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Jamine 0607 Mozambique
Jamine 0607 Mozambique
DISPUTE RESOLUTION
ABSTRACT
The Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) establishes the jurisdictional regimes under
which a coastal State can claim, manage, and utilize its ocean resources. With an
increasing recognition of the need to administer competing resource use interests in the
ocean and seabed, and the requirement to ensure sustainable exploitation of these
resources, Mozambique has an ambitious program for the establishment of its maritime
boundaries, including the outer limits of its extended Continental Shelf (CS).
Mozambique faces the problem of lack of delimitation and negotiation of the
maritime boundaries, connected to the lack of a comprehensive framework for
management of maritime issues, lack of appropriate technology to quantify, qualify, and
exploit the resources that lie in the sea, and lack of means by which to exercise and
guarantee its sovereign rights. These problems obstruct the Mozambican State, as a
sovereign subject of international law of the sea (LOS), from being able to take
independent initiatives in pursuit of her internal and external policy objectives.
The lack of delimitation of the maritime boundaries appears as a constraint for the
State. Mozambique is not in a position to exercising all her rights and duties in
accordance with LOSC with respect to jurisdiction and the exercise of sovereignty in
these spaces. Moreover, delimiting boundaries alone is not sufficient to solve sovereignty
concerns, since there is still a lack of knowledge and capacity to carry out management,
research, and evaluation of resources; for example: fish stocks within the Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ). Hence the question: what costs and benefits would result from the
delimitation of Mozambiques maritime boundaries?
It is in the context of LOSC that this study intends to understand the Mozambican
situation, and discuss the problems involved in the delimitation and negotiation of
Mozambique maritime boundaries and the management of ocean issues. This research
presents and analyzes options for delimitation, negotiation of maritime boundaries, and
management of maritime issues and boundaries.
DISCLAIMER
The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the United Nations, the Nippon Foundation of Japan, the Center for Oceans Law
and Policy University of Virginia School of Law, or that of the Government of Republic
of Mozambique.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study could not have been possible without the support of the United Nations,
funding from the Nippon Foundation of Japan, and could not have been achieved without
the support and assistance of individuals and institutions. For that reason, I wish to
record my grateful appreciation for the assistance and guidance given to me by Professor
John Norton Moore, who supervised this study and his wonderful team, namely:
Professor Myron H. Nordquist (The Associate Director of the Center for Oceans Law and
Policy), Ms. Donna D. Ganoe, Ms. Judy Ellis, and Ms. Kay Wood, they provided me with
all the facilities necessary to complete this work. I equally thank to Ms. Sarah Johnson,
Associate Director of the Graduate Studies of the University of Virginia School of Law.
My thanks are also due to Mr. Robert Smith for the comments and recommendations on
the draft paper of the present study.
My deep gratitude also extends to the kind assistance given by the staff of the
Division for Oceans Affairs and the Law of the Sea of the United Nations. A very special
expression of gratitude is due to Mr. Franois Bailet (The Programme Advisor), who
gave me support and assistance since the beginning.
Im therefore especially glad to Mr. Miguel A. Chissano (President of National
Institute for Maritime and Borders Affairs), Mr. Cristiano F. A. dos Santos (Director of
Legal Affairs, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation), and Mr. Eugenio Muianga
(Director of Sea, National Institute for Maritime and Borders Affairs) for their
encouragement and unfailing assistance.
An acknowledgement is also due to the National Institute for Maritime and Borders
Affairs and all colleagues/friends for their cooperation and efforts in making my research
phase easier and pleasant, and finally to all the people who directly and indirectly
supported my research.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... i
DISCLAIMER .................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLES AND MAPS ....................................................................................... vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................................... vii
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 2
PART I: DELIMITATION OF THE MOZAMBIQUE MARITIME BOUNDARIES
AND THE EXTENDED CONTINENTAL SHELF .......................................................... 6
1. Mozambique Maritime Geographic Context .................................................................. 6
2. Internal Jurisdiction and Legal Issues Related to Maritime Boundaries in Mozambique
vs. Law of the Sea Convention ........................................................................................... 8
2.1. The Establishment of Baselines ......................................................................... 12
2.2. Charts and Geographical Coordinates ............................................................... 18
3. Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries of the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental
Shelf: Law of the Sea Convention vs. Act of Sea (4/96) .................................................. 20
3.1. Legal Principles ................................................................................................. 20
3.2. The Delimitation Method................................................................................... 24
4. Disputes Affecting the Process of Delimitation of Mozambique Boundaries.............. 28
4.1. Conflict Between France and Madagascar ........................................................ 28
4.2. Conflict Between France and Comoros ............................................................. 30
5. Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone............................................................. 31
5.1. Boundary Between Mozambique and Madagascar, and the Status of French
Possessions................................................................................................................ 32
5.1.1. Defining the Weight of Possessions ............................................................... 33
5.1.1.1. Bassas da India............................................................................................. 39
5.2. Boundary Between Mozambique and Comoros ................................................ 40
5.3. Boundary Between Mozambique and South Africa .......................................... 41
5.4. Tri-point Issues .................................................................................................. 42
6. Delimitation of the Extended Continental Shelf........................................................... 43
6.1. Outer Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles ........................................ 46
7. The Negotiation Process and Final Agreement ............................................................ 52
7.1. Principles of Negotiation ................................................................................... 53
7.2. Options for Strategies ........................................................................................ 54
7.3. Delimitation Agreement..................................................................................... 55
8. Potential Disputes Settlement Scenarios....................................................................... 56
9. Managing Maritime Boundaries ................................................................................... 58
PART II- MANAGEMENT OF OCEAN ISSUES IN MOZAMBIQUE ........................ 61
1. Current Status of Mozambique Ocean Issues Management ......................................... 61
1.1. Coastal Management.......................................................................................... 67
1.2. Fisheries Management ....................................................................................... 71
1.3. Marine Environment Management .................................................................... 75
iv
The Maps presented in this study are intended for information purposes only. The Maps are not
represented as an official record of the Government of Mozambique, or any other State referenced here
within.
vi
vii
viii
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Maritime delimitation remains an important topic: in boundary-making, sensitive
questions of State sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction and title to valuable natural
resources are all put into question2. Nowadays, the potential political and security risks of
boundary disputes are high, and unresolved maritime boundaries between States may
easily affect bilateral relations or even international peace and security. Such disputes
may also hamper economic activities, such as exploitation of fishing sites, due to fear of
action by the other States. Furthermore, unresolved maritime boundaries may also cause
disputes over certain areas of jurisdiction between States if oil and/or gas discoveries are
made in overlapping claimed areas. In the case of Mozambique, apart from the agreed
maritime boundary with Tanzania, all other maritime boundaries with neighboring States
(Comoros,
Madagascar,
French
Possessions
[subject
of
dispute
between
David H. Anderson, Judge of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; See: Foreword in Atunes,
Nuno Marques (2003), Toward The Conceptualization of Maritime Delimitation: Legal and Technical
Aspects of a Political Process, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden/Boston.
INTRODUCTION
Following the Hague Haia Conference, there were three decisive moments in the
process of codification of the LOS: The First, Second, and Third United Nations
Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I, II and III: 1958, 1960 and 1973-82,
respectively).
UNCLOS I, which was held in Geneva in 1958, led to the codification of four
conventions that dealt with some areas of the LOS: Convention on the Territorial Sea and
the Contiguous Zone; Convention on the Continental Shelf, Convention on the High
Seas, and Convention on the Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the
High Seas.
In the view of many scholars, the four conventions adopted by UNCLOS I in
Geneva, reflected the sectoral, limited approach to international law still in vogue at that
time. UNCLOS I documented much of international customary law; however, an
agreement could not be reached on a number of issues. One such fundamental issue was
the breadth of the TS. They were negotiated and ratified by a small number of maritime
States, without participation of most of the newly emerging developing States. UNCLOS
II later convened in 1960 to solve the problems left open by the first conference, yet
ended without results.
UNCLOS III convened from 1973 to 1982, and during a period of ten years held
eleven sessions. By the end of conference, 164 States had participated, as well as 102
observers composed of International Organizations (IOs), National Liberation
Movements and territories3. The negotiation of the UNCLOS that codified the LOS can
be considered one of the greatest diplomatic events of humanity and in the history of
International Relations (IR), due to the different interests involved and the difficulties
experienced over ten years of complex negotiations.
In the end, on 30 April, 1982, the LOSC was adopted as a package, due to the
close inter-relationship of many issues before the conference and the conflicting interests
involved. Nonetheless, some maritime powers with an important role in the
Mozambique took part in the negotiations of UNCLOS III. Before its independence, Mozambique it was
represented by the national liberation movement (now a Political part), FRELIMO (Front of Mozambique
Liberation) as observer, and after independence by various delegations composed of official representatives
of the State.
INTRODUCTION
implementation of LOSC, such as the United States of America (USA)4 are not yet party
to it.
With its new provisions, LOSC expanded the coastal States resources and economic
rights in a vastly expanded EEZ and Continental Shelf (CS), while also fully protecting
sovereign rights in navigational freedom5.
LOSC established the maritime spaces subject to jurisdiction of coastal States6 and
principles governing the delimitation of maritime boundaries. In particular, the maritime
spaces which would be most often subject to boundary delimitation between two or more
States are the TS (Article 15), the EEZ (Article 74) and the CS (Article 83). There is a
difference in treatment to be found between Article 15, which gives prominence to a
median line, and two other Articles 74 and 83, which stress the need to reach an equitable
solution. The delimitation of maritime boundaries between two or more States occurs in a
situation of overlapping maritime claims between those States7. Mozambique become a
State Party of the LOSC by its approbation through the Resolution No. 21/96 of 26
November 19968, and is covered by the provisions of LOSC.
This study aims to analyze how LOSC establishes the issue of delimitation of
maritime boundaries with respect to the Mozambican situation and to discuss the
problems of the Mozambican maritime boundaries, their delimitation, negotiation, and
options for possible conflict scenarios. This study also reflects upon the current approach
Within the USA in particular, the current administration favors ratification of the Convention, and there
are prominent supporters for USA ratification of LOSC, including John Norton Moore & William L.
Schachte Jr. The Senate Should Give Immediate Advice and Consent to the Law of the Sea Convention:
Why Critics are Wrong? (2006, N/P Document).
5
Moore (2006: 4, 5).
6
All waters landward of the baseline are internal waters, over which the coastal State may exercise
exclusive control, identical to the exercise on land. Directly seaward of the baseline lies the TS, over which
the coastal State may exercise limited sovereignty but through which the innocent passage of foreign
vessels must be allowed. Beyond the TS and extending 12 miles further seaward is the CZ over which the
coastal State enjoys jurisdiction to enforce its customs, tax, and environment protection laws. The LOSC
gives each coastal State the right to claim a 200 miles EEZ and 200 miles (or longer, if the physical
geography so dictates) CS, See Introduction of Reisman & Gayl S. Westerman, Straight Baselines in
Maritime Boundary Delimitation, 1992, New York.
7
Boundary shall be understood as the physical limits of the States geographic, territorial and, usually,
national jurisdiction. Some authors use the term border to refer to boundary, although the word is
sometimes used interchangeably with boundary, expression such as border control, border posts or
border crossing, all denote elements of administrative control. See: Kendall Freeman, The language of
international Maritime Disputes. www.kendallfreeman.com (Accessed 19 May 2006).
8
Published in Official Journal No. 47, 1st Serial, 6 Supplement.
INTRODUCTION
The Mozambique Channel is about 900 nm (nautical miles) in length running generally north-south, with
a narrowest width of 320 nm. There are islands spaced regularly throughout its length. In the north mouth
are the Comoros, the Aldabra Group of Seychelles, and the French Territory of Mayotte and Glorioso
Islands. At the southern mouth lie Bassas da India and Europa Island ; Prescott, J. R. V. (1986: 1975); The
Maritime Political Boundaries of the World, Methuen, London & New York.
10
Glorioso Islands are located at 11 30 S and 47 20 E, in the northern Mozambique Channel about 160
km northwest of Madagascar.
11
Juan de Nova Island is located at 17 03 S and 42 45 E, in the narrowest part of the Mozambique
Channel and about one third of the way between Mozambique and Madagascar.
12
Europa Island is located at 22 20 S and 40 22 E, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to
Southern of Mozambique.
13
Bassas da India is located at 21 27 S and 39 45 E, in the Southern Mozambique Channel, about half
way between Mozambique and Madagascar.
14
See also Atlas Geogrfico de Moambique (1986: 31), Vol I. Maputo: INDE.
Mozambique has a coastline of approximately 2 700 km, from the Rovuma River in
the north to Ponta Douro (Gold Point) in the South. The coast of Mozambique is
irregular in its configuration, and is characterized by rugged inlets, islands, and
archipelagos.
The adjacent sea of Mozambique has significant marine resources which are
important to the population of Mozambique for socio-economic reasons. For example,
7
shrimp and prawns were the States main export until the development of the one of the
biggest aluminum industries in the world: Mozambique Aluminum (MOZAL).
Mozambique is a coastal State under LOSC, with a population of about 19, 888,
15
701 , most of which depends upon agriculture and fisheries for its livelihood.
Other significant activities related to the sea include tourism and shipping. In fact,
Mozambique has three of the main ports in the Southern Africa Development Region
(SADC): Maputo, Beira and Nacala ports. These ports serve not only the RM, but also
the landlocked countries of Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia. These ports have container
facilities, and are the hubs in the regional multi-nodal transport system.
15
16
Chapter I General Dispositions - Involved sectors and areas where this law
shall be applied;
Chapter II Maritime Spaces - TS, EEZ and CS, calculated from the
baselines in the table19 and aspects of boundary delimitation with opposite and
adjacent States;
17
Chapter III Water Public Domain - Water jurisdiction, including marine and
internal waters;
A broad analysis of this Act revels that it has some gaps in terms of new provisions
of LOSC, such as the definitions of the EEZ and the provisions related to environmental
issues, and the delimitation of maritime boundaries. The articles addressing maritime
boundaries will be analyzed later in this study.
However, in legal terms, Mozambique as a State Party of LOSC, has the sovereign
right to establish its maritime spaces and/or delimit her maritime boundaries in the case
of overlapping claims of maritime spaces.
The IMAF is the central institution of coordination of all aspects related to
delimitation, reaffirmation, and negotiation of both maritime and land boundaries.
However, the final approval and ratification of such actions is attributed to the Republic
Assembly (RA), according to Article 179 (1) (b) of 2004 Republic Constitution. IMAF,
in its duties, chairs the Technical Council of Sea and Boundaries (TCMF)20 and reports
to the Coordination Council of Sea and Boundaries (CCMAF)21 which is chaired by the
Primer Minister of the RM.
Further, for the establishment and delimitation of maritime boundaries in domestic
order, IMAF is guided by the principles contained in the Act of Sea, referred to above.
20
21
10
Regarding existing boundary agreements, there is only one agreement with the
United Republic of Tanzania (URT), concluded on 28 December, 1988 in Maputo22. In
general, this agreement describes the agreed upon-land and maritime boundaries between
the two States. The maritime boundary starts from the internal waters and extends out to
the EEZ. The TS was delimited by the application of the equidistance method by drawing
a median straight line from point B to a point C 12 nm away and located at latitude
10 18 46 S and longitude 40 40 07 E.
For the delimitation of the EEZ, the two States used the equidistance principle by
elongating the median line used for delimitation of the TS from point C to a point D
25.5 nm away and located at latitude 10 05 29 S and longitude 41 02 01 E. From
point D, the EEZ is delimited by application of the principle of equity, by a line
running due east, along the parallel of point D. The point of termination of this line will
be established through exchange of notes between the URT and RM at a future date (See
Map 2).
This agreement was ratified by the Peoples Assembly through Resolution No. 11/89 18 September 1989,
Published in Official Journal No. 37, 1st Serial, 6 Supplement.
11
23
Riesman, W. Michael & Gayl S. Westerman (1992: XIV); Straight Baselines in Maritime Boundary
Delimitation, St. Martins Press, New York. These authors consider the question of baselines as an issue
which has not been clarified and which lies at the heart of most current maritime boundary disputes.
24
Roach, J. Ashley (1999: 1), Drawing Straight Baselines: The Need for a Universal Norm, International
Studies Association; 1999 Annual Meeting Omni Shoreham Hotel, 2500 Calvert St. NW, Washington DC
20008, February 17, 1999.
25
The low water line can be defined as the intersection of the plane of low water with the shore. The line
along the coast, or beach, to which the sea recedes at low water (Office for Ocean Affairs and the Law of
the Sea, UN: 1989: 58).
12
the tidal range is appreciable, the inter-tidal zone may extend for a considerable distance
to the limit of the low water line and be exposed at low water26.
The other rule of establishment the baselines is the straight baselines system. First
legitimized by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in 1951 through the
Anglo/Norwegian Fisheries Case27, it was codified and developed in the 1958
Conventions28. The straight baseline method has been adopted by many coastal States,
often incorrectly29. Article 7 of the LOSC allows States to draw straight baselines in the
following situations:
1. In the locations where the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or
if there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity, the
method of straight baselines joining appropriate points may be employed
in drawing the baseline from which the breath of territory sea is measured.
2. Where because of the presence of delta and other natural conditions
the coastline is highly unstable, the appropriate points may be selected
along the furthest seaward extent of the low water line and,
notwithstanding subsequent regression of the low water line, the straight
baselines shall remain effective until changed by the coastal State in
accordance with LOSC.
3. The drawing of straight baselines must not depart to any appreciable
extent from the general direction of the coast, and the sea areas lying
within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to
be subject to the regime of internal waters.
4. Straight baselines shall not be drawn to and from low-tide elevations,
unless lighthouses or similar installations, which are permanently above
sea level, have been built on them, except in instances where the drawing
of baselines to and from such elevations has received general international
recognition.
5. Where the method of straight baselines is applicable under paragraph 1
of Article 7, account may be taken, in determining particular baselines, of
economic interests peculiar to a region concerned, be the reality and the
importance of which are clearly evidenced by long usage.
26
13
30 The phrase deeply indented and cut into traveled intact from the 1951 Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries
case Judgment to LOSC via the 1958 Convention and the phrase a fringe of islands along the coast in its
immediate vicinity appears to be a widening of the phrase used in its Judgment: or where it (a coast) is
bordered by an archipelago such as the skjaergaard. See Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the
Sea, UN (1989: 21); Baselines: An Examination of the Relevant Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, Office for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, New York. According
to Kapoor & Adam J. Kerr (1986 : 34), the term fridge of islands implies a number of lying islands,
islets, rocks, etc. spread out over some distance so as to form a continuous fringe along the coast. The mere
presence of a few isolated islands would not, in this context, constitute a sufficiently solid fringe.
31
Kapoor & Adam J. Kerr (1986: 34).
32
Roach, J. Ashley (1999); Drawing Straight Baselines: The Need for a Universal Norm, International
Studies Association; 1999 Annual Meeting Omni Shoreham Hotel, 2500 Calvert St. NW, Washington DC
20008, February 17, 1999.
14
The Mozambique baselines have already been established. In practical terms, the closing
lines and the straight baselines which supplement the normal base line of Mozambique
are defined according to Map 3.
The points specified in the Map 3 create five straight baselines systems, which, in
two cases, connect offshore islands and reefs with the mainland and, in three cases, close
bay-like coastal indentations. The table in Annex I illustrates the base points, which
together constitute the baselines of the RM.
The straight baseline system of Mozambique consists of five sectors, three of which
are restricted to bay closings. The longest segment measures approximately 60.4 nm in
length, while the shortest is 2.8 nm. The average segment length is approximately 19.7 n
m, and only two of the segments deviate from the general direction of the coast.
It is noteworthy that, on 22 August 1966, the Government of Portugal published the
Law No. 2130 on the TS of the State and the ultramarine provinces at the time, namely:
Mozambique, Angola, and Guin. This law permitted the construction of bay-closing
lines or straight baselines for Portugal and its ultramarine provinces. On 13 June 1967,
Decree No. 47 771 was issued by the Ministry of the Navy establishing the baselines of
Mozambique, Angola and Guin, from which the breath of TS was measured. After the
independence of Mozambique, the Government did not update or revise these baselines,
and they were incorporated into the Act of Sea. The Decree n. 47 771, did not specify the
method/s used for their establishment, and these baselines were drawn before LOSC.
Thus, it is currently not know exactly which method/s were used in their establishment.
As regards straight baselines, the Mozambique practice is derived from Portuguese
Law, for this reason, the baselines might be revised or updated to be in concordance with
LOSC.
In Mozambique there is no record of any substantive technical and hydrographic
survey report on the States maritime zones. However, a significant amount of data exists,
some of which is in Portugal. The drawback with the existing data is that it needs to be
interpreted into a useful format after which a determination can be made as to the extend
to which this data will be useful.
15
Source: U.S. Department of State, International Boundary Study, Limits in the Seas, 1970.
16
It is probable that the baselines of neighboring States have similar concerns. For
example: the baselines of Madagascar which are presently in use were drawn in 196333,
and some authors consider Madagascar in the category of State claims in violation of
Article 7 of LOSC34. However, in delimitation of its maritime boundary, Mozambique
ideally should examine the baselines of other States which are in conformity of LOSC.
According to Kapoor & Admam J. Kerr35 it frequently happens that in case of
opposite or adjacent States, one State has modern geodetic data available from recent
surveys, whereas the other State has a series of charts, perhaps compiled from sketch
surveys. In these circumstances, it would be greatly advantageous to complete a survey
on the coastal area concerned before embarking upon a boundary delimitation, so as to
ensure that neither State could gain an advantage in negotiations as a consequence of
better geodetic data.
