2. DXING
BBC and Voice of America) have cut back on their shortwave broadcasts. Missionary Religious broadcasters still
make extensive use of shortwave radio to reach less developed countries around the world.
11
Indian Ocean is counted as a DX country, even though it
is a region of France. The rules for determining what is
a DX country can be quite complex and to avoid potential confusion, radio amateurs often use the term entity
instead of country. In addition to entities, some awards
are based on island groups in the worlds oceans. On the
VHF/UHF bands, many radio amateurs pursue awards
based on Maidenhead grid locators.
1.2.2 DX Clubs
Many radio enthusiasts are members of DX clubs. There
are many DX clubs in many countries around the world.
They are useful places to nd information about up-todate news relating to international radio. Many people
also enjoy social events, which can form a large part of
the enjoyment that people can get out of the radio hobby.
12
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The angle of refraction places a minimum on the distance
at which the refracted beam will rst return to Earth. This
distance increases with frequency. As a result, any station employing DX will be surrounded by an annular dead
zone where they can't hear other stations or be heard by
them.
This is the phenomenon that allows short wave radio reception to occur beyond the limits of line of sight. It is
utilized by amateur radio enthusiasts (hams), shortwave
broadcast stations (such as BBC and Voice of America)
and others, and is what allows one to hear AM (MW)
stations from areas far from their location. It is one
of the backups to failure of long distance communication by satellites, when their operation is aected by
electromagnetic storms from the sun.
For example, in clear ionosphere conditions, one can hear
Radio France Inter on 711 kHz, far into the UK and as
far as Reading, Berkshire
1.2.5
DX Communication
DX communication is communication over great distances using the ionosphere to refract the transmitted
radio beam. The beam returns to the Earths surface, and
may then be reected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce. Ionospheric refraction is generally only feasible for frequencies below about 50 MHz, and is highly
dependent upon atmospheric conditions, the time of day,
and the eleven-year sunspot cycle. It is also aected by
solar storms and some other solar events, which can alter
the Earths ionosphere by ejecting a shower of charged
particles.
13
1.2.7
See also
1.2.8
References
14
United Kingdom
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Taiwan
The Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB) holds its There is apparently a Biannual Field Day held in Taiwan,
Field Days with the Region 1 schedule, but has its own by the Chinese Taipei Amateur Radio League.
awards independent of the rest of the IARU Region:
CW: First full weekend of June from Saturday 1500
UTC to Sunday 1500 UTC (June 2-3, 2012).
New Zealand
1.4. RADIOSPORT
15
1.3.7
1.3.8
External links
1.4 Radiosport
For the broadcast radio station in New Zealand, see Radio
Sport.
Radiosport (or radio sport) is formal competition between amateur radio operators in any of three amateur radio activities. The Friendship Radiosport Games is an international multi-sport event that includes all three types
of radiosport. Since 1977, the International Amateur Radio Union has sponsored the IARU HF World Championship (originally named the IARU Radiosport Championship). The World Radiosport Team Championship is
another international competition.
1.4.1
16
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Radiosport also can refer to the sport of amateur radio direction nding (ARDF). Although they represent a broad
range of amateur radio interests in their nations today,
several member societies of the International Amateur
Radio Union were originally formed for the promotion
and organization of the sport of ARDF and continue to
use the term radiosport in their society name. These include the Federation of Radiosport of the Republic of
Armenia, the Belarussian Federation of Radioamateurs
and Radiosportsmen, the Chinese Radio Sports Association, the Kazakhstan Federation of Radiosport and Radio
Amateur, the Mongolian Radio Sport Federation, and the
now defunct Radio Sport Federation of the USSR.
1.4.3
17
vided emergency communications after the 2008 Sichuan Radio Transmitters Society (IRTS). AREN membership
earthquake and U.S. hams did similar work following is, however, open to all amateur radio operators whether
Hurricane Ike. They were there on the Boston Marathon members of IRTS or not.
bombing when the cellphone systems were instantly overloaded.
The largest disaster response by U.S. amateur radio op- The Netherlands
erators was during Hurricane Katrina which rst made
landfall as a Category 1 hurricane went through Miami,
Florida on August 25, 2005, eventually strengthening to
Category 5. More than a thousand ham operators from
all over the U.S. converged on the Gulf Coast in an eort
to provide emergency communications assistance. Subsequent Congressional hearings highlighted the Amateur
Radio response as one of the few examples of what went
right in the disaster relief eort.[1]
DARES consists of a group of radio amateurs and shortwave listeners who oer their knowledge and radio equip1.5.1 Organization
ment during a disaster or major incident. The organisation is built upon the 25 safety regions dened by Dutch
While all hams have some emergency communications
authorities.
capability, those who are particularly interested in the
public service aspects of the hobby usually aliate with DARES has been represented at the Global Amateur Raan organized group for disaster specic training, quick dio Emergency Communications Conference (GAREC)
mobilization and to practice emergency skills. These ma- since 2005.
jor organizations include:
International
The Global Amateur Radio Emergency Communications
Conference (GAREC) is held in a new location yearly
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), hosting discussion and coordination of large-scale and crossborder amateur radio emergency response.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the New Zealand Association of Radio
Transmitters provides the AREC - Amateur Radio Emergency Communications (formerly Amateur Radio Emergency Corps) in the role. They won the New Zealand
National Search and Rescue award in 2001 for their long
commitment to Search and Rescue in NZ.
Australia
Trinidad and Tobago
In Australia, WICEN operates in each state & territory as
an autonomous body under the relevant disaster plan.
Canada
In Trinidad and Tobago, The Trinidad and Tobago Amateur Radio Society (T.T.A.R.S), the ocially recognized
body for amateur radio in Trinidad and Tobago, manages
the emergency communications arm of the group often
referred to as EmComms. EmComms have, in the past,
not only been active in Trinidad and Tobago, but throughout the Caribbean. The Oce of Disaster Preparedness
Management (ODPM) is actively involved in amateur radio and maintains an active amateur radio station and ve
repeaters.
18
United States of America
In the United States, there are two major methods of organizing amateur radio emergency communications: the
Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES), an organization of amateur operators sponsored by the American
Radio Relay League (ARRL); and the Radio Amateur
Civil Emergency Service (RACES), a standby replacement radio service regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. Operations under the RACES rules
requires preregistration with a local civil defense organization, to allow continued operation under Part 97.407[2]
of the FCC regulations in the event the Amateur Radio
Service is ever shut down by presidential order. Thus
ARES and RACES involvement within the same area
are usually intertwined, with many governments requiring membership and service in that locales ARES organization to allow operations within the Amateur Radio
Service as well. Many government Emergency Operations Centers, Red Cross Chapters and National Weather
Service facilities have permanent Amateur Radio stations
installed for such operations.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
dependent from the local government authority. It was
founded on 1982.
Russia
The volunteer organization called RAS formed in 1988,
and at the end of 2012, the Union of Russian Radio amateurs established a committee dedicated to emergency
communications and even entered into an agreement with
MChS, Emergency Situations Ministry.
1.5.3 References
[1] ARRL COO Testies on Capitol Hill to Amateur Radios
Value in Disasters. ARRLWeb. American Radio Relay
League, Inc. 3 Oct 2005. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
Radio clubs independent of the ARRL and ARES also [2] 97.407 Radio amateur civil emergency service
participate in emergency communications activities in
[3] ARRL: Understanding our Memoranda of Understanding
some areas, and some non-radio organizations have their
own amateur arm. The Department of Defense spon- [4] ARRL: Continuing Education Course Catalog
sors the Military Auxiliary Radio System (MARS) program which utilizes Amateur Radio operators for emergency communication using military radio frequencies. 1.5.4 External links
The National Weather Service Skywarn weather-spotter
ARRL Backgrounder: Amateur Radio Emergency
program has a strong amateur radio contingent. And amCommunication
ateurs dedicated to the Salvation Army are organized under their Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Net Navy-Marine Corp MARS with links to Air Force
work program.
and Army programs
Emergency communications and disaster assistance is
usually done in conjunction with volunteer disaster re IARU-R1 Emcom
lief organizations such as the American Red Cross, the
Salvation Army, local government emergency management agencies, as well as volunteer re departments and
ambulance corps.
The ARRL has memoranda of understanding with numerous agencies expected to receive services,[3] including the American Red Cross and Salvation Army and is
a partner in the Citizen Corps program of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The ARRL
also is a member of the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (NVOAD) and conducts emergency communications certication courses for interested
Amateur Radio operators.[4]
Spain
In Spain, REMER (Red Radio de Emergencia, Emergency Radio Network) is a national HF/VHF network
formed by volunteer ham radio operators, and it is coordinated by the local Civil defense groups, which are
Chapter 2
The majority of amateur radio operators worldwide reside in Japan, the United States, Thailand, South Korea,
and the nations of Europe. The top ve countries by perMain article: Amateur radio
centage
of the population are Japan, Slovenia, Taiwan,
An amateur radio operator is someone who uses equipSouth Korea and Thailand. Only the governments of
Yemen and North Korea currently prohibit their citizens
from becoming amateur radio operators. In some countries, acquiring an amateur radio license is dicult because of the bureaucratic processes or fees that place access to a license out of reach for most citizens. Most nations permit foreign nationals to earn an amateur radio license, but very few amateur radio operators are licensed
in multiple countries.
Gender
In the vast majority of countries, the population of amateur radio operators is predominantly male. In China
12% of amateur radio operators are women,[6] whilst in
An amateur radio operator
the United States is it approximately 15%.[7] The Young
Ladies Radio League is an international organization of
ment at an amateur radio station to engage in two-way female amateur radio operators.
personal communications with other amateur operators
on radio frequencies assigned to the amateur radio ser- A male amateur radio operator can be referred to as an
vice. Amateur radio operators have been granted an OM, an abbreviation used in Morse code telegraphy for
amateur radio license by a governmental regulatory au- old man, regardless of the operators age. A female amthority after passing an examination on applicable regu- ateur radio operator can be referred to as a YL, from the
lations, electronics, and radio theory and operation. As a abbreviation used for young lady, regardless of the opcomponent of their license, amateur radio operators are erators age. XYL was once used by amateur radio operassigned a call sign that they use to identify themselves ators to refer to an unlicensed woman, usually the wife of
during communication. There are about three million a male amateur radio operator; today, the term has come
to mean any female spouse of an amateur radio operator,
amateur radio operators worldwide.[1]
licensed or not. Sometimes the wife of a ham operator
Amateur radio operators are also known as radio ama- is called a YF (wife). Although these codes are derived
teurs or hams. The term ham as a nickname for am- from English language abbreviations, their use is comateur radio operators originated in a pejorative usage by mon among amateur radio operators worldwide. Incidenoperators in commercial and professional radio commu- tally, the most common language heard in the HF amateur
nities. The word was subsequently adopted by amateur bands (the bands below 30 MHz that support worldwide
radio operators.
communications) is English.
2.1.1
Demographics
Age
Few governments maintain detailed demographic statis- In most countries there is no minimum age requirement
tics of their amateur radio operator populations, aside to earn an amateur radio license and become an amateur
from recording the total number of licensed operators. radio operator. Although the number of amateur radio
19
20
2.1.2
Silent Key
Silent key refers to an amateur radio operator who is [10] ARRL Silent Key submission guidelines. Retrieved 10
deceased.[10] The term can be abbreviated 'SK', espeAugust 2007
cially in morse code.[11] The key in the term refers to a
telegraph key, the instrument that all early amateur radio [11] List of morse code abbreviations. Retrieved 10 August
2007
operators, as well as many contemporary amateur radio
operators, have used to send Morse code. The term SK,
used in telegraphy to indicate an end of transmission, is
therefore also used to refer to any amateur radio operator 2.2 Amateur radio license
who is deceased, regardless of whether or not they were
known to have used a telegraph key or Morse code in their
Ham radio redirects here. For other uses, see Ham ratwo-way personal communications.
dio (disambiguation).
Amateur radio (also called ham radio) is the use of
2.1.3
Gallery
2.1.4
References
[1] Silver, H Ward (23 April 2004). Ham Radio for Dummies.
Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7645-59877. OCLC 55092631.
[2] Status Summary of Radio Amateurs & Amateur Stations of the World. International Amateur Radio Union
(IARU.org). Archived from the original on 28 June 2007.
Retrieved 13 July 2007.
[3] Hamdata Callsign Server. Hamdata.com. Archived
from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 22 May
2011.
designated radio frequency spectra for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages,
wireless experimentation, self-training, and emergency
communication. The term amateur is used to specify
21
less Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America,
produced in 1909, contains the rst listing of amateur radio stations.[2] This rst radio callbook lists wireless telegraph stations in Canada and the United States, including 89 amateur radio stations. As with radio in general,
the birth of amateur radio was strongly associated with
various amateur experimenters and hobbyists. Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have signicantly contributed to science, engineering, industry, and
social services. Research by amateur radio operators has
founded new industries,[3] built economies,[4] empowered
nations,[5] and saved lives in times of emergency.[6][7]
Ham radio can also be used in the classroom to teach English, map skills, geography, math, science and computer
skills.[8]
The amateur radio service (amateur service and amateur satellite service) is established by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) through the International Telecommunication Regulations. National governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue individual stations licenses
with an identifying call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested for their understanding of key concepts in
electronics and the host governments radio regulations.
Radio amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and
data communications modes and have access to frequency
Ham radio
allocations throughout the RF spectrum to enable communication across a city, region, country, continent, the
Main article: Etymology of ham radio
world, or even into space.
Amateur radio is ocially represented and coordinated
by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU),
which is organized in three regions and has as its members the national amateur radio societies which exist in
most countries. According to an estimate made in 2011
by the American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved with amateur radio.[1] About 830,000 amateur radio stations are
located in IARU Region 2 (the Americas) followed by
IARU Region 3 (South and East Asia and the Pacic
Ocean) with about 750,000 stations. A signicantly
smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1 (Europe, Middle East, CIS, Africa).
2.2.1
History
Amateur radio operators use various modes of transmission to communicate. The two most common modes for
voice transmissions are frequency modulation (FM) and
single sideband (SSB). FM oers high quality audio signals, while SSB is better at long distance communication
when bandwidth is restricted.[9]
Radiotelegraphy using Morse code, also known as CW
from "continuous wave", is the wireless extension of land
line (wired) telegraphy developed by Samuel Morse and
An amateur radio station in the United Kingdom. Multiple dates to the earliest days of radio. Although computertransceivers are employed for dierent bands and modes. Com- based (digital) modes and methods have largely replaced
CW for commercial and military applications, many amputers are used for control, datamodes, SDR and logging.
ateur radio operators still enjoy using the CW mode
19th century, but amateur radio as practiced today began particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental
in the early 20th century. The First Annual Ocial Wire- work, such as earth-moon-earth communication, because
22
of its inherent signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse,
using internationally agreed message encodings such as
the Q code, enables communication between amateurs
who speak dierent languages. It is also popular with
homebrewers and in particular with QRP or very-lowpower enthusiasts, as CW-only transmitters are simpler
to construct, and the human ear-brain signal processing system can pull weak CW signals out of the noise
where voice signals would be totally inaudible. A similar legacy mode popular with home constructors is
amplitude modulation (AM), pursued by many vintage
amateur radio enthusiasts and acionados of vacuum tube
technology.
Demonstrating a prociency in Morse code was for many
years a requirement to obtain an amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes
in international regulations in 2003, countries are no
longer required to demand prociency.[10] The United
States Federal Communications Commission, for example, phased out this requirement for all license classes on
February 23, 2007.[11][12]
2.2.3 Licensing
All countries that license citizens to use amateur radio
require operators to display knowledge and understanding of key concepts, usually by passing an exam; however some authorities also recognize certain educational
or professional qualications (such as a degree in electrical engineering) in lieu.[21] In response, hams receive
operating privileges in larger segments of the radio frequency spectrum using a wide variety of communication techniques with higher power levels permitted compared to unlicensed personal radio services such as CB radio, Family Radio Service or PMR446 that require typeapproved equipment restricted in frequency, range, and
power.
Amateur licensing is a routine civil administrative matAmateur radio satellites can be accessed, some using a
ter in many countries. Amateurs therein must pass an
hand-held transceiver (HT), even, at times, using the facexamination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operat-
23
els of amateur radio licenses based on technical knowledge: three sequential levels of licensing exams (Technician Class, General Class and Amateur Extra Class) are
currently oered, which allow operators who pass them
access to larger portions of the Amateur Radio spectrum
and more desirable (shorter) call signs.
In some countries, an amateur radio license is necessary in order to purchase or possess amateur radio
equipment.[22] An amateur radio license is only valid in
the country in which it is issued or in another country
that has a reciprocal licensing agreement with the issuing
country.
Both the requirements for and privileges granted to a licensee vary from country to country, but generally follow
The top of a tower supporting a Yagi-Uda antenna and several the international regulations and standards established
wire antennas
by the International Telecommunication Union[23] and
World Radio Conferences.
In most countries, an individual will be assigned a call
sign with their license. In some countries, a separate station license is required for any station used by an amateur radio operator. Amateur radio licenses may also be
granted to organizations or clubs. Some countries only allow ham radio operators to operate club stations. Others,
such as Syria and Cuba restrict all operation by foreigners to club stations only. Radio transmission permits are
closely controlled by nations governments because clandestine uses of radio can be made, and, because radio
waves propagate beyond national boundaries, radio is an
international matter.
Licensing requirements
ing competence and awareness of legal and regulatory requirements in order to avoid interference with other amateurs and other radio services. A series of exams are often
available, each progressively more challenging and granting more privileges: greater frequency availability, higher
power output, permitted experimentation, and in some
countries, distinctive call signs. Some countries, such as
the United Kingdom and Australia, have begun requiring
a practical training course in addition to the written exams in order to obtain a beginners license, which they
call a Foundation License.
Amateur radio licensing in the United States exemplies the way in which some countries award dierent lev-
24
censing process and may instead require prospective amateur radio operators to take the licensing examinations
of a foreign country. In countries with the largest numbers of amateur radio licensees, such as Japan, the United
States, Canada, and most of the countries in Europe, there
are frequent license examinations opportunities in major
cities.
Granting a separate license to a club or organization generally requires that an individual with a current and valid
amateur radio license who is in good standing with the
telecommunications authority assumes responsibility for
any operations conducted under the club license or club
call sign. A few countries may issue special licenses to
novices or beginners that do not assign the individual a
call sign but instead require the newly licensed individual
to operate from stations licensed to a club or organization
for a period of time before a higher class of license can Newcomers
be acquired.
Many people start their involvement in amateur radio by
nding a local club. Clubs often provide information
about licensing, local operating practices, and technical
Reciprocal licensing
advice. Newcomers also often study independently by
Further information: Amateur radio international opera- purchasing books or other materials, sometimes with the
tion
help of a mentor, teacher, or friend. Established amateurs
A reciprocal licensing agreement between two countries who help newcomers are often referred to as Elmers,
as coined by Rodney Newkirk, W9BRD,[24] within the
ham community.[25][26] In addition, many countries have
national amateur radio societies which encourage newcomers and work with government communications regulation authorities for the benet of all radio amateurs.
The oldest of these societies is the Wireless Institute of
Australia, formed in 1910; other notable societies are
the Radio Society of Great Britain, the American Radio
Relay League, Radio Amateurs of Canada, Bangladesh
NGOs Network for Radio and Communication, the New
Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters and South
Reciprocal Agreements by Country
African Radio League. (See Category:Amateur radio organizations)
CEPT Member Nations
IARP Member Nations
Members of CEPT and IARP
USA and Canada Treaty, CEPT and IARP
Call signs
Further information: Amateur radio call signs
25
equipment.[36][37] Licensed amateurs can also use any frequency in their bands (rather than being allocated xed
high1. ZS Shows the country from which the call sign frequencies or channels) and can operate medium to[38]
so
powered
equipment
on
a
wide
range
of
frequencies
originates and may also indicate the license class.
long
as
they
meet
certain
technical
parameters
including
(This call sign is licensed in South Africa. CEPT
Class is no longer encoded in South African call- occupied bandwidth, power, and maintenance of spurious
signs. Where specic classes of amateur radio li- emission.
cense exist, the call signs may be assigned by class, Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations
but the specics vary by issuing country.)
throughout the RF spectrum, usually allowing choice of
an eective frequency for communications across a lo2. 1 Gives the subdivision of the country or territory cal, regional, or worldwide path. The shortwave bands,
indicated in the rst part (this one refers to the West- or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and the
ern Cape).
VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional
communication, while the microwave bands have enough
3. NAT The nal part is unique to the holder of the space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions
license, identifying that station specically.
and high-speed computer networks.
The international symbol for amateur radio, included in the logos of many IARU member societies. The diamond holds a circuit
diagram featuring components common to every radio: an antenna, inductor and ground.
26
In most countries, an amateur radio license grants permission to the license holder to own, modify, and operate
equipment that is not certied by a governmental regulatory agency. This encourages amateur radio operators
to experiment with home-constructed or modied equipment. The use of such equipment must still satisfy national and international standards on spurious emissions.
Voice
Amplitude modulation (AM)
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies worldwide, with participation by each nations communications
regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these bandplan
27
Modes by activity
The following modes use no one specic modulation
scheme but rather are classied by the activity of the communication.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME)
References
[2] Gernsback, H (May 1909). First Annual Ocial Wireless Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America
(PDF). New York: Modern Electrics Publication. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
28
General References
Australia
29
United Kingdom
Betts, Alan (2001). Foundation Licence Now!. London,
United Kingdom: Radio Society of Great Britain, December, 2001. ISBN 1-87230980-1
United States
Straw, R. Dean, Reed, Dana
G., Carman, R. Jan, and Wolfgang, Larry D. (ed.) (2003).
Now You're Talking!. Fifth
Edition. Newington, Connecticut, U.S.: American Radio Relay League, May, 2003.
ISBN 0-87259-881-0
American Radio Relay League
(2003). The ARRL FCC Rule
Book: Complete Guide to the
FCC Regulations. 13th Edition. Newington, Connecticut,
U.S.: American Radio Relay
League, August, 2003. ISBN
0-87259-900-0
Silver, H. Ward (2004). Ham
Radio For Dummies. John
Wiley and Sons, Ltd., April,
2004. ISBN 0-7645-5987-7
30
named after the small enclosures added to the upperworks of naval ships to hold early radio equipment and
batteries.[1][2]
2.3.1
Types of stations
Fixed stations
31
transverters, directional antennas, and a laptop computer power. Because this form of power might be of limto log contacts made.
ited supply, portable stations often operate at lower
While it may not be a regulatory requirement, many mo- transmitter power output to conserve energy.
bile stations will append a /M to end of their call sign
(pronounced as slash mobile on phone) while operating
to identify themselves to other stations as a mobile station.
Rover station operating in a VHF contest will append a /R
to the end of their call sign (pronounced slash rover).
Maritime mobile stations are mobile stations installed in
a watercraft, usually an ocean-going vessel. When in international waters, these stations are operated under the
regulatory authority of the ag under which the vessel is
registered. In addition to the regulatory requirements of
amateur radio, operation of maritime mobile stations also
requires the permission of the captain of the vessel. Maritime mobile stations append a /MM to end of their call
sign (pronounced as slash maritime mobile).
Aeronautical mobile stations are mobile stations installed
in an aircraft. In addition to the regulatory requirements
of amateur radio, operation of aeronautical mobile stations also requires the permission of the pilot of the aircraft. Aeronautical mobile stations append a /AM to end
of their call sign (pronounced as slash aeronautical mobile).
Space stations
An amateur radio station that is located in a satellite, the
Space Shuttle, or on the International Space Station is referred to as a space station. Some countries, including
the United States, have additional or dierent regulations
regarding the operation of space stations than other amateur radio stations. Most space stations are located on
satellites that orbit the earth. These stations are frequently
either transponders or repeaters that operate under automatic control and can be used by ground stations (any station that is not a space station) to relay their signal to other
ground stations.
Handheld stations
32
Most handheld transceivers used in amateur radio are designed for operation on the VHF or UHF amateur radio
bands and most often are capable of only FM voice communications transmissions. To conserve battery power,
they have limited transmitter power, often below 1W, to
cover a local range of typically a few km or miles.
Repeater stations
2.3.2
Computer-control software
2.3.5 References
[1] http://www.radioshackcorporation.com/about/index.
