1 

BAB II

CONTENTS

A. Cognitive Radio

Cognitive radio (CR) is a newly emerging technology, which has been

recently proposed to implement some kind of intelligence to allow a radio

terminal to automatically sense, recognize, and make wise use of any

available radio frequency spectrum at a given time. The use of the available

frequency spectrum is purely on an opportunity driven basis. In other words,

it can utilize any idle spectrum sector for the exchange of information and

stop using it the instant the primary user of the spectrum sector needs to use

it. Thus, cognitive radio is also sometimes called smart radio, frequency agile

radio, police radio, or adaptive software radio,1 and so on. For the same

reason, the cognitive radio techniques can, in many cases, exempt licensed

use of the spectrum that is otherwise not in use or is lightly used; this is done

without infringing upon the rights of licensed users or causing harmful

interference to licensed operations.

 2 
 

The only difference with SDR (Software Defined Radio) is that a

cognitive radio needs to scan a wide range of frequency spectra before

deciding which band to use, instead of a predefined one, as an SDR terminal

does. One of the most important characteristic features of an SDR terminal is

that its signal is processed almost completely in the digital domain, needing

very little analogue circuit. This brings a tremendous benefit to make the

terminal very flexible (for a multimode terminal) and ultrasmall size with the

help of state-of-the-art microelectronics technology.

a. Main focution of Cognetive Radio

• Spectrum Sensing: detecting the unused spectrum and sharing it without

harmful interference with other users, it is an important requirement of the
Cognitive Radio network to sense spectrum holes, detecting primary
users is the most efficient way to detect spectrum holes. Spectrum
sensing techniques can be classified into three categories:
 3 
 

o Transmitter detection: cognitive radios must have the capability to

determine if a signal from a primary transmitter is locally present in
a certain spectrum, there are several approaches proposed:
ƒ matched filter detection
ƒ energy detection
ƒ cyclostationary feature detection
o Cooperative detection: refers to spectrum sensing methods where
information from multiple Cognitive radio users are incorporated
for primary user detection.
o Interference based detection.

• Spectrum Management: Capturing the best available spectrum to

meet user communication requirements. Cognitive radios should
decide on the best spectrum band to meet the Quality of service
requirements over all available spectrum bands, therefore spectrum
management functions are required for Cognitive radios, these
management functions can be classified as:
o spectrum analysis
o spectrum decision

• Spectrum Mobility: is defined as the process when a cognitive radio user

exchanges its frequency of operation. Cognitive radio networks target to
use the spectrum in a dynamic manner by allowing the radio terminals to
operate in the best available frequency band, maintaining seamless
communication requirements during the transition to better spectrum

• Spectrum Sharing: providing the fair spectrum scheduling method, one of

the major challenges in open spectrum usage is the spectrum sharing. It
can be regarded to be similar to generic media access control MAC
problems in existing systems
 4 
 

B. Access scheme

As the wireless standards evolved, the access techniques used

also exhibited increase in efficiency, capacity and scalability. The first
generation wireless standards used plain TDMA and FDMA. In the
wireless channels, TDMA proved to be less efficient in handling the
high data rate channels as it requires large guard periods to alleviate
the multipath impact. Similarly, FDMA consumed more bandwidth for
guard to avoid inter carrier interference. So in second generation
systems, one set of standard used the combination of FDMA and
TDMA and the other set introduced an access scheme called CDMA.
Usage of CDMA increased the system capacity, but as a drawback
placed a soft limit on it rather than the hard limit (i.e. a CDMA network
will not reject new clients when it approaches its limits, resulting in a
denial of service to all clients when the network overloads). Data rate is
also increased as this access scheme (providing the network is not
reaching its capacity) is efficient enough to handle the multipath
channel. This enabled the third generation systems, such as IS-2000,
UMTS, HSXPA, 1xEV-DO, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, to use CDMA
as the access scheme. However, the issue with CDMA is that it suffers
from poor spectral flexibility and computationally intensive time-domain
equalization (high number of multiplications per second) for wideband
channels.

Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA

(OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved FDMA and
Multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for the
next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithm
and frequency domain equalization, resulting lower number of
multiplications per second. They also make it possible to control the
 5 
 

bandwidth and form the spectrum in a flexible way. However, they

require advanced dynamic channel allocation and traffic adaptive
scheduling.

WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For

the next generation UMTS, OFDMA is used for the downlink. By
contrast, IFDMA is being considered for the uplink since OFDMA
contributes more to the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear
operation of amplifiers. IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and
thus avoids amplifier issues. Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for
the IEEE 802.20 standard. These access schemes offer the same
efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this,
scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.

The other important advantage of the above mentioned access

techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the
receiver. This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO
environments since the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO
systems inherently requires high complexity equalization at the
receiver.

In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems,

improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier
standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such
as 64QAM are being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term
Evolution standards.

a) OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a multi-

user version of the popular Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing

 6 
 

(OFDM) digital modulation scheme. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA

by assigning subsets of subcarriers to individual users as shown in the

illustration below. This allows simultaneous low data rate transmission from

several users.

a. The advantages and disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages summarized below are

further discussed in the Characteristics and principles of operation
section.

1. Claimed advantages over CDMA

• OFDM can combat multipath interference with more robustness

and less complexity.
• OFDMA can achieve a higher MIMO spectral efficiency due to
providing flatter frequency channels than a CDMA RAKE receiver
can.
• No Cell size breathing as more users connect
 7 
 

2. Claimed advantages over OFDM with time-domain

statistical multiplexing

• Allows simultaneous low-data-rate transmission from several

users.
• Pulsed carrier can be avoided.
• Lower maximum transmission power for low data rate users.
• Shorter delay, and constant delay.
• Contention-based multiple access (collision avoidance) is
simplified.
• Further improves OFDM robustness to fading and interference.

3. Claimed OFDMA Advantages

• Flexibility of deployment across various frequency bands with little

needed modification to the air interface.
• Averaging interferences from neighboring cells, by using different
basic carrier permutations between users in different cells.
• Interferences within the cell are averaged by using allocation with
cyclic permutations.
• Enables orthogonality in the uplink by synchronizing users in time
and frequency.[1]
• Enables Single Frequency Network coverage, where coverage
problem exists and gives excellent coverage.
• Enables adaptive carrier allocation in multiplication of 23 carriers =
nX23 carriers up to 1587 carriers (all data carriers).
• Offers Frequency diversity by spreading the carriers all over the
used spectrum.
• Offers Time diversity by optional interleaving of carrier groups in
time.
• Using the cell capacity to the utmost by adaptively using the
highest modulation a user can use, this is allowed by the gain
 8 
 

added when less carriers are allocated (up to 18dB gain for 23
carrier allocation instead of 1587 carriers), therefore gaining in
overall cell capacity.

4. Recognized disadvantages of OFDMA

• Higher sensitivity to frequency offsets and phase noise.

• Asynchronous data communication services such as web access
are characterized by short communication bursts at high data rate.
Few users in a base station cell are transferring data
simultaneously at low constant data rate.
• The complex OFDM electronics, including the FFT algorithm and
forward error correction, is constantly active independent of the
data rate, which is inefficient from power consumption point of
view, while OFDM combined with data packet scheduling may
allow that the FFT algorithm hibernates during certain time
intervals.
• The OFDM diversity gain, and resistance to frequency-selective
fading, may partly be lost if very few sub-carriers are assigned to
each user, and if the same carrier is used in every OFDM symbol.
Adaptive sub-carrier assignment based on fast feedback
information about the channel, or sub-carrier frequency hopping,
is therefore desirable.
• Dealing with co-channel interference from nearby cells is more
complex in OFDM than in CDMA. It would require dynamic
channel allocation with advanced coordination among adjacent
base stations.
• The fast channel feedback information and adaptive sub-carrier
assignment is more complex than CDMA fast power control.
 9 
 

b. Characteristics and principles of operation

Based on feedback information about the channel conditions,

adaptive user-to-subcarrier assignment can be achieved. If the
assignment is done sufficiently fast, this further improves the OFDM
robustness to fast fading and narrow-band cochannel interference, and
makes it possible to achieve even better system spectral efficiency.

Different number of sub-carriers can be assigned to different

users, in view to support differentiated Quality of Service (QoS), i.e. to
control the data rate and error probability individually for each user.