Considering the configuration of the Mozambique coast, a combination of methods
for determining baselines will be necessary, and Article 14 of LOSC states that the
coastal State may determine baselines in turn by any of the methods provided for in the
foregoing articles to suit different conditions. In other words, making use of the methods
for drawing normal baselines, straight baselines, or closing lines as appropriate to the
configuration of the coastline.
For Mozambique, the choice of a combination of methods shall be justified in the
fact that, in the north and south of the State, the coast is not regular thus requiring straight
baselines. In the central zone, where the coast is regular, normal baselines must be
applied.
Where the baselines of opposite States are less than 400 nm apart, as is the case of
Mozambique with opposite States, EEZ and CS claims may overlap, and it will be
necessary to delimit maritime boundaries in order to provide certainty of jurisdiction.
Under Articles 74 and 83 of LOSC, the delimitation process shall be affected by
33
The Government of the Republic of Madagascar decreed on 23 February, 1963 that the TS of the State
would be 11 nm measured from the straight baselines for most of the coast. The decree, published in the
Official Journal, No. 277, 9 March 1963, defined the straight baselines which are still in use.
34
For more details see Reisman, W. Michael & Gayl S. Westerman (1992); Straight Baselines in Maritime
Boundary Delimitation, St. Martins Press, New York.
35
Kapoor & Admam J. Kerr (1986 : 13).
17
36
Geodetic datum defines the basis of a co-ordinate system. A local or geodetic datum is normally referred
to an origin whose coordinates are defined. The datum is associated with a specific reference ellipsoid
which best fits the surface (geoid) of the area of interest. A global geodetic datum is now related to the
center of the earths mass, and its associated spheroid is the best fit to the known size and the whole earth.
The geodetic datum is also known as the horizontal datum or horizontal reference datum. The position of a
point common to two different surveys executed on different geodetic datum will be assigned two different
sets of geographical co-ordinates. It is important, therefore, to know what geodetic datum has been used
when a position is defined. Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, UN (1989: 55); Baselines:
An Examination of the Relevant Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Office
for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, New York.
18
reefs, etc37. The scale to be chosen for such charts will depend on the scales of the land
maps available and complexity of low water line. In general it is recommended that the
scale should be within the range 1:50,000 to 1:200,00038. Most of Mozambiques nautical
charts were inherited from the colonial era, and a process of resurveying is taking place in
order to update the charts39.
As perniciously stated geodetic datum is the first technical requirement of any
maritime boundary delimitation. A set of coordinates which does not reference any
geodetic datum invites an uncertainty for the boundary line that can be hundreds of
meters.
A second issue at hand concerns the use of charts. Nautical charts should not be used
for defining the course of the line; they should simply have an illustrative purpose. Even
if the boundary is short, and large-scale charts are used, the uncertainty associated with
such a practice would still be inadequate for the positioning accuracy of the boundary40.
A third aspect relate to the use of charts lies in precision of the geographic
coordinates utilized to describe the boundary. Coordinates given to one decimal figure of
second of arc. i.e., 3 meters or 10 feet, seems adequate for any conceivable purposes at
sea. One second of arc, an accuracy of some 30 meters, would in effect probably be
enough in most cases.
A fourth point has to do with the straight lines joining the turning points of the
boundary line. They can be defined as either geodesics or loxodromes; and it should be
explicitly stated which type of line is being used. For very short segments however, it is
virtually irrelevant whether one or the other is used41.
37
Law of the Sea. Baselines: An examination of the relevant Provisions of the United Nations Conventions
on the Law of the Sea, p.1, United Nations, N.Y.1989, Commonwealth Secretariat (1993: 123).
38
See: Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, UN (1989: 2); Baselines: An Examination of the
Relevant Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Office for Ocean Affairs and
the Law of the Sea, New York.
39
National Institute of Hydrography and Navigation (INAHINA) is in process of updating hydrographic
charts (Maputo and Quelimane charts have been done), but is experiencing problems with quality control
and its capacity for mapping and chartering is limited.
40
Assume the case of a TS boundary between adjacent States, i.e., a boundary that is 12 nm long. In the
best case scenario, the description of the boundary line would require a chart with a scale of 1:25,000 (in
most cases it would have to be a scale smaller than that; e.g., 1:30,000, 1:50,000). In this case, the
uncertainty of the line would be roughly 25 meters.
41
Atunes, Nuno S. Marques (2005 : 3385).
19
In the case where the Mozambican coast is adjacent to the coast of another
State, unless otherwise agreed between Mozambique and that other State,
the TS will be limited by the median line every point of which is
equidistant from the nearest points on the baselines from which the breath
of the TS of each State is measured43.
This Article reiterates the median line principle for delimitation of the TS as it
appears in LOSC, except that the Act of Sea article does not consider delimitation of TS
with opposite coastal States, but its seems that the Article only addresses Mozambique
and opposite coastal States.
42
43
20
44
Original language: Nos casos em que a costa moambicana esteja oposta ou adjacent costa de um
outro Estado, a delimitao da zona econmica exclusiva ser feita mediante acordo, ou, no havendo
acordo, nos termos do direito internacional, na base da equidade e a luz the todas as circunstancias
pertinentes, tendo em conta a importncia respectiva dos interesses em causa e para o conjunto da
comunidade internacional. (Article 10 of Act of Sea).
45
Emphasis added; LOSC Articles 74(1) and 83(1).
46
Original language: A delimitao da plataforma continental entre a Republica de Moambique e
Estados com costas adjacentes ou situados do lado oposto sua costa, ser feita por acordo, nos termos de
direito internacional (Article 14 No. 1, Act of Sea).
47
Original language: No chegando a acordo dentro do prazo razovel, recorrer-se- aos procedimentos
recomendados pelo direito intenationl (ibid., No. 2).
21
48
22
Baseline considerations;
Under LOSC, which allows the establishment of a 200 nm EEZ and a 200 nm CS
(with possibility of prolongation up to 350 nm if 100 nm from the 2500 m isobath goes
beyond that limit), Mozambique is confronted with overlapping claims of maritime
spaces with adjacent and opposite States (with the exception of TS with the opposite
States) and small islands under dispute: Madagascar, Comoros Islands, South Africa,
Tanzania, Europa Island together with Bassas da India, Juan de Nova Island) as outlined
above and depicted in Map 1.
The distances between Mozambique and opposite and adjacent States are provided
below in Table 1.
50
The concept of relevant or special circumstances did not appear in the LOSC, but its implications have
certainly found expression in Articles 74 and 83 of the LOSC, which provide for boundary delimitation on
the basis of international law in order to achieve an equitable solution, (Mahmoudi, 1990: 162).
51
Prescott & Clive Schofield (2005: 210).
23
Neighboring States
jurisdiction)
Mozambique
Madagascar
France Possessions:
Mozambique
Europa Island
(Bassas da India it lies
about 60 nm northwest of
Europa Island and Juan de
Nova is narrowest part of
Mozambique
Channel
about one third of the way
between Mozambique and
Madagascar)
Mozambique
Comoros Islands
Tanzania
Mozambique
and
South Africa
Source: This data is intended as an overview and for background use only, as such, it does not represent an
official acceptance by the Government of Mozambique, or by any other entity mentioned. (The distances
were calculated by a geographer and cartographer of the National Institute of Hydrography and Navigation
(INAHINA) for illustrative purpose. Distances were measured in straight line measured in chart No. 40
120, Scale: 1: 2 000 000; Mozambique Channel, 19th Edition, 1984. In the presented data, 1 nm
corresponds to 1852 m and 1852 m corresponds to 1, 852 km).
Table 1 suggests that there is a potential for overlapping maritime spaces. The
distances between Mozambique and other coastal States (including the Islands under
French possession) are less than 400 nm except in South Zone between Mozambique and
Madagascar.
24
that is deemed appropriate and fair by all parties. In applying general equitable concepts,
the negotiated single boundary agreements are not based on a particular legal theory, such
as equidistance, but may best be characterized as developed on the basis of principles
deemed by the parties to be equitable in view of the relevant circumstances52.
For example, in the delimitation of the EEZ, the possibility that circumstances
regarding historic use and economic dependency might be relevant to delimitation, is the
principal difference in the law relating to delimitation of boundaries in the two zones.
The difference arises from the historic fishing rights and economic dependency on
particular fish stocks, which might have been established in certain areas of the EEZ.
These resources, unlike those of the CS, have been subjected to exploitation for centuries.
The significance of historic rights in water columns is acknowledged in the boundary
delimitation provision of the convention on the TS and CZ53.
Thus, there are various methods that can be used for maritime boundary delimitation:
Equidistance line (strict equidistance; simplified equidistance; modified equidistance),
Enclaving, Lines of Bearing (Perpendiculars), Parallels and Meridians, Natural
Boundaries, Historic and De Facto Boundaries54 or other methods.
Historically, one of the favored methods of delimitation, particularly where the
coasts are opposite to each other, has been mid-line or series of mid-lines. The equidistant
line as defined in the 1958 and 1982 Conventions is a geometrically exact expression of
that concept55.
In State practice, a wide variety of solutions has been used in regard to drawing
boundary lines. Frequently, the median line has been chosen as providing an equitable
solution. In other cases, account has been taken of special circumstances leading to a
great diversity of solutions in order to accommodate the relevant factors of each case.
Sometimes equidistance is used for the delimitation of part of the boundary line, but other
principles are applied for the delimitation of other parts of the same boundary. Thus, for
example, equidistance may be utilized for the delimitation of the first part of the
52
Moore, John Norton & Samuel Pyeatt, Cases and Materials on Oceans Law and Policy, Volume III, pp.
21-4, 21-5.
53
Moore, John Norton & Samuel Pyeatt, Ibid. at p. 21-15.
54
For more detailed description of the methods see: Prescott & Clive Schofield (2005: 224-235).
55
Beazley, P. B. (1994: 7), Technical aspects of Maritime Boundary Delimitation, Volume 1 No. 2,
International Research Unity Durham University, UK.
25
56
Moore, John Norton & Samuel Pyeatt, Cases and Materials on Oceans Law and Policy, Volume III, p.
21-5.
57
Ibid.
58
Legault & Hankey, (1993: 205), quoted by Carleton & Clive Schofield (2002: 31).
59
Prescott & Gillian Triggs (2005: 3252).
26
Mozambique and its neighboring coastal States are all developing States (except
France) for which marine resources are crucial, particularly for the survival of the
population. The configuration of the coastlines of the States concerned do not suggests
relevant circumstances; however in a deeply analysis of the situation of French
possessions.
In the delimitation of Mozambique boundaries, the equidistance method is the one
most applicable and can be the first choice, particularly for the EEZ61. Equidistance can
provide a starting point for negotiations but may subsequently be modified or abandoned
completely62. Equidistance represents a geometrically exact expression of the midline
concept and it is far and away the most popular method of delimitation. However, the
presence of islands between Mozambique and Madagascar present a complex dimension
for boundary delimitation in the Mozambique Channel.
60
Legault & Hankey (1993: 208), quoted by Prescott & Clive Schofield, Ibid.
Note that questions of delimitation shall be affected by agreement on the basis of international law.
62
One of the most common reasons for the modification or abandonment of an equidistance line is the
desire to simplify the boundary or the delimitation process.
61
27
First, the Channel is used by larger tankers sailing from the Persian Gulf to
Europe and North America;
Thirdly, the decision of Mayotte to secede from the Comoros, because the
citizens wished to preserve a special relationship with France, was unpopular
with many African leaders;
Finally, some of the best fishing grounds are located between Madagascar and
Mayotte63.
However, the key problems for delimitation of the Mozambique maritime boundaries
in the face of these four dimensions are: the conflict between Madagascar and France,
and the conflict between France and the Comoros. The presence of islands, islets, and
rocks, also suggests that the delimitation process may require negotiations so as to
achieve an equitable solution.
28
the grounds of historic title and geographic proximity, and has sought support from the
UN and the former Organization of Africa Unity (OAU). France bases its claim on first
discovery and its history of occupation and administration.
In the case of Bassas da India and Juan de Nova, both States positions are
questionable. Bassas da India was first recorded by Portuguese explorers in the early 16th
century, and only in 1897 did it become a French possession, later being placed under the
administration of commissioner residing in Reunion in 1968. Juan de Nova was
discovered in 1501 by Jao da Nova (Juan de Nova), a Galician admiral in service of
Portugal. This suggests that Mozambique was supposed to claim Bassas da India and
Juan de Nova due the fact that it was a Portuguese discovery and consequently
Mozambique inherited all Portuguese possessions as part of Mozambique territory.
Mozambique, however remains silent on its position regarding the islands.
The General Assembly of the UN has intervened in the conflict opposing France and
Madagascar by passing two resolutions both entitled Question of the Islands of
Gleurieuses, Juan de Nova, Europa and Bassas da India65. The first resolution invites the
Government of France to initiate negotiations with the Government of Madagascar
without further delay for the reintegration of the islands which were arbitrarily separated
from Madagascar. The second resolution seems like a reiteration of the first: inviting the
Government of France to initiate with the Government of Madagascar, as a matter of
urgency66 the negotiations provided for in resolution 34/91.
Regarding these two resolutions, the French Government believes that the
consideration of this matter by UN General Assembly constitutes interference in its
internal affairs and therefore contrary to the UN Charter67.
This conflict is motivated by economic interests rather then sovereignty matter,
each State believing that having these islands will enable them to claim maritime spaces
(as France did) such as the TS, EEZ and CS. Note that the question of sovereignty
disputes is not directly resolved by the LOSC, but rather by international law. The LOS
does not provide a basis for settling island sovereignty disputes. While LOSC provides
65
29
for several bodies for adjudicating disputes, there is nothing in the body of LOSC that
deals with sovereignty issues, even in international law there is no rule that prescribes
sovereignty over islands on the basis of making a maritime claim. LOSC addresses the
establishment of maritime jurisdictions zones. In fact, the application of LOSC is
premised on the assumption that a particular State has undisputed title over the territory
from which the maritime zone is claimed. The first attempt to resolve sovereignty
disputes should be by bilateral negotiation. Failing this, several types of third party
arbitration are available.
68
United Nations, General Assembly, Resolution 31/4 of 21 October 1976 Question of Comorian Island
of Mayotte (http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/301/87/IMG/NR030187.pdf
Accessed 11 July 2006).
69
Prescott & Clive Schofield (2005: 282).
30
Are the French possessions islands according to LOSC, and therefore entitled to
have maritime spaces such as EEZ?
With which State should Mozambique work with to delimit the boundaries with
these islands?
The priory question which must be addressed is that of whom to negotiate with.
However, Mozambique does not have the authority to determine which State with which
to negotiate the boundaries of the possessions. Rather, the States in conflict must resort to
other means recommended by international law.
Despite these disputes, and irrespective of which States prevail, Mozambique must
be guided by the principles and methods established by LOSC and other relevant
instruments of international law.
70
See: Kwiatkowska, Barbara (1989: 27-37), The Exclusive Economic Zone in the New Law of the Sea,
Publications on Ocean Development, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London.
31
zone of maritime space. Under Article 57 of LOSC, the EEZ shall not extend beyond 200
nm from the baselines from which the breath of the TS is measured.
Since the provisions concerning the delimitation of EEZ are to be based on finding
an equitable solution, Mozambique cannot unilaterally define the outer limits of its
EEZ. Due to the overlapping of maritime claims, delimitation negotiation with opposite
and adjacent States is required.
Madagascar, Comoros Islands, and the French possessions all lie opposite
Mozambique and therefore may generate overlapping EEZ claims. The lateral boundary
of Mozambique will probably intersect with the TS, EEZ and CS boundaries of the
adjacent States of South Africa and Tanzania (the boundary with Tanzania is still pending
as outlined above).
71
32
This scenario is the least likely, but may arise if France were to relinquish claims on both
islands.
72
The Hydrographer, 1971, 215; International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nature Resources,
1988, 270, Prescott & Clive Schofield (2005: 468).
33
Article 121 of LOSC establishes the regime of islands. It indicates what constitutes
an island and provides for the treatment of islands as any other land territory for the
purpose of delimiting the TS, CZ, EEZ and CS. It also stipulates what geographical
formations similar to islands do not generate an EEZ or CS. It seems that features such as
34
islets or small islands fall within the provisions of Article 121(3), which states that
rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no
EEZ and CS. However, these features may generate a TS and CZ.
The definition and treatment of islands, rocks and islets in maritime boundary
delimitation therefore becomes complex. A complex problem in maritime boundary
delimitation between two or more States with opposite coasts has been the weight which
should be given to islands in any concrete case73. Bowett recognized that while islands,
rocks, reefs and low-tide elevations are a frequent, complicating factor in delimitation
it is hazardous to generalize about tendencies in State practice. It was thus with some
caution that he offered the following conclusions:
-
Many islands are given separate entitlement and full weight as against
mainland coasts;
Where the island shares an entitlement with a larger territorial unit (or
mainland), State practice is widely diverse. In most cases, islands will
have some effects on delimitation;
73
Ibid., p. 421, para. 68; Mahmoudi, Said (1990: 164); Delimitation of Maritime Zones Between Sweden
and The Soviet Union: An Appraisal, Almqvist & Tryckri, Uppsala.
74
1951 ICJ Rep. 116; quoted by Prescott, Victor & Gillian Triggs (2005: 3245, 3246); Islands and Rocks
and their Role in Maritime Delimitation; David A. Colson and Robert Smith (ed.), International Maritime
Boundaries, Volume V, The American Society of International Law, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers;
Leiden/Boston, 3245-3280.
35
Islands may be given partial effect or enclaved if they are remote or not
aligned with the general coast faade; and
The States concerned should define which weight must be given to the French
possessions, however this is not an easy task, considering the current disputes between
France and Madagascar. However, the best scenario for Mozambique will be to give the
possessions a partial weight or enclaved status, which can be applicable whether the
islands belong to Madagascar or France.
There are two main reasons that support giving a partial weight to French
possessions:
Firstly, the islands concerned are not part of Frances mainland, and neither France
nor Madagascar is dependent on the islands. Attributing full weight to the islands will
consequently reduce the area of jurisdiction of Mozambique and Madagascar in favor of
non-States uninhabited islets. There are no relevant arguments for granting the French
possessions an EEZ.
Secondly, the islands are not close to the mainland of Madagascar, but are located
about midway between Mozambique and Madagascar. In State practice, when islands are
not located close to one States mainland, they typically are not susceptible to receive
full weight.
Giving full weight to the islands will yield an inequitable delimitation result,
considering that the islands are not States, are not inhabited, and cannot sustain economic
life on their own, and that all the States concerned (except France), are developing States
and deeply depend on the sea75. The sea of Mozambique in particular, is not only crucial
for Mozambique but is also important for the Southern Africa Development Community
75
In general, International tribunals have been reluctant to acknowledge the relevance of economic
considerations, but they may play a hidden role in the minds if adjudicators, as they clearly do in minds of
negotiators (Johnston & Mark J. Valencia: 1992 : 31).
36
(SADC) region through which landlocked States without direct access to the sea obtain
access to, and depend upon the Mozambique sea76.
With regards to the above, it has been observed that natural resources are a leitmotif
for concluding delimitation agreements, and that despite courts formal rejection of
economic factors in their decisions, [they] do in fact take such factors into account in the
delimitation process77. It is for them suggested that delimitation should not be divorced
from the interests of the world community in promoting the economic well-being of
States which have so far been economically disadvantage in terms of their access to
resources78.
There is doubt that islands (regardless of their size and position) are entitled to
maritime spaces. The case of United Kingdom-France is one of the reference cases where
the island in question was given a partial weight in the delimitation of their respective
maritime areas in the English Channel and the Atlantic. A particular problem was posed
by the presence of the Channel Islands which lay significantly closer to the French coast
of Normandy. The solution adopted by the Court was to enclave the islands partially so
that they received a band of TS in what was otherwise the French CS area. The use of
such enclaves is found fairly frequently in State practice79.
Another interesting example of self-locked island can include the Saint-Pierre et
Miquelon Islands. Saint-Pierre et Miquelon is a department of France, situated a short
76
The dependence of the Landlocked States on the Mozambique sea can be shown by the regional
initiatives of cooperation among SADC countries. As one example, in 2001 the SADC adopted a regional
fishing protocol recognizing the importance of fishing for the livelihood of the population, economic
significance for the countries and providing employment. Considering the 14 States parties to the protocol
are mostly landlocked States without access to the sea, and they depend on the seas of others in various
dimensions. For more details see: Protocolo sobre as Pescas da Comunidade para o Desenvolvimento da
Africa Austral, celebrado em Blantyre, aos 14 de Agosto de 2001.
77
Barbara Kwiatkowska, Economic and Environment Considerations in Maritime Boundary
Delimitations, in Jonathan I. Charney and Lewis M. Alexander (eds.) International Maritime Boundaries,
1993, p.75, at pp. 103, 110, Atunes (2003: 314).
78
Derek W. Bowett, The Economic Factor in Maritime Delimitation Cases, in P. Ziccadi (ed.)
International Law at the Time of Its Codification: Essays in Honour of Roberto Ago, 1987a, p. 45, p. 62.
Proposing also a wide consideration of economic factors, cf. Sharma (1989) 123-150, Atunes, ibid.