Some modern amateur transceivers have embedded comhtml RadioShack Corporate Information. The name
RadioShack is a nautical term that dates back to the
puters with rmware which is executed to provide the
invention of the radio at the turn of the 20th century.
functions and features of the transceiver. This software
At the time, wireless radio equipment aboard ships was
must be provided by the original manufacturer of the
generally housed above the bridge in a wooden structure
equipment. Another type of software is that required to
called the radio shack. The founders of RadioShack
control a receiver (or transceiver) without a front panel
thought the name appropriate for a new retail business that
provided. Examples of this are the Kenwood TS-B2000
supplied electronic equipment to ham radio operators
and the Ten-Tec Pegasus; both transceivers are sold with
and ships radio ocers.
PC software to provide the human interface for operation.
Most transceivers with front control panels (and many re- [2] http://dictionary.infoplease.com/radio-shack Random
House Unabridged Dictionary by Random House, Inc.,
ceivers popular among shortwave listeners) have a comon Infoplease.
puter interface such as a serial port, USB or Ethernet
port. These ports are useful for satellite-tracking fre[3] May 2009 QST Short Takes software review of CallSign
quency control (Doppler tuning), station logging, digiSoftwares TS-2000 HamStationUltra program Archived
tal operation, internet and special-needs accessibility. In
from the original 2012-04-19.
many cases, the software adds improved or extra functions and features beyond that provided by the original
design. For this reason, some operators purchase radio- 2.3.6 General references
control software for non-computerized operation even if
Australia
their radio has a front control panel.[3]
2.4. QSL
33
Wireless Institute of Australia
(2005). The Foundation License Manual: Your Entry into
Amateur Radio. Wireless Institute of Australia, November, 2005. ISBN 0-97583420-7
Canada
Cleveland-Ilie, John, and
Smith, Georey Read (1995).
The
Canadian
Amateur
Study Guide for the Basic
Qualication. Fifth Edition,
Second Printing.
Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada:
Radio
Amateurs of Canada. ISBN
1-895400-08-2
India
Amateur radio licensing in India. Retrieved Aug. 13, 2007.
United Kingdom
Betts, Allen (2001). Foundation Licence - Now!. London,
United Kingdom: Radio Society of Great Britain, December, 2001. ISBN 1-87230980-1
United States
2.4 QSL
QSL may refer to:
Q Code, used to query and conrm receipt of a message, generally used by a radio, television or shortwave broadcasting station
QSL card, cards conrming two way radio communications or reception of radio signals, used by radio
amateurs and shortwave radio stations
Qatar Stars League, highest professional league in
Qatari football
Quantum spin liquid, a state of matter
Quebec Sign Language, sign language used in
Canada
Queensland State League (association football),
statewide semi-professional association football
league
Queensland State League (Australian rules football),
Brisbane-based semi-professional Australian rules
football league
2.5 Amateur
award
radio
operating
34
2.5.1
Many amateurs also enjoy setting up and contacting special event stations. Set up to commemorate special occurrences, they often issue distinctive QSLs or certicates. Some use unusual prexes, such as the call signs
with 96 that amateurs in the US State of Georgia could
use during the 1996 Atlanta Olympics,[1] or the OO prex
used by Belgian amateurs in 2005 to commemorate their
nations 175th anniversary.[2] (Not surprisingly, there are
also awards for working sucient numbers of prexes.)
Some events are held annually such as Guides on the Air
and Jamboree on the Air. Many amateurs decorate their
radio shacks (the room where they keep their radios)
with these certicates.
2.5.2
References
2.5.3
See also
DX Century Club
VHF/UHF Century Club
Worked All Continents
Chapter 3
Technics Involved
3.1 Call sign
In broadcasting and radio communications, a call sign
(also known as a call name or call lettersand historically as a call signalor abbreviated as a call) is a
unique designation for a transmitting station. In North
America[1] they are used as names for broadcasting stations. A call sign can be formally assigned by a government agency, informally adopted by individuals or organizations, or even cryptographically encoded to disguise
a stations identity.
The use of call signs as unique identiers dates to the
landline railroad telegraph system. Because there was
only one telegraph line linking all railroad stations, there
needed to be a way to address each one when sending
a telegram. In order to save time, two-letter identiers
were adopted for this purpose. This pattern continued
in radiotelegraph operation; radio companies initially assigned two-letter identiers to coastal stations and stations
aboard ships at sea. These were not globally unique, so
a one-letter company identier (for instance, 'M' and two
letters as a Marconi Station) was later added. By 1912,
the need to quickly identify stations operated by multiple
companies in multiple nations required an international
standard; an ITU prex would be used to identify a country, and the rest of the call sign an individual station in
that country.[2]
3.1.1
One of the earliest applications of radiotelegraph operation, long predating broadcast radio, were marine radio
stations installed aboard ships at sea. In the absence of
international standards, early transmitters constructed after Guglielmo Marconi's rst trans-Atlantic message in
1901 were issued arbitrary two-letter calls by radio companies, alone or later preceded by a one-letter company
identier. These mimicked an earlier railroad telegraph
convention where short, two-letter identiers served as
Morse code abbreviations to denote the various individual stations on the line (for instance, AX could represent
Halifax). 'N' and two letters would identify US Navy; 'M'
and two letters would be a Marconi Station. On April
14, 1912, the RMS Titanic station MGY, busily deliver-
35
36
ships (the SS Francis H. Leggett, shipwrecked o Oregon's
coast on September 18, 1914, and later the Firwood, a
ship destroyed by re near Peru on December 18, 1919[5] )
before being assigned to the Atlanta Journal for use by its
presumably unsinkable Atlanta, Georgia broadcast radio
station in 1922. Similarly WEZU, the international radio
call sign of the ship SS Lash Atlantico, was assigned in
1997 to a broadcast station.[6] Additional call signs would
be reassigned to coastal stations or moved from marine radio to terrestrial broadcast radio when ships were sold for
registration to foreign nations, as the new owners would
obtain new, local call signs for any existing shipboard radio stations.
37
(N1234Z), or one to three numbers and two sux let- operators that they are on an air ambulance mission at the
ters (N123AZ). The numeric part of the registration never beginning of their ight and do not change from one constarts with zero.
troller to another. The Life Flight air ambulance service,
Commercial operators, including scheduled airline, air for example, might simply identify as Life-Flight Three.
will
cargo and air taxi operators, will usually use an ICAO An aircraft that has declared an in-ight emergency
[10]
sometimes
prex
the
word
Mayday
to
its
call
sign.
or FAA-registered call sign for their company. By ICAO
Annex 10 Chapter 5.2.1.7.2.1 - Full call signs type C, a
call sign consists out of the telephony designator of the
aircraft operating agency, followed by the ight identication. The ight identication is very often the same as
the ight number, but could be dierent due to call sign
confusion, if two or more ights close to each other have
similar ight numbers (i.e. KLM649 and KLM645 or
BAW466 and BAW646). For example, British Airways
ight 75 would use the call sign Speedbird SevenFive,
since Speedbird is the telephony designator for British
Airways and 75 would be the ight identication. (The
telephony designator is not the same as the call sign, although the two are sometimes conated). Pan Am had
the telephony designator of Clipper. (see list)
For these call signs, proper usage varies by country.
In some countries, such as the United States, numbers
are spoken normally (for the example above, Speedbird
Seventy-ve) instead of being spelled out digit by digit,
leading to the possibility of confusion. In most other
countries, including the United Kingdom, they are spelled
out.[8] Air taxi operators in the United States sometimes
do not have a registered call sign, in which case the prex T is used, followed by the aircraft registration number (e.g. Tango- November-Niner-Seven-Eight-CharliePapa).
Some variations of call signs exist to express safety concerns to all operators and controllers monitoring the
transmissions. Aircraft call signs will use the sux
"heavy" for heavy aircraft, to indicate an aircraft that is
going to cause signicant wake turbulence, e.g. United
Two-Five Heavy; All aircraft capable of operating with
a gross take-o weight of more than 300,000 lbs. must
use this sux whether or not they are operating at this
weight during a particular phase of ight. These are typically Boeing 747, some models of the 757, 777, or 767,
Airbus A340, A330 and A300, McDonnell Douglas DC10 or MD-11, or Lockheed L-1011 aircraft. The sufx super is used for the Airbus A380.[9] For air ambulance services or other ights involving the safety of
life (such as aircraft carrying a person who has suered
a heart attack), lifeguard is added to the call sign. For
ights in which life is not in direct danger (such as transporting organs for transplant), the call sign prex PanPan-Medical is used before the normal call sign, e.g.
Pan-Pan-Medical Three-Three-Alpha, Pan-Pan-Medical
Northwest Four-Five-Eight, or Pan-Pan-Medical Singapore Niner-Two-Three. Pan Pan (pronounced pahnpahn) is the voice radio signal for urgent, while Mayday is the voice radio signal for distress. The word may
be omitted for air ambulance services with assigned call
signs, especially when they have notied air trac control
38
Amateur radio
The practice of using the mission number continued Further information: ITU prex - amateur and experithrough the rst two ights of the Project Apollo manned mental stations
lunar landing program, Apollo 7 and Apollo 8. But all re- Amateur radio call signs are in the international series
maining Apollo missions included two manned spacecraft and normally consist of a one or two character prex, a
39
When identifying a station by voice, the call sign may be
given by simply stating the letters and numbers, or using
a phonetic alphabet. Some countries mandate the use of
the phonetic alphabet for identication.
Some U.S. states issue call sign license plates for motor vehicles
owned by amateur radio operators.
While broadcast radio stations will often brand themselves with plain-text names, identities such as "cool FM",
"rock 105 or the ABC network are not globally unique.
Another station in another city or country may (and often
will) have a similar brand; the name of a broadcast station
for legal purposes is therefore normally its ITU call sign.
North America
The late King Hussein of Jordan was issued a special amateur license number, JY1, which would have been the The US government-operated international broadcaster
shortest possible call sign issued by the Hashemite King- the Voice of America no longer has call signs assigned
to it; however Radio Canada International's transmitter in
dom of Jordan.
40
A 1940 QSL card for WWV, indicating its early location in the
U.S. state of Maryland.
Australia
Further information: List of Australian radio station
callsigns and List of Australian television callsigns
Callsigns are allocated by the Australian Communications
and Media Authority and are unique for each broadcast
station. The use of callsigns on-air in both radio and television in Australia is optional, so many stations used other
on-air identications. Australian broadcast stations ocially have the prex VL- and originally all callsigns used
that format, but since Australia has no nearby neighbors,
this prex is no longer used except in an international context.
All radio call signs begin with a single-digit number indicating the state or territory, followed by two or three letters. In most cases, two letters are used for AM stations
and three for FM, but there are some exceptions, such as
5UV in Adelaide, which broadcasts on an FM frequency,
and 3RPH in Melbourne, which broadcasts on an AM
frequency. While some AM stations retained their old
call signs when moving to FM, most add an extra letter to
the call sign. For instance, when 7HO Hobart became an
FM station, it adopted the callsign 7HHO. Certain ABC
radio stations, particularly outside of metropolitan areas,
may use ve-letter call signs for FM stations: xABCFM
For some time, two radio stations used the callsign 4CCC - a commercial station in Charleville
and a community station in Warwick, both in
Queensland.[15] The Warwick stations call sign was
later changed to 4SDB.[16] In addition, a temporary
community broadcaster, 4CCC Coral Coast Country Community Radio Inc, uses the name 4CCC,
though it does not have a callsign.[17]
Rebel FM, The Breeze, and Flow FM, which have
many transmitters in Regional and Remote Central and Eastern Australia, use the callsigns 4RBL,
4BRZ and 8SAT respectively, regardless of which
state their transmitters are located in.[15][16]
Radio Station 1RPH Canberra, Australian Capital Territory has relay transmitters in New South
Wales[15][16]
The following Victorian stations also have relay
transmitters in New south Wales: 3HOT and
3RUM.[15][16]
The following New South Wales stations also have
relay transmitters in Victoria: 2AAY, 2BDR and
2MOR.[15][16]
The following New South Wales stations also
have relay transmitters in Queensland: 2MW and
2TEN.[15][16]
8KIN Alice Springs, Northern Territory has a relay
transmitter in Pasminco Century Mine, Queensland,
and several in South Australia.[15][16]
3MBR Murrayville, Victoria has a relay transmitter
in Lameroo, South Australia.[15][16]
The Nhulumbuy, Northern Territory transmitter for
triple J has the callsign 6JJJ.[15][16]
Open narrowcast radio stations have no ocial call
sign, though some stations use one (e.g. 3XY Radio
Hellas in Melbourne).
Television station call signs begin with two letters usually
denoting the station itself, followed by a third letter denoting the state. For example, NBN's call sign stands for
Newcastle Broadcasting, New South Wales. There are
some exceptions:
Many ABC television stations outside of state capitals add a fourth letter (and in rare cases a fth) between AB and the state. This is used to denote the
41
* Originally, radio callsigns in the ACT had the format
2xx(x), like those in New South Wales. However, newer
stations in the territory have been allocated callsigns with
the format 1xxx. See List of radio station callsigns in the
Australian Capital Territory for more information.
Two letters
AK - Auckland
WN - Wellington
CH - Christchurch
DN - Dunedin
Two letters - TV
Amateur radio in Australia has its own set of call signs,
managed by the Wireless Institute of Australia, starting
Single digit - VHF band I channel
with the prex VK, the state identier, and then 2,3,
or 4 letters. Foundation licence holders have the letter For example 1ZB was a Radio NZ commercial staF after the state identier e.g.: VK3FGCP indicates a tion in Auckland; 4XF was Foveaux Radio in Invercargill
Foundation Licence holder in the State of Victoria.[18]
(now More FM); 4YC was the Concert Programme in
Letters and numbers used by Australian stations:
Dunedin.
42
FM stations appeared to have no standard format for the
letters, just picking three that 't' the station. To make
matters more confusing, some stations such as 4ZA-FM
(now Classic Hits Southland 98.8FM) and 4XO Gold
(now More FM Dunedin) retained their AM call signs.
Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin as major centres for the four regions had specic Radio NZ call
signs used:
xYA - National Programme
xYC - Concert Programme
xZB - Community Network commercial
xZM - Music commercial (except Dunedin)
During the early 1990s the use of call signs became less
common, to the point that most broadcasters do not use
them at all. Some are retained in some form for branding
- for example, 4XO Dunedin (until it was rebranded More
FM Dunedin in 2004), Newstalk ZB (using the old 1ZB,
2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB and various other Radio NZ commercial
frequencies) and ZM (originally ZMFM, replacing the old
1ZM, 2ZM and 3ZM, now nationwide). Stations licensed
since 1990 have not had call signs allocated.
With consolidation in the commercial radio market, the
only stations now using a call sign in New Zealand are
the long-established 1XX in the Bay of Plenty, and the
recently arrived (2005) LPFM Primetime 1ZZ in the Bay
of Islands, whose call sign is self-assigned.
Argentina
In Argentina, some radio and TV stations still broadcast
their call signs a few times a day, but this practice is becoming very rare. Call signs consist of two (or, more recently, three) letters followed by multiple numbers. The
second letter, as used in television call signs from the
1960s, traditionally indicated the region; LS call signs
were given to stations in Buenos Aires, LT in the northeastern region, LU in the southern region, LV in the central region and LW in the northwestern region. (LR was
used for some radio stations, especially in Buenos Aires;
the earliest radio stations in the Argentine capital had call
signs of LR plus one digit.) Most TV stations had call
signs with higher two-digit numbers. The ve main stations in the Buenos Aires area had call signs from LS 82
to LS 86, while stations in Rosario, Santa Fe had call signs
LT 83 and LT 85.
In Britain, there is no call sign in the American sense. Instead, a trade mark system is used. A broadcaster can
Since 2000 or earlier, call signs beginning with LR and a call their station what they like, so long as its not obscene, racist, sexist, homophobic/transphobic, libellous,
third letter, as well as have been assigned,
infringes someone elses trade mark or leads to contempt
of court. The rules set by Ofcom are very clear:
LRA exclusively assigned to Radio Nacional, regardless of its location, or mode of transmission.
Call-signs will not be permitted if they are
LRF - LRU In Tierra del Fuego, Chubut, Santa Cruz
likely to cause oence, or if they are likely to
43
AA - YZ
AAA - PZZ
RAA - YZZ
AAAA - YZZZ
Also, a station name can be no more than six words.
AQA - AQZ (Special License/Foreigner OpThere are no prohibitions on calling a station The Fuerator)
ture Sound of Hell, for instance, so long as it does not
infringe these rules. As for any brand name, there can be
copyright issues.
Special License Callsigns suxes :
Japan The Japanese station prex for radio and televi
A-Z
sion stations is JO followed by its own unique two letters;
ZA - ZZ Province Organization included
the last letter in the latter part of the callsign identies
Scout; Redcross; SAR
the ownership of the station, for example the letter X indicates that it is a commercial TV station such as JOEX ZAA - ZZZ Regency (Local)Organization inTV for TV Asahi and JOCX-TV for Fuji TV while the
cluded Club Station; Scout; Redcross; SAR
letter R indicates that it is a commercial AM radio sta ZAAA - ZZZZ
tion such as JOKR for TBS Radio. FM radio and TV
stations have the -FM (FM radio), -TV (analogue television), -DTV (digital television), -TAM (audio multiplex),
-TCM (analogue TV teletext multiplex), -TDM (analogue 3.1.6 Military call signs
TV data multiplex) and -FCM (FM radio data multiplex)
suxes after their callsigns, similar to the North Ameri- In wartime, monitoring an adversarys communications
can practice, except for AM radio stations.
can be a valuable form of intelligence. Consistent call
signs can aid in this monitoring, so in wartime, military units often employ tactical call signs and sometimes
Philippines Traditionally, broadcast stations are aschange them at regular intervals. In peacetime, some milsigned one of three predominant prexes depending on
itary stations will use xed call signs in the international
the location of their license:
series.
DZ & DW for Luzon, except DZ for Palawan
DY for the Visayas, including Palawan and Masbate U.S. Army
DX for Mindanao
44
U.S. Air Force
Fixed call signs for the United States Air Force stations
begin with A, such as AIR, used by USAF Headquarters.
The USAF also uses semi-xed identiers consisting of
a name followed by a two or three digit number. The
name is assigned to a unit on a semi-permanent basis;
they change only when the U.S. Department of Defense
goes to DEFCON 3. For example, JAMBO 51 would
be assigned to a particular B-52 aircrew of the 5th Bomb
Wing, while NODAK 1 would be an F-16 ghter with the
North Dakota Air National Guard.
The most recognizable call sign of this type is Air Force
One, used when any Air Force aircraft is transporting the
U.S. President. Similarly, when the President is own in
a U.S. Marine Corps helicopter, the call sign is Marine
One. When then-president George W. Bush, a former
Air National Guard ghter pilot, was own to the aircraft
carrier USS Abraham Lincoln in a Navy S-3B Viking, it
was the rst use of the Navy One call sign.
Appointment titles
Earlier systems used a series of appointment titles to identify users and individuals, "Sunray", for instance, referring to the appropriate leader. Titles such as "Sunray"
and (Sunray) Minor are still used. There are several apIndividual military pilots or other ight ocers usually pointment titles, such as Ironside which are no longer
adopt a personal aviator call sign.
used by the British Army. Several other armed forces
still use appointment titles, including the Australian and
Canadian army.
U.S. Navy/U.S. Marine Corps/U.S. Coast Guard
[20]
3.2. TRANSCEIVER
3.1.8
See also
3.1.9
References
45
[3] http://titanic.marconigraph.com/faqs2.html
[5] Broadcast Station Calls With a Past, WILLIAM FENWICK, Radio Broadcast, July 1928, pg 150 reports the
name of this ship as the Firewood, call sign WSB.
[6] Ship
Names
By
Alphabetical
Woce.nodc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
Name.
[7] United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, CAP 413: Radiotelephony Manual, Edition 16, paragraph 1.8.2 and table 9. CAA, 2006.
Radio-Locator a search engine of all of the radio stations in the world with websites, searchable by location, frequency, and call sign
Retrieved 27
3.2 Transceiver
For the device used in avalanche rescue, see Avalanche
transceiver.
A transceiver is a device comprising both a transmitter
and a receiver which are combined and share common
circuitry or a single housing. When no circuitry is common between transmit and receive functions, the device
is a transmitter-receiver. The term originated in the
early 1920s. Technically, transceivers must combine a
signicant amount of the transmitter and receiver handling circuitry. Similar devices include transponders,
transverters, and repeaters.
46
3.2.4 Ethernet
3.2.2
RF Transceiver
3.2.3
Telephony
On a wired telephone, the handset contains the transmitter and receiver for the audio and in the 20th century
was usually wired to the base unit by tinsel wire. The
whole unit is colloquially referred to as a receiver. On a 3.2.7 External articles
mobile telephone or other radiotelephone, the entire unit
Patents
is a transceiver, for both audio and radio.
3.3. ANTENNA
Homebrew HF transceivers
transceivers
47
Homebrew HF
3.3 Antenna
For other uses, see Antenna.
3.3.1 Terminology
The words antenna (plural: antennas[2] in US English, although both antennas and antennae are used in International English[3] ) and aerial are used interchangeably.
Occasionally a rigid metallic structure is called an antenna while the wire form is called an aerial. However, note the important international technical journal,
the IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation.[4]
In the United Kingdom and other areas where British English is used, the term aerial is sometimes used although
'antenna' has been universal in professional use for many
years.
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa.[1] It
is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.
In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric
current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current (AC)) to the antennas terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an
antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagThe origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its termiparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo
nals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplied.
Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing
Antennas are essential components of all equipment his wireless system outdoors on his fathers estate near
that uses radio. They are used in systems such as Bologna and soon began to experiment with long wire
radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way ra- aerials. Marconi discovered that by arranging these
dio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and aerials vertically and placing them in the earth (groundsatellite communications, as well as other devices such as ing them) that the range of his wireless system was signifgarage door openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth- icantly increased.[5] Soon he was able to transmit signals
enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby mon- over a hill, a distance of approximately 2.4 kilometres
itors, and RFID tags on merchandise.
(1.5 mi).[6] In Italian a tent pole is known as l'antenna
Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metal- centrale, and the pole with the wire was simply called
lic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often l'antenna. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and
through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. receiving elements were known simply as aerials or terAn oscillating current of electrons forced through the an- minals.
tenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic
eld around the antenna elements, while the charge of the
electrons also creates an oscillating electric eld along the
elements. These time-varying elds radiate away from
the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic eld wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic elds of an incoming radio
wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements,
causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating
currents in the antenna.
Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive
radio waves in all horizontal directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a
particular direction (directional or high gain antennas).
In the latter case, an antenna may also include additional
elements or surfaces with no electrical connection to
the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements,
parabolic reectors or horns, which serve to direct the
radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation
pattern.
The rst antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist
Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the
existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reectors for both trans-
3.3.2 Overview
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic eld. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
which carry signals through the air (or through space) at
the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals
(information) in systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, Wi-Fi (WLAN) data
networks, trunk lines and point-to-point communications
links (telephone, data networks), satellite links, many
48
remote controlled devices such as garage door openers,
and wireless remote sensors, among many others. Radio
waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including radar, GPS, and radio astronomy. In
each and every case, the transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these are sometimes
hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside
a laptop computer equipped with Wi-Fi).
According to their applications and technology available,
antennas generally fall in one of two categories:
1. Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or radiate more or less in all directions. These are employed when the relative position of the other station is unknown or arbitrary.
They are also used at lower frequencies where a directional antenna would be too large, or simply to
cut costs in applications where a directional antenna
isn't required.
2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simpreferentially radiate or receive in a particular direc- ple antennas which are connected together through an
tion or directional pattern.
electrical network. This often involves a number of parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending
In common usage omnidirectional usually refers to all on the relative phase introduced by the network, the same
horizontal directions, typically with reduced performance combination of dipole antennas can operate as a broadin the direction of the sky or the ground (a truly isotropic side array (directional normal to a line connecting the
radiator is not even possible). A directional antenna elements) or as an end-re array (directional along the
usually is intended to maximize its coupling to the elec- line connecting the elements). Antenna arrays may emtromagnetic eld in the direction of the other station, or ploy any basic (omnidirectional or weakly directional) ansometimes to cover a particular sector such as a 120 hor- tenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These
izontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell elements are often identical.
site.