OFDMA resembles code division multiple access (CDMA)

spread spectrum, where users can achieve different data rates by
assigning a different code spreading factor or a different number of
spreading codes to each user.

OFDMA can be seen as an alternative to combining OFDM with

time division multiple access (TDMA) or time-domain statistical
multiplexing, i.e. packet mode communication. Low-data-rate users
can send continuously with low transmission power instead of using a
"pulsed" high-power carrier. Constant delay, and shorter delay, can be
achieved.

OFDMA can also be described as a combination of frequency

domain and time domain multiple access, where the resources are
partitioned in the time-frequency space, and slots are assigned along
the OFDM symbol index as well as OFDM sub-carrier index.

OFDMA is considered as highly suitable for broadband wireless

networks, due to advantages including scalability and MIMO-
 10 
 

friendliness, and ability to take advantage of channel frequency

selectivity.[1]

In spectrum sensing cognitive radio, OFDMA is a possible

approach to filling free radio frequency bands adaptively. Timo A.
Weiss and Friedrich K. Jondral of the University of Karlsruhe proposed
a spectrum Pooling system in which free bands sensed by nodes were
immediately filled by OFDMA subbands.

c. Usage

OFDMA is used in:

• the mobility mode of the IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN standard,

commonly referred to as WiMAX,
• the IEEE 802.20 mobile Wireless MAN standard, commonly
referred to as MBWA,
• the downlink of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) fourth
generation mobile broadband standard. The radio interface was
formerly named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now
named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).
• the Qualcomm Flarion Technologies Mobile Flash-OFDM
• the now defunct Qualcomm/3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)
project, intended as a successor of CDMA2000, but replaced by
LTE.

OFDMA is also a candidate access method for the IEEE

802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN). The project
aims at designing the first cognitive radio based standard
operating in the VHF-low UHF spectrum (TV spectrum).
 11 
 

The term "OFDMA" is claimed to be a registered

trademark by Runcom Technologies Ltd, with various other
claimants to the underlying technologies through patents.

b) FDD and TDD

TDD and FDD Mode of Operation

Basically most of the UMTS networks in operation are Frequency

Division Duplex (FDD) based. There is also another variant called the Time

Division Duplex or TDD. In reality there is more than one variant of TDD, so

the normal 5MHz bandwidth TDD is called Wideband TDD of WTDD. There

is also another name for WTDD to confuse people, called the High Chip Rate

TDD (HCR-TDD). There is another variant of TDD as would have guessed

known as the Narrowband TDD (NTDD). NTDD is also known as Low Chip

Rate TDD (LCR-TDD) and most popularly its known as TD-SCDMA or Time

Division Synchronous CDMA.

"Synchronous" implies that uplink signals are synchronized at the base

 12 
 

station receiver, achieved by continuous timing adjustments. This reduces

the interference between users of the same timeslot using different codes by

improving the orthogonality between the codes, therefore increasing system

capacity, at the cost of some hardware complexity in achieving uplink

synchronization.

The normal bandwidth of FDD or TDD mode of operation is 5 MHz. This

gives a chip rate of 3.84 Mcps (Mega chips per second). The corresponding

figure for TD-SCDMA is 1.66 Mhz and 1.28 Mcps.

Assymetric operation in TDD mode

a. The advantage of TDD over FDD are:

• Does not require paired spectrum because FDD uses different

frequencies for UL and DL whereas TDD uses the same frequency
hence its more easy to deploy
• Channel charachteristics is the same in both directions due to
same band
• You can dynamically change the UL and the DL bandwidth
allocation depending on the traffic.
 13 
 

b. The dis-advantage of TDD over FDD are:

• Switching between transmission directions requires time, and the

switching transients must be controlled. To avoid corrupted
transmission, the uplink and downlink transmissions require a
common means of agreeing on transmission direction and allowed
time to transmit. Corruption of transmission is avoided by allocating
a guard period which allows uncorrupted propagation to counter
the propagation delay. Discontinuous transmission may also cause
audible interference to audio equipment that does not comply with
electromagnetic susceptibility requirements.
• Base stations need to be synchronised with respect to the uplink
and downlink transmission times. If neighbouring base stations use
different uplink and downlink assignments and share the same
channel, then interference may occur between cells. This can
increase the complexity of the system and the cost.
• Also it does not support soft/softer handovers

Timing Synchronisation between different terminals

 14 
 

C. Advance antena system

The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna

system. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve

the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range

communications. In the early 90s, to cater the growing data rate needs of

data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One

technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth

conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying

multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent

streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas.