79
Bundy, 1995: 20. Other examples of the use of enclaves, or semi-enclaves, include: Abu Musa Island
(Dubai/Sharjah); Alcatraz Island (Guin/Guin-Bissau); Pelagruza and Galijula Islands (Italy/former
Yugoslavia); Lampedusa, Lampione, Pantelleira and Linosa Islands (Italy/Tunisia). See: Atunes, Nuno
Marques (2003: 294); Towards the Conceptualization of Maritime Delimitation: Legal and Technical
Aspects of a Political Aspects, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Publications on Ocean Development,
Leiden/Boston.
37
distance from the south coast of Canadas province of Newfoundland and Labrador.
Awarded to France in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris, the Islands are inhabited.
The Saint-Pierre et Miquelon maritime boundary was determined in 1992 by a
special Court of Arbitration, in adjudication that had been requested to resolve a dispute
between France and Canada concerning the partitioning of EEZ south of the islands.
France claimed a polygonal zone that extended seaward from the islands to encompass a
portion of the physiographic CS, slope and rise. Canada, for its part, maintained that the
islands were entitled at most to a 12 nm TS.
In its decision, the Court awarded exclusive economic rights to France in the
configuration that has been variously described as a keyhole, in effect creating a French
enclave that is surround entirely by the sovereign territory of Canada. The Court was also
asked to consider Frances contention that it was entitled to certain sovereign rights
beyond 200nm, in keeping with the provisions of Article 76 of LOSC. However, the
Court declined to consider the French case for an extended CS.
The islands of Saint-Pierre et Miquelon exemplify the situation of a shelf-locked
Island, that is located on a wide continental margin, but with an EEZ that does not extend
to the HS.
Normally, where islands belong to one State yet are closer to the mainland coast of
the opposing State - that is, they fall on the wrong side of an equidistance line between
mainland coasts concerned the States may opt to ignore the islands altogether for the
purposes of constructing an overall division between their mainland coastlines80. Taking
this approach as a model would lead to the finding that the French possessions are located
on the wrong side and/or are enclaved in Mozambique Channel.
Alternatively, in such circumstances, the islands concerned may be wholly or
partially enclaved, usually being accorded no more than a restricted belt of jurisdiction,
often no more than a TS. Occasionally, however, as in case of Italy-Tunisia, enclaved
islands may be granted a 13 nm belt 12 nm of TS plus a symbolic 1 nm of CS or EEZ
jurisdiction in order to demonstrate that the feature concerned is a fully fledged island
80
38
and not a mere rock81. Hence, enclaving the French possession would suggest they can
receive a band of territorial waters.
Bassas da India is a coral atoll, the reef of which mostly dries. The
southeastern part of the reef dries 1.2 m. On the north point there is
anchor. The reef encloses a shallow lagoon to which there is access
through a narrow boat passage, visible at low water about 1 mile from the
north point of the reef. The lagoon is encumbered with shoals and coral
heads83.
An encyclopedia of coral reefs notes that Bassas da India has no significant dry
land and is barely emergent at low tide84.
These descriptions all suggest that Bassas da India is a low tide elevation (See Map
6).
According to Article 13 (2) of LOSC, any low-tide elevation that is wholly situated
at a distance exceeding the TS from the mainland or an island has no TS of its own. As
81
39
no State (France or Madagascar) can claim territorial waters out to Bassas da India.
Furthermore, Articles 57 and 76 (1) of LOSC would prevent Bassas da India from being
used to claim an EEZ or any continental margin, and Article 121(3) states that: rocks
which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no EEZ
or CS. It is therefore clear that Bassas da India cannot be considered the subject of
boundary delimitation with Mozambique. However, it is appropriate to consider Bassas
da India with no effect in the Mozambique boundaries delimitation context.
40
Mozambique base-points lie along the cost from Cabo Delgado in the north, along the
Archipelago das Queribas for 110 nm, past Ponta Maunhane, Ponta Uifondo and Pinda to
Cabo Conducia85. In contrast, the Comoros base-points are Ilha Maheli, Vailheu Reef, a
low tide elevation and the north coast of Grande Comore Island. Such a line of
equidistance would be equitable and therefore acceptable to the parties (See Map 8).
41
88
The process of delimitation of the boundary between Mozambique and South Africa is pending because
of the political changes in two States and the processing of requisite data by Mozambique.
89
See: Lathrop, Coalter G. (2005: 3305).
42
The issue which arises is that where there is a geographical overlapping between
three States, two parties to a bilateral boundary agreement cannot create boundary
endpoint biding on the third State regardless of their endpoint technique. In this case the
establishment of boundaries would necessarily involve joint action by all three States.
Therefore, the maritime boundary delimitation of Mozambique in the north zone will
require agreement on the tri-points between all the three States.
43
specific methods to be used in establishing the outer edge of the continental margin for
the unique situation of the Bay of Bengal.
The Truman Proclamation of 1945 is commonly regarded as the starting point of
the modern development of the legal concept of the CS. The proclamation asserted that
the Government of the United States regards the natural resources of the subsoil and
seabed of the CS beneath the high seas but contiguous to the coasts of the USA as
appertaining to the USA, subject to its jurisdiction and control90.
It was a simple assertion of jurisdiction and control over the shelf resources, based
on the fact of the physical attachment, or contiguity of the CS, to the land mass of the
coastal State. The question was whether the Truman Proclamation, and similar
declarations made by other States, had given birth to an entirely new institution in
customary international law91.
The initial problem concerning those claims was their legal basis. One view was that
the seabed areas beyond the territorial sea were res nullius and could therefore be
acquired by effective occupation92. Another view was that coastal States had the CS
rights ipso facto and ad inito since the CS was continuity or integral part of the territory
under the sea93.
Consequently, UNCLOS I and UNCLOS III provide that the rights of coastal States
over the CS do not depend on occupation, effective or notional, or any express
proclamation94. It has been firmly established that the rights of coastal States over the
CS exist ipso facto and ab initio95, in fact, the coastal State has sovereign rights over CS
for purposes of exploring it and exploiting its natural resource.
90
The Truman Proclamation No.2667, 10 Fed. Reg. 12303; (University of Cambridge, 1992: 3).
See Kunz, 50 AJIL (1956) 828 at 829, No. 8 where he records 21 instances of declarations by the States
to shelf entitlement made between 1942 and 1950, ibid. (1992: 7).
92
See Vallat, 1946, p. 334. The division of submarine areas of the Gulf of Praia seemed to have depended
on such an approach since at that time it was the UKs official view that the seabed beyond the territorial
sea could be appropriated by occupation through claim and exploration. OConnell, (1982), I, p.470; Acer
(2003: 78).
93
The Declaration used stated: the Continental Shelf may be regarded as an extension of the land mass of
the coastal notion, thus naturally appurtenant to it. The Peruvian Decree and the Declaration of Argentina
referred to the area as forming one morphological and geological unit with the continent. See also:
Lauterpacht, (1950), pp. 423, 424, Acer (ibid.).
94
Article 2(3) of the 1958 Convention and Article 77(3) of LOSC, see also Acer (2003: 79).
95
In its 1969 ruling in the North Sea case, the ICJ noted that the rights of the coastal State in the respect of
the area of CS that constitute the natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso
facto and ab initio, by the virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension of it in an exercise of
91
44
Map 8: Potential Boundaries in the Mozambique Channel According Present Pattern (not scale)
Under Article 76(1) of the LOSC, the CS of a coastal State is defined as:
The seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its TS
throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge
of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the
sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring the sea-bed and exploiting its natural resources par. 39. See
also par. 43; Acer, Yucel (2003: 79), The AEGAN Maritime Disputes and International Law, Ashgate,
England.
45
baselines from which the breath of the TS is measured where the outer
edge of the continental margin does not extend to that distance.
Therefore, Article 76(3) states that:
96
The deep ocean floor, with its ocean ridges, does not come under the sovereign rights of the coastal State,
but falls under the common heritage of mankind regime, and the administration of the International Seabed
Authority (ISBA), in accordance with Part XI of LOSC.
46
97
47
The above analysis suggests that as Mozambique formulates its extend CS claim it
should consider the potential existence of other claims such as those of South Africa and
Madagascar.
In areas where Mozambique has a CS beyond 200 nm, calculated from the TS
baselines in accordance with Article 76, neighboring adjacent or opposite States with a
similar claim will generate a potential CS boundary situation. Those potential boundaries
will also have to be delimited in accordance with Article 83 of LOSC and are to be
reached by agreement in order to achieve an equitable solution. Equity requires that all
the relevant circumstances must be identified, assessed, and considered in the drawing of
the final boundary lines.
Two substantive equitable principles are important in the delimitation of the CS:
equidistance and proportionality. Customary international law requires that both
principles be used together so as to assure that a delimitation of the CS is equitable. The
method, which is in evolution, begins with the construction of an equidistance line from
which the equity or inequity of the area gave determined by comparing the seabed areas
allocated to each State with the lengths of their respective coastlines. If the ratios of
seabed areas and coastline lengths are out of proportion, the equidistance line is open to
question. Under such circumstances, the factors causing the disproportionality must be
identified and assessed. When these factors are found to have an impact on the
equidistance line that is out of proportion to their size or significance, they must be
discounted in the construction of the final, or equitable boundary line. In the
Mozambique case, geology and geomorphology will, however, have an important role in
the delimitation of CS beyond 200 nm.
The information on the limits of the CS beyond 200 nm shall be submitted to the
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)98 in accordance with Article
76(8) and Annex II of LOSC99. However, Article 9 of annex II states that, the actions of
98
According to paragraph Article 3 (1), of Annex II of LOSC, the CLCS has two main functions: The first
function is to consider the data and other material submitted by the coastal States concerning the outer
limits of the CS in areas where those limits extend beyond 200 nm, and to make recommendations in
accordance with Article 76 of LOSC. The second function is to provide scientific and technical advice, if
requested by the coastal State, during the preparation of data. The coastal State must defray the expenses in
the provision of that advice.
99
Annex II of LOSC elaborates the particulars of the CLCS as provided for in Article 76. The CLCS shall
consist of 21 members, who shall be experts in the field of geology, geophysics, or hydrograph. They are to
48
Map 9: Potential Continental Shelf Beyond 200 nautical miles (not to scale)
be elected by States parties to LOSC from among their nationals. Thus, if a State is not party to LOSC, it
may not have a national on the Commission.
49
The procedures for submission to the CLCS are to be supplemented by the CLCS Technical
Guidelines and coastal States preparing to make a submission under Article 76 are advised to observe the
CLCSs Guidelines: Rules of Procedure of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
(CLCS/3/Rev.2, 4 September 1998); Modus Operandi of the Commission (CLCS/L.3, 12 September 1997);
Scientific and Technical Guidelines of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS/11, 13
May 1999); (CLCS/11/Add. 1, 3 September 1999).
101
On request, the States Parties may review of the States that ratified early with a view to ameliorating the
difficult in respect of the 10 year deadline. In recognition of the crucial role of the scientific and Technical
Guidelines of the Commission adopted on the 13 May 1999, the Eleventh Meeting of SPLOS agreed that
States having ratified the Convention before that date must make their submission within 10 years of the
date, i.e. 13 May 2009, notwithstanding the individual date of entry into force of the LOSC for such States.
102
Robert W. Smith and George Taft, Legal aspects of the Continental Shelf, in Continental Shelf Limits
The Scientific and Legal Interface, ed. Peter J. Cook et al., Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 21-22;
Heidar, Thomas H. (2003), Legal Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits, in Nordquist, at al (ed.) (2004: 31)
Legal and Scientific Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Netherlands.
103
A Desktop Study includes the operations (computations, analyses, interpretations) that will be carried
out using computer software specifically designed to produce the required mathematical results from the
use of existing public and non-domain datasets. These are specific existing data sets for (bathymetry,
geology, morphology) and through a series of specific tasks and procedures. As specified under the CLCS
Technical Guidelines, a quantitative first look will be produced. These results will give the coastal State a
preliminary indication of what the new final outer limit may look like once an Article 76 claim has been
implemented (Van de Poll, 2002, 2003).
50
collate all available information in the public domain and identify areas for further
scientific studies and field surveys. In Mozambique, local expertise available will be very
critical to follow the findings of the Desktop Study with further scientific studies as
needed for the finalization of the extended CS submission.
Mozambique intends to establish the outer limit of its CS. Due the technical and
financial limitations, assistance is needed for: hydrographic field survey to acquire data
for baselines and the construction of maps and charts; interpretation of existing data to
facilitate the identification of base-points; hardware/software to support the data; and
training/building capacity104.
Why should Mozambique claim an extended CS beyond 200 nm? Simply put, it is of
critical importance for future national development of Mozambique resources, as the
continental margin of Mozambique potentially holds valuable resources. This potential is
highlighted by the following description of geophysical investigations of the Madagascar
and Mozambique continental margins:
This suggests that the continental margin offers opportunities for developing its
resources and for disposing of certain kinds of waste on a large scale. The continental
margin possesses both non-living and living resources. While both are considered
valuable, it is the potential for non-living resource extraction that is the main stimulus for
the Mozambican Government to claim as much as the continental margin as possible and
104
The Mozambique Government has requested assistance from the Commonwealth Secretariat and
negotiations are underway to establish the scope of possible assistance.
105
The AOA Geophysics Newsletter, 2002, www.AOAGeophysics.com (Accessed 23 June 2006).
51
to encourage States or private companies to explore for oil and gas, and to a much
smaller extent minerals and to develop any significant discoveries106.
Note that the exploration of the non-living resources of the CS beyond the 200 nm by
the coastal State is subject to a contribution or payment to the International Seabed
Authority (ISBA)107. Whether the effort required to determine the limit of the CS beyond
200 nm is considered justified depends on an assessment of the potential benefits to be
gained from rights over the CS.
106
52
Mozambique, there is no relevant hydrographic and technical report, and data is still
scattered throughout various institutions.
The Government of Mozambique has began its preparation for negotiations with
neighboring States. Generally, the preparation is in its initial phase, except with South
Africa, where the process of delimitation has already begun. Two technical teams for
delimitation of maritime boundaries and the outer limit of CS were created. The teams
are composed of different experts from different Mozambican institutions with relevant
knowledge in the field. The teams are working under the umbrella of IMAF, however the
specific duties of those teams need to be clarified, and provided with LOS capacity
building opportunities. The teams have already begun to compile hydrographic and
technical aspects in order to produce a technical report for maritime boundary purposes.
Hence, there are three key moments in boundary negotiations, before negotiations (a
team must getting know each other; definition of the relevant area; getting to know the
ground; calculate a median or equidistance line; open position), during the negotiations
(presence; geodetic datum; exchange list of base points; present the case; prepare
graphics; write a technical solution; fall back positions), and after the negotiations
(technical content of the Treaty Document; graphic depiction and publicity)110. It is
important to clarify the role of the teams for each phase and to define the specific roles of
each team by clarifying when they must act, and when each acts ends.
110
For more detail see: Carleton & Clive Schofield (2002: 50-63).
53
The purpose and object of all negotiations must be fully compatible with the
principles and norms of international law, including the provisions of the
Charter;
States should use their best endeavours to continue to work towards a mutual
acceptable and just solution in the event of an impasse in negotiations111.
The negotiation process should be guided by these principles and other relevant
principles of international law which provide guidelines for an agreement accepted by the
parties. It is emphasized that good faith must guide all negotiation phases and those
negotiations must be conducted in a spirit of fairness and effectiveness.
111
United Nations, General Assembly, Resolution 53/101 Principles and guidelines for international
negotiations, 20 January 1999 (A/RES/53/101), www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/r53.htm (Accessed 11 July
2006).
54
112
Commonwealth Secretariat (1993: 199, 200), Practical Steps in Negotiating Maritime Boundary
Agreements: A Guide to Small States. Prepared by Carl W. Dundas, Technical Assistance Group,
Commonwealth Fund For Technical Cooperation, London.
113
See: Fisher, Roger & William Ury (1991), Getting to Yes: Negotiating and agreement Without giving in,
Century Business, UK.
55
Convention of Law of Treaties is the framework instrument which codifies the rules on
the conclusion and effects of treaties.
Apart from the 1969 Vienna Convention of Law of Treaties, parties to a negotiation
should consider any effects of their own constitutional rules on treaties. In Mozambique,
the final acceptance of an agreement on this matter is subject to ratification by the
Republic Assembly. This means that once a final agreement has been reached between
the negotiation teams, that agreement will only have immediate effect in the territory of
Mozambique after ratification by the Republic Assembly, that is the form of consent in
domestic order.
discoveries,
existing
conflicts
between
Madagascar/France
and
114
56
indicated in Article 33, paragraph 1, of the Charter115. Then, where no settlement has
been reached, Article 286 states that the dispute shall be submitted at the request of any
party to the dispute to a court or tribunal having jurisdiction under the section. Article
287 defines tribunals as follows:
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) established in
accordance with Annex VI;
The ICJ;
An arbitral tribunal constituted in accordance with Annex VII;
A special arbitral tribunal constituted in accordance with annex VIII for
one or more of the categories disputes specified therein.
States are free to choose one or more of these means by a written declaration to be
made under Article 287 of LOSC and deposited with the UN Secretary General. If the
parties to a dispute have not accepted the same settlement procedure, the dispute may be
submitted only to arbitration in accordance with Annex VII, unless the parties agree
otherwise.
This legal framework has been subsequently reaffirmed, and expanded upon, through
several declarations and resolutions of the UN General Assembly. These documents
reinforce the key principles of peaceful settlement of disputes; the non-use of force in IR;
non-intervention in internal or external affairs of States; equal rights and the selfdetermination of peoples; the sovereignty equality of States to act in good faith116. This
means that States are free to choose the method of dispute resolution. If they can settle
disputes directly through negotiation or conciliation, whether bilaterally or regionally,
they have right to do so. But if there is no such solution, they are obliged to choose one of
the four possible fora outlined above. Not surprisingly, among the dispute settlement
mechanisms available to States, diplomatic negotiation is the most frequently used. It is
115
Paragraph 1 of article 33 of UN Charter states that: The parties to any dispute, the continuance of
which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a
solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration judicial settlement, resort to regional
agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. In essence this paragraph
emphasizes the peaceful means of conflict resolution.
116
United Nations, (1992: 3-7), quoted by Prescott & Clive Schofield (2005: 5).
57
the simplest and the traditional procedure, and it is successful more often than not117.
States non-party to LOSC, but members of the UN are also covered subject to the UN
Charter which also calls for the settlement of disputes through peaceful means.
117
118
58
A good number of these arrangements have been made in connection with existing
boundaries, while a few others have been devised in the context of a delimitation process,
and still others originate in situations where delimitation is pending. Joint development
might be useful for Mozambique and other States while boundaries are being negotiated,
as well as after their delimitation.
Indeed, even if the Mozambique boundary is determined and agreed, that is not the
end of the matter. There may still remain the need to put in place a utilization
arrangement for possible future discovery of a new deposit lying astride the boundary, or
to manage different trans-boundary problems. For example, Article 3 LOSC urges States
sharing trans-boundary resources to seek agreement. Experience shows that the States
concerned normally agree on a further procedure of utilization in anticipation of future
discovery of new deposits astride the agreed boundary119.
In other cases, Joint Development zones have been created. Specific examples of
these include:
-
These examples can serve as a model for Mozambique and other States of the region
in the establishment Joint of Development Agreements. Such agreements may be
appropriate in the case of Mozambique and its adjacent and opposite States, particularly
119
120
See Ong (1995: 83-84) for southwest Asian examples; Miyoshi, Ibid.
Bundy (1995: 38, 39).
59
so as to fester cooperation (as outlined below) considering that most of the States
concerned are developing States and face many problems such as the lack of capacity to
control and manage the resources, and a lack of marine technology. It is fundamental to
note that Joint Development Agreements are not only confined to the place of boundary
between the States, but also may be developed for a wider region established through
specific agreements.
60
121
61
125
According to the Websters Third New International Dictionary (1971) the word management is
defined as: () the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling and
supervising any industrial or business project or activity with responsibility for results. Armstrong and
Ryner define ocean management as () deliberated effort to direct or control conditions and actions,
without suggesting that such efforts are necessarily successful. Such efforts can either be supportive, in the
sense of attempting to encourage, promote or assist some action or condition, or restrictive in the sense of
attempting to prevent, diminish or discourage. See: Armstrong, John M. & Peter C. Ryner (1981: 2),
Ocean Management: a New Perspective, Abb Arbor Science, US.
126
Kay & Jacqueline Alder (1999: 69).
62
Navigation; the recently established Center of Coastal Zone Management; the National
Council of Sustainable Development (CONDES); the National Institute of Petroleum
(INP); and the Institute for Development of Small Scale Fishery and Technical School of
Fisheries.
The vision behind the creation of these institutions was to make it easier to plan,
organize, execute and control State duties concerning the sea in a systemic, open and
participative approach. However, the practice shows that while each entity collects some
information to execute its specific duties, the coordination between them is weak, and the
exchange of information remains difficult.
One of the important steps taken by the Government to promote coordination is the
creation of IMAF. Through its Technical Council,127 IMAF pursues coordination and
linkages between the institutions or sectors which deal with sea issues. In fact, the
Technical Council is a coordination and consultation organ128.
However, IMAF is not mandated to formulate and adopt policies or a national policy
of sea issues. Nor does it have the power of direct management or intervention on sea
issues such as tourism, environment or fisheries. The role of IMAF is limited, and doesnt
transcend the powers of the ministries. The IMAF is an institution which coordinates,
formulates and proposes policies related to the sea and boundaries to be adopted by the
decision makers. Normally, IMAF reports to the Coordination Council of Sea and
Boundaries, which is the highest-level organ of policy formulation and coordination on
issues related to the sea and boundaries. The Coordination Council of Sea and Boundaries
is an organ of the Ministers Council,129 and composed of all relevant ministries with
activities related to the sea. This means that, in terms of the modern LOS approach of
policy formulation, there is an unquestionable conditions for pursue.