However a log-periodic dipole array consists of a number
One example of omnidirectional antennas is the very of dipole elements of dierent lengths in order to obtain
common vertical antenna or whip antenna consisting of a a somewhat directional antenna having an extremely wide
metal rod (often, but not always, a quarter of a wavelength bandwidth: these are frequently used for television receplong). A dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such tion in fringe areas. The dipole antennas composing it are
conductors extending in opposite directions, with a total all considered active elements since they are all electrilength that is often, but not always, a half of a wavelength cally connected together (and to the transmission line).
long. Dipoles are typically oriented horizontally in which On the other hand, a supercially similar dipole array,
case they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably the Yagi-Uda Antenna (or simply Yagi), has only one
well radiated toward or received from all directions with dipole element with an electrical connection; the other
the exception of the direction along the conductor itself; so-called parasitic elements interact with the electromagthis region is called the antenna blind cone or null.
netic eld in order to realize a fairly directional antenna
Both the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in con- but one which is limited to a rather narrow bandwidth.
struction and relatively inexpensive. The dipole antenna, The Yagi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole elwhich is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced ements but which act dierently due to their somewhat
component, with equal but opposite voltages and currents dierent lengths. There may be a number of so-called
applied at its two terminals through a balanced transmis- directors in front of the active element in the direction
sion line (or to a coaxial transmission line through a so- of propagation, and usually a single (but possibly more)
called balun). The vertical antenna, on the other hand, is reector on the opposite side of the active element.
a monopole antenna. It is typically connected to the inner
conductor of a coaxial transmission line (or a matching
network); the shield of the transmission line is connected
to ground. In this way, the ground (or any large conductive surface) plays the role of the second conductor
of a dipole, thereby forming a complete circuit. Since
Greater directionality can be obtained using beamforming techniques such as a parabolic reector or a horn.
Since high directivity in an antenna depends on it being
large compared to the wavelength, narrow beams of this
type are more easily achieved at UHF and microwave fre-
3.3. ANTENNA
quencies.
At low frequencies (such as AM broadcast), arrays of vertical towers are used to achieve directionality [12] and they
will occupy large areas of land. For reception, a long
Beverage antenna can have signicant directivity. For
non directional portable use, a short vertical antenna or
small loop antenna works well, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna
may be employed to cancel the reactive component of
impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel
capacitors for this purpose.
An antenna lead-in is the transmission line (or feed line)
which connects the antenna to a transmitter or receiver.
The antenna feed may refer to all components connecting the antenna to the transmitter or receiver, such as an
impedance matching network in addition to the transmission line. In a so-called aperture antenna, such as a horn
or parabolic dish, the feed may also refer to a basic antenna inside the entire system (normally at the focus of
the parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn) which could
be considered the one active element in that antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from
a waveguide in lieu of a (conductive) transmission line.
49
3.3.3 Reciprocity
It is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna described in the
next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance,
bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization, are
the same whether the antenna is transmitting or
receiving.[13][14] For example, the "receiving pattern"
(sensitivity as a function of direction) of an antenna when
used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of
the antenna when it is driven and functions as a radiator. This is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of
electromagnetics.[14] Therefore in discussions of antenna
properties no distinction is usually made between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be
viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is
more convenient.
A necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity
property is that the materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. Reciprocal (or
bilateral) means that the material has the same response
to an electric current or magnetic eld in one direction,
as it has to the eld or current in the opposite direction.
Most materials used in antennas meet these conditions,
but some microwave antennas use high-tech components
such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal
materials such as ferrite.[13][14] These can be used to give
the antenna a dierent behavior on receiving than it has
on transmitting,[13] which can be useful in applications
like radar.
50
ciency).
Although these parameters can be measured in principle,
such measurements are dicult and require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting antenna
using an SWR meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design or on
claims of a vendor.
An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which can be reoriented by tilting the
axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths). Highly
directional antennas need to be signicantly larger than
the wavelength. Resonant antennas usually use a linear
conductor (or element), or pair of such elements, each
of which is about a quarter of the wavelength in length
(an odd multiple of quarter wavelengths will also be resonant). Antennas that are required to be small compared
to the wavelength sacrice eciency and cannot be very
directional. Fortunately at higher frequencies (UHF, mi- This principle is used to construct vertical antennas subcrowaves) trading o performance to obtain a smaller stantially shorter than the 1/4 wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By adding an inductance in series with
physical size is usually not required.
the vertical antenna (a so-called loading coil) the capacitive reactance of this antenna can be cancelled leaving a
pure resistance which can then be matched to the transResonant antennas
mission line. Sometimes the resulting resonant frequency
of such a system (antenna plus matching network) is deWhile there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast scribed using the construct of electrical length and the
majority of antennas are based on the half-wave dipole use of a shorter antenna at a lower frequency than its reswhich has a particular resonant frequency. At its reso- onant frequency is termed "electrical lengthening". For
nant frequency, the wavelength (gured by dividing the example, at 30 MHz (wavelength = 10 meters) a true resspeed of light by the resonant frequency) is slightly over onant monopole would be almost 2.5 meters (1/4 wavetwice the length of the half-wave dipole (thus the name). length) long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall
The quarter-wave vertical antenna consists of one arm would require the addition of a loading coil. Then it
of a half-wave dipole, with the other arm replaced by a may be said that the coil has lengthened the antenna to
connection to ground or an equivalent ground plane (or achieve an electrical length of 2.5 meters, that is, 1/4
counterpoise). A Yagi-Uda array consists of a number wavelength at 30 MHz where the combined system now
of resonant dipole elements, only one of which is di- resonates. However, the resulting resistive impedance
rectly connected to the transmission line. The quarter- achieved will be quite a bit lower than the impedance of
wave elements of a dipole or vertical monopole imitate a resonant monopole, likely requiring further impedance
a series-resonant electrical element due to the standing matching. In addition to a lower radiation resistance, the
wave present along the conductor. At the resonant fre- reactance becomes higher as the antenna size is reduced,
quency, the standing wave has a current peak and volt- and the resonant circuit formed by the antenna and the
age node (minimum) at the feed-point, thus presenting tuning coil has a Q factor that rises and eventually causes
a lower impedance than at other frequencies. Whats the bandwidth of the antenna to be inadequate for the sigmore, the large current and small voltage are in phase nal being transmitted. This is the major factor that sets
at that point, resulting in a purely resistive impedance, the size of antennas at 1 MHz and lower frequencies.
whereas away from the design frequency the feed-point
impedance both rises and becomes reactive. Contrary
to an ideal (lossless) series-resonant circuit, a nite resis- Current and voltage distribution The antenna contance remains (corresponding to the relatively small volt- ductors have the lowest feed-point impedance at the resoage at the feed-point) due to the antennas radiation resis- nant frequency where they are just under 1/4 wavelength
tance (as well as any actual electrical losses).
long; two such conductors in line fed dierentially thus
A common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit (or receive) fails at frequencies
far from the resonant frequency. The reason a dipole antenna needs to be used at the resonant frequency has to do
with the impedance match between the antenna and the
3.3. ANTENNA
sion line. The current reaches a minimum at the end of
the element (where it has nowhere to go!) and is maximum at the feed-point. The voltage, on the other hand, is
the greatest at the end of the conductor and reaches a minimum (but not zero) at the feedpoint. Making the conductor shorter or longer than 1/4 wavelength means that the
voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond
the feed-point, so that the feed-point has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as we have noted.
Since that voltage pattern is almost in phase quadrature
with the current, the impedance seen at the feed-point is
not only much higher but mainly reactive.
51
impedance matching.
Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of
a resonant antenna can always be altered by adjusting
a suitable matching network. To do this eciently one
would require remotely adjusting a matching network at
the site of the antenna, since simply adjusting a matching
network at the transmitter (or receiver) would leave the
transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio.
Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose
impedance does not vary so greatly over a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at
the terminals of a resonant antenna when the frequency is
shifted, say, by 5%, depends very much on the diameter
of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as a halfwave dipole (or quarter wave monopole) will have a reactance signicantly greater than the resistive impedance it
has at resonance, leading to a poor match and generally
unacceptable performance. Making the element using a
tube of a diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however,
results in a reactance at this altered frequency which is
not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which
will only modestly damage the antennas net performance.
Thus rather thick tubes are typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays.
The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according to its Q, just as
one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant circuit. However it is often assumed that there is an
advantage in an antenna having a high Q. After all, Q is
short for quality factor and a low Q typically signies
excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance) in a resonant
L-C circuit. However this understanding does not apply
to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is the
radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it (the
52
Gain
Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its
eective area when used for receiving. Consider an antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical eciency
is 100%. It can be shown that its eective area averaged
over all directions must be equal to 2 /4, the wavelength
squared divided by 4. Gain is dened such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100%
electrical eciency is equal to 1. Therefore the eective
area A in terms of the gain G in a given direction is
given by:
Aef f =
2
G
4
3.3. ANTENNA
53
radio waves emitted by dierent parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio
waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation
at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase.
In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves
in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the "main lobe".
The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and
are called "sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is
called the "principal axis" or "boresight axis".
match.
However loss resistance will generally aect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive (real) component.
That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance R and the loss resistance R . If an rms current
I is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power
of I2 R will be radiated and a power of I2 R will be lost
as heat. Therefore the eciency of an antenna is equal to
R / (R + R ). Of course only the total resistance R +
R can be directly measured.
Eciency
Main article: Antenna eciency
54
will aect the intended signal and the noise/interference ceived following reection by the ionosphere (a skywave),
identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio a consistent polarization cannot be expected. For line-of(SNR).
sight communications or ground wave propagation, horiThis is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies zontally or vertically polarized transmissions generally rewhich are not rather large (a good fraction of a wavelength main in about the same polarization state at the receiving
in size) are inevitably inecient (due to the small radia- location. Matching the receiving antennas polarization
tion resistance R of small antennas). Most AM broad- to that of the transmitter can make a very substantial difcast radios (except for car radios) take advantage of this ference in received signal strength.
principle by including a small loop antenna for reception
which has an extremely poor eciency. Using such an inecient antenna at this low frequency (5301650 kHz)
thus has little eect on the receivers net performance,
but simply requires greater amplication by the receivers
electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive
and very tall towers used at AM broadcast stations for
transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna eciency entails a substantial cost.
The denition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the eect of the antennas eciency. Therefore if
one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using
a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare
the gain of various antennas rather than considering the
eciency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving
antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies,
where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receivers noise temperature. However in the
case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals
with the intention of rejecting interference from dierent
directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna
eciency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than
quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned
with the directive gain which does not include the eect of
antenna (in)eciency. The directive gain of an antenna
can be computed from the published gain divided by the
antennas eciency.
3.3. ANTENNA
Impedance matching
Main article: Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the
impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into
the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the
impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of
a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance
might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance
of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but
rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for
ecient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry.
The intended impedance is normally resistive but a
transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional
adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in
order to tweak the match. When a transmission line
is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or
receiver) one generally would like an antenna system
whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic
impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize
the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in
transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying
a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the
desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a
half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the
frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the
physical length of the antenna can be trimmed to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition
of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used
to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance,
respectively.
In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not
simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance,
but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is
quite dierent from the intended frequency of operation.
For instance, a whip antenna can be made signicantly
shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for practical reasons,
and then resonated using a so-called loading coil. This
physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has
an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the
desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coil; unfortunately
that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired
to match commercial coax.
So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the remaining resistive
impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In principle this can always be done with
a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer
55
is not adjustable. A general matching network with at
least two adjustments can be made to correct both components of impedance. Matching networks using discrete
inductors and capacitors will have losses associated with
those components, and will have power restrictions when
used for transmitting. Avoiding these diculties, commercial antennas are generally designed with xed matching elements or feeding strategies to get an approximate
match to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole (rather than vertical antennas)
should include a balun in between the transmission line
and antenna element, which may be integrated into any
such matching network.
Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs
when using a small loop antenna (usually, but not always,
for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where it appears almost as a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the frequency of operation not
only cancels the reactance but greatly magnies the very
small radiation resistance of such a loop. This is implemented in most AM broadcast receivers, with a small ferrite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied
along with the receiver tuning in order to maintain resonance over the AM broadcast band
56
Almost any arrangement of conductors with radio frequency currents driven by a voltage applied across two
points will radiate as an antenna. However to be practical
an antenna will be designed to meet certain specications
among the characteristics listed above. One extremely
important characteristic is the driving point impedance,
as this impedance is usually very large (and highly reactive) for an arbitrarily designed antenna, or even for
a well designed antenna used at a frequency well outside of its design range. For non-directional antennas,
forcing the impedance to a usable value (often that of
the transmission line to be used to connect to it) and an
impedance with a relatively small amount of reactance, is
the main design task. For instance, the design of dipole
antennas (which many other antennas are based on) dictates a total length just under half the wavelength (thus
each arm being one quarter wavelength). This provides
a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (at the design frequency) of a bit under 72 (depending on the diameter
of the conductors). Likewise, a dipole antenna which is
an odd multiple of half wavelengths long will supply a
reasonable (but dierent) feedpoint impedance which is
purely resistive. Such an antenna used at the frequency
where its driving point impedance is purely resistive is
called a resonant antenna, even though the resonance
involved usually is characterized by a rather low Q. In
fact a small Q factor is generally sought, since a larger Q
implies a smaller bandwidth over which the antenna will
provide a good impedance match to the transmission line
or matching network. In the case of a dipole antenna,
increasing the diameter of the two conductors, increases
the usable bandwidth of the antenna.
3.3. ANTENNA
However for xed stations communicating with other
xed stations, directionality allows for a signicant antenna gain (factor by which power is concentrated in one
direction), improving the received signal level by that factor. Thus a beam antenna with a 13dB gain compared
to an omnidirectional antenna, will allow use of a transmitter of only 1/20th of the power. A rural location
might require a Yagi rooftop antenna with such a gain
for TV reception, whereas increasing the TV stations
power by a factor of 20 would be out of the question.
At higher and higher frequencies, the feasibility of higher
gain (more directional) antennas increases, with high gain
microwave antennas typically employing parabolic reectors or horns.
The gain of such a directional antenna will also have a
certain operating bandwidth, in addition to the bandwidth
associated with the feedpoint impedance. Thus the Yagi
TV antenna will only maintain its high gain over a few
TV channels. For use over an entire frequency band, a
wideband design such as the log periodic antenna may be
chosen. Although supercially similar in appearance to a
high gain Yagi, the log-periodic dipole array often used
for TV can cover the entire UHF TV band, for instance.
In return for being wideband, however, the antenna gain
is much less than that of a comparable Yagi. Practical
antenna designs always involve such trade-os in order
to best meet the performance requirements imposed by a
particular application.
57
dence and polarization. The dielectric constant and conductivity (or simply the complex dielectric constant) is
dependent on the soil type and is a function of frequency.
For very low frequencies to high frequencies (<30 MHz),
the ground behaves as a lossy dielectric, [27] Thus the
ground is characterized both by a conductivity [28] and
permittivity (dielectric constant) which can be measured
for a given soil (but is inuenced by uctuating moisture
levels) or can be estimated from certain maps. At lower
frequencies the ground acts mainly as a good conductor,
which AM middle wave broadcast (.5 - 1.6 MHz) antennas depend on.
At frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz, a large portion
of the energy from a horizontally polarized antenna reects o the ground, with almost total reection at the
grazing angles important for ground wave propagation.
That reected wave, with its phase reversed, can either
cancel or reinforce the direct wave, depending on the antenna height in wavelengths and elevation angle (for a sky
wave).
On the other hand, vertically polarized radiation is not
well reected by the ground except at grazing incidence
or over very highly conducting surfaces such as sea water. [29] However the grazing angle reection important
for ground wave propagation, using vertical polarization,
is in phase with the direct wave, providing a boost of up
to 6 db, as is detailed below.
58
is the wavelength.
is the height of the antenna (half the distance between the antenna and its image).
For horizontal propagation between transmitting and receiving antennas situated near the ground reasonably far
from each other, the distances traveled by tne direct and
reected rays are nearly the same. There is almost no relative phase shift. If the emission is polarized vertically,
the two elds (direct and reected) add and there is maximum of received signal. If the signal is polarized horizontally, the two signals subtract and the received signal
is largely cancelled. The vertical plane radiation patterns
are shown in the image at right. With vertical polarization
there is always a maximum for =0, horizontal propagation (left pattern). For horizontal polarization, there is
cancellation at that angle. Note that the above formulae
and these plots assume the ground as a perfect conductor.
These plots of the radiation pattern correspond to a distance between the antenna and its image of 2.5. As the
antenna height is increased, the number of lobes increases
as well.
The dierence in the above factors for the case of =0 is
the reason that most broadcasting (transmissions intended
for the public) uses vertical polarization. For receivers
near the ground, horizontally polarized transmissions suffer cancellation. For best reception the receiving antennas
for these signals are likewise vertically polarized. In some
applications where the receiving antenna must work in
any position, as in mobile phones, the base station antennas use mixed polarization, such as linear polarization at
an angle (with both vertical and horizontal components)
or circular polarization.
On the other hand, classical (analog) television transmissions are usually horizontally polarized, because in urban
areas buildings can reect the electromagnetic waves and
create ghost images due to multipath propagation. Using horizontal polarization, ghosting is reduced because
the amount of reection of electromagnetic waves in the
p polarization (horizontal polarization o the side of a
(
)
|EV | = 2 |E0 | cos 2h
sin
(
)
|EH | = 2 |E0 | sin 2h
sin
where:
3.3. ANTENNA
59
Zij = Zji .
vj
ii
v1
v2
..
.
=
=
i1 Z11
i1 Z21
..
.
+
+
i2 Z12
i2 Z22
..
.
+
+
+
+
in Z1n
in Z2n
..
.
vn
i1 Zn1
+ i2 Zn2
in Znn
where:
vi
ii
Zii
Zij
j.
AM loop antenna
Antennas and supporting structures
A building rooftop supporting numerous dish
and sectored mobile telecommunications antennas
(Doncaster, Victoria, Australia).
A water tower in Palmerston, Northern Territory
with radio broadcasting and communications antennas.
A three-sector telephone site in Mexico City.
Telephone site concealed as a palm tree.
60
3.3.10
See also
[3] For
example
http://www.telegraph.
co.uk/science/science-news/7810454/
British-scientists-launch-major-radio-telescope.html;
http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf09377.
html; http://www.ska.ac.za/media/meerkat_cad.php
[4] IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation.
[5] Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphic Communication: Nobel
Lecture, 11 December 1909." Nobel Lectures. Physics
19011921. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company,
1967: 196222. p. 206.
Amateur radio
Antenna measurement
AWX antenna
Category:Radio frequency antenna types
Category:Radio frequency propagation
Cellular repeater
DXing
Electromagnetism
Fractal antenna
Mast radiator
Mobile broadband modem
Numerical Electromagnetics Code
Radio masts and towers
Radio telescope
RF connector
Satellite television
Smart antenna
Television antenna
TETRA
Whip antenna
3.3.11
Notes
[8] Slyusar, Vadym (2124 February 2012). An Italian period on the history of radio engineerings term antenna"".
11th International Conference Modern Problems of Radio
Engineering, Telecommunications and Computer Science
(TCSET2012). Lviv-Slavske, Ukraine. p. 174.
[9] Slyusar, Vadym (June 2011). Last mile:
Electronics: Science, Technology, Business (in Russian) ?
(6). pp. 5264 http://www.slyusar.kiev.ua/Slusar_3.pdf.
Missing or empty |title= (help); |chapter= ignored (help)
[10] Schantz, Hans Gregory (2003), Introduction to ultrawideband antennas, Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE
UWBST Conference.
[11] Media Advisory: Apply Now to Attend the ALMA Observatory Inauguration. ESO Announcement. Retrieved
4 December 2012.
[12] Carl Smith (1969). Standard Broadcast Antenna Systems,
p. 2-1212. Cleveland, Ohio: Smith Electronics, Inc.
[13] Lonngren, Karl Erik; Savov, Sava V.; Jost, Randy J.
(2007). Fundamentals of Electomagnetics With Matlab,
2nd Ed. SciTech Publishing. p. 451. ISBN 1891121588.
[14] Stutzman, Warren L.; Thiele, Gary A. (2012). Antenna
Theory and Design, 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 560
564. ISBN 0470576642.
[15] This example assumes a length to diameter ratio of 1000.
[16] Guide to Wi-Fi Wireless Network Antenna Selection..
NetworkBits.net. Archived from the original on 5 March
2008. Retrieved April 8, 2008.
[17] Impedance is caused by the same physics as refractive
index in optics, although impedance eects are typically one-dimensional, where eects of refractive index
is three-dimensional.
[18] Krauss, John D. (1950). Antennas. New York: McGraw
Hill. pp. 15,5354.
[19] Krauss 1950, pp. 127-148
[20] Krauss 1950, pp. 318-321
[21] Krauss 1950, p. 407
3.3. ANTENNA
61
Understanding electromagnetic elds and antenna
radiation takes (almost) no math, Ron Schmitt, EDN
Magazine, March 2 2000 (PDF)
130, at
[28] http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/
m3-map-effective-ground-conductivity-united-states-wall-sized-map-am-broadcast-stations
http://www.dipoleanimator.com
[29] H. Ward Silver, ed. (2011). ARRL Antenna Book, p.
3-23. Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay
League. ISBN 978-0-87259-694-8
3.3.12
References
General references
Antenna Theory (3rd edition), by C. Balanis, Wiley,
2005, ISBN 0-471-66782-X;
Antenna Theory and Design (2nd edition), by W.
Stutzman and G. Thiele, Wiley, 1997, ISBN 0-47102590-9;
Antennas (4th edition), by J. Kraus and R. Marhefka, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-07-232103-2;
Justin Smith "Aerials". A.T.V (Aerials and Television), 2009. (ed. Article on the (basic) theory and
use of FM, DAB & TV aerials)
Broadband Planar Antennas: Design and Applications, Zhi Ning Chen and M. Y. W. Chia, John Wiley & Sons in February 2006
The ARRL Antenna Book (15th edition), ARRL,
1988, ISBN 0-87259-206-5
Antennas Research Group, "Virtual (Reality) Antennas". Democritus University of Thrace, 2005.
Support > Knowledgebase > RF Basics > Antennas / Cables > dBi vs. dBd detail". MaxStream,
Inc., 2005.
(ed.
How to measure antenna
gain) (New location: http://www.digi.com/support/
kbase/kbaseresultdetl?id=2146 Note: to skip the
registration form click the link below it)
62
Eect of ground references
Electronic Radio and Engineering. F.E. Terman.
McGraw-Hill
Lectures on physics. Feynman, Leighton and Sands.
Addison-Wesley
Classical Electricity and Magnetism. W. Panofsky
and M. Phillips. Addison-Wesley
Patents and USPTO
CLASS 343, Communication: Radio Wave Antenna
Since radio propagation is not fully predictable, such services as emergency locator transmitters, in-ight commu3.3.13 Further reading
nication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and some television
Antennas for Base Stations in Wireless Communica- broadcasting have been moved to communications sateltions, edited by Zhi Ning Chen and Kwai-Man Luk, lites. A satellite link, though expensive, can oer highly
predictable and stable line of sight coverage of a given
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, USA in May 2009
area.
The dictionary denition of antenna at Wiktionary
In free space, all electromagnetic waves (radio, light, Xrays, etc.) obey the inverse-square law which states that
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves the power density of an electromagnetic wave is proporwhen they are transmitted, or propagated from one point tional to the inverse of the square of the distance from a
on the Earth to another, or into various parts of the point source[5] or:
atmosphere.[1] As a form of electromagnetic radiation,
like light waves, radio waves are aected by the phenomena of reection, refraction, diraction, absorption, P 1 .
r2
polarization, and scattering.[2]
Radio propagation is aected by the daily changes of
water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the upper
atmosphere, due to the Sun. Understanding the eects
of varying conditions on radio propagation has many
practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to designing reliable
mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to operation of radar systems.
63
icant roles. The D-layer, when present during sunlight
periods, causes signicant amount of signal loss, as does
the E-layer whose maximum usable frequency can rise to
4 MHz and above and thus block higher frequency signals
from reaching the F2-layer. The layers, or more appropriately regions, are directly aected by the sun on a daily
diurnal cycle, a seasonal cycle and the 11-year sunspot
cycle and determine the utility of these modes. During
solar maxima, or sunspot highs and peaks, the whole HF
range up to 30 MHz can be used usually around the clock
and F2 propagation up to 50 MHz is observed frequently
depending upon daily solar ux 10.7cm radiation values.