This increases the data rate into multiple folds with the number equal to

minimum of the number of transmit and receive antennas. This is called

MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna). Apart from this, the reliability in

transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by

using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called

transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit

spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding

techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at

the transmit. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna

technologies which use the channel knowledge at the transmitter.

a) MIMO

In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (commonly

pronounced my-moh or me-moh), is the use of multiple antennas at both the

 15 
 

trans
smitter and receiver
r to improve com
mmunication performancce. It is one of
seve
eral forms of smart anten
nna technolo
ogy.

MIMO technologyy has a

attracted a
attention in wireless
communication
ns, becausse it offerrs significa
ant increasses in da
ata
throu
ughput and
d link rang
ge without additional bandwidth
h or transm
mit
power. It achie
eves this by
b higher spectral
s effficiency (m
more bits per
p
seco
ond per herrtz of bandw
width) and link reliability or diverrsity (reduce
ed
fadin
ng). Becau
use of thesse propertie
es, MIMO is a curre
ent theme of
interrnational wireless
w research. (Re
efer to: Ressearch tren
nds in MIM
MO
litera
ature)

a. Wireless
W sttandards

In the
e commerccial arena, Iospan Wire
eless Inc. developed th
he
first comm
mercial sysstem in 2001
2 that used MIMO-OFDM
MA
te
echnology. Iospan tecchnology su
upported bo
oth diversity coding an
nd
 16 
 

spatial multiplexing. In 2005, Airgo Networks had developed a pre-

11n version based on their patents on MIMO. Following that in
2006, several companies (including at least Broadcom, Intel, and
Marvell) have fielded a MIMO-OFDM solution based on a pre-
standard for IEEE 802.11n WiFi standard. Also in 2006, several
companies (Beceem Communications, Samsung, Runcom
Technologies, etc.) have developed MIMO-OFDMA based solutions
for IEEE 802.16e WIMAX broadband mobile standard. All
upcoming 4G systems will also employ MIMO technology. Several
research groups have demonstrated over 1 Gbit/s prototypes.

b. Functions of MIMO

MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories,

precoding, spatial multiplexing or SM, and diversity coding.

• Precoding is multi-layer beamforming in a narrow

sense or all spatial processing at the transmitter in a
wide-sense. In (single-layer) beamforming, the same
signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas
with appropriate phase (and sometimes gain)
weighting such that the signal power is maximized at
the receiver input. The benefits of beamforming are to
increase the signal gain from constructive combining
and to reduce the multipath fading effect. In the
absence of scattering, beamforming results in a well
defined directional pattern, but in typical cellular
conventional beams are not a good analogy. When
the receiver has multiple antennas, the transmit
beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the
 17 
 

signal level at all of the receive antennas, and

precoding is used. Note that precoding requires
knowledge of the channel state information (CSI) at
the transmitter.
• Spatial multiplexing requires MIMO antenna
configuration. In spatial multiplexing, a high rate
signal is split into multiple lower rate streams and
each stream is transmitted from a different transmit
antenna in the same frequency channel. If these
signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with
sufficiently different spatial signatures, the receiver
can separate these streams, creating parallel
channels free. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful
technique for increasing channel capacity at higher
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). The maximum number
of spatial streams is limited by the lesser in the
number of antennas at the transmitter or receiver.
Spatial multiplexing can be used with or without
transmit channel knowledge.
• Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is
no channel knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity
methods a single stream (unlike multiple streams in
spatial multiplexing) is transmitted, but the signal is
coded using techniques called space-time coding.
The signal is emitted from each of the transmit
antennas using certain principles of full or near
orthogonal coding. Diversity exploits the independent
fading in the multiple antenna links to enhance signal
diversity. Because there is no channel knowledge,
 18 
 

there is no beamfo
orming or array gain from
f diversity
coding.