127
63
In addition to many other concerns,130 the major problem facing ocean management
in Mozambique is lack of cohesiveness and coordination both vertically and horizontally
between sectors, activities and programs. Theres still a lack of macro vision of
integrated of ocean issues, and there is still a lack of effective policy
formulation/coordination through a more coherent definition of national priorities for the
sea. This means that the LOS and ocean management issues are not sufficiently
politicized resulting in and the management of ocean issues to be confined in sectoral
institutions without effective coordination between them. Coastal/ocean related inputs to
national development planning are generally received only from a few more traditional
sectors, and such inputs are evaluated on a project-by-project basis without the
examination of cross-sectoral and cross-resources implications131.
It has been observed that rationally dividing vertical responsibilities for ocean
management between levels of Government is often much more difficult than resolving
horizontal differentiation problems. Political, administrative and budgetary clashes
between levels of Government drive conflict, and often lead to confusion in allocation of
responsibilities. Such vertical imbalances of power, money, and differences in political
affiliation often dictate the overall shape of the ocean management approaches of a nation
both horizontally and vertically. This is because horizontal differentiation will, to a large
extent, be controlled by the relative degree of vertical power held by a particular level of
Government. Thus, a lower level of Government will be unable to create a complex
horizontal differentiation of its sectors, in contrast to a large and higher level of
Government132.
A central issue in the vertical distribution of management authority is the degree of
centralization in decision-making a fundamental management approach not restricted to
the coast. One compromise usually struck is to attempt to delegate decision-making
powers to the lowest level of decision making consistent with the scope of the problem,
130
The lack of research capability in marine sciences; inadequate attention and low priority given to
environmental concern in the extended areas of jurisdiction; difficulties in training people and retaining
people skilled in ocean management; inadequate infrastructures; law enforcement and lack of coordination
between Government institutions.
131
Vallejo, 1988c, quoted by Vallejo, Stella Maris, New structures for decision-making in integrated
ocean, in Peter Bautista Payoyo (ed.), (1994: 74), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the
Seas, United Nations University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
132
Kay & Jacqueline Alder (1999: 88).
64
but to constrain those decisions within a framework articulated by the next highest level.
Centralism and localism each have advantages, as outlined in Table 2.
Advantages of localism
Intimate knowledge of the problem
More localized outlook
Greater likelihood of living with the effects of the
decision, creating an incentive to be successful
Increased funds
Greater political will
Source: Adapted from Ketchum, 1972, Kay & Jacquile; Alder, 1999: 89.
It has been noted that the most salient problem in policy formulation, planning and
implementation is the absence of any overall policy framework. Policy-making takes
place at the sectoral level, is primarily reactive and is, therefore, formulated on a
piecemeal basis without inter-agency consultation. As result, marine-related policies have
conflicting (or at best unrelated) objectives, resulting in environment damage or simply
ineffective implementation133. Consequently, decision-making procedures are highly
fragmented, suffer from internal duplication and overlap, and reflect competition between
agencies134.
The vast majority of ocean planning and management programs in operation today
attempt to link the efforts of Government with both the private sector and the local
community. Community-based councils, commissions or round tables, including what is
now generally called stake-holders, i.e. all those whose livelihood depends on the
management of ocean and coastal spaces and resources: municipal government as well as
civil society, scientific community, fisheries associations, shipping companies, offshore
oil companies, coastal developers, tourism organizations, coastal engineers, port and
harbour masters, non governments organizations, among others. Civil society and the
private sector particularly influence the planning and management of ocean and coastal
133
Vallejo, 1991b, quoted by Vallejo, Stella Maris, New structures for decision-making in integrated
ocean, in Peter Bautista Payoyo (ed.), (1994: 74), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the
Seas, United Nations University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
134
Vallejo, Stella Maris, New structures for decision-making in integrated ocean, in Peter Bautista Payoyo
(ed.), (1994: 74), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations University
Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
65
ecosystems and resources. Ideally, coastal and ocean management process must be based
on co-management135 between Government, local community and users groups.
Many international treaties and regional agreements have addressed the subject of
ocean management in the last decades. Mozambique is a party to the LOSC and the
UNCED, which are the main international frameworks guiding nations in governing the
ocean. In modern LOS developments oceans issues are viewed as a whole and an
integrated approach to ocean management must be established. At an institutional level,
normal institutional arrangements are addressed. Traditional administrations, established
usually on a strictly sectoral basis (for example: fisheries, the merchant navy) are
confronted with difficulties in coping with new problems resulting from the multiple use
of the oceans and their interactions. To deal with these difficulties, two trends can be
identified: one is towards the establishment of sectoral administration dealing with ocean
affairs as a whole; the establishment of Ministries of the Sea (as in France), falls in this
category. The other trend is based on the use of the existing sectoral administrations
operating under the body having the power to formulate a national policy in ocean affairs
and to co-ordinate its implementation. This is the case, for example, of the Department
for Ocean Development established in India136.
Mozambique already has an institutional structure in place that can, with appropriate
support, perform many or most of the functions in ocean policy formulation and
implementation. Consequently, what is needed is the strengthening of decision-making,
135
The concept of co-management is synonymous with the terms cooperative management, joint
management, and collaborative management. These terms are used to define:
An institutional arrangement in which responsibility for resource management, conservation
and/or economic development is shared between government and users;
Management systems in which users and other interests take an active part in designing,
implementing, and enforcing management regulations;
A sharing of decision-making between government agencies and community based stokeholds;
Management decisions (policy) based on shared information, on consultation with stokeholds, and
on their participation;
The integration of local level and State-level systems, and/or
Institutional arrangements in which governments and other parties, such as aboriginal entities,
local community groups, or industry sectors enter into formal agreements specifying their
perspective rights, powers, and obligations with reference to, for example, environment
conservation and resource development. National Round Table on the Environment and the
Economy, Sustainable Strategies for Oceans: A Co-management Guide, 1998, Ottawa; Borgese
(1998: 138).
136
Ruivo, Mrio, (1985, 251-256), Institutional Arrangements for the New Ocean Regime, in Richardson,
Jacques G. (ed.) (1985: 254), Managing the Ocean, Lomond Publications, INC, Maryland.
66
coordination and communication process rather that creating new institutions. Secondly,
strengthening the infrastructure for ocean development involves not only operational and
structural adjustments, but the provision of necessary means: capital, technology, human
resources, and managerial capabilities, so the institutional structure is capable of
implementing effectively its mandate.
67
watersheds to the limits of national jurisdiction in the offshore. Its definition will depend
on the particular set of issues and geographic factors which are relevant to each stretch of
coast.
According to other authors, coastal area management involves the continuous
management of the use of coastal lands and waters and their resources within some
designated area, the boundaries of which are usually politically determined by legislation
or by executive order141.
The United Nations Department of International Economic and Social Affairs
consider that four criteria are generally used for defining the coastal area: physical
criteria; administrative boundaries; arbitrary distances; and selected environmental
units142.
In some States, the coastal area has been defined by a combination of these criteria
considering that each criteria implies advantages and disadvantages and these must be
weighed in the context of the particular State. In Mozambique, there is no precise
definition of costal zone boundaries. However, a large extent of the definition of the
coastal zone or area should be according to its purpose, taking in consideration the
interaction between land and sea.
In Mozambique, there is no specific law establishing coastal management
boundaries. However, the Mozambique coast is made up of the land that is affected by
being near to the sea and the sea that is affected by being near to the land; in these areas
there are direct interactions between land and sea.
The Mozambique coast is a compound shoreline and can be divided into three main
natural regions with one additional type of limited occurrence: Coral coast; Swamp
Coast; Parabolic Dune Coast; and Delta Coast143. The coastal zone of Mozambique
141
68
Biophysical Value - where land, sea and air meet and inter-connect, and where
reefs beaches, dunes, rocks headlands and wetlands support a rich collection
of distinctly coastal plants and animals; and
The coast can also be looked at in terms of the range of benefits it provides for
human users and for potential uses of subsequent generations. In fact, coastal ecosystems
(including the flows of energy, materials, nutrients and water that sustain coastal
stretches from Bazaruto Island Southward to Ponta Douro on the South African Border is classified as a
parabolic dune coast. This section of the coast is about 850 km long and is characterized by high parabolic
dunes and north-trending capes and barrier lakes. These dunes are Pleistocene formations and reach
considerable heights such as 114 meters at Inhaca Island and are considered to be the tallest vegetated
dunes in the world; IV) Delta Coasts- there are only two sections of the Mozambique coast that can be
classified as Delta i.e. the Zambezi and Save River deltas. For more details see: First Report on the
Conservation of Biological Diversity in Mozambique of Ministry for Coordination of Environment Affairs
(1997: 8).
144
See: MICOA (1997: 45), Strategy and Areas for Action for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in
Mozambique (second draft), Maputo.
69
ecosystems) generate a range of goods and services that provide direct and indirect
benefits to human users in the coastal zone. Natural marine and coastal ecosystems
represent tangible economic goods and provide valuable services, such as the treatment
and assimilation of wastes, storm protection, production of food and raw materials,
recreational amenities, genetic resources, and employment opportunities.
It is thus important to recognize that human activities have an impact on the coastal
system (biophysical, social and economic) and does not exist in isolation from the coastal
system, there are interactions between them. These facts reveal that management and
coordination on an integrated basis is needed to maintain the balance between the range
of coastal elements.
One of the main issues facing the coastal zone is erosion, which is a consequence of
increased demand for a coastal service which has negative impacts on the ecosystem by
reducing its ability to sustain the flow of services. For example, coastal dunes play a vital
role in protecting the coastline against wind and waves. But we can see in highly
attractive places, such as Ponta Douro, Ponta Malongane (District of Matutuine, Maputo
Province), tourists companies aim to get as close as possible to the beach, often
destroying dune vegetation to obtain a sea-view or to build tourism infrastructure. These
actions ignore the coastal protection service provided by dune ecosystems.
Inappropriately located structures are exposed to erosion and high risk from coastal
processes such as storms. This kind of problem can not be solved in complete isolation by
the Ministry of Tourism or the Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs,
rather, coordination between the relevant sectors is needed to include considerations for
tourism, the environment, settlement and local community needs.
The Government recognizes that integrated management approaches greatly improve
the conservation, sustainable use and management of natural resources. The Government
has charged the Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs to draw-up an
integrated coastal management plan for Mozambique through the national coastal zone
management programme. Currently, integrated coastal zone management is being
undertaken by a multi-sectoral group co-ordinated by MICOA, however there is currently
no legislation to enable Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
70
Land use planning is considered the first step for integrated coastal management.
Three considerations should be taken into consideration while elaborating such plans,
namely: the geographical scope; the current situation of coastal natural resources and
their potential use, including by the local communities; and the institutional and
legislative frameworks for coastal management145. It is recalled that the legislative action
needed (i.e. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Act) may be quite comprehensive, and
must be formulated by the Council of Ministers, this to enable the establishment of the
national goals for coastal management and the mechanisms of coordination acrosssectors, because single Ministries are not capable of working beyond the limits of their
specialization and competence.
The Government has recently established the Center for Coastal Zone Management
in the Gaza province (based in the capital Xai-Xai). This institution is carrying out the
tasks of the Unit for Coastal Zone Management of the Ministry of Coordination and
Environmental Affairs. The Centers tasks includes the establishment of a system of
approval of coastal zone development projects, for which environmental impact
assessments is a key tool; supervision of the process of land use planning of the coastal
districts and other coastal areas; and the establishment and supervision of the
environment legislation enforcement system, based on training, operational capacity and
use of the enforcement agents of the institutions involved, as well as local communities
and human resources146. The establishment of this Center constitutes an opportunity to
implement and lead the coordination of integrated coastal zone management programs
and interaction with the local community, but it must be guided by an integrated coastal
management program to effectively implement its mandate.
Strategy and Areas for Action for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in Mozambique (second
draft), MICOA (1997: 58).
146
See: Hoguane, Antnio Mubango, Marine Sciences and Oceanography in Mozambique,
www.aaas.org/international/africa/moz/hoguane.html (Accessed 20 October 2006).
71
population as well as a foreign currency source for the State. The main exploited marine
living resources include: crustaceans (mainly prawns, shrimp, lobsters and crabs); pelagic
and demersal fish; and shellfish and marine algae/seaweed (presently cultivated in Cabo
Delgado province)147. Because of the importance of these resources for the State,
institutions have been created and many programs have been established, to look manage
the marine living resources of the State.
The Ministry of Fisheries is mandated to address fishery issues, and it has
established four autonomous administrative institutions, created for implementation of
specific duties: National Fisheries Research Institute, Institute for Development of Small
Scale Fishery and Technical School Fisheries.
The fisheries management system in Mozambique consists of the Fisheries
Administration Commission which is responsible for issues concerning fisheries
management and administration, including the marine environmental preservation148. At
the provincial and district levels there are co-management committees, with the same
duties as the committee, but at the local level.
The fisheries legislation framework in Mozambique is composed of Acts and
regulations/rules issued by the Council of Ministers, or by the ministerial decrees for
certain specific issues. The main law established to govern the fishing activities is Act
3/90, the Fisheries Act 149.
This Act is the main legal instrument for the management of all fishery activity in
Mozambique. It deals with the process of management of the fisheries by establishing the
planning of fisheries activities, implementation of the licensing mechanism, adoption of
measures for resource conservation, quality control for the export of fish products,
monitoring and surveillance of fisheries activities. This law is implemented by specific
decrees and ministerial decisions150.
147
72
Act; Ministerial decision of 29 February 1992 implementing Act No. 3/90 approving the Fisheries Act;
Ministerial Decision No. 118/91 establishing a closed season and total allowable catch for shrimp fishing;
Ministerial decision of 29 February 1992 on the application of sanctions established by Act No. 3/90
approving the Fisheries Act; Decision of 13 November 1991 establishing fishing vessel marking
requirements; Decision of 18 February 1999 prohibiting catching, collecting and trading of ornamental fish
and coral; Decision of 20 June 1990 providing for an industrial trawl fishing restriction beyond 3 nm from
the coastline; Decision of 16 July 1991 provisionally empowering the Ministry of Agriculture to issue
licenses for artisanal inland fishing; Ministerial decision No. 138/92 establishing minimum mesh size for
trawl fishing for shrimps; Decree No. 35/2001, General aquaculture regulation.
151
P. W. Birnie & A. E. Boyle, International Law and Environment, (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994), p.30,
Kaye (2001: 90).
152
Article 192, LOSC.
153
Kaye (2001: 92).
73
resources of the EEZ are recognized, but only in conjunction with rights for the purpose
of conserving and managing those resources154.
The main provisions with respect to conservation and management of living
resources within EEZ in LOSC are Articles 61 and 62. Article 61(1) provides that it is for
a coastal State to determine the allowable catch for the living resources in its EEZ. It is
significant that this is the first duty for the State: it is clear that there is no attempt to
dilute national control, or to provide a compulsory role for any international body155.
Article 61(3) of LOSC further specifies what is encompassed by the objectives of the
conservation measures that can be imposed by a coastal State in the calculation of its
allowable catch. Populations of living resources are to be maintained at, or restored to the
maximum yield, as qualified by relevant environmental and economic factors including
the economic needs of coastal fishing communities and the special requirements of
developing States, and taking into account fishing patterns, the interdependence of stocks
and any generally recommended minimum standards, whether sub-regional, regional or
global.
With the best scientific evidence available, the coastal State can implement proper
conservation management measures156 to ensure living resources are not endangered by
over-exploitation157. Article 62 of LOSC implies the notion that unused capacity in
coastal State fisheries would be made available to other States where the coastal State
does not have the capacity to harvest the entire allowable catch, it shall, through
agreements or other arrangements (), give other States access to the surplus of
allowable catch.
These relevant provisions contained in LOSC do not appear in the Fisheries Act. The
Fisheries Act does not differentiate the duties and rights of the State in maritime spaces,
nor does it differentiate fishing in the TS, the EEZ and the HS areas. Also, it does not
154
Pinto, Cristopher w. , The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: Sustainable Development
and institutional implications, in Peter Bautista Payoyo, (1994: 8), Ocean Governance, Sustainable
Development of the Seas, United Nations University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
155
It should be noted that the strength of the coastal State provision was supported by developed States
early in UNCLOS III once they realized that the adoption of the EEZ concept was inevitable. See: S. Oda,
Fisheries under the United Nations Convention and the Law of the Sea (1983) 77 American Journal of
International Law pp. 739-743; See also: Yturriaga, p.117, Kaye (2001: 99).
156
Article 61(2), LOSC.
157
In Mozambique there is little information on fish catch and the status of stocks in the EEZ due to the
jurisdiction uncertainty and the lack of capacity for scientific research.
74
define the relevant area for fisheries activities (where the fishing or management begins
and ends). However, the definition of the relevant area of fishing activities is dependent
on delimitation of maritime boundaries which will clarify the areas of national
jurisdiction.
Moreover, the Fisheries Act is not in conformity with the main law governing the
ocean in Mozambique (Law 4/96). The Act doesnt recognize the Act 4/96 (the Act of
Sea), for example: in ns. 1.1, and 1.3 of Article 1 the Fisheries Act establishes that the
maritime waters and jurisdictional waters where the administration and management will
take place are () Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone as defined in the Act
Decree No. 31/76, of 19 of August, and the inland waters beyond the baselines subject of
influence of the tides. First of all, the Act Decree referred to by the Fisheries Act is not
in force, the Act which establishes the maritime spaces and maritime waters of
Mozambique is the Act of Sea. Second, the Fisheries Act provides for a definition of
maritime waters which is not common in Sate practice and draws on some expressions
which are make reference to unclear, such as () subject of influence of the tides 158.
The Fisheries Act does not make reference to the Act of Sea, as the Fisheries Act was
adopted before the Act of Sea, but the gap is still there.
The problems affecting the fisheries management framework of fishing in
Mozambique, which have been highlighted, have severely affected the management
effectiveness of the State: without a proper framework it is very difficult to realize proper
management of fisheries and establish the needed coordination with other sectors.
158
75
76
also recognizes the responsibility of the Government to promote and implement the
NEMP159.
By establishing the Environment Act, and drawing up the NEMP, the Government of
Mozambique clearly demonstrated that is fully committed to pursuing sustainable
development and promoting the conservation of biological diversity.
This environmental framework is largely seen as one of the best achievements of the
States objectives in environmental protection and in terms of compliance with the
general norms of environmental protection. The Environment Act provides an overarching framework and key principles for the protection the environment and is
implemented by many decrees160 and supported by sectoral laws (land law, wildlife,
fisheries, mining, energy, etc). However, the Environment Act is a general law, it does
not deal with the marine environment specifically. Most of the key aspects of the marine
environment remain undefined and are not strictly reflected in the Act. There is one
decree which touch the marine environment aspects the Decree establishing various
measures of protection of beaches, waters shores of ultramarine (1973). This decree was
established before the independence of Mozambique by the colonial Government, and
consequently does not reflect the current reality of Mozambique or that of LOSC.
Under Part XII of LOSC, the marine environment is one of the key aspects of the
modern LOS. States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine
environment161. Further, States shall take, individually or jointly as appropriate, all
measures consistent with LOSC that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control
159
In order to ensure the effective coordination and integration of policies and activities related to
environmental management, a NCSD was created by the Act. The NCSD is a consultative body directly
linked to the Council of Ministers.
160
Relevant decrees implementing the Environmental Act include: Decree No. 45/2004 of 29 September
2004, approving the regulation on the Environment Impact Assessment, revoking the Decree No. 76/98 of
29 December 1998, published in Republic Gazette No. 39, I Serial, Supplement; Decree No. 18/2004, of 2
June, approving the regulation of standards of environmental quality and emission of affluent, published in
Republic Gazette No. 22, I Serial, Supplement; Decree No. 32/2003 of 20 August 2003, approving the
regulation relative to the environmental audits, published in Republic Gazette No. 34, I Serial, Supplement;
Decree 8/2003 of 18 February 2003 on the regulation of Bio-Medical Waste Management, published in
Republic Gazette No. 7, I Serial, 2nd Supplement; Decree 39/2003 of 26 November 2003, approving the
regulation on the licensing of industry activities, published in Republic Gazette No. 48, I Serial; Decree No.
26/2004 of 20 August 2004, approving environmental regulation for mining activity, published in Republic
Gazette No.33, I Serial, 2nd Supplement; Decree No. 495/73 of 6 October 1973, Determining various
measurements for water, beaches, margins, protection against pollution, published in Official Republic
Gazette No. 123, I Serial, Supplement.
161
Article 192 of LOSC.
77
pollution of the marine environment from any source, using for this purpose the best
practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities, and they
shall endeavour to harmonize their policies in this connection (Article 194).
LOSC envisions that the protection and preservation of the marine environment be
regulated not only by international law, LOSC itself, and other international rules are not
contrary to its principles but by national legislation as well. The right of States to adopt
laws and regulations has been provided for in relation to all sources of pollution, but the
relation of national to international law is determined in different ways:
1. In the case of land-based pollution162 and pollution through the
atmosphere163, national laws and regulations should be adopted, taking
into account internationally agreed rules, standards and recommended
practices and procedures, which means that national legislation should not
differ substantially from international law;
2. In relation to pollution from seabed activities subject to national
jurisdiction, States shall adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and
control pollution of the marine environment arising from or in connection
with seabed activities subject to their jurisdiction, such laws, regulations
and measures shall be no less effective than international rules, standards
and recommended practices and procedure164, and in the Area, States only
shall adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution of
the marine environment from activities in the Area undertaken by vessels,
installations, structures and other devices flying their flag or of their
registry or operating under their authority165. The same formula has been
employed in relation to dumping, where national laws and regulations
shall be no less effective than the global rules and standards166;
3. Regarding pollution from vessels, both the flag State and the coastal State
are entrusted with the adoption of national legislation. Regarding vessels
flying their flag, States shall adopt laws and regulations which shall at
least have the same effect as generally accepted international rules and
standards167.