During solar minima, or minimum sunspot counts down
to zero, propagation of frequencies above 15 MHz is generally unavailable.
Auroral backscatter Intense columns of Auroral ionization at 100 km altitudes within the auroral oval
backscatter radio waves, perhaps most notably on HF
and VHF. Backscatter is angle-sensitiveincident ray
vs. magnetic eld line of the column must be very
close to right-angle. Random motions of electrons spiraling around the eld lines create a Doppler-spread that
broadens the spectra of the emission to more or less
noise-likedepending on how high radio frequency is
64
used. The radio-auroras are observed mostly at high latitudes and rarely extend down to middle latitudes. The
occurrence of radio-auroras depends on solar activity
(ares, coronal holes, CMEs) and annually the events are
more numerous during solar cycle maxima. Radio aurora includes the so-called afternoon radio aurora which
produces stronger but more distorted signals and after
the Harang-minima, the late-night radio aurora (substorming phase) returns with variable signal strength and
lesser doppler spread. The propagation range for this predominantly back-scatter mode extends up to about 2000
km in east-west plane, but strongest signals are observed
most frequently from the north at nearby sites on same
latitudes.
Rarely, a strong radio-aurora is followed by Auroral-E,
which resembles both propagation types in some ways.
Tropospheric
65
more important. At microwave or higher frequencies,
absorption by molecular resonances in the atmosphere
(mostly from water, H2 O and oxygen, O2 ) is a major
factor in radio propagation. For example, in the 5860
GHz band, there is a major absorption peak which makes
this band useless for long-distance use. This phenomenon
was rst discovered during radar research in World War
II. Above about 400 GHz, the Earths atmosphere blocks
most of the spectrum while still passing some - up to UV
light, which is blocked by ozone - but visible light and
some of the near-infrared is transmitted. Heavy rain and
falling snow also aect microwave absorption.
66
3.4.5
References
[1] H. P. Westman et al., (ed), Reference Data for Radio Engineers, Fifth Edition, 1968, Howard W. Sams and Co.,
no ISBN, Library of Congress Card No. 43-14665 page
26-1
[2] Demetrius T Paris and F. Kenneth Hurd, Basic Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw Hill, New York 1969 ISBN
0-07-048470-8, Chapter 8
ARRL Propagation Page The American Radio Relay League page on radio propagation.
67
Solar Cycle 24 prediction and MF/HF/6M refers to how easy or dicult it is to distinguish each of
radiowave
propagation
forecast
webpage the characters in the text of the message being sent; in a
(www.solarcycle24.org)
voice transmission, readability refers to how easy or dicult it is for each spoken word to be understood correctly.
160 Meter (Medium Frequency) Radiowave Prop- Readability is measured on a scale of 1 to 5.[2]
agation Theory Notes webpage (www.wcflunatall.
com/nz4o5.htm)
1. Unreadable
Unusual HF Propagation Phenomena. 13 Apr 2009
2. Barely readable, occasional words distinguishable
Includes useful recordings each type. Retrieved 9
Oct 2009.
3. Readable with considerable diculty
Overview of radio propagation modes
4. Readable with practically no diculty
Propagation: Es & Thunderstorms by Thomas F.
5. Perfectly readable
Giella, NZ4O, ex KN4LF.
The following external references provide practical ex- 3.5.2 Strength
amples of radio propagation concepts as demonstrated
using software built on the VOACAP model.
The S stands for Strength. Strength is an assessment of
how powerful the received signal is at the receiving loca Online MOF/LOF HF Propagation Prediction Tool tion. Although an accurate signal strength meter can determine a quantitative value for signal strength, in practice
High Frequency radio propagation de-mystied.
this portion of the RST code is a qualitative assessment,
often made based on the S meter of the radio receiver at
Is High Frequency radio propagation reciprocal?
the location of signal reception. Strength is measured
How does noise aect radio signals?
on a scale of 1 to 9.[2]
The following external link is designed for use by cell
phones and mobile devices that can display content using
Wireless Markup Language and the Wireless Application
Protocol:
4. Fair
5. Fairly good
6. Good
3.5.1
Readability
The R stands for Readability. Readability is a qualitative assessment of how easy or dicult it is to correctly
copy the information being sent during the transmission.
In a Morse code telegraphy transmission, readability
7. Moderately strong
8. Strong
9. Very strong signals
For a quantitative assessment, quality HF receivers are
calibrated so that S9 on the S-meter corresponds to a signal of 50 V at the antenna terminal.[3] On VHF and UHF
receivers used for weak signal communications, S9 often
corresponds to 5 V at the antenna terminal.
3.5.3 Tone
The T stands for Tone. Tone is only used in Morse code
and digital transmissions and is therefore omitted during
voice operations. With modern transmitter technology,
imperfections in the quality of the transmitter modulation that can be detected by humans are rare. Tone is
measured on a scale of 1 to 9.[2]
68
3.5.6 References
3.5.4
Variations
3.5.5
See also
69
70
270
side lobes
main lobe
180
back lobe
90
antenna faces to 0
Polar plots of the horizontal cross sections of a (virtual) YagiUda-antenna. Outline connects points with 3db eld power compared to an ISO emitter.
71
72
Chapter 4
Specialist Groups
4.1 Amateur radio homebrew
Homebrew is an amateur radio slang term for homebuilt, noncommercial radio equipment.[1] Design and
construction of equipment from rst principles is valued
by amateur radio hobbyists for educational value, and to
allow experimentation and development of techniques or
levels of performance not readily available as commercial
products. Some items can be home-brewed at similar or
lower cost than purchased equivalents.
4.1.1
History
4.1.2 Practices
In the early years of amateur radio, long before factorybuilt gear was easily available, hams built their own transmitting and receiving equipment, known as homebrewing. In the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, hams handcrafted
reasonable-quality vacuum tube-based transmitters and
receivers which were often housed in their basements,
and it was common for a well-built homebrew rig to
cover all the high frequency bands (1.8 to 30 MHz). After WWII ended, surplus material (transmitters/receivers,
etc.), was readily available, providing previously unavailable material at costs low enough for amateur experimental use.
Homebrewing diers from kit-building in that homebrew connotes the process of constructing equipment
using parts and designs gathered from varied and often
improvised sources. Even the most skilled homebrewer
73
74
4.1.3
QRP homebrew
As late as the 1960s, glowbugs were part of many beginner ham stations, and the ARRL Radio Amateur Handbook for those years exhibited a number of such simple, tube-based designs. Today, glowbugs are enjoying a
resurgence of interest among QRP enthusiasts and others
with a penchant for constructing their own equipment. A
growing number of hams are getting back to their roots
by assembling glowbugs on steel chassis, tin cakepans,
and wooden boards. Glowbug enthusiasts can often be
heard communicating on the shortwave bands via CW using Morse code. A popular frequency to hear glowbug
contacts is 3.57950 MHz.[8] Simple oscillators for this
frequency can be built with common NTSC color burst
oscillator crystals, which operate at 3.579545 MHz.
4.1.4
75
4.2.1 Appeal
Many amateurs prefer the relatively precise digital frequency displays and stability of modern, state-of-the-art,
microprocessor based amateur radios. Vintage radio enthusiasts contend that modern amateur equipment lacks
the aesthetic appeal and soul of amateur electronic gear
from the vacuum tube era.[2] Additionally, many nd satisfaction in taking commercially-made amateur equipment from the 1930s-1970s (aectionately called boat
anchors by US amateurs[3][4] because of their large size
and weight) and carefully restoring it.[1]
Enthusiasts feel that the spacious electrical and mechanical designs of boat anchor radios are more easily worked
on than the miniaturized layouts of modern Japanese
gear. Fixing a modern transceiver often involves nothing
76
more than a VLSI chip replacement. Vintage amateur introduce themselves, and join the conversation.[8]
radio devotees enjoy the more primitive experience that
boat anchor radios oer, calling it real radio. Enthusiasts claim that boat anchors sound better than modern 4.2.3 Classic gear
equipment, saying that the tube audio from vintage gear is
warmer and more aesthetically pleasing.[3] Some hobbyists see vintage radio operation as a valuable asset to
help preserve the history and heritage of radio for future
generations, and may assist in the restoration and operation of vintage radio equipment for historical exhibits,
museums and museum ships.
4.2.2
AM activity
77
and putting them on the air between 7040 7050 kHz
and 7114 7125 kHz. Amateur radio Glowbug enthusiasts can often be heard communicating on the shortwave
bands via CW using Morse code. Popular frequencies
to hear glowbug contacts are around 3560 kHz and also
3579.5 kHz, chosen because crystals for this frequency
can be salvaged from discarded color TV sets, along with
other transmitter components.[9][10]
Glowbugs
Many vintage radio clubs sponsor special events and contests, such as the AM QSO Party sponsored by the Antique Wireless Association, the Heavy Metal Rally sponsored by Electric Radio Magazine, and the Classic Radio Exchange.[11] Such operating events are not traditional ham radio contests inasmuch as they are a night
of friendly QSOs using home-built, restored commercial
ham, broadcast or military equipment.
Glowbug transmitter hand built by AI2Q
78
ticles from QST magazine describing vintage equipment 4.2.6 See also
and restoration, and CQ Amateur Radio magazine re Amateur radio
leases a yearly Classic Radio Calendar featuring fullcolor vintage radio images.
AM broadcasting
Antique radio
4.2.5
Safety
Tube sound
Collins 75A-4 and KWS-1
Gonset Communicator
4.2.7 References
[1] Haring, Kristen (2007). Ham radios technical culture.
MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-08355-3. Retrieved June
19, 2010.
[2] Why Boatanchors? by John Brewer WB5OAU. Virhistory.com. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
[3] Boatanchors FAQ
[4] Origins Of Hamspeak. Ac6v.com. Retrieved 2011-0312.
Collins S-Line, featuring separate transmitter, receiver and power
supply
Those accustomed to making repairs on solid state equipment are cautioned that vacuum tube gear contain potentially lethal voltages. The practice of discharging powersupply capacitors and keeping one hand in your pocket
when working on powered-up gear are essential safety
measures. Some older equipment directly connects the
metal chassis to one side of the incoming AC line, a practice which results in the entire unit becoming electried if
the wall plug is inserted backwards. Many older radios,
such as vintage receivers, are not safety-fused. Restorers generally replace the AC line cord with a more modern 3 wire plug and install an in-line or chassis mount
fuseholder. The use of a common station ground connection to all equipment is encouraged.[3] Those who collect,
restore or otherwise use vintage radio equipment should
also be aware of possible radioactive substances.[17][18]
4.2.8
79
External links
AM Forever
AM Fone Page
ARRL amplitude modulation page
Antique Wireless Association
Glowbug resources
Electric Radio Magazine
Vintage And Military Amateur Radio Society (UK)
Ham radio equipment Reference Guide
4.3.1
70 cm band
80
The 70 cm band channels (with carrier frequency for CATV channel scheme; however, most current consumer
video and audio) are:
equipment does not tune to channels above 125.
57: 420-426 MHz (421.25 video, 425.75 audio)1,2
58: 425-431 MHz (426.25 video, 430.75 audio)1,3
58: 426-432 MHz (427.25 video, 431.75 audio)
5. - For technical reasons, a maximum of two channels may be simultaneously used within a given geo23 cm band
graphic area, and the video carrier frequencies must
be at least 12 MHz apart for the signals not to interThe 23 centimeters ham band is the third highest frefere with each other.
quency band available for ATV. Due to the wider nature
of this band over the lower ones, and the expense of VSBAll of these fall within the range between T.V. broadcast lters, VSB is rarely used. Most ATV is either in AM or
channels 13 and 14, which are:
FM. Old TVRO receivers may be used to watch FM ATV
when an antenna is connected to the LNB input. The IF
of these receivers overlaps this ham band.
13: 210-216 MHz (211.25 video, 215.75 audio)
14: 470-476 MHz (471.25 video, 475.75 audio)
33 cm band
81
1. - Expensive VSB lters must be used on this channel In several countries cross-band repeaters are used, with
to keep the signal inside the ham band.
AM inputs on 430 MHz and FM outputs on 1255 MHz,
others have FM-ATV inputs on 13 cm and outputs on 3
2. - All of the video carrier frequencies are 12 MHz cm.
apart to allow for each channel to be used simultaneously in a given geographic area without causing In the United Kingdom, much activity occurs using inband repeaters. These generally have an input of 1248,
interference to each other.
1249 or 1255 MHz and typically output at 1308, 1312
or 1316 MHz, although other frequencies are also used.
The 23 cm FM channels are:
Simplex operation occurs on these or other frequencies
chosen to avoid interference with other users of the band,
1255 MHz (Used in some areas.)
e.g. 1285 MHz. Recent experiments have been done
with digital modes following widely-adopted DVB-S and
1265 MHz (10 MHz)
DVB-T standards. These new DATV transmissions need
less spectrum bandwidth than FM-ATV and oer superior picture quality. However, the unavoidable processOther amateur radio bands
ing delays caused by the temporal compression mean that
In addition to the above, there are other ham bands which DATV signals have a second or more of time lag, which
can make real-time video conversations feel much less
are less commonly used for ATV:
natural than the 'instantaneous analogue system.
On the 13 centimeter band:
2417.5 MHz is used for ATV links.
2441.5 MHz is the most used FM ATV frequency. Uses a 6.0 MHz audio sub-carrier and
4 MHz deviation.
The 9 centimeter (3 GHz) and 5 centimeter (5 GHz)
bands have links in some areas.
On the 3 centimeter band, 10.4 GHz is a wideband
FM channel and may be used as an ATV repeater
input.
Other information
The distance record for ATV is between Hawaii and California on 434 MHz.http://www.hamtv.com/atvdxrecord.
Typical fast scan Test card showing Hanover Bars (colour
html
banding) eect in Pal S (simple) signal mode of transmission.
Typically frequency modulated TV is used on frequencies above 1240 MHz (1.24 GHz), where there is enough
bandwidth for such wideband transmissions. This is often used as a repeaters input frequency, with output being
standard VSB on the four channels listed above.
In a nutshell
4.3.2
European context
below 1.24 GHz: Vestigial Sideband
In Europe, which generally has a narrower UHF allocation than the USA, the majority of amateur television operation is currently frequency modulated on 1.2 GHz and
above. The frequencies in use depend on national permissions. In most of mainland Europe, the most common
frequency is 1255 MHz. Other bands commonly used for
ATV are the 13cm (~2.3 - 2.45 GHz) and 3-cm(~10 GHz)
bands, although ATV is used on most of the microwave
bands.
82
of 6db over the previous; P-5 is 30db above P-0 and represents a perfectly clear picture.[9]
NTSC
SECAM
SSTV
Range
4.3.4
Content
83
4.4.1
Philosophy
operation.[2][3]
QRSS
The current record for a QRP connection is 1 W for Some extreme QRP enthusiasts use QRSS transmitting extremely slowly to compensate for the decreased
1,650 miles on 10m.[1]
signal-to-noise ratio involved in QRP operation. QRSS
derives from the standard Q code used in radio communications, where QRS?" asks Shall I send more slowly?"
4.4.2 Practice
and QRS requests Send more slowly.
There is not complete agreement on what constitutes Rather than directly listening to such slow transmissions,
QRP power. While most QRP enthusiasts agree that for many QRSS enthusiasts record the transmission for later
CW, AM, FM, and data modes, the transmitter output analysis, later decoding by ear while playing it back at
power should be 5 watts (or less), the maximum out- much faster rates (time compression), or decoding by
put power for SSB (single sideband) is not always agreed eye on the waterfall display of a spectrum analyzer.[4]
upon. Some believe that the power should be no more
than 10 watts peak envelope power (PEP), while others QRSS enthusiasts typically use some form of Morse code,
strongly hold that the power limit should be 5 watts. QR- except much slower rather than a typical 1/10 second
Pers are known to use even less than ve watts, sometimes dit time, QRSS transmissions may use a full second for
operating with as little as 100 milliwatts or even less. Ex- the dit time, or[5]in extreme cases, a full minute for a
tremely low power1 watt and belowis often referred single dit time.
to by hobbyists as QRPp.
Morse code with standard on-o keying
Communicating using QRP can be dicult since the QR FSCW (Morse code with frequency-shift keying),
Per must face the same challenges of radio propagation
where key up is one frequency, key down is anfaced by amateurs using higher power levels, but with the
other frequency.
inherent disadvantages associated with having a weaker
signal on the receiving end, all other things being equal.
DFCW or Dual Frequency CW, where dit is one
QRP acionados try to make up for this through more
frequency, dah is a dierent frequency, and spaces
ecient antenna systems and enhanced operating skills.
have no carrier or a third carrier frequency. With
QRP is especially popular with CW operators and those
using the newer digital modes. PSK31 is a highly efcient, narrow-band mode that is very suitable to QRP
84
A few people apply QRSS techniques to other narrow- 4.4.4 Contests and awards
band communication codes or protocols, such as the
Slowfeld variant of Hellschreiber, slow-scan television, There are specic operating awards, contests, clubs, and
conventions devoted to QRP enthusiasts.
MT63, etc.
4.4.3
Equipment
4.5. CONTESTING
85
Northern California QRP Club
QRP Amateur Radio Club International
The Eastern PA QRP Club
The Colorado QRP Club
EAQRP, Website of Spanish QRP Association
4.5 Contesting
5000+ Member SoftRock Low Cost Software Dened QRP Radio Kit Interest Group
There is no international authority or governance organization for this sport. Each competition is sponsored separately and has its own set of rules. Contest rules do not
86
necessarily require entrants to comply with voluntary international band plans. Participants must, however, adhere to the amateur radio regulations of the country in
which they are located. Because radio contests take place
using amateur radio, competitors are generally forbidden
by their national amateur radio regulations from being
compensated nancially for their activity. High levels of
amateur radio contest activity, and contesters failing to
comply with international band plans, can result in friction between contest participants and other amateur radio
users of the same radio spectrum.
4.5.1
Contesting basics
Radio contests are principally sponsored by amateur radio societies, radio clubs, or radio enthusiast magazines.
These organizations publish the rules for the event, collect the operational logs from all stations that operate in
the event, cross-check the logs to generate a score for each
station, and then publish the results in a magazine, in a society journal, or on a web site. Because the competitions
are between stations licensed in the Amateur Radio Service (with the exception of certain contests which sponsor
awards for shortwave listeners), which prohibits the use
of radio frequencies for pecuniary interests, there are no
professional radio contests or professional contesters, and
any awards granted by the contest sponsors are typically
limited to paper certicates, plaques, or trophies.[1]
After they are received by the contest sponsor, logs are
checked for accuracy. Points can be deducted or credit
and multipliers lost if there are errors in the log data
for a given contact. Depending on the scoring formula
used, the resulting scores of any particular contest can
be either a small number of points or in the millions of
points. Most contests oer multiple entry categories, and
declare winners in each category. Some contests also
declare regional winners for specic geographic subdivisions, such as continents, countries, U.S. states, or Canadian provinces.[5]
4.5. CONTESTING
4.5.2
Types of contests
87
are restricted to just CW emissions using the Morse code
for communications, some are restricted to telephony
modes and spoken communications, and some employ
digital emissions modes such as RTTY or PSK31. Many
popular contests are oered on two separate weekends,
one for CW and one for telephony, with all the same rules.
The CQ World Wide WPX Contest, for example, is held
as a phone-only competition one weekend in March, and
a CW-only competition one weekend in May.[13] Some
contests, especially those restricted to a single radio frequency band, allow the competing stations to use several
dierent emissions modes. VHF contests typically permit any mode of emission, including some specialty digital modes designed specically for use on those bands.
As with the other variations in contest rules and participation structure, some contest stations and operators choose
to specialize in contests on certain modes and may not
participate seriously in contests on other modes. Large,
worldwide contests on the HF bands can be scheduled
for up to forty-eight hours in duration. Typically, these
large worldwide contests run from 0000 UTC on Saturday
morning until 2359 UTC Sunday evening. Regional and
smaller contests often are scheduled for a shorter duration, with twenty-four, twelve, and four hours being common variations.
Many contests employ a concept of o time in which a
station may operate only a portion of the available time.
For example, the ARRL November Sweepstakes is thirty
hours long, but each station may be on the air for no
more than twenty-four hours.[14] The o-time requirement forces competitive stations to decide when to be
on the air making contacts and when to be o the air,
and adds a signicant element of strategy to the competition. Although common in the 1930s, only a small number of contests today take place over multiple weekends.
These competitions are called cumulative contests, and
are generally limited to the microwave frequency bands.
Short sprint contests lasting only a few hours have been
popular among contesters that prefer a fast-paced environment, or who cannot devote an entire weekend to a
radio contest. A unique feature of the North American
Sprint contest is that the operator is required to change
frequency after every other contact, introducing another
operational skills challenge.[15] Whatever the length of
the contest, the top operators are frequently those that
can best maintain focus on the tasks of contest operating
throughout the event.
Some contests, such as the Maine 2 Meter FM Simplex
Challenge, sponsored by the Wireless Society of Southern
Maine, oer newly licensed hams the ability to take part
in contestesting for the rst time, by restricting contacts
to a single VHF band, and providing entry categories for
anything from a handheld radio to a fully equipped contest
station.
88
4.5.3
History of contesting
The origin of contesting can be traced to the TransAtlantic Tests of the early 1920s, when amateur radio operators rst attempted to establish long distance
radiocommunications across the Atlantic Ocean on the
short wave amateur radio frequencies. Even after the rst
two-way communications between North America and
Europe were established in 1923,[16] these tests continued
to be annual events at which more and more stations were
successful in establishing two-way contacts over greater
and greater distances. In 1927, the American Radio Relay League, which had been principal in organizing and
publicizing these tests, proposed a new format for the annual event, encouraging stations to make as many twoway contacts with stations in other countries as possible.
The 1928 International Relay Party, as the event was renamed, was the rst organized amateur radio contest.[17]
The International Relay Party was an immediate success,
and was sponsored annually by the ARRL from 1927
through 1935.[18] In 1936, the contest name changed to
the ARRL International DX Contest, the name under
which it is known today.
To complement the burst of activity and interest being generated in DX communications by the popularity
of the International Relay Parties, the ARRL adopted
a competitive operating format for events designed for
non-international contacts. The rst ARRL All-Sections
Sweepstakes Contest was started in 1930.[19] The Sweepstakes required a more complicated exchange of information for each two-way contact that was adapted from
the message header structure used by the National Trac
System. The competition was immediately popular, both
with those operators active in the NTS who participated
as an opportunity to gauge the merits of their station and
operating skills, and among those for whom the competitive excitement of the event was the primary attraction.
The contest, sponsored annually by the ARRL, became
known as the ARRL November Sweepstakes in 1962.[20]
4.5. CONTESTING
89
bands, the use of packet cluster systems, log editing, rare lantic Ocean, close to Europe and eastern North America
station QSYs and other techniques.
with their high densities of active contest stations, are frequently the winners. Aruba, Curaao, the Canary Islands,
the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira Island, coastal Morocco
and the islands of Trinidad and Tobago have been the sites
4.5.4 Contesting activity
of some of the most famous radio contesting victories in
The scale of activity varies from contest to contest. The the large world wide contests. Competition between stalargest contests are the annual DX contests that allow tions in large countries, such as Canada, Russia, or the
world wide participation. Many of these DX contests United States can be greatly aected by the geographic
have been held annually for fty years or more, and have locations of each station. Because of these variations,
devoted followings. Newer contests, those that intention- some stations may specialize in only those contests where
ally restrict participation based on geography, and those they are not at a disadvantage, or may measure their own
that are shorter in duration tend to have fewer partici- success against only nearby rivals.
pating stations and attract more specialized operators and Many radio amateurs are happy to contest from home, ofteams. Over time, contests that fail to attract enough en- ten with relatively low output power and simple antennas.
trants will be abandoned by their sponsor, and new con- Some of these operators at modest home stations opertests will be proposed and sponsored to meet the evolving ate competitively and others are simply on the air to give
interests of amateur radio operators.
away some points to serious stations or to chase some
In a specialised contest in the microwave frequency
bands, where only a handful of radio amateurs have the
technical skills to construct the necessary equipment, a
few contacts just a few kilometers away may be enough to
win. In the most popular VHF contests, a well-equipped
station in a densely populated region like Central Europe
can make over 1,000 contacts on two meters in twentyfour hours. In the CQ World Wide DX Contest, the
worlds largest HF contest, leading multi-operator stations
on phone and CW can make up to 25,000 contacts in a
forty-eight hour period, while even single operators with
world-class stations in rare locations have been known
to exceed 10,000 contacts, an average of over three per
minute, every minute. Over 30,000 amateur radio operators participated in the phone weekend of the 2000 CQ
World Wide DX Contest, and the top-scoring single operator station that year, located in the Galpagos Islands,
made over 9,000 contacts.[29] Other HF contests are not
as large, and some specialty events, such as those for QRP
enthusiasts, can attract no more than a few dozen competitors.