S
Spatial multiiplexing can
n also be combined with
w precodin
ng
when the channel is known at
a the transmitter or co
ombined with
diversityy coding when decodin
ng reliabilityy is in trade-off.

c. Forms
F of MIMO
M

• Multi-an
ntenna type
es

MIMO
O communica
ations

U to now, multi-anten
Up nna MIMO (or Single user MIMO
O)
ogy has been mainly developed and is imp
technolo plemented in
some sta
andards, e..g. 802.11n
n (draft) products.

• SISO/SIM
MO/MISO are
e degenerate
e cases of MIMO
M
o Mu
ultiple-input and sing
gle-output (
(MISO) is a
de
egenerate ca
ase when the
t receiverr has a sing
gle
an
ntenna.
 19 
 

o Single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) is a

degenerate case when the transmitter has a single
antenna.
o single-input single-output (SISO) is a radio system
where neither the transmitter nor receiver have
multiple antenna.

• Principal single-user MIMO techniques

o Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time (BLAST),
Gerard. J. Foschini (1996)
o Per Antenna Rate Control (PARC), Varanasi,
Guess (1998), Chung, Huang, Lozano (2001)
o Selective Per Antenna Rate Control (SPARC),
Ericsson (2004)

• Some limitations
o The physical antenna spacing are selected to be
large-multiple wavelengths at the base station. The
antenna separation at the receiver is heavily space
constrained in hand sets, though advanced
antenna design and algorithm techniques are under
discussion. Refer to: Advanced MIMO

d. Multi-user types

Recently, the research on multi-user MIMO technology has

been emerging. While full multi-user MIMO (or network MIMO) can
have higher potentials, from its practicality the research on (partial)
multi-user MIMO (or multi-user and multi-antenna MIMO)
technology is more active.

• Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO)

 20 
 

o In recent 3GPP and WiMAX standards, MU-MIMO is being

treated as one of candidate technologies adoptable in the
specification by a lot of companies including Samsung, Intel,
Qualcomm, Ericsson, TI, Huawei, Philips, Alcatel-Lucent,
Freescale, et al. since MU-MIMO is more feasible to low
complexity mobiles with small number of reception antennas
than SU-MIMO with the high system throughput capability.
o PU2RC allows the network to allocate each antenna to the
different users instead of allocating only single user as in
single-user MIMO scheduling. The network can transmit user
data through a codebook-based spatial beam or a virtual
antenna. Efficient user scheduling, such as pairing spatially
distinguishable users with codebook based spatial beams, are
additionally discussed for the simplification of wireless
networks in terms of additional wireless resource requirements
and complex protocol modification. Recently, PU2RC has been
adopted to use in 3GPP LTE standard and furthermore,
PU2RC is included the system description documentation
(SDD) of IEEE 802.16m (WiMAX evolution to meet the ITU-R's
IMT-Advance requirements).
o Enhanced multiuser MIMO: 1) Employ advanced decoding
techniques, 2) Employ advanced precoding techniques
o SDMA represents either space-division multiple access or
super-division multiple access where super emphasises that
orthogonal division such as frequency and time division is not
used but non-orthogonal approaches such as super-position
coding are used.

• Cooperative MIMO (CO-MIMO)

o Utilizes distributed antennas which belong to other users.

• MIMO Routing
 21 
 

o Routing a cluster by a cluster in each hop, where the

number of nodes in each cluster is larger or equal to one.
MIMO routing is different from conventional (SISO) routing
since conventional routing protocols route a node by a
node in each hope.

e. Applications of MIMO

Spatial multiplexing techniques makes the receivers very

complex, and therefore it is typically combined with Orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) or with Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) modulation, where
the problems created by multi-path channel are handled efficiently.
The IEEE 802.16e standard incorporates MIMO-OFDMA. The IEEE
802.11n standard, scheduled to be finalized in late 2009,
recommends MIMO-OFDM.