162
78
With respect to the right of the coastal State to enact laws for the protection of waters
of ports or internal waters, international law does not impose any restrictions. In relation
to its TS, the coastal State is limited by its obligation not to hamper the innocent passage
of foreign vessels168. The general rules for EEZ permits the coastal State to adopt rules
and regulations conforming and giving effect to generally accepted international rules
standards169.
Moreover, States are responsible and liable for the protection and the preservation of
the marine environment, and shall ensure that recourse is available in accordance with
their legal systems for prompt and adequate compensation or other relief in regard to
damage caused by the pollution of the marine environment by natural or jurisdictional
persons under their jurisdiction170.
79
protection. However, it is also apparent that there exists a coordination system established
by practice which does in fact perform this integrating function. Current procedures for
enforcing development control and costal management are not working effectively, and it
is questionable whether legal and administrative controls are ever able to change
inappropriate activities and behavior.
Furthermore, MICOA has stated that: the Government has tasked several ministries
to draw up and implement integrated management plans, including the integrated coastal
zone management plan ()171. However this has not yielded an integrated approach at
the national level: there continues to be various initiatives, planning exercises and policy
processes taking place at all levels, and these are not well coordinated and integrated. The
management process remains confined to sectoral areas.
It will be necessary to make changes in order to integrate ocean resources
management in Mozambique, as is the experience of many others States, both developed
and developing172. Integrated ocean policy requires the highest level of political direction
and oversight in order to ensure its success173.
To achieve comprehensive Ocean management, the State should first of all delimit
its maritime boundaries in which to base management policy. Consequently all policies
and legislation shall be accordingly for each jurisdictional area, and established in
conformity with LOSC and relevant rules of international law.
With the appropriated administrative arrangements in place, there is a need to devise
an institutional building strategy by which the following objectives are pursued:
-
Ocean Affairs are elevated within the public policy agenda so marinerelated policies may be discussed with a view to formulate an integrated
national ocean policy;
171
See: Strategy and Areas for Action for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in Mozambique (second
draft), MICOA (1997: 58).
172
UN/DOALOS has conducted a number of studies and is keeping track of changes in the structuring of
integrated coastal and ocean policy in all parts of the world. In a paper prepared for Pacem in Maribus
(Lisbon, 1991) Stella Vallejo presents four case studies: the Netherlands, Brazil, Hawaii and Oregon
(USA), for more details see: Borgese, Elisabeth Mann (1995), Ocean Governance and the United Nations,
Revised Edition, Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., pp. 155-160.
173
Vallejo, Stella Maris, New structures for decision-making in integrated ocean, in Peter Bautista Payoyo
(ed.), (1994: 89), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations University
Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
80
Policy objectives and national priorities set forth in the national ocean
policy are effectively integrated within national development planning;
and
174
Vallejo, Stella Maris, New structures for decision-making in integrated ocean, in Peter Bautista Payoyo
(ed.), (1994: 89), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations University
Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
175
Vallega (2001: 127).
81
176
LOSC Preamble; See also: Ettiger et al, Ocean Governance and the Global Picture, in Payoyo, Peter
Baptista (ed.) (1994: 247), Ocean Governance: Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations
University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
177
The region includes the following States: Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar Mauritius, Mozambique,
Reunion, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania and South Africa.
178
The first conference was held in July 1985, starting with a consultive phase 15-20 July 1985 and
concluded with a meeting of experts and officials followed by the ministerial level meeting 26-28 January
1987. Both phases of the conference were held in Colombo, Sri Lanka. The first meeting of the IOMAC
Standing Committee was held in Colombo on 28 January 1987 upon conclusion of the conference, and has
subsequently held seven other meetings, the last having held in July 1991. With the exception of the sixth
meeting of the committee, held in Arusha, Tanzania in conjunction with the second conference (IOMAC II)
all meetings of the Committee have been held in Colombo at the seat of the Secretariat. The second
conference took place in Arusha, Tanzania (3-7 Setember 1990) Jayewardene, Hiran W., The Indian Ocean
Marine Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC), in Payoyo, Peter Baptista (ed.) (1994: 225), Ocean Governance:
Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
82
IOMAC179 is the perhaps the only regional initiative of regional cooperation originated in
the LOSC process180.
As an exercise in the development of international organizations, IOMAC is
characterized by a functional approach which preceded the process of formalization
culminating in the adoption of the Arusha Agreement on the Organization for Indian
Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation of 1990181. This approach helped Governments and
organizations participate, experience, and understand the nature and scope of such a
framework for cooperation. This process of program development and institutional
consolidation was principally supported by the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP).
In July 1998, Mozambique hosted the pan-African conference on sustainable
integrated coastal management. The conference was held in Maputo and is part of the
ongoing region-wide effort to promote better coastal management. A consistent and key
recommendation which emerged from these meetings and workshops is the need for each
State to develop a national policy for integrated coastal management. Currently, several
African States - Mozambique, Tanzania and South Africa - are undertaking national
coastal policy initiatives. One such initiative is the establishment of the Center of Coastal
Management in Xai-Xai city, province of Gaza.
In relation to marine environmental concerns there are ongoing efforts of cooperation
undertaken by the East Africa region States (where Mozambique is a State Party), under
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Regional Seas Programme. In 1982, the
East African region States (also referred to as the western Indian Ocean-WIO), adopted
179
The following States from the Indian Ocean region have participated in IOMAC II: Arab Republic,
Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iran,
Iraq, Kenya, Kuwait, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal,
Oman, Pakistan, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen,
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
180
Jayewardene, Hiran W., The Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC), in Payoyo, Peter
Baptista (ed.)(1994: 225), Ocean Governance: Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations
University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
181
The Arusha Agreement has been signed by Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nepal,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania and ratified by Indonesia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka. Thus some ratifications are needed in order to enter into force. However, the IOMAC Technical
Cooperation Group has begun to be activated following the Arusha resolution, and a number of IOMAC
activities, including the IOMAC-IOC Training programme are being implemented. For details see:
Jayewardene, Hiran W., The Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC), in Payoyo, Peter
Baptista (ed.) (1994: 227), Ocean Governance: Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations
University Press, Tokyo/New York/Paris.
83
the Eastern Africa Action Plan, which entered into force in 1996, followed by the
Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal
Environmental of the East Africa region adopted in 1985 and entered into force in
1996182. This convention has its associated protocols: Protocol Concerning Protected
Areas and wild Fauna and Flora in Eastern African Region, adopted in 1985, entered into
force in 1996, and Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Marine Pollution in
Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region, adopted in 1985, entered into force in
1996.
The main merit of regional treaties and cooperation is that they reflect the geographic
scale where the main marine problems occur in terms of resources and marine
ecosystems. The regional approach offer specific actions and facilitate information
exchange on marine issues, and strategies and options for response.
LOSC is in force, and the regions States must decide how to adjust their national
initiatives to be compatible with emerging international legal and technical obligations.
Warming relations between the States of the region and the coming into force of LOSC
provide an excellent opportunity to build a comprehensive ocean management approach
for the region.
The Convention for protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment
of the Eastern Africa Region (Nairobi Convention) and its two protocols were signed in 1985 and have
been in force since 30 May 1996. South Africa, which was not a signatory in 1985, acceded to the Nairobi
Convention and associated Protocols on 16 May 2003. Thus, the Nairobi Convention has now achieved 100
percent ratification. The Nairobi Convention covers five mainland States (Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania,
Mozambique and South Africa) and five island States (Seychelles, Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and
Runion - France).
84
smuggling and the illicit traffic of narcotics and other dangerous substances, can threaten
the security of States and can cause loss of life at sea. The concurrent tensions in relation
to natural resource exploitation at sea can also constitute threats to peace and security at
sea, leading to maritime boundary disputes183.
It is relevant to note that most of the challenges to marine security are regional and
global in scope, are often connected, and have the potential to undermine human security.
For example, during 2005, 264 acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships were
reported to International Maritime Organization (IMO) to have occurred or to have been
attempted. The areas most affected are: South China, Malacca Strait, West Africa, South
American and the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and East Africa184. In the Indian Ocean
region, piracy, armed robbery, and hijacking have been particularly prevalent in waters
off the coast of Somalia, including those acts against two ships operated by the United
Nations World Food Program which where carrying food aid to Somalia185.
LOSC defines an exhaustive regulatory approach, which promotes the peaceful use
of the sea and constitutes an important contribution for peace reinforcement, for security,
for cooperation and for friendly relations among the States. One of the fundamental
features of LOSC is the exigency for States to cooperate in the prevention of piracy acts
and the illicit traffic of narcotics and psychotropic substances. Cooperation among States
can take many forms, including the sharing of information or the undertaking of joint
enforcement action. In addition to cooperation at all levels, what is required in order to
prevent and combat the challenges to maritime security effectively is a comprehensive
approach to security. Thus, the security domain in the region requires comprehensive and
cohesive efforts among Mozambique and other States of the region to protect their
183
Jamine, Elisio B. (2004: 53), A Delimitao das Fronteiras Maritimas para a Jurisdio e Exerccio da
Soberania Luz da Conveno das Naes Unidas sobre o Direito do Mar: O Caso de Moambique
(Tese), ISRI, Maputo.
184
For more details see: Ocean and Law of the Sea: Report of the Secretary-General, Sixty-first Session
(A/61/63), 2006.
185
These acts have been condoned by IMO. In its resolution A.979(24) on Piracy and armed robbery
against ships in waters of the coast of Somalia, the IMO Assembly condemns and deplores all acts of
piracy and armed robbery against ships irrespective of where such acts occur or may occur and appeals to
all parties, which may be able to assist, to take action, within the provisions of international law, to ensure
that all acts or attempted acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships are terminated forthwith, any plans
for committing such acts are abandoned and any hijacked ships are immediately and unconditionally
released and that no harm is caused to the seafarers on board.
85
common interest at sea. But with the delimitation of maritime boundaries still unresolved,
it becomes difficult to define within which areas such cooperation may occur.
Its the organization through which States Parties to LOSC shall organize and control activities in the
Area, in particular with a view to administering the resource of the Area.
187
ITLOS was established by LOSC with jurisdiction over any dispute concerning the implementation or
application of LOSC.
188
The propose of the CLCS as referred is to facilitate the implementation of LOSC in respect of the outer
limits of the CS beyond 200 nm from the baselines from which the breath of the TS is measured.
86
spaces, including: the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD), which monitors
the implementation of UNCEDs recommendations, the IMO, UNEP, Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOCUNESCO), among other international and regional bodies.
The LOSC has applied the expression of the competent international
organizations189 (or in the singular organization when referencing the IMO)190 to
designate as implementing bodies such as the FAO, IMO, the UNEP, and other
international agencies.
Moreover, UNCED, which convened in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, produced a
global action plan for sustainable development entitled Agenda 21191. All of Agenda
21s 40 chapters are applicable in one way or another to coastal and ocean issues, while
one in particular (Chapter 17) is devoted exclusively to oceans. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21
defines objectives and activities in ocean development and management, including:
integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas,
including EEZ; sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources in high seas
areas; sustainable use and conservation of marine resources in areas under national
jurisdiction; the need to deal with critical uncertainties related to marine environmental
issues and climate change; the strengthening of international and regional cooperation
and coordination; and sustainable development of small island States. Chapter 17 has
stimulated a wide range of initiatives from both decision-making centers and the
scientific community192. The major UN bodies and related bodies, from the World Bank
and IOC-UNESCO to UNEP, FAO, have all undertaken programs aimed at implementing
the guidelines included in this chapter193.
189
Note that organizations not referred to in the LOSC either directly or by implication, also have roles of
importance in the implementation of the LOSC provisions and in bringing about sustainable development
of marine resources and may, through discharging such functions, and with time, the international
community also recognizes such organizations as competent international organizations under LOSC. In
such cases, the expression competent international organizations, when used in the singular in LOSC,
applies exclusively to IMO bearing in mind the global mandate of the organization as a specialized agency
within the UN system established by the Convention on the International Maritime Organization.
190
The use of the term international organization in the singular form (as in all provisions concerning
pollution from ships) clearly indicates that this term refers to the IMO.
191
United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, Agenda 21,
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21
192
For details see Vallega (2001: 18).
193
Ibid.
87
194
FAO was established in 1945 as a specialized agency of the UN with a mandate to raise levels of
nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productivity, and to better the condition of rural
populations. Today, FAO is one of the largest specialized agencies in the UN System and the lead agency
not only focusing on agriculture, but also to forestry, fisheries and rural development. Since its inception,
FAO has worked to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved
nutrition and the pursuit of food security, defined as the access of all people at all times to the food they
need for an active and healthy life.
195
See generally S. M. Garcia, Ocean Fisheries Management: The FAO Programme in P. Fabbri, Ocean
Management in Global Change, (London: Elsevier Applied Science, 1992) p. 381; Kaye, 2001.
196
Ibid.
88
197
89
of life at sea and the protection of the marine environment through the prevention of
pollution caused by ships and other crafts202.
IMO programs are directed toward achieving the protection of the ocean
environment and, according to the Secretary General of the IMO, are oriented toward the
following areas: prevention of marine pollution from shipping activities (that is, from
operational discharges); marine pollution emergency response; management of waste
disposal at sea; liability, compensation, and intervention issues; and baseline
information203.
164 sovereign States representing all regions of the world are at present
Parties to the IMO Convention and accordingly Members of IMO;
All Members may participate in meetings of the IMO bodies responsible for
drafting and adopting recommendations containing safety and anti-pollution
rules and standards. These rules and standards are normally adopted by
consensus204;
All States, whether or not they are Members of IMO or the United Nations,
are invited to participate in the IMO conferences responsible for adopting new
IMO conventions; and
Through the years, the emphasis of IMO has evolved from developing standards to
replace multiplicity of national legislation to its current campaign to encourage quality
shipping. This is reflected in the conventions that are in place which can be divided into
following categories:
-
Marine Safety;
Marine Pollution;
202
Nandam, Satya N., Existing Institutional Framework and Mechanisms, in Peter Bautista Payoyo, (1994:
32), Ocean Governance, Sustainable Development of the Seas, United Nations University Press,
Tokyo/New York/Paris.
203
For more details see: Frankel (1995: 160).
204
International Maritime Organization (2005), Implications of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea for the International Maritime Organization, 4 Albert Embannkment, London SE1 7SR
(LEG/MISC/4).
90
Other subjects205.
In total there are more than 40 conventions together with more than 800 codes and recommendations
that have been produced through IMO, and it has been recorded that all of its major conventions have been
adopted by States representing more that 90% of the worlds tonnage.
206
Local - Community Based Co-Management; Participation of Stakeholders (civil society, industry, etc);
Citizens Programs (i.e. coastal watch). National - Effective linkages between local and national governance
structures; Real cooperation between all government departments/ministries involved in oceans; Open to
the real participation of stakeholders; A National approach could include: Wide participation in an
effective decision making system linking government, scientists, industry and local communities; A
political level consisting of a Board of Ministers for the Ocean (interdepartmental) which could be
advised by a multi-stakeholder Advisory Council; A bureaucratic level consisting of a Interdepartmental
Commission for the Ocean composed of senior department officials, and with thematic sub groups
(working groups). Regional - As outlined supra; Strengthening of the Regional Seas and close coordination
with the UNEP-GPA; Integration of thematic regional frameworks (i.e. pollution and security); Inclusion of
Regional Development Banks (new and additional sources of funding!); Inclusion of Regional
Governmental Organizations; Particular emphasis on the operational aspects; Assembly, with trans-sectoral
and inter-disciplinary mandate, for the (sub-) Regional implementation of all relevant Conventions,
Agreements, and Programs. Bailet, Franois (2002), Ocean Governance: Towards and Oceanic Circle,
DOALOS/UNITAR Briefing on Developments in Ocean Affairs and LOS - 20 years After the Conclusion
of LOSC UN-HQ, September 25&26, 2002,
www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_20years/presentation_ocean_governance (Accessed 9 May 2006).
207
Hefny, Magdy (1998), A Regional Perspective: Africa and the Law of the Sea Convention, in Vidas,
Davor & Willy Ostreng (ed.) (1998: 372), Order for the Oceans at the Turn of the Century, Kluwer Law
International, The Hauge/London/Boston.
208
UNDESA (1982: 1).
91
integrative mechanisms209. It has been written that the task of policy is to establish a
common purpose through objectives to be achieved in order to realize that common
purpose. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the following elements are required:
-
209
210
92
No. 2/95 of 30 of May) and the Strategy for Tourism Development in Mozambique. A
guiding principal of the policy is the promotion of initiatives which ensure the
maintenance of ecological integrity, preservation of the environment and the sustainable
use of the natural resource so as to improve quality of life in local people. The National
Policy for Tourism aims to clarify Government policies and priorities for tourism
development, protect the strategic areas of tourism development, and re-affirms major
tourist attractions.
In August 1995, the Government also adopted the National Policy for the
Environment211, with the key objectives: to secure the quality of life of Mozambican
people; develop environmental conscience in the people, including the participation of
the public in environmental management; secure the integration between socio-economic
planning and environmental issues; ecology and ecosystem protection; and regional and
international integration in finding solutions for environmental hazards. This policy
recognizes that the major natural resources of the State are under pressure, and promotes
the sustainable development and rational uses of natural resources throughout by
introducing general principles and environmental practices, establishing appropriate
policies and a legal framework for the protection of the environment.
Moreover, in October 1995 the National Policy for Land was adopted212 with the
objectives of improving food production; creating conditions for improvement of familiar
sector agriculture; promotion of private investment; conservation of ecologically
significant areas and natural resource management; and updating and improving the tax
system.
In 1996, the Government of Mozambique adopted a Fisheries Policy213 and
implementation strategy which seeks to maximize economic benefits whilst ensuring the
sustainability of the resources. The objectives of the National Policy for Fisheries are to
integrate fisheries activities into economic development of Mozambique, taking into
account food security, sustainable economic growth, reduction of unemployment tax, and
efforts for the reduction of levels of poverty.
211
93
However, there is no ocean policy and there is weak coordination between the
adopted sectoral policies. Furthermore, the new provisions of the modern LOS are not
strictly reflected. A national policy for integrated ocean management is needed. Indeed,
the national ocean policy should provide broad guidelines under which the managing
institutions define specific coastal boundaries, depending on their management goals.
Once the policy has been formulated, it must be implemented at all levels (national,
provincial, district and locally through the involvement of the private sector and civil
society, and linked with the regional level). Integrated ocean policy requires the highest
level of political direction and overall oversight in order to ensure its success, the
Coordination Council can easily take responsibility for this task.
The Coordination Council, as the highest level body in ocean affairs, should provide
the necessary leadership and the opportunity and the leverage for policy priority-setting
and inter-agency coordination to a degree that previously has not been possible. This
body would bring together governmental, stakeholders and non-governmental
organizations involved in ocean/coastal affairs for supporting the future integrated ocean
policy.
Furthermore, a legislative improvement is needed to support the integrated ocean
policy. By ratifying LOSC the Government undertakes to fulfill the obligations, duties,
and responsibilities stipulated therein, in addition to exercising incumbent rights or
powers. As noted, the legal framework established for ocean management, particularly
for fisheries, is not in conformity with the LOSC, as it only focuses on the costal issues,
and there are no references or concrete provisions for the EEZ or CS. The optimum
framework for support rational ocean/coastal management214 occurs where the States
jurisdiction covers the (physical) continental margin as a whole. This may be found
where the EEZ has been established and the (physical) continental margin extends out to
200 nm215.
Clearly-defined maritime boundaries are essential for good relations among States
and comprehensive/effective ocean management. The geographical area and the
jurisdiction where this ocean management shall be applied must be determined. In this
214
215
94
respect, the provisions of the LOSC provide the basis upon which Mozambique has or
should base the delimitation of its maritime areas of jurisdiction. Management policies,
plans, programs, economic activities will not longer survive without clarification of the
maritime areas of Mozambique. Therefore, it is important to note that the interest of the
State in the ocean does not stop at the edge of the TS, any more than the interests of the
State could stop at the edge of the CS. But, to establish a coherent, comprehensive and
long term ocean management, the delimitation of maritime boundaries with adjacent and
opposites States is needed.
95
96
Legislation
The current national maritime zone legislation is not in conformity with LOSC, does
not include the new LOSC concepts such as the EEZ, nor does it take into account
environmental provisions. Mozambique needs a domestic legal framework that will
optimally serve the States interests in ocean management and in the establishment of
its maritime boundary with neighboring States. The elaboration of such a framework
requires the consolidation of existing legislation into a new comprehensive Act of the
Sea, which would then be reinforced with new provisions according to LOSC and
taking into account the modern developments in the LOS. Note that the Act of the Sea
should provide general policy guidance on each sectoral issue (i.e. the marine
environment, regulatory arrangements for offshore living and non-living resources)
but leave open the specific treatment of these issues for other relevant Acts.