Station locations
90
(M2W conrms the ZL6QH call sign, sends a signal report of 59, and is in Zone 14 (Western Europe).)
Station 2: Thanks 59 32 (said as ve nine three
two).
(ZL6QH conrms reception of M2Ws exchange, sends
a signal report of 59, and is in Zone 32 (South Pacic).)
Station 1: 73. Mike Two Whiskey QRZ?
(M2W conrms ZL6QHs exchange, is now listening for
new stations.)
sponsors provide custom log checking reports to participating stations that oer details about the errors in their
log and how they were penalized.[32]
4.5. CONTESTING
91
General References
DeSoto, Clinton (1936). 200 Meters and Down.
West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: American Radio
Relay League.
Ford, Steve WB8IMY (1996). The ARRL Operating Manual. Chapter 7: Contests. West Hartford,
Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League.
Fifth Edition.
Lombry, Thierry ON4SKY (2005). The History of
Amateur Radio. Retrieved Dec. 8, 2005.
Chapter 5
Means of Communication
5.1 List of amateur radio modes
5.1.1
Morse code is still used by amateurs. Operators may either key the code manually and decode by ear, or they
may use computers to send and receive the code.
Modes of communication
Analog voice
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Facsimile
Most amateur digital modes are transmitted by inserting audio into the microphone input of a radio and using
an analog scheme, such as amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), or single-sideband modulation (SSB).
Digital voice
Digital voice modes encode speech into a data stream before transmitting it.
APCO-25 (P25)
92
5.1.2
Certain activities in amateur radio are also commonly referred to as modes, even though no one specic modulation scheme is used.
Automatic link establishment (ALE) is a method of
automatically nding a sustainable communications
channel on HF.
Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) uses the Moon to communicate over long distances.
Echolink connects amateurs and amateur stations
via the internet.
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) connects
repeaters via the internet.
Satellite (OSCAR- Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio)
Low Transmitter Power (QRP)
5.1.3
Sources
http://www.ac6v.com/opmodes.htm
93
Chapter 6
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
to three dots (one dash), and the words are separated by In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in
94
95
American
(Morse)
Continental
(Gerke)
International
(ITU)
B
C
CH
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
A typical straight key. This U.S. model, known as the J-38, was
manufactured in huge quantities during World War II, and remains in widespread use today. In a straight key, the signal is on
when the knob is pressed, and o when it is released. Length
and timing of the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the
telegraphist.
V
W
X
Y
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
0 (alt)
In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication, before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, most high-speed international communication
used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables and
radio circuits. In aviation, Morse code in radio systems
started to be used on a regular basis in the 1920s. Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark
gap system of transmission was dicult to use, there had
been some earlier attempts. In 1910 the US Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.[7] That
96
same year a radio on the airship America had been instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.[8] Zeppelin
airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and
naval scouting during World War I,[9] and ground-based
radio direction nders were used for airship navigation.[9]
Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use
of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical
radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s
there was no radio system used by such important ights
as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in
1927. Once he and the Spirit of St. Louis were o the
ground, Lindbergh was truly alone and incommunicado.
On the other hand, when the rst airplane ight was made
from California to Australia in the 1930s on the Southern
Cross, one of its four crewmen was its radio operator who
communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.
A commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to generate high-speed Morse code,
the timing of which is controlled by the electronic keyer. Manipulation of dual-lever paddles is similar to the Vibroplex, but
pressing the right paddle generates a series of dahs, and squeezing the paddles produces dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. The actions
are reversed for left-handed operators.
International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North
Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a
still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 wpm.[16]
William Pierpont N0HFF also notes that some operators may have passed 100 wpm.[16] By this time they are
hearing phrases and sentences rather than words. The
fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in
1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35
wpm in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of dierent
The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of
eras it is useful to keep in mind that dierent standard
Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any
words (50 dot durations versus 60 dot durations) and difradio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, includferent interword gaps (5 dot durations versus 7 dot duraMorse code was used as an international standard for
maritime distress until 1999, when it was replaced by
the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the
French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31,
1997, the nal message transmitted was Calling all. This
is our last cry before our eternal silence.[10] In the United
States the nal commercial Morse code transmission was
on July 12, 1999, signing o with Samuel Morses original 1844 message, "What hath God wrought", and the
prosign SK.[11]
97
because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the
transmitters symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code
into displayed letters.
Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high speed code ability, one group Amateur radio
consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm.[17]
Also, Certicates of Code Prociency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10 wpm
with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available
to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members
of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreters strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards
for translating code at 5 wpm.
6.1.3
Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years
longer than any other electrical coding system. What is
called Morse code today is actually somewhat dierent
from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse.
The Modern International Morse code, or continental
code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848
and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and
Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the
alphabet and all of the numerals resulting substantially in
the modern form of the code. After some minor changes,
International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and was
later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morses original code specication, largely limited to use in the United States and
Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used
except in historical re-enactments.
Aviation
In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids.
To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations all transmit a short set of identication letters (usually a two-to-ve-letter version of the
station name) in Morse code. Station identication letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the
VOR based at Manchester Airport in England is abbreviated as MCT, and MCT in Morse code is transmitted
on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T
code ( ) or the code may be removed, which
tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable. In
Canada, the identication is removed entirely to signify
the navigation aid is not to be used.[18][19] In the aviation service Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed
of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not
actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter
98
tive on February 23, 2007 the FCC eliminated the Morse Through May 2013 the First, Second, and Third Class
code prociency requirements from all amateur radio li- (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests
censes.
based upon the CODEX standard word were still being
While voice and data transmissions are limited to specic issued in the United States by the Federal Communicaamateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is per- tions Commission. The First Class license required 20
mitted on all amateur bandsLF, MF, HF, UHF, and WPM code group and 25 WPM text code prociency,
VHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur the others 16 WPM code group test (ve letter blocks sent
radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM
code text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to
signals only.
pass written tests on operating practice and electronics
The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class
sent led to the development of an extensive number of was a requirement of a year of experience for operators
abbreviations to speed communication. These include of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed
prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbrevia- the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship.
tions for typical message components. For example, CQ However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high
is broadcast to be interpreted as seek you (I'd like to frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS)
converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting expeman), YL (young lady) and XYL (ex-YL wife) are rience requirement for the First was very dicult.) Curcommon abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an opera- rently only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Opertor when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is ator Certicate, is issued. This is granted either when the
used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed
QTH is location (My QTH is My location). The use and become this lifetime license. For new applicants it
of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation requires passing a written examination on electronic theeven when the operators speak dierent languages.
ory, as well as 16 WPM code and 20 WPM text tests.
Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is However the code exams are currently waived for holdstill used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi- ers of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their
automatic keyers (known as bugs) and of fully auto- operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirematic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Software is ment.
also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aerocode radio signals.
nautical use broadcast identifying information in the form
of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identication.[23] Warships, including those of
Other uses
the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange
messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part,
as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.
Submarine periscopes include a signal lamp.
ATIS (Automatic Transmitter Identication System) uses
Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite
transmissions.
99
common ashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot
Morse code has been employed as an assistive technol- and a long pull for a dash.
ogy, helping people with a variety of disabilities to comMorse code is transmitted using just two states (on and
municate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe moo). Historians have called it the rst digital code. Morse
tion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor
code may be represented as a binary code, and that is
control. An original solution to the problem that caretakwhat telegraph operators do when transmitting messages.
ers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typeWorking from the above ITU denition and further denwriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were
ing a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be
sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing morse
made from the a combination of the following ve bit
or votem, Newell and Nabarro, 1968.
strings:
Morse code can also be translated by computer and used
in a speaking communication aid. In some cases this
1. short mark, dot or dit () 1
means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic
tube ("sip-and-pu" interface). An important advantage
2. longer mark, dash or dah () 111
of Morse code over row column scanning is that, once
3. intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes
learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it
within a character) 0
appears faster than scanning.
People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or blind)
can receive Morse through a skin buzzer. .
In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine
QST,[25] an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke
and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking
his eyes in Morse. Another example occurred in 1966
when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked
the word TORTURE. In these two cases interpreters were
available to understand those series of eye-blinks.
Morse messages are generally transmitted by a handoperated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver
more experienced operators can send and receive at faster
speeds. In addition, individual operators dier slightly,
for example using slightly longer or shorter dashes or
gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called
6.1.4 Representation, timing and speeds
their st, and experienced operators can recognize specic individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends
International Morse code is composed of ve elements:[1]
clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a good st.
A poor st is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy
1. short mark, dot or dit () dot duration is one Morse code.
time unit long
2. longer mark, dash or dah () three time units Timing
long
3. inter-element gap between the dots and dashes Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase
within a character one dot duration or one unit MORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where represents
long
dahs and represents dits:
4. short gap (between letters) three time units long
M O R S E C O D E
5. medium gap (between words) seven time units Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with
long
= representing signal on, and . representing signal o,
each for the time length of exactly one dit:
Transmission
Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also
as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones,
or as a mechanical, audible or visual signal (e.g. a ashing
light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789
M-----O---------R-----S--E
C---------O---------D-----E
===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ | dah dit | | symbol space letter space word space
100
Spoken representation
this is to choose a dot duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If,
Farnsworth speed
for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13
words per minute, the operator would choose a dot rate
Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the
that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one
timing rules above are changed so two dierent speeds
minute.
are used: a character speed and a text speed. The characThe typical word thus determines the dot length. It is ter speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text
common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For examare two common typical words: PARIS and CODEX. ple, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-perPARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural lan- minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps
guage words and reects the benets of Morse codes may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per
shorter code durations for common characters such as e minute.
and t. CODEX oers a word rate that is typical of 5Using dierent character and text speeds is, in fact, a
letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using
common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method
the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dot units is
of learning Morse code.
50 and a simple calculation shows that the dot length at
20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word
CODEX with 60 dot units, the dot length at 20 words per Alternative display of more common characters in Inminute is 50 milliseconds.
ternational Morse code
Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely
that an operator could be that precise with the dot length, See also: Human coding
and the individual characteristics and preferences of the
101
Some methods of teaching or learning Morse code use a 6.1.6 Learning methods
dichotomic search table.
People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth
method are taught to send and receive letters and other
symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each
symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named
for Donald R. Russ Farnsworth, also known by his call
sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give thinking
A graphical representation of the dichotomic search table: the time to make the sound shape of the letters and symuser branches left at every dot and right at every dash until the bols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with
character is nished.
practice and familiarity.
Another popular teaching method is the Koch method,
named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which
uses the full target speed from the outset, but begins with
just two characters. Once strings containing those two
6.1.5 Link budget issues
characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character
Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical radioteletype set is mastered.
(RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a link mar- In North America, many thousands of individuals have
gin or a link budget for the simple reason of it pos- increased their code recognition speed (after initial memsessing variable length dots and dashes as well as vari- orization of the characters) by listening to the reguant timing between letters and words. For the purposes larly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by
of Information Theory and Channel Coding comparisons W1AW, the American Radio Relay Leagues headquarthe word PARIS is used to determine Morse Codes prop- ters station.
erties because it has an even number of dots and dashes.
In the United Kingdom many people learned the Morse
Morse Code when transmitted essentially creates an AM code by means of a series of words or phrases that have
signal (even in on/o keying mode), assumptions about the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, Q
signal can be made with respect to similarly timed RTTY in Morse is dah-dah-di-dah, which can be memorized by
signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an the phrase God save the Queen, and the Morse for F
on-o keyed radio signal, it requires less complex trans- is di-di-dah-dit, which can be memorized as Did she like
mission equipment than other forms of radio communi- it.
cation.
A well-known Morse code rhythm from the Second
Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice World War period derives from Beethovens Fifth Symcommunication, typically 100150 Hz, compared to the phony, the opening phrase of which was regularly played
roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at the beginning of BBC broadcasts. The timing of the
at a lower data rate.
notes corresponds to the Morse for V"; di-di-di-dah and
Morse code is usually received as a medium-pitched au- stood for V for Victory (as well as the Roman numeral
dio tone (6001000 Hz), so transmissions are easier to for the number ve).[31][32]
copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal ennumbers, punctuation,
vironments. The transmitted power is concentrated into 6.1.7 Letters,
a limited bandwidth so narrow receiver lters can be used
prosigns and non-English variants
to suppress interference from adjacent frequencies.
The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the Symbol representations
natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This eciency makes The &, $ and _ signs are not dened inside the ITU recCW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, ommendation on Morse code.
as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called
"QRP operation", from the Q-code for reduce power). Exclamation Mark
The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders
called ARRL Farnsworth Spacing [29] that is supposed
to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse [30] have implemented the standard.
102
While Morse code translation software prefers the
Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as
some amateur radio operators in North America and the
Caribbean continue to prefer the older MN digraph (
) carried over from American landline telegraphy code.
Currency symbols
The ITU has never codied formal Morse Code representations for currencies as the ISO 4217 Currency Codes are preferred for transmission.
The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips
Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on
land line telegraphy, as SX.
Ampersand
The representation of the & sign given above, often
shown as AS, is also the Morse prosign for wait. In
addition, the American landline representation of an
ampersand was similar to ES ( ) and hams have
carried over this usage as a synonym for and (WX
HR COLD ES RAINY, the weather here is cold &
rainy).
Keyboard AT @
On May 24, 2004 the 160th anniversary of the 6.1.9 See also
rst public Morse telegraph transmission the
Radiocommunication Bureau of the International
ACP-131
Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added
the @ ("commercial at" or commat) character to
CW Operators Club
the ocial Morse character set, using the sequence
denoted by the AC digraph ( ).
Guglielmo Marconi
This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent
A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter a inside a
swirl represented by a C.[33] The new character facilitates sending email addresses by Morse code and
is notable since it is the rst ocial addition to the
Morse set of characters since World War I.
Non-Latin extensions
Main article: Other alphabets in Morse code
For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map
Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code
uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow
Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps
hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script
and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean. For
Russian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic
characters to four-digit codes.
6.1.10
References
103
Win-
[11] The End of Morse - The day the keys in North America
fell silent
[12] Amendments to the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual
Quadi-
104
6.2 PSK31
SLOWBPSK program written for Motorolas EVM radio. Instead of the traditional frequency-shift keying,
the information is transmitted by patterns of polarityreversals (sometimes called 180-degree phase shifts).
PSK31 was enthusiastically received, and its usage grew
like wildre worldwide, lending a new popularity and
tone to the on-air conduct of digital communications.
Due to the eciency of the mode, it became, and still remains, especially popular with operators whose circumstances do not permit the erection of large antenna systems, the use of high power, or both.
6.2.1
History
PSK31 was developed and named by English amateur radio operator Peter Martinez (call sign G3PLX) and introduced to the wider amateur radio community in December 1998.[1][2]
The 31 baud BPSK modulation system used in PSK31
was introduced by Pawel Jalocha (SP9VRC) in his
6.2. PSK31
105
own sound card and can be powered and run from the The boundaries between character codes are marked by
computer via a single USB connection.
two or more consecutive zeros. Since no character code
contains more than one consecutive zero, the software can
easily identify the spaces between characters, regardless
6.2.3 Resistance to interference
of the length of the character. The idle sequence, sent
when an operator is not typing, is a continuous sequence
Like other narrow band digital modes, PSK31 can often of phase-shifts, which do not print on the screen.[2] Marovercome interference and poor propagation conditions tinez arranged the character alphabet so that, as in Morse
in situations where voice or other methods of commu- code, the more frequently occurring characters have the
nication fail. However, PSK31 was designed only for shortest encodings, while rarer characters use longer enleisure use by amateurs, and due to its relatively slow codings. He named this encoding scheme "varicode".
speed and limited error control, is not suitable for transmitting large blocks of data or text, or critical data requir- PSK31s symbol rate of 31.25 Hz was chosen because a
normal typing speed of about 50 words per minute reing high immunity from errors.
quires a bit rate of about 32 bits per second, and speciPSK31 works well over propagation paths that preserve cally because 31.25 Hz could easily be derived from the
phase, and resists fading (QSB) well. However, it can be 8 kHz sample rate used in many DSP systems, includadversely aected by propagation modessuch as trans- ing those used in the computer sound cards commonly
polar pathswhere auroral utter or multipathing can used for PSK31 operation (31.25 Hz is 8 kHz divided by
disrupt the signal phase continuity. In such cases the use 256, and so can be derived from 8 kHz by halving the
of QPSK (see below) is often benecial.
frequency eight times in succession).
Some software supports PSK10 and PSK05 variants, run- Colloquial usage of the term 'PSK31' in amateur radio
ning at 10 baud and 5 baud, respectively. These slower usually implies the use of the most commonly used varispeeds sacrice throughput to provide greater resistance ant of PSK31: binary phase shift keying (BPSK). BPSK
to noise and other interference. Conversely, PSK63 is uses no error control, but an allied mode, QPSK31, uses
increasingly used for faster exchanges, especially during four phases instead of two, to provide a degree of forward
contest operating.
error correction. It is simple to switch from BPSK to
6.2.4
Technical information
106
PSK31 email discussion list with contests, app reviews, and more
European PSK Club
An online PSK31 receiver tuned to the active Ham
band
Steve Ford, WB8IMY (2001). Chapter 4 PSK31. ARRLs HF digital handbook. Newington,
CT: The American Radio Relay League. ISBN 087259-823-3.
The only manufacturer to oer D-STAR compatible radios is Icom. As of February 1, 2013, no other amateur
radio manufacturer supports D-STAR, which requires a
proprietary AMBE codec owned by Digital Voice Systems, Inc.
6.3.1 History
6.3. D-STAR
107
radios to operate in D-STAR mode. Eventually Icom
began selling the card and once installed into the radios it provided D-STAR connectivity for each of the
transceivers. The June 2005 edition of the ARRLs QST
magazine reviewed the Icom IC-V82.
JARL released some changes to the existing D-STAR
standard in late 2004. Icom, aware that the changes were
coming, had placed the release of their hardware on hold
for a period of as much as a year while they awaited the
changes. As soon as the changes were out, Icom announced they would be able to nish up and release equipment.
The Icom ID-1 1.2 GHz mobile radio was released in late
2004. The ID-1 was the rst and only D-STAR radio that
provides digital data (DD) mode operation. In this mode
data via TCP/IP can be transferred at 128 kbit/s.
The rst D-STAR over satellite QSO occurred between
Michael, N3UC, FM-18 in Haymarket, Virginia and
Robin, AA4RC, EM-73 in Atlanta, Georgia while working AMSATs AO-27 microsatellite (Miniaturized satellite) in 2007.[2] The two operators used a variety of Icom
gear to make the contact and experienced slight diculty
with doppler shift during the QSO.
As of late 2009 there are around 10,800 D-STAR users
talking through D-STAR repeaters which have connectivity to the Internet via the G2 Gateway. There are around
550 G2 enabled repeaters now active. Note, these numbers do not include users with D-STAR capabilities but
not within range of a repeater, or working through DSTAR repeaters that do not have Internet connectivity.
The rst D-STAR capable microsatellite was scheduled
for launch during early 2012. OUFTI-1 is a CubeSat
and is built by Belgian students at the University of Lige
and I.S.I.L (Haute cole de la Province de Lige). The
name is an acronym for Orbital Utility For Telecommunication Innovation. The goal of the project is to develop
experience in the dierent aspects of satellite design and
operation.[3][4] The satellite weighs just 1 kilogram and
will utilize a UHF uplink and a VHF downlink.[5]
108
area on 10 GHz, which is valuable to allow emergency mal system operation, and also sends trac and other
communications oriented networks to continue to link in data to servers operated under the domain name of
the event of internet access failure or overload.
dstarusers.org. By this means a complete tracking of
Within the D-STAR Digital Voice protocol standards user behaviour is technically possible. Installation of this
(DV), voice audio is encoded as a 3600 bit/s data stream software also includes JavaAPRSd, a Java-based APRS
using proprietary AMBE encoding, with 1200 bit/s FEC, interface which is utilized on Gateway 2.0 systems to inleaving 1200 bit/s for an additional data path between terface between the Icom/D-STAR GPS tracking system
radios utilizing DV mode. On air bit rates for DV mode called DPRS to the more widely known and utilized amateur radio APRS system.
are 4800 bit/s over the 2 m, 70 cm and 23 cm bands.
In addition to digital voice mode (DV), a Digital Data
(DD) mode can be sent at 128 kbit/s only on the 23 cm
band. A higher-rate proprietary data protocol, currently
believed to be much like ATM, is used in the 10 GHz
link radios for site-to-site links.
Radios providing DV data service within the low-speed
voice protocol variant typically use an RS-232 or USB
connection for low speed data (1200 bit/s), while the
Icom ID-1 23 cm band radio oers a standard Ethernet
connection for high speed (128 kbit/s) connections, to allow easy interfacing with computer equipment.[7]
Gateway server
The current gateway control software rs-rp2c version 2.0,
more commonly called Gateway 2.0. Though most
Linux distributions should be suitable, the recommended
conguration uses CentOS Linux 5.1 with the latest updates, typically running (kernel 2.4.20. glibc 2.3.2 and
BIND 9.2.1 or later). The CPU should be 2.4 GHz or
faster and the memory should at least be 512 MB or
greater. There should be two network interface cards and
at least 10 GB free of hard drive space which includes
the OS install. Finally for middleware, Apache 2.0.59,
Tomcat 5.5.20, mod_jk2 2.0.4, OpenSSL 0.9.8d, Java
SE 5.0 and postgreSQL 8.2.3 are utilized, but these can
be dierent as updates occur.
Along with the open-source tools, the Icom proprietary
dsipsvd or D-STAR IP Service Daemon and a variety of
crontab entries utilize a mixture of the local PostgreSQL
and BIND servers to look up callsigns and pcname elds
(stored in BIND) which are mapped to individual 10.x.x.x
internal-only addresses for routing of both voice and data
trac between participating gateways.
During installation, the Gateway 2.0 software installation
script builds most of the Web-based open-source tools
from source for standardization purposes, while utilizing some of the packages of the host Linux system, thus
making CentOS 5.1 the common way to deploy a system,
to keep incompatibilities from occurring in both package
versions and conguration.
6.3. D-STAR
109
It was in the Great Coastal Gale of 2007 the Washington County ARES group was able to test D-STAR during
this series of several strong Pacic storms that interrupted
conventional communication systems for up to one week.
Primary emergency trac for the American Red Cross
and the Vernonia, Oregon Fire Department was handled
by the group using traditional FM voice because the group
had no D-STAR repeater equipment available. Once the
situations communication needs became established the
D*Chat messaging function was used to send small text
Gateway 1.0 control software The Gateway 1.0 soft- transmissions via D-STAR simplex at distances of up to
ware was similar to Gateway 2.0, and utilized Fedora seventeen miles.[10]
Core 2+ or Red Hat Linux 9+ OS on a Pentium-grade
An ability for amateurs to send les during this weather
2.4 GHz or faster machine.
event would have greatly increased the capacity for ARES
to help during the emergency.[10] Although D*Chat was a
Add-on software Various projects exist for gateway useful means of communication D-RATS was developed
administrators to add add-on software to their gate- to help ll the gaps that may have been lacking.[10] Anways, including the most popular package called dplus other improvement over D*Chat that D-RATS provides
created by Robin Cutshaw AA4RC. A large number of is form support. Users can set up frequently used forms
Gateway 2.0 systems are oering services added by this well before they're necessary and when the need comes
software package to their end-users, and users are getting all thats required is to ll in the elds. In this way, for
used to having these features. Features include the abil- example, emergency forms from the Red Cross, National
ity to link systems directly, voice mail (a single inbox Trac System, or the Incident Command System, such
today), ability to play/record audio to and from the re- as the FEMA standard ICS-213, could be generated and
peaters connected to the Gateway and the most important, sent.
the ability for DV-Dongle users to communicate from the
Internet to the radio users on the repeaters.[8]
There is often a misconception by users and system administrators alike that the Gateway 2.0 systems have these
add-on features from dplus by default, a testament to the
popularity of this add-on software. Dplus software development has an active following, and features such as
multiple repeater/system connections similar to the type
of linking done by other popular repeater-linking systems
(IRLP and EchoLink) are being worked on.