MIMO is also planned to be used in Mobile radio telephone

standards such as recent 3GPP and 3GPP2 standards. In 3GPP,
High-Speed Packet Access plus (HSPA+) and Long Term Evolution
(LTE) standards take MIMO into account. Moreover, to fully support
cellular environments MIMO research consortia including IST-
MASCOT propose to develop advanced MIMO techniques, i.e.,
multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO).
 22 
 

f. Mathematic
M cal descrip
ption

MIMO
O channel mo
odel

In MIMO
M syste
ems, a tran
nsmitter sen
nds multiple
e streams by

multiple tran
nsmit anten
nnas. The trransmit strea
ams go thro
ough a mattrix

channel wh
hich consistts of multip
ple paths between multiple transm
mit

antennas at
a the transsmitter and multiple receive
r ante
ennas at the

hen, the receiver gets the receive

receiver. Th ed signal vectors
v by the
t

multiple recceive antenn

nas and deccodes the re
eceived signa
al vectors in
nto

the original information. Here is a MIMO

M system
m model:

whe
ere and are the receive and transsmit vectorrs,
respectively, and a
and are the
t channe nd the noise
el matrix an
vector, respectively.

Refe
erring to information
n theory, the ergo
odic chann
nel
capacity off MIMO sysstems is givven by

• The ach
hievable ca
apacity of cllosed loop MIMO syste
ems is
 23 
 

where we have used that and

. The functions of svd() and waterfilling()
represent singular value decomposition and power allocation by
the water filling rule, respectively.

• The achievable capacity of open loop MIMO systems is

Since the use of any unitary matrix information shaping of

at the transmitter can achieve the capacity of an open-loop
MIMO system, which is mostly times larger than that
of a SISO system.

D. All-IP Network

Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting

of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes respectively, 4G
will be based on packet switching only. This will require low-latency data
transmission.

By the time that 4G is deployed, the process of IPv4 address

exhaustion is expected to be in its final stages. Therefore, in the context of
4G,IPv6 support is essential in order to support a large number of
wireless-enabled devices. By increasing the number of IP addresses, IPv6
removes the need for Network Address Translation (NAT), a method of
sharing a limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices,
 24 
 

although NAT will still be required to communicate with devices that are on
existing IPv4 networks.

As of June 2009, Verizon has posted specifications that require any

4G devices on its network to support IPv6.

a) IPv6

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next-generation Internet

Protocol version designated as the successor to IPv4, the first
implementation used in the Internet that is still in dominant use currently. It
is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworks. The main
driving force for the redesign of Internet Protocol is the foreseeable IPv4
address exhaustion. IPv6 was defined in December 1998 by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) with the publication of an Internet
standard specification, RFC 2460ork address translation (NAT), which
gained widespread deployment as an effort to alleviate IPv4 address
exhaustion.

IPv6 also implements new features that simplify aspects of address

assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration) and network
renumbering (prefix and router announcements) when changing Internet
connectivity providers. The IPv6 subnet size has been standardized by
fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits to
facilitate an automatic mechanism for forming the host identifier from Link
Layer media addressing information (MAC address).

Network security is integrated into the design of the IPv6

architecture. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally developed
for IPv6, but found widespread optional deployment first in IPv4 (into
which it was back-engineered). The IPv6 specifications
mandate IPsec implementation as a fundamental interoperability
requirement.
 25 
 

In December 2008, despite marking its 10th anniversary as a

Standards Track protocol, IPv6 was only in its infancy in terms of general
worldwide deployment. A 2008 study by Google Inc. indicated that
penetration was still less than one percent of Internet-enabled hosts in any
country. IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in
use in commercial, business, and home consumer environments.
 26 
 

BAB 4
Conclution
4G refers to the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a
successor to 3G and 2G standards, with the aim to provide a wide range of
data rates up to ultra-broadband (gigabit-speed) Internet access to mobile as
well as stationary users. Although 4G is a broad term that has had several
different and more vague definitions, this article uses 4G to refer to IMT
Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as defined
by ITU-R.

A 4G cellular system must have target peak data rates of up to approximately

100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1
Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access, according to
the ITU requirements. Scalable bandwidths up to at least 40 MHz should be
provided. A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure
all-IP based solution where facilities such as IP telephony, ultra-broadband
Internet access, gaming services and HDTV streamed multimedia may be
provided to users

The pre-4G technology 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) is often branded
"4G", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced
requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bitrate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in
the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used - and
more if Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.
Most major mobile carriers in the United States and several worldwide
carriers have announced plans to convert their networks to LTE beginning in
2009. The world's first publicly available LTE-service was opened in the two
Scandinavian capitals Stockholm and Oslo on the 14 December 2009, and
branded 4G. The physical radio interface was at an early stage named High
 27 
 

Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS

Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).