Baselines
The Mozambique baselines must be established in accordance with LOSC and all
relevant generally accepted principles of international law. These should be defined
by coordinates of latitude and longitude, describing the straight and normal baselines,
and depicted on present day charts.
In the absence of any record of a comprehensive technical and hydrographic
survey, a hydrographic survey of Mozambiques coastlines to determine the basepoints is needed. This will enable the establishment of baselines from which the
breath of the TS, CZ, EEZ, CS are measured.
The Government must also consider the baselines of neighboring States, as it
must ensure that these are mutually acceptable baselines in order to avoid conflict.
Once the exact definition of the baselines is agreed, delimitation can take place. The
immediate benefits of this delimitation include:
-
97
An Introduction;
Charts and maps (considerations governing the use of charts or maps and use
of lists of coordinates, geodetic datum, Doppler Satellite Observations);
Territorial Sea (baselines for the Territorial Sea; Limit of the Territorial Sea;
Boundaries in the Territorial Sea);
216
98
Defining the limits of the legal CS is a much more complex matter. There are
several factors which determine the extent of the CS and it will require considerable
oceanographic, hydrographic, and geophysical work to accurately define its outer
limits.
Mozambique is eligible to claim an extended CS beyond 200 nm and must
present its submission to the CLCS upon the established deadline of 13 May 2009. In
order to do this, Mozambique will need to have established its baselines, which
should have been determined in a delimitation of its maritime zones. Mozambique
must prove, beyond reasonable doubt, that the continental crust of the continental
margin extends beyond 200 nm, thus proving natural prolongation. This will probably
require high technology and highly qualified experts. This should be the priority task
of the Government at this time, due to the fast approaching deadline. In fact,
Mozambique has about two years to delimit its extended CS and present its
submission to the CLCS. This process will require a lot of resources and investment.
Taking into account funding and technology limitations, the Government may
consider the possibility of preparing a joint submission with South Africa. This
approach is particularly attractive considering South Africas situation in terms of
scientific capabilities and particularly since both States will share a CS boundary.
99
French Possessions
The States concerned may have to agree what weighting, if any, to give to the
French possessions and whether to apply the technique of enclaving or half effect
for the small and uninhabited islands, islets or rocks. The Government of
Mozambique, who is not claiming these islands, only has interest in finding a solution
to the conflict between Madagascar and France so that it may proceed appropriately
with its own delimitations.
Capacity Building
The ability to interpret LOSC and the CLCS Guidelines to the advantage
of the State. It is crucial that the experts have full competencies with
respect to the following documents of the CLCS: Rules of Procedure of
the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS/3/Rev.2, 4
September 1998); Modus Operandi of the Commission (CLCS/L.3, 12
September 1997); Scientific and Technical Guidelines of the Commission
on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS/11, 13 May 1999);
(CLCS/11/Add. 1, 3 September 1999).
100
Capacity building in support of the above will constitute an important foothold for
the advancement of ocean policy and management in Mozambique.
There is need for changes in the current approach to national ocean management policy
so as to allow for an inter-sectoral orientation in policies rather than a sectoral approach
based on the interests of particular agencies. A future Mozambican ocean: policy must be
multi-dimensional and should be elaborated taking into consideration the following
recommendations:
101
and harmonized with LOSC and other relevant international instruments (i.e. the
Fisheries Act; the Environment Act).
There is the need to enhance comprehensive security, with its military, economic,
and environment components.
102
103
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20. Churchill, Robin & Geir Ulfstein (1992), Marine Management in Dispute Area:
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35. Hinrichsen, Don (1998), Coastal Waters of the World: Trends, Threats, and
Strategies, Don Hinrichsen, Washington/Cavelo, California.
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40. Johnston, Douglas M. & Philip M. Saunders (1989), Ocean Boundary Making:
Regional Issues and Developments, Croom Helm, London, New York, Sydney.
41. Kapoor, D.C. & Adam J. Kerr (1986), A Guide to Maritime Boundary
Delimitation, Carswell, Toronto/Calgary/Vacouver.
42. Kay, Robert & Jacqueline Alder (1999), Coastal Planning and Management,
E&FN SPON, Routledge, London and New York.
44. Kwiatkowska, Barbara (1989), The Exclusive Economic Zone in the New Law of
the Sea, Publications on Ocean Development, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,
Dordrecht/Boston/London.
46. Mahmoudi, Said (1990), Delimitation of Maritime Zones Between Sweeden and
The Soviet Union: An Appraisal, Almqvist& Tryckri, Uppsala.
47. McDorman, Ted L. & Aldo Chircop, The Resolution of Maritime Disputes; In
Maritime Affairs: A word Handbook - A reference Guide for Modern Ocean
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48. MICOA (1997) Strategy and Areas for Action for the Conservation of Biological
Diversity in Mozambique (second draft), Maputo.
49. Miyoshi, Masahiro (1999), The Joint Development of Offshore Oil and Gas in
Relation to Maritime Boundary Delimitation, Maritime Briefing, Volume 2,
Number 5, IBRU, University of Durham, UK.
50. Moore, John & William L. Schachte Jr (2006), The Senate Should Give
Immediate Advice and Consent to the Law of the Sea Convention: Why the Critics
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51. Moore, John Norton & Samuel Pyeatt (1992), Cases and Materials on Oceans
Law and Policy, Volume III.
53. Pharand, Donat & Umberto Leanza (Editors) (1994), The Continental Shelf and
the Exclusive Economic Zone: Delimitation and Legal Regime, Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London.
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56. Prescott, Victor & Clive Schofield (2005), The Maritime Political Boundaries of
the World, Second Edition, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden & Boston.
57. Prescott, Victor & Gillian Triggs (2005), Islands and Rocks and their Role in
Maritime Delimitation. David A. Colson and Robert Smith (ed.), International
Maritime Boundaries, Volume V, The American Society of International Law,
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers; Leiden/Boston, 3245-3280.
60. Roach, J. Ashley (1999), Drawing Straight Baselines: The Need for a Universal
Norm, International Studies Association; 1999 Annual Meeting Omni Shoreham
Hotel, 2500 Calvert St. NW, Washington DC 20008, February 17, 1999.
61. Ruivo, Mrio, (1985, 251-256), Institutional Arrangements for the New Ocean
Regime, in Richardson, Jacques G. (ed.) (1985: 254), Managing the Ocean,
Lomond Publications, INC, Maryland.
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http://www.icj-
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64. Townsend-Gault,
Ian
(1998),
Regional
Maritime
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LOSC/UNCED: Do Boundaries Matters and More? In Gerald & Chia Lin Sien,
Carl Grundy-Warr, Martin Pratt, Clive Schofield (Editors) (1998), International
Boundary and Environmental Security: Frameworks for Regional Cooperation.
Kluwer Law, International, London, The Hague, Boston.
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65. United Nations Division of Ocean and Law of the Sea (1997), The Law of the
Sea: United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea & Agreement Relating to
the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea with Index and Excerpts from the Final Act of the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea; United Nations Publications, New York.
68. United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (1989),
Baselines: An Examination of the Relevant Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, Office for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the
Sea, New York.
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73. United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 53/101 Principles and guidelines
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January
1999,
www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/r53.htm
76. Vallejo, Stella Maris, New Structures for Decision-making in Integrated Ocean,
in Peter Bautista Payoyo (ed.), (1994: 74), Ocean Governance, Sustainable
Development of the Seas, United Nations University Press, Tokyo/New
York/Paris.
77. Vidas, Davor & Willy Ostreng (Editors) (1999), Order for the Oceans at the Turn
of the Century, Kluwer Law International, The Hague/London/Boston.
78. Vukas, Budislav (2004), Law of the Sea: Selected Writings, Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers, Leiden/Boston.
113
ANNEXES
Annex I: Act of Sea (No. 4/96) (Selected Articles from the Original Version)
ASSEMBLEIA DA REPBLICA
Lei n 4/96 de 4 de Janeiro
As actividades martimas assumem urn lugar de relevo no contexto poltico, econmico e social.
Este facto justifica a necessidade de se adoptar um quadro legal que redefina os direitos de
jurisdio sobre a faixa do mar ao longo da costa moambicana e que disponha sobre as bases
normativas para a regulamentao da administrao e das actividades martimas no Pas.
Nestes termos, e ao abrigo do preceituado no n 1 do Artigo 135 da Constituio, a Assembleia
da Repblica deterrnina:
Captulo I
Disposies Gerais
Artigo 1
(Definies)
Para efeitos da presente lei:
a) guas interiores - significa guas situadas no interior da linha do base a partir da qual
se mede a largura do mar territorial;
b) Autoridade Martima - significa urn rgo, oficial ou agente pblico, corn
cornpetncia para superintender, supervisar e controlar qualquer actividade martima do
ordem pblica e da integridade territorial, de acordo com a legislao.
Artigo 2
(Ambito de Aplicao)
1. A presente lei aplica:
a) Ao mar e todas as nevegveis e o respectivo leito e subsolo sujeitos jurisdio
martima nos termos da lei aplicvel, bem como ao domnio pblico adjacente a tais
guas;
b) A todas as embarcaes e outros objectos martimos, incluindo cabos, ductos,
instalaes e estruturas martimas sob jurisdio moambicana;
c) A todas as embarcaes nacionais, onde quer que se encontrem;
d) A todas as entidades, pessoas singulares ou colectivas de algum modo vinculadas com
embarcaes ou com navegao em Moambique;
e) A todas as actividades martimas que se realizem dentro dos limites da jurisdio
moambicana, sem prejuzo da legislao especfica aplicvel s actividades piscatrias e
outras.
114
ANNEXES
2. Salvo nos casos em que a lei disponha de outro modo, a presente lei no se aplica a
embarcaes e ao pessoal da Marinha de Guerra.
Artigo 3
(Poltica Martima)
1. A poltica martima da Repblica de Moambique ter como objectivos:
a) A manuteno da soberania e integridade martimas nacionais;
b) O desenvolvimento e a melhoria da economia martima nacional;
c) O desenvolvimento e a melhoria das condies sociais, ambientais e outras decorrentes
das actividades martimas.
2. Na formulao da poltica referida no n deste artigo, cabe so Governo adoptar planos e
normas para:
a) O exerccio da soberania do Estado sobre as guas da sua jurisdio martima, fluvial e
lacustre em conformidade com a lei vigente e outras disposies internacionais
aplicveis;
b) A adopo de medidas necessrias aplicao e execuo de todas as convenes
internacionais martimas de que Moambique seja parte;
c) A administrao do trfego martimo nacional e internacional nas guas sob jurisdio
da Repblica de Moambique;
d) O desenvolvimento da economia martima moambicana atravs do encorajamento da
propriedade e operao de navios por cidados e empresas moambicanas;
e) A promoo do desenvolvimento tecnolgico e cientfico no sector martimo.
Captulo II
Zonas Martimas
Artigo 4
(Mar Territorial)
1. O mar territorial da Repblica de Moambique compreende a faixa do mar adjacente, alm do
territrio e das guas interiores moambicanas, limitada pela linha de base e pelo limite exterior
definido nos nmeros subsequentes ou pelas fronteiras martimas bilaterais, conforme os casos.
2. A larguara do mar territorial de 12 milhas martimas, medidas a partir da linha de base.
3. O limite exterior do mar territorial definido por uma linha em que cada um dos pontos fica a
uma distncia do ponto mais prximo da linha de base igual largura do mar territorial.
4. As linhas de fecho e de base rectas que suplementam a linha de de base normal so definidas
de acordo com as coordenadas seguintes:
115
ANNEXES
Pontos
Cabo Delgado
Ilha Tecomagi
Ilha Rongui
Ilha Vamizi
Ilha Quero Niuni
Ilha Medjumbi
Ilha Querimba
Ponta do Diabo
Ponta Maunhane
Ponta Metampia
Ponta a N. da Ponta Cogune
Ponta a E. do baixo da Pinda
Ponta Relamzapo
Ilha Quitangonha
Ilha Injaca
Ilha de Goa
Ilha de Sena
Farol de Infusse
Ilha de Mafamede
Ilha Puga-Puga
Ilha Caldeira
Ilha de Moma
Ilha Epidendron
Ilha Casuarina
Ilha do Fogo
Ilha Quisungo
Ponto a N. E. da Ponta Pabjini
Cabo Inhaca
Latitude S
10 41' 24"
10 45' 24"
10 50' 08"
11 00' 50"
11 41' 30"
11 49' 09"
12 27' 09"
12 45' 48"
12 58' 32"
14 01' 24"
14 10' 39"
14 13' 52"
14 27' 43"
14 51' 15"
15 00' 12"
15 03' 14"
15 05' 12"
15 29' 42"
16 21' 38"
16 27' 36"
16 39' 12"
16 49' 04"
17 05' 54"
17 07' 52"
17 14' 58"
17 19' 40"
25 17' 12"
25 58' 10"
Longitude E
40 38' 54"
40 40' 22"
40 41' 38"
40 43' 53"
40 39' 12"
40 38' 09"
40 38' 40"
40 38' 09"
40 36' 02"
40 38' 42"
40 44' 06"
40 47' 49"
40 50' 55"
40 50' 04"
40 48' 17"
40 47' 33"
40 46' 37"
40 33' 54"
40 02' 45"
39 57' 12"
39 43' 52"
39 31' 52"
39 08' 12"
39 05' 28"
38 52' 47"
38 05' 15"
33 19' 20"
32 59' 40"
5. A soberania do Estado estende-se para alm do territrio e das suas guas interiores ao mar
territorial e ao espao areo sobrejacente, bem como ao leito e subsolo do mar territorial, sendo
exercida de acordo com as disposies da lei.
Artigo 5
(Delimitao das Fronteiras Martimas no Mar Territorial)
Nos casos em que a costa moambicana esteja adjacente costa de outro Estado, salvo acordo
celebrado entre a Repblica de Moambique e esse outro Estado, o mar territorial ser limitado
pela linha mediana cujos pontos sejam equidistantes dos pontos mais prximos das linhas de base
a partir das quais medida a largura do mar territorial de cada um dos Estados.
Artigo 6
(Navios de Guerra Estrangeiros e Outras Embarcaes de Estado Estrangeiro no Empregados em
Comrcio)
1. Sem prejuzo do disposto nos ns 2 e 3 do presente artigo, os navios de guerra estrangeiros e
outras embarcaes de Estado estrangeiro no empregados para fins comerciais, quando passem
atravs do mar territorial, gozam de imunidade, nos termos do direito internacional.
2. Quando um navio de guerra estrangeiro ou outra embarcao de Estado estrangeiro no
empregado em comrcio no cumpra com a lei moambicana ou no leve em conta qualquer
pedido no sentido de observar a referida lei, exigir-se- que tal navio ou embarcao saia
imediatamente do mar territorial moambicano.
3. Quando um navio de guerra estrangeiro ou outra embarcao de Estado estrangeiro no cumpra
com a lei moambicana relativa passagem inofensiva atravs do mar territorial e cause perdas
116
ANNEXES
ou danos ao Estado, caber ao Estado de bandeira dessa embarcao a responsabilidade pela
reparao dos danos causados.
Artigo 7
(Submarinos)
Os submarinos e outros veculos submersveis devem, quando estejam no mar territorial
moambicano, navegar superfcie e arvorar a respectiva bandeira.
Artigo 8
(Zona Contgua ao Mar Territorial)
1. A zona contgua ao mar territorial definida como a faixa do mar adjacente ao mar territorial, a
qual se estende at 24 milhas martimas medidas a partir da linha de base.
2. Na zona contgua ao mar territorial o Estado exerce o controlo necessrio a:
a) Preveno da violo das leis e regulamentos aduaneiros, fiscais de migrao e
sanitrios de proteco e preservao do meio ambiente marinho, vigentes no territrio
moambicano;
b) Represso das infraces s leis e regulamentos referidos na alnea anterior.
Artigo 9
(Zona Econmica Exclusiva)
1. A zona econmica exclusiva da Repblica de Moambique compreende a faixa do mar alm e
adjacente ao mar territorial que se estende at a uma distncia de 200 milhas martimas medidas a
partir da linha de base a partir da qual se mede o mar territorial.
Artigo 10
(Delimitao das Fronteiras Martimas na Zona Econmica Exclusiva)
Nos casos em que a costa moambicana esteja oposta ou adjacent costa de um outro Estado, a
delimitao da zona econmica exclusiva ser feita mediante acordo, ou, no havendo acordo,
nos termos do direito internacional, na base da equidade e a luz the todas as circunstncias
pertinentes, tendo em conta a importncia respectiva dos interesses em causa e para o conjunto da
comunidade internacional.
Artigo 11
(Direitos Soberanos na Zona Econmica Exclusiva)
1. Na zona econmica exclusiva o Estado tem direitos soberanos para fins de explorao e
aproveitamento, conservao e gesto dos recursos naturais vivos ou no vivos das guas
sobrejacentes ao leito do mar, do leito do mar e subsolo, bem como no que se refere a outras
actividades com vista explorao e aproveitamento da zona para fins econmicos, para a
produo de energia a partir da gua, das correntes e dos ventos.
2. A jurisdio do Estado sobre a zona econmica exclusiva ser exercida nos termos da presente
lei, no que se refere a:
117
ANNEXES
a) Estabelecimento e utilizao de ilhas artificiais, instalaes e estruturas;
b) Investigao cientfica martima;
c) Proteco e preservao do meio ambiente marinho.
Artigo 12
(Direitos dos outros Estados na Zona Econmica Exclusiva)
Na zona econmica exclusiva todos os Estados quer costeiros, quer sem litoral, gozam, sem
prejuzo das disposies da presente lei, de liberdades de navegao, sobrevo e colocao de
cabos e ductos submarinos, bem como de outros usos lcitos do mar relativos a tais liberdades.
Artigo 13
(Limites da Plataforma Continental)
1. A plataforma continental da Repblica de Moambique compreende o leito e o subsolo
subjacentes s guas do mar, que se estendem alm do mar territorial em toda a extenso do
prolongamento natural terrestre, at uma distncia de 200 milhas martimas da linha de base ou
at a bordo exterior da margem continental, nos casos em que este no atinja aquela distncia.
2. A margem continental compreende o prolongamento submerso da massa terrestre to territrio
da Repblica de Moambique e constitudo pelo leito e subsolo da plataforma continental e pelo
talude e elevao continental, no abrangendo nem os grandes fundos ocenicos com as suas
cristas ocenicas, nem o seu subsolo.
Artigo 14
(Delimitao das Fronteiras Martimas na Plataforma Continental)
1. A delimitao da plataforma continental entre a Republica de Moambique e Estados com
costas adjacentes ou situados do lado oposto sua costa, ser feita por acordo, nos termos de
direito internacional.
2. No se chegando a acordo dentro do prazo razovel, recorrer-se- aos procedimentos
recomendados pelo direito internacional.
3. A linha do limite exterior da plataforma continental e as linhas de delimitao traadas de
conformidade com os nmeros 1 e 2 do presente artigo sero indicados em cartas de escala ou
escalas adequadas para a delimitao da sua posio, podendo tais cartas serem substitudas por
listas de coordenadas geogrficas de pontos em que conste especialmente a sua origem geodsica.
Artigo 15
(Direitos Soberanos na Plataforma Continental)
1. O Estado exerce direitos de soberania exclusivos na plataforma continental, para efeitos de
explorao e aproveitamento dos seus recursos naturais e tais direitos so independentes da
ocupao real ou fictcia da plataforma continental.
2.Os recuros naturais a que se referem as disposies do presente artigo compreendem os
recursos minerais e outros recursos no vivos do leito do mar, isto , aqueles que no perodo de
118
ANNEXES
captura esto imveis no leito do mar ou no seu subsolo ou s podem mover-se em constante
contacto fsico com o tal leito e subsolo.
(...)
Aprovada pela Assembleia da Repblica.
Publique-se: O Presidente da Repblica.
119
ANNEXES
Annex II: Decree No. 18/2001 Establishing the National Institute for Maritime and
Borders Affairs and its Statutes
CONSELHO DE MINISTROS
Decreto n 18/2001 de 3 de Julho
As transformaes polticas, econmicas e sociais que tm operado no nosso Pas e no mundo,
criaram um novo cenrio no mbito do mar e das fronteiras, para o qual o quadro legal
estabelecido se mostra inadequado.
Impondo-se a suas alteraes, com vista a elevar e reforar o nvel institucional, a racionalizao
e optimizao de recursos, a harmonizao tcnico-metodolgica e a complementaridade
existente entre as funes de reafirmao e delimitao das fronteiras nacionais e gesto dos
assuntos martimos, ao abrigo do disposto no n 1, alinea e) do artigo 153 da Constituio da
Repblica, o Conselho de Ministros decreta.
Artigo 1
1. criado o Instituto Nacional do Mar e Fronteiras, abreviadamente designado IMAF, que se
rege pelos estatutos em anexo, que constituem parte integrante do presente decreto.
2. O Instituto Nacional do Mar e Fronteiras dirigido por um Presidente, coadjuvado por um
Vice-Presidente.
Artigo 2
O IMAF o rgo executivo e de coordenao tcnica da aco do Estado sobre os assuntos do
mar a fronteiras, dotado de personalidade jurdica e de autonomia administrativa, financeira e
patrimonial e tem como objectivo:
a) Tratar de matrias relativas s polticas de fronteiras internacionais incluindo, as
fronteiras terrestres, o espao areo, as guas interiores, as guas territoriais, a zona
contgua, a plataforma continental, a zona econmica exclusiva da Republica de
Moambique e os fundos marinhos para alm da jurisdio nacional;
b) Propor polticas, estratgias, planos e prioridades sobre as reas definidas na alnea
anterior.