6.3.3
D-RATS
6.3.4 Criticisms
Proprietary codec
110
STAR is not only an Icom system, the mark 'D-STAR'
is itself a registered trademark of Icom.[14] According to
the United States Patent and Trademark Oce, a trademark is dened as a word, phrase, symbol or design, or a
combination of words, phrases, symbols or designs, that
identies and distinguishes the source of the goods of one
party from those of others.[15] While Icom does hold a
trademark for its stylized D-STAR logo, Digital Voice
Systems, Inc. (DVSI)[16] has patented the voice technology.
Usable range compared to FM
D-STAR, like any digital voice mode has comparable usable range to FM, but it degrades dierently. While the
quality of FM progressively degrades the further a user
moves away from the source, digital voice maintains a
constant voice quality up to a point, then essentially "falls
o a cli".[17] This behavior is inherent in any digital data
system, and it demonstrates the threshold at which the
signal is no longer correctable, and when data loss is too With P25 designed for Govt and Federal Emergency use,
great, audio artefacts can appear in the recovered audio. it lacks Amateur-centric features for example, P25 amateur radio implementations do not use call sign routing, and they cannot control linked reectors or repeaters
Emergency Communications Concerns
but do have DTMF, telegrams, phone patch, MDC1200,
D-STARs performance envelope relies heavily on inter- TMS messaging, any many more signalling facilities, innet connections. During widespread disasters that com- cluding several advanced security features.
promise commercial telecommunications infrastructure,
D-STAR systems (and other modes that rely on the internet such as Winlink) may suer outages or performance
degradation that severely impacts operations. Without
simulating such outages during drills, it is dicult to assess the impact of or establish D-STAR service recovery
procedures in the event of such failures. As of the fall
of 2011, there has been almost no discussion in the ham
radio literature regarding actual drills where D-STAR
systems were tested with completely failed or even intermittent telecommunications infrastructure. Comprehensive emergency communications plans used by ARES
and other such organizations should address the possibility that such systems may not function as intended during
major disasters.
Cost
D-STAR does signicantly add to the cost of a radio,
which is a barrier to the adoption of the technology. In
2006 the cost of a D-STAR radio was compared to that
of a standard analog radio, and the price dierence was
nearly double.[18] This is due partly to the per-unit cost
for the voice codec hardware and/or license and partly to
manufacturer research and development costs that need
to be amortized. As is the case with any product, as more
units are sold, the R&D portion of the cost will decrease
over time. The D-STAR capable radios also cost more
than their equivalents from other brands, even before the
D-STAR options boards are added (in the UK as of April
6.3. D-STAR
Harris rebranded Hytera, Tait, Kirisun, Simoco, and
many other companies. Since DMR is a worldwide standard, the radios from dierent manufacturers are interoperable on almost all features. Digital Mobile Radio
(DMR) use a 12.5 kHz 2-slot Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) system. This means that each repeater has
2 simultaneous voice channels for 1/2 the cost of 2 traditional FM or FDMA systems. TDMA is also uses less
battery life than FDMA and analog systems due to the
50% transmit duty cycle of TDMA. Currently the DMRMARC group has over 200 (and rapidly growing) worldwide MOTOTRBO DMR repeaters linked on one system. DMR has seen much faster Amateur Radio growth
than P25 or TETRA due to much less expensive equipment as it is used Worldwide by thousands of dierent agencies and users already, and with TDMA features
that FDMA systems simply cannot provide, mobile, and
portable radio costs are lower and with doubled repeater
capacity, useful for an IRLP or Echolink repeater not having to be tied up with one QSO, another QSO can still
operate completely and with no knowledge of the other
QSO taking place on the other 'time slot', even in simplex on the same frequency, the ability to de-key a transmitting set whilst it is still transmitting and messaging/data,GPS, IP multi-site connect, roaming, even full
duplex capability is rumoured to be planned, it is proving
an exciting mode for Amateurs. Even TETRA repeaters,
which can be purchased from Cleartone, in the form of
the CM9000 for 411 delivered (April 2013). The growing number of DMR-MARC connected repeaters in the
UK and the huge amount of used commercial Motorola
DP3400 MotoTrbo digital/FM sets from 75 upwards as
many users change into the next generation MotoTrbo
sets, with Top-Teir Mobile dual-mode MotoTrbo brand
new at 380 (DM4600/XPR5550) it is not hard to see
how technology is changing Amateur Radio... even down
at the pocket-money end.
Questionable legality
111
112
6.3.7
Decoder/Receivers:
Reception done by a Software Dened Radio and decoding of the D-Star
header information done by the program
dstar.exe.[23]
Reception done by a Software Dened
Radio and speech decoding done by
the program DSD 1.7 (Digital Speech
Decoder).[24]
Repeater equipment:
GMSK Node Adapter - these devices are
hardware GMSK modems with rmware
to take D-STAR protocol frames over
a USB cable and provide the necessary
logic and GMSK modulation to control
a simplex node or a full duplex repeater.
One repeater that is easily adaptable is
the Kenwood TKR-820 as documented
by K7VE.[25]
GMSK using a sound card - this method
uses a computer sound card to generate
GMSK modulation and de-modulation.
The primary software for this method is
developed by Jonathan Naylor.
Icom D-STAR equipment
6.3.8
Equipment
Homebrew
6.3. D-STAR
Icom IC-92AD: 2 m / 70 cm twin band
digital voice hand held transceiver. Four
power settings up to 5 W on each band.
Rugged and submersible design, optional
microphone with embedded GPS.
Icom IC-91AD/IC-E91 + D-STAR: 2 m
/ 70 cm twin band digital voice hand held
transceiver. Power is selectable at 0.5 W
or 5 W on each band.
Icom IC-2200H: 2 m single band digital voice mobile transceiver. Power up to
65 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom IC-V82: 2 m single band digital
voice hand held transceiver. Power up
to 7 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom IC-U82: 70 cm single band digital voice hand held transceiver. Power up
to 5 W. Must purchase optional D-STAR
module.
Icom
IC-9100:
HF/VHF/UHF
transceiver.
Must purchase optional
UT-121 D-STAR module.
Icom
IC-7100:
HF/VHF/UHF
transceiver. Includes built-in D-STAR
capability.
Receivers:
Icom IC-R2500: HF/VHF/UHF/SHF receiver/scanner. Must purchase optional
D-STAR module.
Repeater equipment:
113
is a repeater but its not associated with
an Internet gateway.[26] The dongle works
along with the DVTOOL software, a simple application that mimics the controls
on a D-STAR radio, although the interface doesn't actually look like a radio
panel. Note: Now available from a number of amateur radio dealers or by homebrew using documentation at Moetronix.
DV-AP: A DVAP Dongle (DV Access
Point Dongle) is also a USB device that
creates a connection to the D-STAR network through an Internet connected computer. But instead of using the computers audio system, the DVAP Dongle has an antenna and a 10 mW twometer transceiver that provides shortrange over-the-air access using a DSTAR radio (usually a handheld). Note
that a D-STAR radio is required. The
DVAP does not convert an analog FM
signal to D-STAR.
Kenwood D-STAR equipment[27]
Transceivers:
Kenwood TMW-706S: 2 m / 70 cm dual
band digital voice mobile transceiver.
Power up to 50 W.
Kenwood TMW-706: 2 m / 70 cm dual
band digital voice mobile transceiver.
Power up to 20 W.
114
6.3.10
References
[23] http://www.rtl-sdr.com/decoding-d-star-headers-rtl-sdr/
[24] http://www.rtl-sdr.com/
receiving-dstar-voice-dsd-1-7-windows/
[25] John Hays, K7VE. Converting the Kenwood TKR-820
to use with D-STAR.
[26] Gary Pearce, KN4AQ (February 2009), DV Dongle DSTAR Adapter, QST
[27] Amateur Equipment. Kenwood (Google Translation).
6.3.11 Journal
ARRL: QST Icom IC 2820H Dual Band FM
Transceiver Vol 91 No 11 November 2007 Page 74,
by Steve Ford, WB8IMY does a review on the IC
2820H Dual Band FM Transceiver.
RSGB: RadCom March 2008 (Vol 83 No 03) review
of Icom IC-E2820 transceiver and overview of DSTAR.
CQ-VHF: D-STAR in the Southeastern U.S., Greg
Sarratt, W4OZK, (partial), http://www.cq-vhf.
com/D-StarWin08.html
N1ICs Review of Icom ID-51 http://nicktoday.com/
icom-id-51-id-51a-first-quick-review/
[15] http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/trade_defin.
jsp. Missing or empty |title= (help)
opendstar.org
Chapter 7
7.1.2 Development
7.1.1
How it works
As the earth moves along its orbital path, billions of particles known as meteors enter the earths atmosphere every
day; a small fraction of which have properties useful for
point to point communication.[2] When these meteors begin to burn up, they create a trail of ionized particles in
the E layer of the atmosphere that can persist for up to
several seconds. The ionization trails can be very dense
and thus used to reect radio waves. The frequencies that
can be reected by any particular ion trail are determined
by the intensity of the ionization created by the meteor,
often a function of the initial size of the particle, and are
generally between 30 MHz and 50 MHz.[3]
The distance over which communications can be established is determined by the altitude at which the ionization is created, the location over the surface of the Earth
where the meteor is falling, the angle of entry into the
atmosphere, and the relative locations of the stations at-
115
116
7.1.3
Military use
7.1.4
Scientic use
7.2. OSCAR
7.2 OSCAR
117
7.2.1 Satellites
OSCAR 1
This article is about the satellite. For other uses, see
Oscar (disambiguation).
Main article: OSCAR 1
OSCAR is an acronym for Orbiting Satellite Carrying The rst amateur satellite, simply named OSCAR 1, was
OSCAR 1
OSCAR 10
Most of the components for OSCAR 10 were o the
shelf and tested by group members. Jan King led the
project. Solar cells were bought in batches of 10 or
20 from Radio Shack and tested for eciency by group
members (A. Sergio Torloni then a senior in high school)
the most ecient cells were kept for the project, the rest
were returned to RadioShack. Once ready, OSCAR 10
was mounted aboard a private plane and own on a couple
of occasions to evaluate its performance and reliability.
Special QSL cards were issued to those who participated
in the airplane based ights. Once it was found to be operative and reliable, the satellite was shipped to Kennedy
118
Space Center where it was mounted in the 3rd stage of precisely near the frequency. Frequency modulation is
the launch vehicle.
more tolerant of doppler shifts than single-sideband, and
therefore FM is much easier to tune manually.
7.2.2
Operations
7.2.3 Launches
Launches (Past & Current)
The names of the satellites below are sorted in
chronological order by launch date, ascending. The status column denotes the current operational status of the
satellite. Green signies that the satellite is currently operational, orange indicates that the satellite is partially
operational or failing. Red indicates that the satellite is
non operational and black indicates that the satellite has
re-entered the Earths atmosphere. The country listing
denotes the country that constructed the satellite and not
the launching country.
Doppler shift Due to the high orbital speed of the OSCAR satellites, the uplink and downlink frequencies will
vary during the course of a satellite pass. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler eect. While the In development
satellite is moving towards the ground station, the down IRSHSAT-1 - A cubesat is being built by the stulink frequency will appear to be higher than normal and
dents at Pakistan Student Satellite Program. Launch
therefore, the receiver frequency at the ground station
Date sometime in 2011.
must be adjusted higher in order to continue receiving the
satellite. The satellite in turn, will be receiving the uplink
BLUEsat - A microsatellite built by the students
signal at a higher frequency than normal so the ground
of The University of New South Wales. Unstations transmitted uplink frequency must be lower in
known launch date. The next test will be in April
order to be received by the satellite. After the satellite
2014 when it is own from a stratospheric weather
passes overhead and begins to move away, this process
balloon.[9]
reverses itself. The downlink frequency will appear lower
ZSAT - A microsatellite initiated and funded by the
and the uplink frequency will need to be adjusted higher.
U.S. Department of Science and Technology. UnThe following mathematical formulas relate the doppler
known launch date.
shift to the velocity of the satellite.
Due to the complexity of nding the relative velocity of
the satellite and the speed with which these corrections
must be made, these calculations are normally accomplished using satellite tracking software. Many modern
transceivers include a computer interface that allows for
automatic doppler eect correction. Manual frequencyshift correction is possible, but it is dicult to remain
7.2. OSCAR
119
7.2.4
Facts
7.2.5 References
Multinational eort
Currently 23 countries have launched an OSCAR satellite. These countries, in chronological order by date of
launch, include: The
[3] AMSAT AO-51 Control Team News. AO-51 Command Team and Operations Group. Retrieved 2012-0115.
[4] ISS Fan Club. ISS Fan Club. Retrieved 2011-07-27.
[5] Ocial AO-27 HomePage. AO-27 Control Operators
Association. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
[6] 2010 AMSAT Field Day Competition (PDF). The Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation. 2010. p. 1. Retrieved
2011-07-26. ...the FM voice satellites like AMSATOSCAR 16, AMRAD-OSCAR-27, SaudiSat-Oscar-50,
or AMSAT-OSCAR-51...
[7] AMSAT OSCAR 16 (PacSAT)". The Radio Amateur
Satellite Corporation. Retrieved 2011-07-26. Mode FM
Voice Repeater (Downlink is DSB. Operation is Intermittent)
[8] VO-52 Hamsat end of mission. AMSAT.
[9] http://www.bluesat.unsw.edu.au/
11. Portugal
[10] http://www.amsat.org/amsat-new/express/
12. Korea
[11] http://www.esa.int/Education/ESEO_mission
13. Italy
[12] http://www.amsat.org/amsat-new/eagle/
14. Mexico
[13] http://www.delfispace.nl/
[14] http://ww2.amsat.org/?page_id=1118
15. Israel
16. Thailand
17. South Africa
18. Malaysia
19. Saudi Arabia
20. Germany
21. India
22. Colombia
23. the Netherlands
7.2.6 Notes
Space Satellites from the Worlds
Garage -- The Story of AMSAT. The
Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation.
Retrieved 2006-09-05.
The Extraordinary History of Amateur
Radio Satellites. Space Today Online.
Retrieved 2006-09-05.
A Brief History of Amateur Satellites.
N7HPR. Retrieved 2006-09-05.
120
7.2.7
External links
7.3 EME
4. The operating frequency of the transmitter and reEarthMoonEarth communication (EME), also
ceiver
known as moon bounce, is a radio communications technique which relies on the propagation of radio waves from
an Earth-based transmitter directed via reection from Free space loss from an isotropic omnidirectional antenna
the surface of the Moon back to an Earth-based receiver. is described by this formula. It calculates the surface area
of an imaginary sphere of radius, d, that the radio wave
illuminates uniformly:
7.3.1
History
2
1. Loss = ( 4d
) where pi 3.14, d = distance and
The use of the Moon as a passive communications satellambda = wavelength, in meters
lite was proposed by W.J. Bray of the British General Post
Oce in 1940. It was calculated that with the available
2. Lambda = c/F F = Hz, c = 3 108 meters/sec.
microwave transmission powers and low noise receivers,
3. Lambda = 300
it would be possible to beam microwave signals up from
F when F is in MHz.
Earth and reect o the Moon. It was thought that at least
Substituting F into the free-space loss formula and conone voice channel would be possible.[1]
verting to d into km:
The moon bounce technique was developed by the
United States Military in the years after World War II,
d
Loss = 4 103 F 300
or
with the rst successful reception of echoes o the Moon
being carried out at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey on Jan Loss(dB) = 32.45 + 20 log F + 20 log d
uary 10, 1946 by John H. DeWitt as part of Project Diana.[2] The Communication Moon Relay project that followed led to more practical uses, including a teletype Adding factors for reection from the Moon results in
link between the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and
Loss-eme(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log(F) + 20Log(2*d) +
United States Navy headquarters in Washington, DC. In
50.21 - 10Log(.065)
the days before communications satellites, a link free of
the vagaries of ionospheric propagation was revolutionary.
The standard radar path link formula is basis for EME
Later, the technique was used by non-military commer- path-loss calculations
cial users, and the rst amateur detection of signals from
Pr = Pt Gt Gr Loss
the Moon took place in 1953.
7.3. EME
Loss = 2 /(4 pi)3 d4
After including the factor for surface reectivity it becomes
LossEM E (dB) = 100.4+20 log(F )+40 log(d)
10 log()
121
d is distance (average distance at any given time)
or about 2.4 s at perigee
or about 2.7 s at apogee
or about 2.56 s on average, but for message coding
2.25 s is used
= 0.065 D2 /4 where D is the Moons diam- The Moon is nearly spherical, and its radius corresponds
eter
to milliseconds of wave travel time. The trailing parts of
an echo, reected from irregular surface features near the
edge of the lunar disk, are delayed from the leading edge
Since the diameter of the Moon is 3500 km
by as much as twice this value.
= 6.25 1011 m2
The formula becomes
Loss-eme(dB) = 20Log(F) + 40Log(d) - 17.49, F =
MHz, d = km
The Moon is nearly spherical, with the reection dierential being the Moons radius divided by the speed of
light, ~5.8 ms (electromagnetic wave travel time).
The eective time spread of an echo amounts to no more
than 0.1 ms.
There is one note with respect to antenna polarization :
Reections from a smooth surface preserve linear polarization but reverses the sense of circular polarizations.
At shorter wavelengths the lunar surface appears increasingly rough, so reections at 10 GHz and above contain a
signicant Diuse Component as well as a quasi-specular
component.
Depending on the position of the Moon with respect to The Diuse Component is depolarized, and can be
Earth, apogee can be as much as 406,700 km, whereas viewed as a source of low level system noise.
perigee can be as little as 356,400 km.
Signicant portions of the Diused Component arise
This translates to as much as 2.25 dB dierence in from regions farther out toward the lunar rim. The median time spread can then be as much as several millisecpath loss from apogee to perigee.
onds.
The mean distance from Earth to Moon is given as In all practical cases, however, time spreading is small
384,400 km.
enough that it does not cause signicant smearing of CW
These calculations consider the fact that the Moon is
only 7% ecient as a reector, use the radar equation (which denes a two-way path-loss model) and
the assumption that the Moon is a spherical reector.
7.3.3
Radio waves propagate at the speed of light c, exactly As the relative geometry of the
299,792,458 m/s.
Propagation time to the Moon and back is therefore 2d/c
transmitting station
122
receiving station
reecting lunar surface
changes, signal components may sometimes add and
sometimes cancel.
software. The technology was applied to a live performance called OPTICKS during which digital images are
sent to the Moon and back in real time and projected live.
7.3.4
JT65B
SSB
JT4F or G
7.3. EME
123
Gallery
An array of 8 Yagi antennas for 144 MHz EME at
EA6VQ, Balearic Islands, Spain
A part of 144 MHz EME antenna array at WA6PY
in California, USA
A dish antenna for microwave EME work at
WA6PY, California, USA
A dish antenna for UHF EME at I2FZX, Milan, Italy
Amateur Radio antenna array used for Earth
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Kilafors in Middle Sweden. Owner Sverker
Hedberg, SM3PWM.
Amateur Radio antenna array used for Earth
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Jder, Middle Sweden. Owner Leif sbrink,
SM5BSZ.
Amateur Radio antenna array used for Earth
MoonEarth communication on 144 MHz. Location Staanstorp, South Sweden. Owner Kjell Rasmusson, SM7BAE.
7.3.7
See also
Information theory
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
Meteor burst communications
Passive repeater
Radar Equation
7.3.8
References
http://www.opticks.info
7.3.9
External links
(another
http://www.df9cy.de/tech-mat/pathloss.htm (gives
formulas for EME path loss calculation)
Chapter 8
125
Over 2,000 Amateur Radio clubs are members of the tion. Maxim and Clarence Tuska, the secretary of the
ARRL Aliated Club Program.[5]
Hartford Radio Club, developed application forms and
sent them out to every amateur station they could think
of. Although they limited membership to highly qualied
8.1.2 History
amateurs only, the response was tremendous. By September 1914 they had over 230 stations on the roster.
In early 1915, disagreements began to surface as to the
role of the Hartford Radio Club in the new organization,
and in February the ARRL split o from the club and incorporated under Connecticut law. Finances were shaky,
and most of the income came from sales of booklets,
maps and message blanks. But the ARRL kept growing.
By March 1915, there were 600 stations on the roster, and
due to improvements in equipment and operating ability,
some of the better stations were claiming communication
ranges of up to a thousand miles. It was apparent that
the ARRL now needed some kind of bulletin to stay in
touch with its members, but there was no money for such
a thing. Maxim and Tuska agreed to personally nance
it, and in December 1915 the rst, sixteen page issue of
QST was sent free to all members. Further issues would
be supplied through subscription at $1.00 per year.
19141920
In 1914, Hiram Percy Maxim of Hartford, Connecticut, was a prominent businessman, engineer, and inventor (notably of the Maxim Silencer). He was also an active radio amateur, with one of the best-equipped stations
in the Hartford area. One night in April he attempted
to send a message to another ham in Springeld, Massachusetts. He had a one-kilowatt station (call 1WH), and
Springeld was only 30 miles (48 km) away, well within
his normal range. He was unable to make contact, and remembering that he knew another ham in Windsor Locks,
about halfway, he contacted the Windsor Locks ham, and
asked him to relay the message, which was successfully
done. This was not the rst time a message had been relayed, but it set Maxim to thinking. At that time, a great
deal, perhaps most of amateur radio activity consisted of
sending and receiving messages, not only between amateurs, but involving the general public as well. But at that
time the maximum reliable range of a station was a few
hundred miles or less, and so Maxim realized that a formally organized relay system would be of tremendous use
to amateurs.[9]
126
miniature issue of QST was produced announcing the reorganization, and applications began to come in. A nancing plan consisting of selling bonds to members was
adopted and about $7500 was raised. QST was purchased
from its owner, Clarence Tuska. ARRL continued to
lobby Congress for the resumption of transmitting privileges, and after a number of protests and appeals, amateur
radio was fully restored in November 1919.
19201964
History repeated itself during World War II with US amateurs being told to leave the air. The ARRL responded
by developing the government-approved War Emergency
Radio Service, a Civil Defense system. Thousands of
League members, and many thousands more who received technical training through its publications, served
in the conict. When hostilities ceased the ARRL successfully lobbied Congress to reauthorize Amateur Radio
and in late 1945 the bands began to reopen. The end of
the war brought a tremendous expansion of amateur radio
as large amounts of war surplus equipment was available,
many recently trained operators became active, and experiments began in such newly developed modes as single
sideband and microwaves.
The 1930s was a more dicult period, as the Great amateur radio activities. The League has led several
Depression took its toll on development. Hiram Percy interference reports with the FCC. The ARRL sued the
8.1.4
Services
127
tions monthly membership journal, named after a Morse
code Q signal that means calling all stations. The organization also publishes two bimonthly magazines of special interest: QEX for radio electronics experimenters,
and the National Contest Journal for contesting enthusiasts. The ARRL publishes various technical books
and online courses. Members of the organization also
have access to a special Members Only section of the
ARRL web site that includes technical documents, expanded product reviews of amateur radio equipment, expanded contesting information, and a searchable database
of all league publications. A agship annual publication,
The Radio Amateurs Handbook, has been published since
1926.[12] the ARRL also publishes a series of manuals designed to assist interested persons in obtaining an amateur
radio license or upgrading to a higher class of license.
Contests
The ARRL sponsors numerous amateur radio contests
throughout the year with the biggest of these being
November Sweepstakes and the International DX Contest. Other contests and sponsored operating events include Straight Key Night, VHF Sweepstakes, UHF Contest, and 10 GHz and Up Contest. The ARRL also participates as a Headquarters station for the IARU HF World
Championship. Field Day is an annual event organized
by the ARRL that includes both a competitive element as
well as an emphasis on emergency communications readiness and the promotion of amateur radio.
8.1.5 Controversy
The American Radio Relay League oers several services to members that support their on-air operations. For
members with an interest in DXing, the organization operates both incoming and out-going QSL bureaus for the
exchange of QSL cards with stations in other countries.