LTE Advanced (Long-term-evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-

Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in
the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2011. The target of 3GPP LTE
Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced
should be compatible with first release LTE equipment, and should share
frequency bands with first release LTE

The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access

(MWBA) standard is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of
128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.
The IEEE 802.16m evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the
objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1000 Mbit/s for stationary
reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception

UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G
project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve
theCDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation applications and
requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor,
announced it was ending development of the technology, favouring LTE
instead.[5] The objective was to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s
downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.

In all these suggestions for 4G, the CDMA spread spectrum radio technology
used in 3G systems and IS-95 is abandoned and replaced byfrequency-
domain equalization schemes, for example multi-carrier transmission such
as OFDMA. This is combined with MIMO (i.e. multiple antennas(Multiple In
Multiple Out)), dynamic channel allocation and channel-dependent
scheduling.
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COMPONENTS OF 4G

Access scheme

As the wireless standards evolved, the access techniques used also

exhibited increase in efficiency, capacity and scalability. The first generation
wireless standards used plain TDMA and FDMA. In the wireless channels,
TDMA proved to be less efficient in handling the high data rate channels as it
requires large guard periods to alleviate the multipath impact. Similarly,
FDMA consumed more bandwidth for guard to avoid inter carrier interference.
So in second generation systems, one set of standard used the combination
of FDMA and TDMA and the other set introduced an access scheme
called CDMA. Usage of CDMA increased the system capacity, but as a
drawback placed a soft limit on it rather than the hard limit (i.e. a CDMA
network will not reject new clients when it approaches its limits, resulting in a
denial of service to all clients when the network overloads). Data rate is also
increased as this access scheme (providing the network is not reaching its
capacity) is efficient enough to handle the multipath channel. This enabled
the third generation systems, such as IS-2000, UMTS, HSXPA, 1xEV-
DO, TD-CDMA andTD-SCDMA, to use CDMA as the access scheme.
However, the issue with CDMA is that it suffers from poor spectral flexibility
and computationally intensive time-domain equalization (high number of
multiplications per second) for wideband channels.

Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal

FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved
FDMA and Multi-carrier CDMA(MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for
the next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithm and
frequency domain equalization, resulting lower number of multiplications per
second. They also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form the
 29 
 

spectrum in a flexible way. However, they require advanced dynamic channel

allocation and traffic adaptive scheduling.

WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the next
generation UMTS, OFDMA is used for the downlink. By contrast, IFDMA is
being considered for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to
the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of amplifiers.
IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and thus avoids amplifier issues.
Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20standard. These
access schemes offer the same efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA.
Apart from this, scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.

The other important advantage of the above mentioned access

techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver.
This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO environments since
the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently requires
high complexity equalization at the receiver.

In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems,

improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier standards
largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such as 64QAM are
being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution standards.

IPv6 support

Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting

of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes respectively, 4G will
be based on packet switching only. This will require low-latency data
transmission.

By the time that 4G is deployed, the process of IPv4 address

exhaustion is expected to be in its final stages. Therefore, in the context of
4G,IPv6 support is essential in order to support a large number of wireless-
enabled devices. By increasing the number of IP addresses, IPv6 removes
 30 
 

the need for Network Address Translation (NAT), a method of sharing a

limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices, although NAT
will still be required to communicate with devices that are on
existing IPv4 networks.

As of June 2009, Verizon has posted specifications that require any

4G devices on its network to support IPv6.[11]

Advanced Antenna Systems

The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna

system, refer to smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna
technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high
rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 90s, to cater
the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission
schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained
importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial
multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the
receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from
all the antennas. This increases the data rate into multiple folds with the
number equal to minimum of the number of transmit and receive antennas.
This is called MIMO (as a branch ofintelligent antenna). Apart from this, the
reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be
improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is
called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and
transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding
techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the
transmit. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies
which use the channel knowledge at the transmitter..
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Software-Defined Radio (SDR)

SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a

collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute
various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology,
which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.