Artigo 3
O IMAF fica sob tutela do Ministro dos Negcios Estrangeiros e Cooperao.
Artigo 4
O IMAF tem a sua sede em Maputo, podendo criar extinguir, sempre que se justificar, delegaes
ou outras formas de representao em qualquer parte do Pas, aps a aprovao do Ministro dos
Negcios Estrangeiros e Cooperao
Artigo 5
120
ANNEXES
extinta a Comisso Interministerial de Fronteiras, criada pelo Decreto n 16/97, de 1 de Julho.
Aprovado pelo Conselho de Ministros.
Publique-se: O Primeiro Ministro.
121
ANNEXES
Artigo 3
(Competncias)
Constituem competncias do IMAF:
a) Coordenar a execuo das aces do Estado sobre os assuntos do mar e fronteiras;
b) Propor polticas e estratgias sobre questes do mar e fronteiras;
c) Propor a definio de prioridades e planos de actividades sobre o mar e fronteiras;
d) Coordenar a execuo e gesto dos Acordos e Convenes Internacionais sobre o mar
e fronteiras;
e) Propor e proceder s negociaes tcnicas com as contrapartes, sobre assuntos do mar
e fronteiras;
f) Propor a adopo ou actualizao da legislao, bem como a adeso, ratificao ou
denncia de Tratados ou Convenes Internacionais sobre o mar e fronteiras;
g) Realizar aces necessrias e adequadas com vista manuteno das fronteiras, em
particular edifcios, vedaes e marcos;
h) Propor e dar pareceres sobre a abertura ou encerramento de postos fronteirios.
Artigo 4
(mbito e Jurisdio)
1. O IMAF exerce as suas actividades em todo o territrio nacional e tem a sua sede em Maputo,
podendo, sempre que o exerccio das suas actividades o justificar, criar ou extinguir delegaes,
agncias ou qualquer outra forma de representao, em qualquer parte do Pas, por deciso do
Ministro dos Negcios Estrangeiros e Cooperao, ouvido o Ministrio do Plano e Finanas.
2. No mbito das suas atribuies, o IMAF poder ser membro de associaes e organizaes
nacionais, estrangeiras ou internacionais afins.
Captulo II
Organizao
Artigo 5
(rgo)
Constituem rgos do IMAF, a Presidncia, o Conselho Consultivo e o Conselho Tcnico.
Artigo 6
(Estrutura)
O IMAF tem a seguinte estrutura:
a) Direco do Mar;
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ANNEXES
b) Direco de Fronteiras;
c) Direco de Assuntos Jurdicos, Estudos e Informao
d) Departamento de Administrao
Seco I
Da Presidncia
Artigo 7
(Presidncia)
1. A Presidncia constituida por um Presidente e um Vice- Presidente.
2. O Presidente e o Vice-Presidente so nomeados pelo Primeiro Ministro.
3. Em caso de ausncia ou impedimento, o Presidente substituido pelo Vice-Presidente.
Artigo 8
(Competncias do Presidente)
Compete ao Presidente do IMAF
a) Planificar, dirigir, e supervisar a actividade do IMAF;
b) Submeter propostas de programa, planos de trabalho, projectos de oramento e
relatrios do IMAF;
c) Propor a adopo ou actualizao da legislao, bem como a adeso, ratificao ou
denncia de tratados ou convenes internacionais sobre o mar e fronteiras;
d) Representar o Governo, quer no Pas, quer no estrangeiro, ou em conferncias
internacionais em matrias ligadas ao mar e fronteiras, quando mandado ou delegado
para o efeito;
e) Exercer as competncias que lhe esto contidas por lei, bem como as que lhe forem
delegadas,
f)Convocar e presidir s reunies do Conselho Consultivo e do Conselho Tcnico.
Artigo 9
(Competncias do Vice-Presidente)
Compete ao Vice-Presidente:
a) Coadjuvar o Presidente no exerccio das suas atribuies;
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ANNEXES
b)Seperintender as reas do IMAF que lhe forem fixadas pelo Presidente.
Seco II
Colectivos
Subseco
Conselho Consultivo
Artigo 10
(Composio)
O Conselho Consultivo tem a seguinte composio:
a) Presidente;
b) Vice-Presidente;
c) Directores;
d) Chefe de Departamento;
e) Outros tcnicos do IMAF convidados pelo Presidente.
Artigo 11
(Competncias)
O Conselho Consultivo tem as seguintes competncias:
a) Pronunciar-se sobre o funcionamento do IMAF;
b) Avaliar o relacionamento do IMAF com outras instituies do Estado e parceiros de
cooperao;
c) Propor a abertura e o enceramento de postos fronteirios, ouvido o Conselho Tcnico,
d) Pronunciar-se sobre a situao geral do mar e das fronteiras e sobre as propostas de
abertura ou encerramento de postos fronteirios.
Artigo 12
(Reunies)
O Conselho Consultivo rene-se ordinariamente uma vez por semana e, extraordinariamente
sempre que o Presidente convoque.
Subseco II
Conselho Tcnico
Artigo 13
(Natureza)
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ANNEXES
O Conselho Tcnico um rgo de consulta e coordenao dos sistemas e aces sectoriais sobre
o mar e as fronteiras, o qual tem por funes:
a) Pronunciar-se sobre os relatrios de actividades do Instituto bem como sobre o plano
de actividades do ano seguinte,
b) Coordenar a execuo dos sistemas e aces sectoriais sobre o mar e as fronteiras,
c) Pronunciar-se sobre quaisquer outros assuntos relevantes que lhe sejam colocados
Artigo 14
(Composio)
1. O Conselho Tcnico composto pelos membros do Conselho Consultivo do IMAF e pelos
representantes dos Ministrios da Defesa Nacional, do Interior, dos Negcios Estrangeiros e
Cooperao, do Plano e Finanas, da Justia da Administrao Estatal, dos Transportes e
Comunicaes, dos Recursos Minerais e Energia, da Agricultura e Densevolvimento Rural, da
Coordenao da Aco Ambiental, do Turismo, das Pescas e do Ensino Superior, Cincias e
Tecnologia.
2. Os representantes dos Ministrios sero nomeados pelo Ministro dos Negcios Estrangeiros e
Cooperao, por indicao dos respectivos Ministros.
Artigo 15
(Funcionamento)
1. O Conselho Tcnico rene-se ordinariamente de trs em trs meses e extraordinariamente,
sempre que os seus membros o solicitarem, ou quando convocados pelo Presidente.
2. Para objectivos especficos o Presidente poder convidar peritos ou outras entidades a
participar nas reunies do Conselho Tcnico.
3. Para a realizao de tarefas especficas o Presidente pode convidar um membro do Conselho
Tcnico ou criar um grupo especfico de trabalho.
4. A convocatria feita por escrito com antecedncia de setenta e duas horas e com a indicao
da respectiva agenda.
Seco III
Funes das Estruturas
Artigo 16
(Direco do Mar)
Compete Direco do Mar:
a) Elaborar propostas, coordenar e participar nas actividades sobre o mar;
b) Recolher e sistematizar todas as informaes, prticas e decises sobre assuntos
relativos ao mar;
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ANNEXES
c) Elaborar propostas e participar nas negociaes tcnicas com as contrapartes, sobre
assuntos do mar;
d) Participar nas conferncias nacionais, regionais e internacionais, bem como noutros
eventos ligados ao mar;
e)Promover investigaes e estudos de questes relativas ao mar.
Artigo 17
(Direco de Fronteiras)
Compete a Direco de Fronteiras
a) Elaborar propostas, coordenar e participar nas actividades relativas a reafirmao e
delimitao das fronteiras martimas, areas e fluviais, bem como na delimitao das
guas territoriais, zona contgua, plataforma continental e zona e conmica exclusiva;
b) Recolher e sistematizar todas as informaes, prticas e decises sobre assuntos
relativos a fronteiras;
c) Elaborar propostas e participar nas negociaes tcnicas com as contrapartes, sobre
assuntos de fronteiras;
d) Participar nas conferncias nacionais, regionais e internacionais, bem como noutros
eventos ligados as fronteiras;
e) Elaborar pareceres e apresentar propostas de medidas com vista a manuteno das
fronteiras, em particular edifcios, vedaes e marcos, abertura ou encerramento de
postos fronteirios;
f) Promover investigaes e estudos de questes relativas s fronteiras.
Artigo 18
(Direco de Assuntos Jurdicos, Estudos e Informao)
Compete a Direco de Assuntos Jurdicos, Estudos e Informao:
a) Realizar estudos, pesquisas e anlises de assuntos relativos ao mar e fronteiras;
b) Criar e gerir o Centro de Documentao e Informao sobre o mar e fronteiras;
c) Assegurar a recolha, edio e difuso de informao sobre o mar e fronteiras;
d) Elaborar planos e relatrios das actividades do IMAF;
e) Organizar o arquivo do IMAF;
f) Elaborar pareceres em matrias do mar e fronteiras;
g) Elaborar propostas de adopo ou actualizao da legislao, bem como a adeso,
ratificao ou denncia de tratados ou convenes internacionais sobre o mar e fronteiras;
126
ANNEXES
127
ANNEXES
Captulo IV
Gesto Financeira e Patrimonial
Artigo 22
(Patrimnio)
Constitui patrimnio do Instituto a universalidade de bens, direitos e outros valores doados pelo
Estado, entidade pblica ou privada e agncias de cooperao.
Artigo 23
(Receitas)
Constituem receitas do IMAF:
a) As doaes, subsdios ou quaisquer liberalidades atribudas por quaisquer entidades
pblicas ou privadas, nacionais, internacionais ou estrangeiras;
b) O produto de venda de manuais, bolentins informativos ou outras publicaes;
c) Os valores cobrados pela prestao de servio;
d) As dotaes atrbuidas pelo Estado;
e) Quaisquer outros rendimentos, bens ou direitos que provenham da sua actividade ou
que por lei lhe sejam atribudos.
Artigo 24
(Despesas)
Constituem despesas do IMAF:
a) Os encargos com o respectivo funcionamento e com o cumprimento das suas
atribuies;
b) Os custos de aquisio, manuteno e conservao dos bens, equipamentos ou servios
que tenham de utilizar;
c) Os encargos com as deslocaes e o alojamento, no Pas e no estrangeiro.
Artigo 25
(Normas de Gesto)
A gesto patrimonial e financeira do Instituto, incluindo a organizao da contabilidade rege-se
pelas norma aplcveis a pessoas colectivas de direito pblico em vigor na Repblica de
Moambique.
Captulo V
Vinculao do Instituto
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ANNEXES
Artigo 26
(Vinculao)
O IMAF obriga-se:
a) Pela assinatura do Presidente; ou
b) Pela assinatura do Vice-Presidente, ou de um Director, nos limites do mandato
conferido pelo Presidente.
Captulo VI
Disposies Finais
Artigo 27
(Regulamento Interno e Quadro Pessoal)
1. O Presidente do IMAF, submeter aprovao, nos termos da lei e no prazo de seis meses a
proposta do regulamento interno e do quadro pessoal.
2. Podero ser contratados pelo IMAF, em regime de prestao de servio, individualidades e
tcnicos nacionais ou estrangeiros de reconhecido mrito e especializao, estranhos ao IMAF,
para a execuo de estudos ou trabalhos especiais, sendo a respectiva remunerao fixada por
comum acordo.
3. Aos membros do Conselho Tcnico ser concedido uma senha de presena para cada sesso de
trabalho, num valor a ser fixado por despacho conjunto dos Ministros dos Negcios Estrangeiros
e Cooperao e do Plano e Finanas.
Artigo 28
(Estatuto do Pessoal)
1. O pessoal do IMAF previsto no n 1 do artigo anterior, rege-se pelas normas aplicveis aos
funcionrios do Estado.
2. Exceptuam-se os casos mencionados no n 2 do artigo anterior, para os quais so aplicveis as
normas do contrato individual de trabalho em vigor na Repblica de Moambique.
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ANNEXES
Annex III: Decree No. 2/2001 Establishing the Coordination Council of Sea and
Boundaries
PRESIDNCIA DA REPBLICA
Decreto n. 2/2001 de 3 de Julho
A importncia econmica e estratgica que o mar e as fronteiras representam para a Repblica de
Moambique tanto como Estado de litoral, tanto como Estado de trnsito, impe que o Estado,
luz do ordenamento jurdico interno e das convenes internacionais, adopte medidas que
salvaguardem de maneira mais efectiva a soberania nacional e crie mecanismos mais eficazes de
proteco e conservao do meio ambiente marinho e seus recursos e garantam o estreitamento e
manuteno de relaes amistosas com os pases vizinhos e do mundo em geral, atravs do seu
espao areo, do mar e das fronteiras.
A natureza multisectorial e pluridisciplinar das actividades de gesto do espao areo, do mar e
das fronteiras, exige a adequao dos meacnismos e das estruturas de coordenao, por forma a
melhorar a eficcia das entidades envolvidas na concepo, definio de polticas e estratgias e
na realizo de aces sobre o espao areo, o mar e as fronteiras.
Nestes termos, ao abrigo do disposto na alnea c) do artigo 121 da Constituio da Repblica,
decreto:
Artigo 1
criado o Conselho Coordenador do Mar e Fronteiras, abreviadamente designado CCMAF.
Artigo 2
O Conselho Coordenador do Mar e Fronteiras um rgo do Conselho de Ministros que tem por
objectivo coordenar as aces multisectoriais sobre o mar e fronteiras.
Artigo 3
O Conselho Coordenador do Mar e Fronteiras constitudo pelos seguntes membros:
a) Primeiro-Ministro Presidente;
b) Ministro dos Negcios Estrangeiros e Cooperao Vice-Presidente;
c) Ministro da Defesa Nacional;
d) Ministro do Interior e para os Assuntos de Defesa e Segurana na Presidncia da
Repblica;
e) Ministro do Plano e Finanas;
f) Ministro da Justia;
g) Ministro da Administrao Estatal;
h) Ministro dos Transportes e Comunicaes;
130
ANNEXES
131
ANNEXES
O Conselho Coordenador do Mar e Fronteiras rene-se, ordinariamente, duas vezes por ano,
podendo o respectivo Presidente convocar sesses extraordinrias sempre que as circunstncias o
exijam.
Artigo 8
O funcionamento permantente do Conselho Coordenador do Mar e Fronteiras e o Secretariado,
sero garantidos pelo IMAF.
Publique-se: O Presidente da Repblica.
132
ANNEXES
133
ANNEXES
33" E. All waters on the landward side of this line constitute the internal waters of the two
countries. The internal waters are apportioned by means of a straight line drawn across the
Ruvuma Bay from a point hereinafter referred to as point B, located at latitude 10 24' 53" S
and longitude 40 29' 34" E which is the mid-point of the line demarcating the outer limit of such
waters, that is to say, between Ras Matunda and Cabo Suafo to point A, the mid-point of the
line drawn across the mouth of the Ruvuma River between Ras Mwambo and Ras Ruvuma. The
waters bounded by points A, B; and Ras Matunda belong to the United Republic of Tanzania
and the waters bounded by points A, B and Cabo Suafo belong to the People's Republic of
Mozambique.
Article 3
Territorial Sea
The territorial sea boundary line boundary the two countries is delimited by application of the
equidistance method by drawing a median straight line from point B to a point 12 nautical
miles, located at latitude 10 18' 46" S and longitude 40 40' 07" E, hereinafter referred to as point
C.
Article 4
Exclusive Economic Zone
The delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone between the two countries is delimited in
conformity with the equidistance method by prolonging the median straight line used for the
delimitation of the territorial sea from point C to a point 25.5 nautical miles, located at latitude
10 05' 29" S and longitude 41 02' 01" E, hereinafter referred to as point D. From this point,
the Exclusive Economic Zone is delimited by application of the principle of equity, by a line
running due east along the parallel of point D. The point to termination of this line will be
established through exchange of notes between the United Republic of Tanzania and the People's
Republic of Mozambique at a future date.
Article 5
Description of Maritime Boundary
The description of the maritime boundary line and the points through which it passes is as
follows:
This line commences at the mouth of the Ruvuma River from point A, located at latitude 10
28' 04" S and longitude 40 26' 19" E, that is to say, the mid-point of the straight line drawn
between Ras Mwambo, located at latitude 10 27' 48" S, and longitude 40 25' 50" E, and Ras
Ruvuma, located at latitude 10 28' 21" S, and longitude 40 26' 48" E, and from point A the
line runs across the Ruvuma Bay in a north easterly direction in a straight line to point B,
located at latitude 10 24' 53" S, and longitude 40 29' 34" E, that is to say, the mid-point of the
base line demarcating the out limit of the internal waters between Ras Matunda, located at
latitude 10 21' 32" S, and longitude 40 27' 35" E and Cabo Suafo, located at latitude 10 28' 14"
S and longitude 40 31' 33" E.
From point B the boundary line follows the median straight line derived by application of the
equidistance method between Ras Matunda, located at latitude 10 21' 32" S, and longitude 40
27' 35" E, and Cabo Suafo, located at latitude 10 28' 14" S, and longitude 40 31' 33" E, and runs
in a northeasterly direction in a straight line to point C, located at latitude 10 18' 46" S, and
longitude 40 40' 07" E.
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ANNEXES
From there it follows the same median line as far as point D located at latitude 10 05' 29" S,
and longitude 40 02' 01" E. Thence it runs due east along the parallel of point D to a point
established pursuant to article IV.
Article 6
Schedule of Geographical Co-ordinates
The Schedule of geographical co-ordinates attached hereto as Annex A, including the
hydrographic chart of 1: 200 000, number 42620-Manager (Channel of Mozambique - Mejumbe
Island to Ruvuma Bay - 1986 publication) and the hydrographic chart of 1: 2 000 000 number
40120-Manager (channel of Mozambique - 1984 publication) attached hereto as Annex B AND
C describing the co-ordinates of the boundary line as delimited, shall form as integral part of
this Agreement.
Article 7
Co-operation
The two Governments shall co-operate with each other whenever necessary in order to maintain
the existing marks and other such points of reference, including such marks or other points of
reference as may from time to time be established.
Article 8
Ratification
This Agreement shall be subject to ratification and shall come into force on the date of exchange
of instruments of ratification.
Done in Maputo on 28th December, 1988, in two original copies in the English and Portuguese
language, both texts being equally authentic.
For and on behalf of the governments of the United Republic of Tanzania and the People's
Republic of Mozambique.
Signed: Ministers for Foreign Affairs
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ANNEXES
Latitude S
10 41' 24"
10 45' 24"
10 50' 08"
11 00' 50"
11 41' 30"
11 49' 09"
12 27' 09"
12 45' 48"
12 58' 32"
14 01' 24"
14 10' 39"
14 13' 52"
14 27' 43"
14 51' 15"
15 00' 12"
15 03' 14"
15 05' 12"
Longitude E
40 38' 54"
40 40' 22"
40 41' 38"
40 43' 53"
40 39' 12"
40 38' 09"
40 38' 40"
40 38' 09"
40 36' 02"
40 38' 42"
40 44' 06"
40 47' 49"
40 50' 55"
40 50' 04"
40 48' 17"
40 47' 33"
40 46' 37"
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ANNEXES
Farol de Infusse
Ilha de Mafamede
Ilha Puga-Puga
Ilha Caldeira
Ilha de Moma
Ilha Epidendron
Ilha Casuarina
Ilha do Fogo
Ilha Quisungo
Ponto a N. E. da Ponta Pabjini
Cabo Inhaca
15 29' 42"
16 21' 38"
16 27' 36"
16 39' 12"
16 49' 04"
17 05' 54"
17 07' 52"
17 14' 58"
17 19' 40"
25 17' 12"
25 58' 10"
40 33' 54"
40 02' 45"
39 57' 12"
39 43' 52"
39 31' 52"
39 08' 12"
39 05' 28"
38 52' 47"
38 05' 15"
33 19' 20"
32 59' 40"
Artigo 2
Alm das referidas no artigo anterior, o Estado Portugus utiliza, como linha de base para a
medio da largura do mar territorial, as linhas de fecho que resultam da aplicao do direito
internacional entrada de enseadas usadas para carga, descarga e ancoradouro de navios, s
embocaduras dos rios e entrada dos portos.
Artigo 3
O Estado Portugus definir oportunamente, de acordo com o direito internacional, as linhas de
fecho e de base rectas referentes s costas de outras parcelas do territrio nacional.
Publique-se e cumpra-se como nele se contm.
Para ser publicado no Boletim Oficial de todas as provncias ultramarinas.
137
ANNEXES
Annex VI: Decree-Law No. 31/76 Defining the Rights of Peoples Republic of
Mozambique
CONSELHO DE MINISTROS
Decreto-Lei n 31/76 de 19 de Agosto
Torna-se imperiosa a definao, pela Repblica Popular de Moambique, dos direitos sobre os
recursos econmicos do mar adjacente s suas costas.
Ao faz-lo, no entanto, a Repblica Popular de Mambique, coinsciente das suas
responsabilidades internacionais e tendo em conta que est em curso a Conferncia do Direito do
Mar das Naes Unidas com vista a elaborao de uma Conveno, envitou tomar posio sobre
matrias que possam considerar-se controversas, ou proceder a uma excessiva pormenorizao de
todos os aspectos sobre que importa legislar, contribuindo deste modo para a criao de um clima
favorvel ao estabelecimento dum entendimento internacional em matrias do direito do mar.
A Repblica Popular de Moambique no podia, contudo, deixar de adoptar, desde j, um
minmo de medidas destinadas a salvagardar os legtimos direitos e interesses do povo
moambicano, defendendo os seus espaos martimos da pilhagem e abusos a que tem sido
sujeitos.