Sta at the organization headquarters maintain and operates station W1AW, the Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial
Station, as a living memorial to the Father of Organized
Amateur Radio. The W1AW station is used for regular
Morse code training transmissions for those wishing to
learn and also broadcasts a variety of bulletins of interest to radio amateurs. The ARRL/VEC (Volunteer Examiner Coordinator) sponsors amateur radio license examinations for the three classes of amateur license. License classes and examinations are held in various locations throughout the year. Although the FCC currently
recognizes 14 dierent organizations as VECs, the VEC
sponsored by the ARRL oversees about two-thirds of all
U.S. amateur radio license examinations.
Publications
The ARRL provides several publications and journals to Many Amateur Radio operators who are seeking to deboth members and non-members. QST is the organiza- velop and experiment with new technology see the ARRL
128
as backing down too quickly on the regulation by bandwidth issue. Recent FCC rulings on the new soundcard
mode called ROS point to the need to drop regulations
that hinder experimentation and impede the development
of narrowband techniques on the bands where they are
most needed[15]
8.1.6
Elser-Mathes Cup
8.1.7
Organization
W1AW
8.1.9 References
[1] American Radio Relay League (1999). W1AW Bulletin. ARLB047 July 20, 1999.
[2] American Radio Relay League (2005).
ARRL. Jan. 5, 2005.
About the
[4] American Radio Relay League (2008). ARRL Divisions. Jan. 29, 2008.
[5] American Radio Relay League (2008). Annual Report.
Dec. 31, 2008.
[6] American Radio Relay League (2010). About the ARRL.
Feb. 23, 2010.
129
8.2 Federal
Communications
Commission
FCC redirects here. For other uses, see Ministry of
Communications and FCC (disambiguation).
130
Competition Competition in the provision of communication services, both domestically and overseas,
supports the Nations economy. The competitive
framework for communications services should foster innovation and oer consumers reliable, meaningful choice in aordable services.
Spectrum Ecient and eective use of non-federal
spectrum domestically and internationally promotes
the growth and rapid development of innovative and
ecient communication technologies and services.
Media The Nations media regulations must promote
competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery.
Public Safety and Homeland Security
Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health,
defense, and emergency personnel, as well as
all consumers in need.
The Nations critical
communications infrastructure must be reliable,
interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable.
Modernize the FCC The Commission shall strive to
be highly productive, adaptive, and innovative organization that maximizes the benets to stakeholders,
sta, and management from eective systems, processes, resources, and organizational culture.[4]
8.2.2
Organization
Commissioners
The FCC is directed by ve commissioners appointed by
the President of the United States and conrmed by the
U.S. Senate for ve-year terms, except when lling an unexpired term. The President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman. Only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None
of them may have a nancial interest in any FCC-related
business.[3][5]
consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains collaborative partnerships with state, local, and
tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness and implementation of new technologies.
The Enforcement Bureau (EB) is responsible for
enforcement of provisions of the Communications
Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, and terms and
conditions of station authorizations. Major areas of
enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement
Bureau are consumer protection, local competition,
public safety, and homeland security.
The International Bureau (IB) develops international policies in telecommunications, such as coordination of frequency allocation and orbital assignments so as to minimize cases of international electromagnetic interference involving U.S.
licensees. The International Bureau also oversees
FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations and other international agreements.
The Media Bureau (MB) develops, recommends
and administers the policy and licensing programs
relating to electronic media, including cable television, broadcast television, and radio in the United
States and its territories. The Media Bureau
also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct
broadcast satellite service.
The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, including licensing. The bureau
also implements competitive bidding for spectrum
auctions and regulates wireless communications services including mobile phones, public safety, and
other commercial and private radio services.
The Wireline Competition Bureau (WCB) develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in wireline technology infrastructure, development, markets, and services.
The Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau was launched in 2006.
Bureaus
Oces
The FCC is organized into seven Bureaus,[7] which process applications for licenses and other lings, analyze The FCC has eleven Sta Oces.[7] The FCCs Oces
complaints, conduct investigations, develop and imple- provide support services to the Bureaus.
ment regulations, and participate in hearings.
The Oce of Administrative Law Judges
The Consumer & Governmental Aairs Bu(OALJ) is responsible for conducting hearings
reau (CGB) develops and implements the FCCs
ordered by the Commission. The hearing function
consumer policies, including disability access. CGB
includes acting on interlocutory requests led in
serves as the public face of the FCC through outthe proceedings such as petitions to intervene,
reach and education, as well as through their Conpetitions to enlarge issues, and contested discovery
sumer Center, which is responsible for responding to
requests. An Administrative Law Judge, appointed
131
The Oce of Media Relations (OMR) is responsible for the dissemination of Commission announcements, orders, proceedings, and other information
per media requests. OMR manages the FCC Daily
Digest, website, and Audio Visual Center.
The Oce of the Secretary (OSEC) oversees the
receipt and distribution of documents led by the
public through electronic and paper ling systems
and the FCC Library collection. In addition, OSEC
publishes legal notices of Commission decisions in
the Federal Register and the FCC Record.
The Oce of Strategic Planning & Policy Analysis (OSP), essentially a think tank within the FCC,
identies policy objectives for the agency. OSP
works closely with the FCC Chairman and is responsible for monitoring the state of the communications industry to identify trends, issues and overall industry health. OSP acts as expert consultants
to the Commission in areas of economic, business,
and market analysis. The Oce also reviews legal
trends and developments not necessarily related to
current FCC proceedings, such as intellectual property law, the Internet, and electronic commerce.
Previously OSP was called the Oce of Plans and
Policy (OPP). OSP is also the home of the FCCs
Chief Economist and the Chief Technologist.
The Oce of Workplace Diversity (OWD) develops policy to provide a full and fair opportunity for
all employees, regardless of non-merit factors such
as race, religion, gender, color, age, disability, sexual orientation or national origin, to carry out their
duties in the workplace free from unlawful discriminatory treatment, including sexual harassment and
retaliation for engaging in legally protected activities.
8.2.3 History
Communications Act of 1934
In 1934, Congress passed the Communications Act,
which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and
132
Freeze of 1948
transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission, including in it also
the telecommunications jurisdiction previously handled
by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Title II of the
Communications Act focused on telecommunications using many concepts borrowed from railroad legislation and
Title III contained provisions very similar to the Radio
Act of 1927.
Report on Chain Broadcasting
In 1940, the Federal Communications Commission issued the Report on Chain Broadcasting which was led
by new FCC Chairman James Lawrence Fly. The major point in the report was the breakup of NBC (National
Broadcasting Company), which ultimately led to the creation of ABC (American Broadcasting Company), but
there were two other important points. One was network
option time, the culprit here being CBS. The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times
133
Radio Act in the 111th Congress has gotten out of committee and will go before the house oor with bi-partisan
support,[12] and unanimous support of the FCC.[13]
By passing the Telecommunications Act of 1996,
Congress also eliminated the cap on the number of radio
stations one entity could own nationwide and substantially
loosened local radio station ownership restrictions. Substantial radio consolidation followed.[14] Restrictions on
ownership of television stations were also loosened.[15]
Public comments to the FCC indicated that the public
largely believed that the severe consolidation of media
ownership had resulted in harm to diversity, localism,
and competition in media, and was harmful to the public interest.[16]
Connection permissivity, indecency crackdowns
134
8.2.4
Broadcast licensing
ments made when it voted in 2003 to increase the number of television stations a company could own in a single
market. (In June 2004, a federal appeals court rejected
the agencys reasoning on most of the rules and ordered
it to try again.)
135
Use of white space
White spaces are radio frequencies that went unused after the federally mandated transformation of analog TV
signal to digital. On October 15, 2008, FCC Chairman
Kevin Martin announced his support for the unlicensed
use of white spaces. Martin said he was hoping to take
advantage of utilizing these airwaves for broadband services to allow for unlicensed technologies and new innovations in that space.[29]
Google, Microsoft and other companies are vying for the
use of this white-space to support innovation in Wi-Fi
technology. Broadcasters and wireless microphone manufacturers fear that the use of white space would disrupt their broadcasts and the signals used in sports events
and concerts.[30] Cell phone providers such as T-Mobile
USA have mounted pressure on the FCC to instead offer up the white space for sale to boost competition and
market leverage.
Net neutrality
Main article: Net neutrality in the United States
Diversity
With the major demographic shifts occurring in the country in terms of the racial-ethnic composition of the population, the FCC has also been criticized for ignoring the
issue of decreasing racial-ethnic diversity of the media.
This includes charges that the FCC has been watering
down the limited armative action regulations it had on
the books, including no longer requiring stations to make
public their data on their minority stang and hiring. In
the second half of 2006, groups such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition, the National Latino Media Council, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the
National Institute for Latino Policy, the League of United
Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and others held town
hall meetings[25] in California, New York and Texas on
media diversity as its eects Latinos and minority communities. They documented widespread and deeply felt
community concerns about the negative eects of media
concentration and consolidation on racial-ethnic diversity in stang and programming.[26] At these Latino town
hall meetings, the issue of the FCCs lax monitoring of
obscene and pornographic material in Spanish-language
radio and the lack of racial and national-origin diversity
among Latino sta in Spanish-language television were
other major themes.
President Barack Obama appointed Mark Lloyd to the
FCC in the newly created post of Associate General
Counsel/Chief Diversity Ocer.[27][28]
136
DTV controversy
137
tion of a station license the licensing authority shall determine that public interest, convenience, or necessity would be served by the
granting thereof, it shall authorize the issuance,
renewal, or modication thereof in accordance
with said nding. In the event the licensing authority upon examination of any such application does not reach such decision with respect
thereto, it shall notify the applicant thereof,
shall x and give notice of a time and place
for hearing thereon, and shall aord such applicant an opportunity to be heard under such
rules and regulations as it may prescribe.
Numerous controversies have surrounded the city of license concept as the internet has made it possible to
broadcast a single signal to every owned station in the nation at once, particularly when Clear Channel became the
largest FM broadcasting corporation in the US after the
Telecommunications Act of 1996 became law - owning
over 1200 stations at its peak. As part of its license to
buy more radio stations, Clear Channel was forced to di- Public hearings As early as 1927, there is evidence
that public hearings were indeed held; among them,
vest all TV stations.
hearings to assess the expansion of the radio broadcast
band.[74] At these early hearings, the goal of having a
broad range of viewpoints presented was evident, as not
8.2.7 Public consultation
only broadcasters, but also radio engineers and manufacAs the public interest standard has always been important turers were in attendance. Numerous groups representto the FCC when determining and shaping policy, so too ing the general public appeared at the hearings as well,
has the relevance of public involvement in U.S. commu- including amateur radio operators and inventors as well
nication policy making.[71] The FCC Record is the com- as representatives of radio listeners organizations. Interprehensive compilation of decisions, reports, public no- estingly,
tices, and other documents of the FCC, published since
1986.[72][73]
While some speakers at the 1927 hearings referred to having received invitations, Herbert Hoovers assistant observed in a letter at
the time that the Radio Commission has sent
out a blanket invitation to all people in the
country who desire either to appear in person
or to submit their recommendations in writing. I do not understand that the Commission has sent for any particular individuals,
however [Letter from George Akerson, assistant to Sec. Hoover, to Mrs. James T.
Rourke, Box 497, Commerce Period Papers,
Herbert Hoover Presidential Library (March
29, 1927)] (FN 14)[74]
Including members of the general public in the discussion
was regarded (or at least articulated) as very important to
138
the Commissions deliberations. In fact, FCC Commissioner Bellows noted at the time that it is the radio listener we must consider above everyone else.[74] Though
there were numerous representatives of the general public at the hearing, some expressing their opinions to the
commission verbally, overall there was not a great turnout
of everyday listeners at the hearings.
Though not a constant xture of the communications
policy-making process, public hearings were occasionally
organized as a part of various deliberation processes as
the years progressed. For example, seven years after the
enactment of the Radio Act, the Communications Act of
1934 was passed, creating the FCC. That year the Federal Governments National Recovery Agency (associated
with the New Deal period) held public hearings as a part
of its deliberations over the creation of new broadcasting
codes.[75]
A few years later , the FCC held hearings to address
early cross-ownership issues; specically, whether newspaper companies owning radio stations was in the public interest.[76] These newspaper divorcement hearings
were held between 1941 and 1944, though it appears that
these hearings were geared mostly towards discussion by
industry stakeholders. Around the same time, the Commission held hearings as a part of its evaluation of the national television standard,[77] and in 1958 held additional
hearings on the television network broadcasting rules.[78]
Though public hearings were organized somewhat infrequently, there was an obvious public appeal. In his now
famous vast wasteland speech in 1961, FCC Chairman
Newton Minow noted that the commission would hold a
well advertised public hearing in each community to
assure broadcasters were serving the public interest,[79]
clearly a move to reconnect the Commission with the public interest (at least rhetorically).
Media ownership review 2003 In September 2002,
the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking stating
that the Commission would re-evaluate its media ownership rules pursuant to the obligation specied in the
Telecommunications Act of 1996. As 2003 was approaching, a battle of words (and perhaps actions) developed between Chairman Powell and Democratic Commissioner Michael Copps. Commissioner Copps felt that
the Republican FCC was too focused on the neo-liberal
agenda, and not focused enough on hearing the publics
voice regarding the issues at hand, noting, We need a
much wider participation this is not an inside-theBeltway issue.[80] Copps repeatedly called for the FCC
to hold public hearings with time devoted to public input. Powell responded by noting that the public had already taken advantage of the online comment submission
process and that no public hearings would be necessary.
A spokesman for Powell noted, if Commissioner Copps
thinks something more can be gained from having hearings, he should feel free to do so.[81] In the end, Commissioner Copps and Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein
8.2.8
Headquarters
139
Grandfather clause
List of telecommunications regulatory bodies
National broadband plans from around the world
Open spectrum
Part 15 (FCC rules)
Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
Public, educational, and government access (PEG)
8.2.10 References
[1] Employee Prole at the FCC. FCC. 30 Jul 2013. Retrieved 31 Dec 2014.
[2] 2012 Budget Estimate FCC Budget Estimates. FCC.
[3] Cecilia Kang (31 October 2011). Obama names FCC
commissioners, both agency, Hill veterans. The Washington Post; Post Tech. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
[4] 2008 Performance and Accountability Report. Federal
Communications Commission. September 2008.
[5] FCC Commissioners. FCC. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
[6] Terms expire June 30 of the subject year.
[7] FCC Bureaus & Oces. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
8.2.9
See also
Bleep censor
Broadcast Standards and Practices (US)
Censorship of broadcasting in the United States
Comcast Corp. v. FCC
FCC Record
Frequency assignment authority
140
[49] Weisman, Jonathan (February 24, 2015). As Republicans Concede, F.C.C. Is Expected to Enforce Net Neutrality. New York Times. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
[50] Lohr, Steve (February 25, 2015). The Push for Net Neutrality Arose From Lack of Choice. New York Times.
Retrieved February 25, 2015.
[33] HR5353
[34] The FCC Doesn't Need to Be by Peter Suderman, Reason
[35] Hansell, Saul (2008-08-02). F.C.C. Vote Sets Precedent
on Unfettered Web Usage. The New York Times.
[36] Wyatt, Edward (November 10, 2014). Obama Asks
F.C.C. to Adopt Tough Net Neutrality Rules. New York
Times. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
[51] Sta (February 26, 2015). FCC Adopts Strong, Sustainable Rules To Protect The Open Internet (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved February
26, 2015.
[52] Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Lohr, Steve (February 26, 2015). In
Net Neutrality Victory, F.C.C. Classies Broadband Internet Service as a Public Utility. New York Times. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
141
[71] Obar, Jonathan, A.; Schejter, A.M. (2010). Inclusion or illusion? An analysis of the FCCs. Journal
of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 54 (2): 212227.
doi:10.1080/08838151003735000.
[72] Legal Websites and Information. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
[57] Sommer, Je (March 12, 2015). What the Net Neutrality Rules Say. New York Times. Retrieved March 13,
2015.
142
The Federal Communications Commission: Current Structure and Its Role in the Changing
Telecommunications Landscape Congressional Research Service
banned all amateur radio activities, and a large percentage of the magazines subscribers had entered military
service. The ban on amateur radio was lifted after the
conclusion of the war. QST returned in May 1919 with
no cover billed as ARRL Special Bulletin and only
8 pages long. At a meeting in New York on March 29,
8.2.12 External links
a group that included Maxim, Tuska, and nine others decided to nance its return in this form and make a plea
Ocial website
for membership and subscription renewals.[6] The June
1919 issue, still without a cover, announced that the war
FCC Rules (CFR Title 47) from the Government
time ban on receiving had been lifted. Finally, in July
Printing Oce
1919, QST resumed its previous format, although amateurs would not be permitted back on the air until that
FCC in the Federal Register
fall, when a supplement to the October issue proclaimed
The FCC Record from the UNT Digital Library
BAN OFF. By September 1920, QST was back up to
100 pages, a size not seen since April 1917.
Publication continued throughout World War II, despite
amateur radios hiatus by order of the U.S. government.
During both wars, amateurs were in high demand as milFor the Quebec Provincial Sales Tax, see Quebec Sales itary radio operators, and QST's sta pitched in for the
Tax. For the professional road bicycle racing team, see war eort.
Quick Step.
As part of its centennial celebration in 2014, ARRL pub-
8.3 QST
QST (OCLC 1623841) is a magazine for amateur radio enthusiasts, published by the American Radio Relay League (ARRL). It is a membership journal that is
included with membership in the ARRL. The publisher
claims that circulation of QST in the United States is
higher than all other amateur radio-related publications in
the United States combined.[2] Although an exact number
for circulation is not published by the American Radio
Relay League, the organization claimed 154,627 members at the end of 2008, almost all of whom receive the
magazine monthly, in addition to issues delivered to libraries and newsstands.[1]
8.3.2 Content
Today, QST includes projects for the amateur radio
enthusiast, pictures, articles, columns, and reports on
ARRL aairs. Particular interest is given to amateur radios role in emergency communications such as in the
hours after the September 11 attacks[7] and in Hurricane
Katrina.[8]
8.3.1
History
8.4. WORLDRADIO
8.3.4
External links
Ocial website
8.4 WorldRadio
WorldRadio was a monthly amateur radio enthusiast
magazine published in the United States from July, 1971
to November, 2008. The magazine was published in
English and drew its subscription base primarily from the
United States of America and Canada, although it had
subscribers around the world. The sta of the magazine
had an amateur radio club that has been assigned the call
sign WR6WR. This magazine is unrelated to a magazine
called WORLD-RADIO published in the United Kingdom prior to WWII.
8.4.1
On November 12, 2008, CQ Communications, publishers of CQ Amateur Radio magazine, CQ VHF Magazine,
and Popular Communications magazine announced that
they had purchased WorldRadio magazine from WorldRadio publisher Armond Noble.[1] All paid subscriptions for WorldRadio were to be turned into CQ Amateur
Radio subscriptions, while WorldRadio was to be continued as an on-line magazine. The rst online issue, renamed WorldRadio Online, was published in February,
2009.
8.4.2
References
8.4.3
External links
worldradiomagazine.com
143
Chapter 9
144
9.1. TEXT
145
Widr, JordoCo, Wiki7373, Captain Klystron, Ham Radio Microphone, Dangerang, Xmike87, Sirhc808, Wp4oca, Rcunderw, Duxwing,
TheUnnamedNewbie, Cqdx, Several Pending, Lucy34bell, Tow, Dexbot, Kk4kcu, Giancabr, Kf5kfj, Avianoutremont, Tentinator, Mw0rkb,
Clientkill, Shrekogrelord, KK7PW, 2 Hertz, 32RB17, Wylieq, MW6WOD, Monkbot, Ruben The Handy Man, Paewiki, Pishcal, JopV,
Comealongpond and Anonymous: 564
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Mike Selinker, SmackBot, Rutja76, Millifoo, Andy M. Wang, Bluebot, Neo-Jay, A. B., Jmlk17, Radagast83, Forster 06, ChrisCork,
Thijs!bot, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Alphachimpbot, Dman727, JAnDbot, Milonica, Harryzilber, MER-C, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, STBot,
Jim.henderson, Mange01, TomCat4680, Natobxl, AntiSpamBot, STBotD, Bonadea, Xnuala, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, N5na, Falcon8765,
Djdubuque, 400Hz100V, SieBot, Igor.grigorov, EEMajor, TTQ07, Dlrohrer2003, ClueBot, TinyMark, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sv1xv, Cgord,
Rcooley, Dxinginfo, Mlas, Addbot, Quantock, SamatBot, Lightbot, Ivanov id, Zorrobot, Yobot, Cureden, RibotBOT, Asfarer, FrescoBot,
Jcoltrane666, Nen, Khazar2, Pyroray, Jjssfjfjd and Anonymous: 64
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Arj, Spliced, Wfeidt, Zoicon5, Alan Liefting, Neilc, N1zyy, Quill, Rich Farmbrough, Bdk, Ptemples, Mink Butler Davenport, Bookandcoee, ScottDavis, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Kerowyn, ShadowHntr, RussBot, Brandon, Ninly, SmackBot, KD5TVI, Kharker, TheLeopard, Erzahler, OrphanBot, Parent5446, PetesGuide, GCW50, Steve413Z, KMCCLA, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Escarbot, Kf4yfd, BJ Axel,
The3wire, Watcher328, ChrisZeddybear, Swilson317, Old AM guy, Loren.wilton, Escapedtowisconsin, Sv1xv, Leonarp, Addbot, Da dawg
911, Yobot, Tulebox, Sierrathomas, BenzolBot, ZroBot, Cqdx, ChrisGualtieri, HBD20, Va3paw and Anonymous: 27
Radiosport Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiosport?oldid=648000966 Contributors: Ebear422, Silence, Gerry Lynch, Amire80,
Eubot, Brandon, Zzuuzz, Finell, Flibirigit, Choalbaton, Bluebot, Kharker, N5iln, R'n'B, Una Smith, Radio23, Dodger67, Addbot, Rubinbot,
Rw3fo, Agomarp and Anonymous: 2
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio%20emergency%
20communications?oldid=623363064 Contributors: Denelson83, ChrisRuvolo, ArnoldReinhold, Adambro, Rjairam, Rjwilmsi, Eubot, Ground Zero, Anonym1ty, Wavelength, StuOfInterest, Rsrikanth05, Member, Dsmouse, AndyCunningham, Ninly, Mike Selinker,
Bernd in Japan, Chris the speller, Kharker, Coinchon, MikeAus, Green1, Euchiasmus, Andrewjuren, Kc5fm, GCW50, DJGB, MnSteve,
Starionwolf, Thijs!bot, N5iln, Dawnseeker2000, Silver Edge, K7aay, LuckyLouie, Jc3, Harryzilber, Denpick, STBot, R'n'B, Wikip rhyre,
Tuckj001, Jronan, AHMartin, Lightmouse, Mygerardromance, ClueBot, XLinkBot, CMC5146, Stuckinthemud, Addbot, Some jerk on the
Internet, Photo1canada, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Bihco, Surv1v4l1st, Edderso, 9w2zxz, PleaseStand, EmausBot,
KK3Q, F, Dgaddis, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Richard Corso, BattyBot, Chris.rider81, Sheritnt, Mines.io, UB3GBN, HBD20
and Anonymous: 41
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StuOfInterest, Wigie, Member, Felsir, Thomas H. White, Ninly, Pb30, SmackBot, Kharker, Thumperward, Jorgen veisdal, GCW50,
Kozuch, Daven200520, Dweiss, Pcbene, Escarbot, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Skomorokh, Quentar, Wikip rhyre,
Thals1992, Vipinhari, HS2JFW, Synthebot, Magiclite, Kbrose, O2Explore, Diego Grez, MM3OXB, EoGuy, Pyr0technician, Sv1xv,
EhJJ, Kingdomer, Razorame, Onecrazy2003, Eliran Levi, Addbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Ilmap, Nojiratz, HRoestBot,
MastiBot, LA7ZKA, Neo-wikipedian, AToX15, DASHBot, H3llBot, GoldenGlory84, Widr, Jt1cs, Lz1aat, Hmainsbot1, Werddemer and
Anonymous: 56
Amateur radio license Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio?oldid=654506423 Contributors: WojPob, Brion VIBBER,
Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Ap, Ik1tzo, PierreAbbat, Waveguy, Artsygeek, Heron, Arj, Netcrusher88, DevilRaysFan, Michael Hardy, Altailji, Bdowd, CesarB, Nanshu, Glenn, Kimiko, Kwekubo, Cimon Avaro, Deisenbe, John K, Wfeidt, Dying, Charles Matthews, Andrevan,
Reddi, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, SEWilco, Xyb, Mignon, Bloodshedder, M1fcj, Frazzydee, Mrdice, Denelson83,
Robbot, Cdang, KeithH, TMC1221, R3m0t, Scriptwriter, RedWolf, Kadin2048, Lowellian, Halibutt, TheLight, Hadal, Kd4ttc, Wikibot, Lupo, SpellBott, Jrash, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Yama, Laudaka, Sj, Oherrala, Nichalp, Dfrandin, Inter, Patrick-br, Ssd, Niteowlneils,
Rdcole, Yekrats, BigHaz, Finn-Zoltan, Albany45, IrrelevantQuestionBoy, Peter Ellis, Wmahan, JeyJeyMan2004, Wleman, Piotrus,
AlexanderWinston, Heirpixel, Icairns, Defenestrate, Sam Hocevar, Thparkth, N4zhg, Jakro64, [email protected], ChrisRuvolo, Gachet, GoodStu, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Guanabot, Somegeek, ArnoldReinhold, Flynns32547, User2004, Gerry Lynch, Esn1d,
PaulMEdwards, Petersam, Huntster, Nile, C1k3, Allyn, Adambro, Simon South, Nigelj, Ptemples, Cje, Mink Butler Davenport, Cmdrjameson, Cmacd123, Brim, Sparkgap, Sukiari, Tractor, Analogdemon, Flashweb, Jumbuck, Musiphil, Alansohn, Gblaz, BeeJay, Stillnotelf,
KB3JUV, Wtshymanski, Danhash, Wikicaz, CloudNine, Zoohouse, Ianblair23, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, Firthy2002, Jakes18,
Richard Weil, Johnwcowan, Feezo, Stemonitis, Flawiki, Bushytails, Linas, Pauley2483, Theloniouszen, Plaws, Rjairam, Df2dr, Shadyman,
Andromeda321, Eyreland, Zzyzx11, Jon Harald Sby, MechBrowman, Kotoviski, Tslocum, Vu2ukr, Graham87, K3wq, BD2412, Jbarr,
Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mdinan, Pyt, M1LCR, Linuxbeak, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Gerard Hill, Yamamoto Ichiro, N0YKG, ZoeL, FlaBot,
Mirror Vax, SchuminWeb, EnDumEn, Anonym1ty, RobyWayne, TeaDrinker, Alphachimp, Darranc, Flecom, Drakcap, Jittat, Vchapman,
Chobot, ShadowHntr, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Huw Powell, Mukkakukaku, StuOfInterest, Jetheji, Kilowattradio,
Epolk, Hmss007, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Randyholloway, Member, K.C. Tang, Deskana, 9cds, Brandon, Edmondo,
Gregburd, Mikeblas, Voidxor, Ma3nocum, Belayet, Brauhaus, Scottsher, Mysid, Gadget850, Jeh, Jrbonica, Ke5crz, Dddstone, Gadget17, Yudiweb, Gat0r, Searchme, Erpingham, Light current, Ninly, Encephalon, Mike Selinker, David Jordan, MathGeek06, Rearden9,
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Gary Kirk, Goleson, Sailin, Grey Shadow, KVDP, TheDoctor10, Rjayres, Unforgettableid, Aij, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Kmarinas86,
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JFreeman, Palmiped, Julian Mendez, Starionwolf, Kozuch, Dmbaty, JodyB, Bolesjohnb, Nite owl, ZS5Z brad, Billth87, WillMak050389,
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146
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of Diamonds, Eliran Levi, Philsherrod, WikHead, Chuvaris, Cmr08, Leonarp, Thatguyint, CalumH93, Addbot, Willking1979, Stuart
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Lynch, Violetriga, Evice, Billlion, BenjBot, Huntster, C1k3, G worroll, Jonah.ru, BigDan, Ptemples, NetBot, Teorth, Cmdrjameson, Polluks, ArkansasTraveler, Homerjay, DougOrleans, Leonard23, Typhlosion, Ralf.Baechle, RoySmith, PeteVerdon, Mbimmler, SidP, RJFJR,
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Rayc, Ke6jjj, Ninly, Bayerischermann, Arthur Rubin, Danielx, LeonardoRob0t, Mgirardi, SmackBot, Gigs, WSpaceport, Karmastan, LaurenMcMillan, Small Point, Commander Keane bot, Robster2001, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Kharker, Wolfponddelta, Thaimodz,
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WayKurat, BayRadioDJ, Ohconfucius, JKBrooks85, Ourai, Andrewjuren, MilborneOne, GCW50, Stattouk, Reverendlinux, Sjf, Arjoll,
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Bridgecross, Chris Henniker, N5iln, Darklilac, Leuqarte, Harryzilber, Giler, Charlene.c, RBBrittain, Ling.Nut, Buckshot06, Fallschirmjger, Jemauvais, MartinBot, E2a2j, Jim.henderson, Krushdiva, Zaky fahmi, R'n'B, Rorygoodbody, SarahHolloway, TomCat4680,
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Mazeau, Piledhigheranddeeper, Sv1xv, Alexbot, Sun Creator, Ngebendi, Mlas, TFOWR, Pietervanderlubbe, Vianello, MystBot, Addbot,
Jafeluv, Stuart lyster, Tjlynnjr, CL, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Eivindbot, LaaknorBot, WikiEditor50, Favonian, Lightbot, , Nuberger13, Ivanov id, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Spewtime234, AnomieBOT, RadioBroadcast, ArthurBot, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, J4lambert, Mlpearc, Uberprufen, Amanuense, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Spinach Monster, Superastig, Oaktreezulu, Dan6hell66,
Valentino76, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Dogposter, Gcpsoundlight, Idfah, Dger, CF104g, OgreBot, MastiBot, EdoDodo, Full-date unlinking
bot, Fas426, Rr parker, Tbhotch, Garandel, Ripchip Bot, John of Reading, Marriage101, Dewritech, JustinTime55, Ryguy611, QuentinUK,
MavisTheJocund, Onmyown87, Tedd Sutclie, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, Derfel73, Piast93, Leventio, Jkvider, Furkhaocean, PhnomPencil, Drift chambers, CitationCleanerBot, Briang7723, 1212khalil, Pashapap, Wrathofjames, Helmboy, Jjrecto, Mogism, Jamesx12345,
YB9CES, Jakemarz197, Meeeeeeee39, Robert0288, Finnusertop, GinAndChronically and Anonymous: 266
Transceiver Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transceiver?oldid=637346850 Contributors: LA2, Aldie, B4hand, Kku, CORNELIUSSEON, Prefect, Glenn, Reddi, Radiojon, Modulatum, Centrx, Bobblewik, Icairns, MementoVivere, Kousu, Alistair1978, HasharBot, Msh210, Guy Harris, Cjcollier, Rabarberski, Unixxx, Clemmy, Cbdorsett, Bluemoose, Wisq, Hideyuki, Zoz, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian,
FlaBot, Intgr, Srleer, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Borgx, Aghost, CanadianCaesar, Tole, Bovineone, Alynna Kasmira, Mikeblas,
Thomas H. White, Searchme, Deville, David Jordan, Tiltal, Rikimaru, SmackBot, The Photon, KVDP, Commander Keane bot, Kharker,
Nbarth, Bgautrea, Rrburke, Mosca, Adamantios, Cybercobra, A.R., RFIDEX, 16@r, Profnick, Kvng, Lee Carre, Eastlaw, JohnTechnologist, Cydebot, Chrislk02, Editor at Large, Davidhorman, Hertzian, Dawnseeker2000, Billscottbob, Srudolph, JAnDbot, Idyll M,
SiobhanHansa, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, BigrTex, Wikigi, Horra, Barneca, Philip Trueman, GLPeterson, Eve Hall, Igor.grigorov, Doctoruy, Stoneygirl45, OKBot, Anchor Link Bot, Martarius, ClueBot, Wutsje, Erebus Morgaine, Arjayay, Hotcrocodile, Delicious carbuncle,
UR3IRS, Addbot, Mortense, MrOllie, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, Uu2008, Ulesses, RibotBOT, FrescoBot,
Dcjones21,
, Dmuellenberg, EmausBot, Clusternote, BrianSnasSSI, Mocks9, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, 88frog, Sallyber, Sibyl77,
TransceiversUSA, DavidLeighEllis, Cabral88 and Anonymous: 71
Antenna (radio) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna%20(radio)?oldid=653810385 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Timo
Honkasalo, Andre Engels, Waveguy, Heron, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Dante Alighieri, Dcljr, Ellywa, Mac, Stevenj, Kingturtle, Aarchiba, Julesd, Glenn, AugPi, LouI, Cimon Avaro, GRAHAMUK, Arteitle, RickK, Reddi, Ww, Doradus, Greenrd, Zoicon5,
9.1. TEXT
147
Blackjack3, LMB, Joy, Robbot, KeithH, Robminchin, Altenmann, Spamhog, Blainster, JesseW, Wikibot, Cyrius, Enochlau, Wjbeaty,
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Jordan, LeonardoRob0t, Scrabbler, HereToHelp, Bernd in Japan, SmackBot, Pmppk, Steve carlson, Ominae, Unyoyega, DWaterson,
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, GrouchoBot,
, Nedim
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DexDor, It1224, Bothamdesign, DASHBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, MrFawwaz, GoingBatty, Jmencisom, K6ka, Hhhippo, Johnnymartins, MaskedAce, Quondum, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Historikeren, Coolvariant, JordoCo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ybhavd, BG19bot,
Rijinatwiki, GKFX, Op47, Sparkie82, Ms Mystical, Dropbuilt1234, Taneluc, Spa viva, Pratyya Ghosh, Andersb80, Johansontechnology,
BrightStarSky, Mogism, Stas1995, Lijialfred, Dsbirkett, Mark viking, TinkleBear, JNRSTANLEY, Esmondab, Monkbot, JaunJimenez,
Eagle5eagle, Sunnymsoma, Antenna Guru, Maniladevi, Hrgirase and Anonymous: 311
Radio propagation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20propagation?oldid=652105223 Contributors: The Anome, Waveguy,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, Glenn, Marknew, Wfeidt, Andrevan, Reddi, Dysprosia, Denelson83, Twang, Robbot, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, Ssd,
Albany45, Beland, MistToys, Ojw, Geof, Rich Farmbrough, Cacophony, Smalljim, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Munkymu, RoySmith, Atomicthumbs, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, LOL, Bhamer, Plrk, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Nihiltres, Athantor, Compotatoj, Srleer, Random
user 39849958, Bgwhite, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Splash, Bergsten, Brandon, Mikeblas, Ma3nocum, Dan Austin, Reyk, ArielGold, DasBub, Kingboyk, SmackBot, Timrb, Hmains, Kmarinas86, A. B., Harumphy, Wharron, Drkirkby, Frap, MitchellShnier, Andrewpayneaqa,
Lambiam, Khazar, BDM, MonstaPro, SlayerK, Hetar, JoeBot, Civil Engineer III, G-W, Chetvorno, Nczempin, Requestion, Andkore,
Cydebot, Nsaum75, After Midnight, Epbr123, Barticus88, Sean2074, Malvineous, Autocracy, Lperez2029, CosineKitty, SiobhanHansa,
Otivaeey, WikiTraveller, NMarkRoberts, Logictheo, Highsand, Read-write-services, Kf4yfd, Sm8900, AntiSpamBot, Ale2006, Kn4lf,
The Original Wildbear, HopsonRoad, AlleborgoBot, NW7US, Lohost, Hertz1888, Rjfry, Igor.grigorov, Aillema, Miniapolis, Fratrep,
Susan118, Dabbdabb, Dp67, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Kathleen.wright5, Niceguyedc, Sv1xv, PixelBot, Rwestafer, Solterdisp, Cowpip, JediSaint, Addbot, Fgnievinski, TutterMouse, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, GateKeeper, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Nedim Ardoa, Stiepan
Pietrov, Veganacity, FrescoBot, Raise-the-Sail, BenzolBot, Kmarawer, 2A4Fh56OSA, Bejinhan, MaxDel, NZ4O, Dimitrisouza, Marie
Poise, N0nbh, GoingBatty, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Jimbo1qaz, Kkddkkdd, ChristophE, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Sirhc808, ChrisGualtieri, Bnland, Spyglasses, VE3BMV and Anonymous: 104
RST code Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RST%20code?oldid=653710039 Contributors: Dante Alighieri, Bdowd, Glenn, Mulad,
Andrevan, Denelson83, Wereon, Oberiko, Mboverload, Albany45, Gary D, D6, ArnoldReinhold, Topynate, Antaeus Feldspar, ChrisJ, Gene
Nygaard, Jcbos, Vegaswikian, RexNL, StuOfInterest, Stassats, Nozomikobe, Mysid, Ntouran, SmackBot, BirdValiant, Kharker, Neo-Jay,
Zsinj, Tsca.bot, PetesGuide, RST Ninja, MnSteve, Thijs!bot, LuckyLouie, OhanaUnited, Davandron, Synthebot, Truthanado, AHMartin,
VVVBot, Sv1xv, Sintaur, Addbot, OlEnglish, Pracchia-78, Legobot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, RadiomanPA, 2A4Fh56OSA, EmausBot, ZroBot,
Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, 32RB17 and Anonymous: 25
Amateur radio homebrew Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20radio%20homebrew?oldid=625355362 Contributors:
Denelson83, Alan Liefting, Mcapdevila, D6, Wtshymanski, Vegaswikian, StuOfInterest, Chris the speller, Kharker, Wizardman, Katin,
Scientizzle, N5iln, ErinHowarth, LuckyLouie, Nono64, MooresLaw, VU3RDD, O2Explore, Old AM guy, ClueBot, Mrbbking, Arkoutdoors, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Pyrocatch, Kc9ndr, Badbeaver9, John of Reading, Wingman4l7, UU1CC, Hoeksas, Ego White
Tray, KLBot2, Mohamed CJ, SkylonS, Eric Corbett and Anonymous: 13
Vintage amateur radio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintage%20amateur%20radio?oldid=654653815 Contributors: ArnoldReinhold, Adambro, Je3000, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Brandon, Tony1, Jhamner, KVDP, HeartofaDog, Kharker,
W8IMP, Tktktk, Lenn0r, Judgesurreal777, Stereorock, Ve3bdb, N5iln, JustAGal, ErinHowarth, LuckyLouie, Rico402, Harryzilber, Petecarney, Dsergeant, Nposs, Totalpardo, Nono64, Rpeh, Finley Breese, VolkovBot, Addbot, Pietrow, The Bushranger, Yobot, Tanceymae,
F1jmm, W8jyz, Ego White Tray, Floydvirginia, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kendall-K1, Cqdx, LezFraniak, W5hro, Powercat30544 and
Anonymous: 22
Amateur television Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20television?oldid=652705457 Contributors: SimonP, Tedernst,
Chuq, Jwrosenzweig, Radiojon, Itai, Denelson83, Robbot, Rfc1394, Texture, Dianora, Alan Liefting, Wmahan, Bumm13, Tomwalden,
Kevin Rector, Cmdrjameson, Sparkgap, Redfarmer, Wtshymanski, Jakes18, Plaws, Eyreland, Rjwilmsi, Misternuvistor, Krash,
Anonym1ty, RobyWayne, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Member, Brandon, Mikeblas, Voidxor, Mysid, SmackBot, Nsayer, KelleyCook, Pberrett, Benjamin Mako Hill, PiMaster3, Hoof Hearted, Jcembree, Dakart, Joseph Solis in Australia, Stereorock, Cydebot, Barticus88, Elec-
148
tron9, Tirk, JustAGal, Harryzilber, CosineKitty, Gwern, Kf4yfd, G1MFG, R'n'B, Kc8ryw, RingtailedFox, Alinja, Barkeep, ClueBot,
EoGuy, Winston365, Microscan5ep, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Pyrocatch, WikiDreamer Bot, Wasabi, TheAMmollusc, Captain-n00dle, A little insignicant, Francis E Williams, DASHBot, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, Majestic Pyre, JordoCo, Cqdx, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous:
37
QRP operation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QRP%20operation?oldid=640681666 Contributors: The Anome, Arj, Michael
Hardy, Wfeidt, Wik, KeithH, DavidCary, Ds13, Ssd, Albany45, Vu2lid, Rich Farmbrough, Ptemples, Andrewpmk, K8la, Wtshymanski,
FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Jengelh, Zwobot, Espia, Dddstone, Curpsbot-unicodify, Elliskev, SmackBot, JohnMarranca, KD5TVI, Kharker,
Adamantios, Cthighe, Deritchie, Thijs!bot, Kantarjiev, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Kauczuk, Rico402, Terrypin, Dsergeant, Nodekeeper, Olsonist, Masoris, Adavidb, Tkgd2007, Dnevil, TXiKiBoT, Billinghurst, N5na, GlassFET, Briefer, Igor.grigorov, Callidior, Dlrohrer2003, R
in remacr, Arkoutdoors, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, KVK2005, Legobot, Yobot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Eumolpo, 2A4Fh56OSA, Kk5na,
EmausBot, Floydvirginia, Leschyna, ClueBot NG, Cntras, Ea5bcx, Vk2gaz, Cqdx, Cqeme and Anonymous: 52
Contesting Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contesting?oldid=652044448 Contributors: Arj, Marcika, Gerry Lynch, Sietse Snel,
Richard Weil, ScottDavis, Admrboltz, MONGO, Plaws, Rjairam, Andromeda321, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Ian Pitchford, StuOfInterest, M0RHI, Brandon, Theodolite, Zedex, Wikiwawawa, JLaTondre, SmackBot, McGeddon, Sloman, Betacommand, Bluebot, Kharker,
Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Radagast83, FlyHigh, 16@r, Hu12, JZap, KyraVixen, MnSteve, Requestion, Mike65535, Betacommand2, N5iln, X96lee15, JurgenG, LuckyLouie, Alphachimpbot, Dsergeant, R. A. Wilson, DerHexer, Lisamh, Nono64, Numbo3,
CWii, Rclocher3, Lu1dz, Radio23, Pj2dx, Dodger67, ImageRemovalBot, Sdrtirs, DumZiBoT, Philsherrod, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot,
Yobot, Gerixau, FrescoBot, MastiBot, Rw3fo, ChristophE, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Agomarp, Kb1hnz, 32RB17 and Anonymous:
135
List of amateur radio modes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20amateur%20radio%20modes?oldid=638676266 Contributors: Glenn, ChrisRuvolo, Smalljim, Sparkgap, Wtshymanski, Bookandcoee, ScottDavis, SmackBot, Kharker, ChardingLLNL,
Edit Centric, Kf4yfd, Nono64, Andy Dingley, Expeditionradio, Alexbot, Bagdadginger, VK6DNA, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Asd6845, Kjotte, SteenthIWbot and Anonymous: 6
Morse code Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse%20code?oldid=655250314 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Tobias Hoevekamp,
WojPob, Mav, Bryan Derksen, 0, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ed Poor, Christian List, Ben-Zin, Mjb, Heron, Arj, Xoder, PhilipMW,
Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Cyde, Delirium, Altailji, CruciedChrist, Gbleem, Ducker, Ahoerstemeier, Rboatright,
Rossami, Kwekubo, Hpa, Wfeidt, Denny, Mulad, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Geary, Bjh21, Timc, Radiojon, Furrykef, Tero, Omegatron,
Bevo, Xyb, Joy, Dcsohl, Pakaran, Johnleemk, Denelson83, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Noldoaran, Friedo, Fredrik, Chris 73, Scriptwriter, RedWolf, Altenmann, Romanm, Lowellian, YBeayf, Wikibot, Wereon, Vikreykja, Pifactorial, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, David Gerard,
Giftlite, JamesMLane, Thorne, Laudaka, Nichalp, BenFrantzDale, Lee J Haywood, Lupin, RealGrouchy, Hagedis, Karn, Ds13, Everyking,
Gus Polly, Lussmu, Ssa, Ssd, Filceolaire, Sdsher, Tom-, Jackol, Pne, Bobblewik, Ragib, Celerityfm, DavidBrooks, Gazibara, Slowking
Man, Sonjaaa, Cyber-It, Rdsmith4, Glogger, Heirpixel, Xeroc, Jagnor, ArthurDenture, Mschlindwein, Demiurge, Lacrimosus, Grstain,
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9.1. TEXT
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builder211 and Anonymous: 954
PSK31 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSK31?oldid=654552661 Contributors: Arj, Glenn, Wfeidt, Dysprosia, Bloodshedder, Denelson83, Scriptwriter, Naddy, Graeme Bartlett, Ssd, Albany45, Bobblewik, TonyW, Jcorgan, MementoVivere, Femto, Simon South, Watsonladd, Gblaz, RJFJR, Eyreland, EdDavies, FlaBot, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Mysid, Deville, Ninly, Rearden9, Tom Du, SmackBot, ChrisRed, LeighKlotz, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Thumperward, McNeight, OSborn, Adamantios, A5b, Autopilot, KerryVeenstra,
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UK, F4FXL, Rahul kapoor193 and Anonymous: 147
Meteor burst communications Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor%20burst%20communications?oldid=654100070 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Phil Boswell, Bobblewik, Beland, Gerry Lynch, Andromeda321, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Ground Zero, Gurch,
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This, that and the other, Iknowyourider, Kurihaya, Addbot, Lightbot, Wasabi, AnomieBOT, Tom.Reding, Greyboar and Anonymous: 22
OSCAR Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSCAR?oldid=650663039 Contributors: The Anome, Andre Engels, Netcrusher88, Ellywa, Dimadick, David Edgar, Pengo, Karn, Ssd, Siroxo, Peter Ellis, LaithPreston, Gadum, Keith Edkins, MarkBurnett, Bumm13,
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71
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649982015 Contributors: Malcolm Farmer, Bukowski, LUNDAVRA, KeithH, Greudin, Spamhog, Litefantastic, Hartze11, Mstyne, Edsanville, Gordonjcp, Gerry Lynch, Adambro, Sukiari, Wtshymanski, Eyreland, Kotoviski, Vegaswikian, Bubba73, Metropolitan90, Tdevries, Brandon, Evmore, Fernblatt, Nolanus, Rearden9, Curpsbot-unicodify, RupertMillard, SmackBot, KelleyCook, Hmains, Bluebot,
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bot, IVAN3MAN, Robertfbrand, EmausBot, Jmencisom, ZroBot, Wingtipvortex, Visual Moonbounce, Andyhowlett and Anonymous: 48
American Radio Relay League Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Radio%20Relay%20League?oldid=642638836 Contributors: Hephaestos, DavidWBrooks, CatherineMunro, Timc, Maximus Rex, Morwen, Bloodshedder, Denelson83, Scriptwriter, TheLight, Crculver, Ssd, Albany45, Wmahan, Dingo, Fredcondo, Grstain, CanisRufus, Ptemples, Jeodesic, Gblaz, Phyllis1753, KB3JUV,
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150
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Federal Communications Commission Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Communications%20Commission?oldid=
655434223 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, The Cunctator, The Anome, Christian List, William Avery, DavidLevinson, Lefte, RamMan, Edward, Patrick, Wapcaplet, Zanimum, Paul A, Minesweeper, Ellywa, Stan Shebs, Mac, Darkwind, Glenn, Jeandr du Toit, Mxn,
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Sparky rad, MrWonka, AMuseOfFire, HappytobebackinCalifornia and Anonymous: 606
QST Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QST?oldid=647081473 Contributors: Bearcat, Scriptwriter, Ebear422, Klemen Kocjancic, D6,
Adambro, Evolauxia, Grenavitar, Ceyockey, Brookie, Alynna Kasmira, Thomas H. White, Reyk, SmackBot, Kharker, Slackermonkey, MnSteve, Cristo39, Derekbd, McM.bot, FLAHAM, Kathleen.wright5, Janisterzaj, Addbot, Jojhutton, Luckas-bot, Surv1v4l1st, RadiomanPA,
Lotje, Set theorist, ZroBot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 16
WorldRadio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldRadio?oldid=647082752 Contributors: Bearcat, Evolauxia, SmackBot, Kharker,
Badtux, Dawnseeker2000, RightSideNov, Dawynn, VernoWhitney, Jkummerwro, Mike Tarrant and Anonymous: 1
9.2 Images
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