Nestes termos, ao abrigo do dispostos na alnea c) do Artigo 54 da Constituio, o Conselho de
Ministros decreta:
Artigo 1
1. A largura do mar territorial da Repblica Popular de Moambique de 12 milhas martimas a
partir de linhas de base.
2. A linha de base normal a partir da qual se mede a largura do mar territorial definida pela
linha de baixa-mar ao longo da costa, tal como vem indicada nas cartas martimas oficialmente
reconhecidas para esse fim pela Repblica Popular de Moambique.
3. A linha de base normal suplementada pelas linhas de fecho e de base rectas, a traar pela
Repblica Popular de Moambique, de acordo com o direito internacional, entre pontos da sua
costa, que sero definidas em portaria conjunta dos Ministros do Desenvolvimento e Planificao
Econmica e dos Transportes e Comunicaes.
Artigo 2
Na zona contgua ao mar territorial, at s duzentas milhas maritmas da linha de base, a
Repblica Popular de Moambique tem poderes soberanos relativamente a prospeco e
explorao, conservao e administrao dos recursos naturais, biolgicos ou no biolgicos, do
fundo dos mares, do seu subsolo e das guas supra-jacentes.
Artigo 3
138
ANNEXES
1. Quando no haja acordo em contrrio, e quando exista sobreposio dos limites estabelecidos
nos artigos anteriores com os estabelecidos por Estados cujas costas sejam opostas s da
Repblica Popular de Moambique, os limites estabelecidos pela Repblica Popular de
Moambique no iro alm da linha equidistante dos pontos mais prximos das linhas de base a
partir das quais medida a largura do mar territorial e zona econmica exclusiva de cada um dos
dois Estados.
2. Se a linha equidistante referida no artigo anterior se situar aqum do limite das guas
territoriais e zona econmica exclusiva estabelecidos por Estados cujas costas sejam opostas s da
Repblica Poplular de Moambique, a zona econmica exclusiva fixada no presente diploma
estabeler-se- at aquele limite.
Aprovado em Conselho de Ministros.
Publique-se: O Presidente da Repblica.
139
ANNEXES
Annex VII: Fisheries Act (No. 3/90) (Selected Articles from the Original Version)
ASSEMBLEIA POPULAR
Lei n 3/90 de 26 de Setembro
Constitundo o sector de Pescas da Repblica Popular de Moambique uma importncia
manifesta para o desenvolvimento econmico e social do pas, impe-se, como condio
necessria para o seu ordenamento, que o diploma legal adaptado s novas realidades do pas
defina o quadro jurdico relativo ao planeamento e gesto pesqueiras, implementao do
regime de licenas, adopo de medidas de conservao dos recursos, fiscalizao da
qualidade dos productos de pesca destinados exportao e ao domnio da fiscalizao das
actividades de pesca.
Neste contexto, se procede agora aprovao da Lei das Pescas. Este diploma tem o carcter de
um texto-quadro definindo os parmetros da aco da administrao pesqueira e das actividades
dos agentes econnicos. Algumas das suas normas, em particular as que se referem fiscalizao,
so imediatamente aplicveis . Outras carecem de medidas regulamentares de execuo a cuja
adopo progressiva o Governo de Moambique proceder sob impulso da Secretaria do Estado
das Pescas que v, assim, clarificadas e confirmadas as responsabilidades que tem vindo a
assumir.
Nestes termos, ao abrigo da alnea a) do artigo 44 da Constituio da Repblica, a Assembleia
Popular determina:
Ttulo I
Disposies Preliminares
Artigo 1
(Definies)
1. Para os efeitos da presente lei e demais regulamentos, as expresses que se seguem significam:
1.1. guas martimas O mar territorial e a zona econmica exclusiva, tais como definidos no
Decreto-Lei n 37/76, de 19 de Agosto, e as guas martimas interiores para aqum das linhas de
base e sujeita influncia das mars.
1.2. guas interiores as guas que se encontram fora da aco das mars, nomeadamente os
rios, os lagos e as lagoas sem ligao com o mar, com comunicao somente nas mars vivas, os
canais e outras massas aquferas e, de um modo geral, os depsitos de gua susceptveis de
criao de espcies aquticas.
13. guas jurisdicionais as guas martimas e as guas interiores acima referidas.
1.4. Artes de Pesca qualquer artefacto ou intrumento destinado pesca:
1.5. Pesca:
a) As actividades de captura ou apanha de espcies aquticas;
b) A procura, a tentativa de captura ou de apanha de espcies aquticas;
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ANNEXES
141
ANNEXES
142
ANNEXES
143
ANNEXES
(Organizao da Administrao Local das Pescas)
1. O Conselho de Ministros definir orientaes de poltica geral para o desenvolvimento do
sector pesqueiro a nvel provincial.
2. O Conselho de Ministros estabelecer, no respeito das normas das normas relativas
organizao da administrao local das pescas e, se for o caso disso, promover a adopo de
medidas de cooperao com outros rgos da administrao local das pescas e, se for caso disso,
promover a adopo de medidas de cooperao com outros rgos da administrao local com
vista a uma administrao apropriada do sector pesqueiro.
Artigo 7
(Acordos Internacionais de Cooperao)
O Conselho de Ministros promover a negociao e a concluso de acordos internacionais de
cooperao, nomeadamente regionais, tendo em vista a:
a) Harmonizao dos sistemas de ordenamento e gesto das pescarias, recolha e troca de
estatsticas e dos procedimentos e condies de atribuio de licenas a embarcaes de
pesca nomeadamente estrangeiras, em particular no que diz respeito aos stocks
compartilhados, e incluindo a adopo de medidas provisrias em relao a determinadas
zonas;
b) Adopo de medidas coordenadas de fiscalizao das actividades de embarcaes de
pesca estrangeira;
c) Execuo de outras aces de interesse comum.
Artigo 8
(Planos de Desenvolvimento)
1. O Conselho de Ministros promover a preparao e a actualizao de planos de
desnvolvimento, e adoptar as medidas necessrias sua aplicao. Estes planos tomaro em
considerao numa medida apropriada a situao e os objectivos de desenvolvimento das
principais pescarias.
2. Em toda a medida do possvel os planos de desenvolvimento sero elaborados nos termos do
processo que assegure a participao de organismos sociais, profissionais e econmicos ligados
actividade de pesca.
Artigo 9
(Promoo da Pesca de Pequena Escala)
Tendo em conta a importncia econmica e social deste tipo de actividade, a Secretaria do Estado
das Pescas ter como objectivo, includo na poltica sectorial, empreender as necessrias aces
para promover o desenvolvimento da pesca de pequena escala. Para o efeito, proceder adopo
de medidas apropriadas, se for caso disso, em cooperao com outros organismos competentes do
Estado.
Artigo 10
(Fundos para o Fomento Pesqueiro)
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ANNEXES
Podero ser criados fundos com o objectivo de fomentar a actividade pesqueira e de apoiar
financeiramente as aces que visem o incremento e valorizao da produo pesqueira nacional,
com particular incidncia nas formas de produo de pequena escala.
Artigo 11
(Conflitos de Pesca)
A Secretaria do Estado das Pescas promover a adopo de medidas necessrias para prevenir e
resolver os conflitos entre pescadores no uso de artes ou sistemas de pesca diferentes. Estas
medidas podem, nomeadamente incluir:
a) A definio das zonas reservadas para diferentes tipos de pesca;
b) A sinalizao das artes de pesca;
c) A subscrio de seguros destinados a garantir a repartio dos danos eventualmente
causados a pescadores;
d) O estabelecimento de comisses de inqurito ou de conciliao e a adopo de
medidas de aplicao das recomendaes adoptadas;
e) O estabelecimento de ajustes apropriados entre grupos de pescadores, nomeadamente
industrias, semi-industriais e artesanais.
Artigo 12
(Aquacultura Marinha e de gua Doce)
1. A Secretaria de Estado das Pescas a autoridade competente para definir orientaes gerais
para a poltica de gesto e desenvolvimento da aquacultura marinha e de gua doce.
2. A criao e a explorao de estabelecimento de aquacultura marinha ficaro sujeitas a
autorizao prvia do Secretrio de Estado das Pescas nos termos que vierem a ser definidos por
via regulamentar.
3. A Secretaria do Estado das Pescas adoptar, em coordenao com o Ministrio da Agricultura,
as medidas que forem necessrias, para o desenvolvimento e enquadramento de aquacultura de
gua doce, nomeadamente:
a) Preparao de programas de investigao cientfica;
b) As normas e preceitos a respeitar na introduo de novas espcies;
c) As normas e preceitos a respeitar para o controlo das doenas das espcies;
d) As condies a que devem sujeitar-se a criao e explorao de estabelecimentos de
aquacultura de gua doce.
Artigo 13
(Pesca nas guas Interiores)
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ANNEXES
1. A Secretaria de Estado das Pescas a autoridade competente para a administrao das pescas e
a gesto das pescarias nas guas interiores.
2. A competncia referida no nmero anterior poder vir a ser delegada no Ministrio da
Agricultura, de acordo com orientaes de poltica geral de desenvolvimento a definir
conjuntamente com a Secretaria de Estado das Pescas.
3. A pesca nas guas interiores fica sujeita ao regime contido no Captulo II deste Ttulo e as
condies estabelecidas no mbito de regulamentao especfica.
Artigo 14
(Pesca Recreativa e Desportiva)
A pesca recreativa dever ser objecto de regulamentao prpria.
Artigo 15
(Estabelecimento de Processamento de Productos de Pesca e de outras Actividades
Complementares das Pescas)
1. Compete Secretaria de Estado das Pescas, autorizar a constituio, instalao e
licenciamentos de estabelecimento de produtos de pesca cujas condies e caracteristicas sero
definidas em regulamento especfico.
2. A autorizao para a constituio, instalao e licenciamento de actividades productivas ou de
servios complementares actividade de pesca ou de actividades conexas de pesca do mbito da
responsabilidade da Secretaria de Estado das Pescas reger-se- pela lei geral aplicvel s
actividades industriais e comerciais.
(...)
Ttulo III
Medidas de conservao
Artigo 35
(Medidas de conservao)
Compete a Secretria do Estado das Pescas, definir medidas de conservao dos recursos
pesqueiros, nomeadamente:
a) Prescrever medidas de conservao e de gesto compreendendo entre outras,
dimenses e, ou pesos mnimos das espcies, perodos de veda, reas de acesso proibido
ou limitado, dimenses mnimas das malhas, regulamantao das artes de pesca, limites
mximos de capturas autorizadas por embarcao ou por pessoa em determinada pescaria
ou zona, mtodos de pesca proibidos e esquemas para a limitao do acesso e do esforo
de pesca;
b) Proibir ou regulamentar o exerccio da pesca de mamifros marinhos e outras espcies
internacionalmente protegidas assim como proteger espcies raras ou em perigo de
extino;
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ANNEXES
c) Adoptar quaisquer outras medidas de conservao necessrias preservao dos
recursos pesqueiros.
Artigo 36
(Proibio do uso de explosivos ou de substncias txicas ou de pesca por electrocuo)
expressamente proibido:
a) Empregar ou tentar empregar no exerccio da pesca, matrias explosivas ou
substncias txicas susceptveis de enfraquecer, atordoar, excitar ou matar as espcies ou
por qualquer outro modo as tornar mais fceis de capturar ou ainda qualquer outro
instrumento de pesca por electrocuo;
b) Deter ou transportar a bordo de embarcaes de pesca, matrias, substncias e
instrumentos referidos na alnea anterior.
(...)
Aprovada pela Assembleia Popular.
O Presidente da Assembleia Popular.
Publique-se: O Presidente da Repblica.
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148
ANNEXES
6. Biodiversidade - a variedade e variabilidade entre os organismos vivos de todas as origens,
incluindo, entre outros, os ecossistemas terrestres, marinhos e outros ecossistemas aquticos, assim;
como os complexos ecolgicos dos quais fazem parte; compreende a diversidade dentro de cada
espcie, entre as espcies e de ecossistemas.
7. Componentes Ambientais - so os diversos elementos que integram o ambiente e cuja interaco
permite o seu equilbrio, incluindo o ar, a gua, o solo, o subsolo, a flora, a fauna e todas as
condies socio-econmicas e de sade que afectam as comunidades; so tambm designados
correntemente por recursos naturais.
8. Degradao do Ambiente - a alterao adversa das caractersticas do ambiente, e inclui, entre
outras, a poluio, a desertificao, a croso e o deflorestamento.
9. Deflorestamento - a destruio ou abate indiscriminado de matas e florestas sem a reposio
devida.
10. Desenvolvimento Sustentvel - o desenvolvimento baseado numa gesto ambiental que satisfaz
as necessidades da gerao presente sem comprometer o equilbrio do ambiente e a possibilidade de
as geraes futuras satisfazerem tambm as suas necessidades.
11. Desertificao - um processo de degradao do solo, natural ou provocado pela remoo da
cobertura vegetal ou utilizao predatoria que, devido a condies climticas, acaba por transformalo
num deserto.
12. Ecossistema - um complexo dinmico de comunidades vegetais, animais e de
microorganismos, e o seu ambiente no vivo, que interage como uma unidade funcional.
13.Eroso - o desprendimento da superficie do solo pela aco natural dos ventos ou das guas, que
muitas vezes intensificado por praticas humanas de retirada de vegetao.
14. Estudo de Impacto Ambiental - a componente do processo de avaliao do impacto ambiental
que analisa tcnica e cientificamente as consequncias da implantao de actividades de
desenvolvimento sobre o ambiente.
15. Gesto Ambiental - o maneio e a utilizao racional e sustentvel dos componentes ambientais,
incluindo o seu reuso, recielagem, proteco e conservao.
16. Impacto Ambiental - qualquer mudana do ambiente, para melhor ou para prior, especialmente
efeitos no ar, na terra, na gua e na sade das pessoas, resultante de actividades humanas.
17.Legislao Ambiental - abrange todo e qualquer diploma legal que rege a gesto do ambiente.
18. Legislao Sectorial - so os diplomas legais que regem um compopnente ambiental especfico.
19. Padres de Qualidade Ambiental - So os nveis de admissves concentrao de poluentes
prescritos por lei para os componentes ambientais com vista a adequ-los a determinado fim.
20. Peritagem Ambiental - a investigao realizada por um grupo integrado por especialistas de,
idoneidade e reputao reconhecidas, com vista a avaliar a gravidade e custos dos danos causados ao
ambiente.
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ANNEXES
21. Poluio - a deposio no ambiente de substncias ou resduos, independentemente da sua
forma, bem como a emisso de luz, som e outras formas de energia, de tal modo e em quantidade tal
que o afecta negativamente.
22. Qualidade do Ambiente - o equilbrio e a sanidade do ambiente, incluindo a adequabilidade dos
seus componentes s necessidades do homem e de outros seres vivos;
23. Lixos Ou Resduos Perigosos - so substncias ou objectos que se eliminam, que se tem a
inteno de eliminar, ou que se obrigado por lei a eliminar, e que contm caractersticas de risco
por serem inflamaveis, explosivas, corrosivas, toxicas, infecciosas ou radioactivas, ou por
apresentarem qualquer outra caracterstica que constitua prigo para a vida ou sade do homem e de
outros seres vivos para a qualidade do ambiente.
24. Zonas Hmidas - so reas de pntano, brejo, turfeira ou gua, natural ou artificial, permanente
ou temporaria, parada ou corrente, doce, salobra ou salgada, incluindo as guas do mar cuja
profundidade na mare baixa no excede seis metros, que sustentam a vida vegetal ou animal que
requeira condies de saturao aqutica do solo.
Artigo 2
(Objecto)
A presente lei tem como objecto a definio das bases legais para uma utilizao e gesto correctas
do ambiente e seus componentes, com vista materializao de um sistema de desenvolvimento
sustentvel no pais.
Artigo 3
(mbito)
A presente lei aplica-se a todas as actividades pblicas ou privadas que directa ou indirectamente
possam influir nos componentes ambientais.
Artigo 4
(Princpios Fundamentais)
A gesto ambiental basea-se em princpios fundamentais, decorrentes do direito de todos os cidados
a um ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, propcio a sua sade e ao seu bem-estar fsico e mental,
nomeadamente:
1. Da utilizao e gesto racionais dos componentes ambientais, com vista promoo da melhoria
da qualidade de vida dos cidados e manuteno da biodiversidade e dos ecossistemas.
2. Do reconhecimento e valorizao das tradies e do saber das comunidades locais que contribuam
para a conservao e preservao dos recursos naturas e do ambiente.
3. Da precauo, com base no qual a gesto do ambiente dever priorizar o estabelecimento de
sistemas de preveno de actos lesivos ao ambiente, de modo a evitar a ocorrncia de impactos
ambientais negativos significativos ou irreversiveis, independentemente da existncia de certeza
cientfica sobre a ocorrncia de tais impactos.
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ANNEXES
4. Da viso global e integrada do ambiente, como um conjunto de ecossistemas interdependentes,
naturais e construidos, que devem ser geridos de maneira a manter o seu equilbrio funcional sem
exceder os seus limites intrinsecos.
5. Da ampla participao dos cidados, como aspecto crucial da execuo da Programa Nacional de
Gesto Ambiental.
6. Da igualdade, que garante oportunidades iguais de acesso e uso de recursos naturais a homens e
mulheres.
7. Da responsabilizao, com base no qual quem polui ou de qualquer outra forma degrada o
ambiente, tem sempre a obrigao de reparar ou compensar os danos da decorrentes.
8. Da cooperao internacional, para a obteno de solues harmoniosas dos problemas ambientais,
reconhecidas que so as suas dimenses transfronteirias e globais.
Captulo II
rgos de Gesto Ambiental
Artigo 5
(rgos Centrais)
1. Cabe ao Governo elaborar e executar o Programa Nacional de Gesto Ambiental.
2. Com vista a garantir-se uma efectiva e correcta coordenao e integrao dos princpios e das
actividades de gesto ambiental no processo de desenvolvimento do pais criado o Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel.
3. O Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel um rgo consultivo do Conselho de
Ministros, e servir tambm como foro de auscultao da opinio pblica sobre questes ambientais.
Artigo 6
1. So competncias do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel:
a) Pronunciar-se sobre as polticas sectoriais relacionadas com a gesto de recursos naturais:
b) Emitir parecer sobre propostas de legislao complementar Lei Quadro do Ambiente,
incluindo as propostas criadoras ou de reviso de legislao sectorial relacionada com a
gesto de recursos naturais do pas;
c) Pronunciar-se sobre as propostas de ratificao de convenes internacionais relativas ao
ambiente;
d) Elaborar propostas de criao de incentivos financeiros ou de outra natureza para
estimular os agentes econmicos para a adopo de procedimentos ambientalmente sos na
utilizao quotidiana dos recursos do pas.
e) Propor mecanismos de simplificao e agilizao do processo de licenciamento de
actividades relacionadas com o uso de recursos naturais;
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ANNEXES
f) Formular recomendaes aos ministros das diversas areas de gesto de recursos naturais
sobre aspectos relevantes das respectivas reas;
g) Servir como foro de resoluo de diferendos institucionais relacionados com a utilizao e
gesto de recursos naturas;
h) Exercer as demais funoes que lhe forem cometidas pela presente lei e pela demais
legislao ambiental.
2. A composio e o funcionamento do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel sero
regulados por decreto do Conselho de Ministros.
Artigo 7
(gos Locais)
A nvel local sero criados servios responsveis pela implementao da presente lei, os quais
garantiro a coordenao da aco ambiental a esse nivel e a descentralizao na sua execuo, de
modo a permitir um aproveitamento adequado das iniciativas e conhecimentos locais.
Artigo 8
(Participao Pblica na Gesto do Ambiente)
obrigao do governo criar mecanismos adequados para envolver os diversos sectores da
sociedade civil, comunidades locais, em particular as associaes de defesa do ambiente, na
elaborao de polticas e legislao relativa gesto dos recursos naturais do pais, assim como no
desenvolvimento das actividades de implementao do Programa Nacional de Gesto Ambiental.
Capitulo III
Puluio do Ambiente
Artigo 9
(Proibio de poluir)
1. No permitida, no territorio nacional, a produo, o deposito no solo e no subsolo, o lanmento
para a gua ou para a atmosfera, de quaisquer substncias txicas e poluidoras, assim como a prtica
de actividades que acelerem a croso, a desertificao, o deflorestamento, ou qualquer outra forma de
degradao do ambiente, fora dos limites legalmente estabelecidos.
2. expressamente proibida a importao para o territrio nacional de resduos ou lixos perigosos,
salvo o que vier estabelecido em legislao especfica.
Artigo 10
(Padres de Qualidade Ambiental)
1. O governo dever estabelecer padres de qualidade ambiental, de modo a assegurar umar
utilizao sustentvel dos recursos do pas.
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ANNEXES
2. Na definio dos padres de qualidade ambiental, sero igualmente estabelecidas normas e prazos
para a adequao dos processos agrcolas e industriais, s mquinas e aos meios de transporte, de
dispositivos ou processos adequados para reter ou neutralizar substncias poluidoras.
Captulo IV
Medidas Especiais de Proteco do Ambiente
Artigo 11
(Proteco do Patrimnio Ambiental)
O governo dever assegurar que o patrimnio ambiental, especialmente o histrico e cultural, seja
objecto de medidas permanentes de defesa e valorizao, com o envolvimento adequado das
comunidades, em particular as associaes de defesa do ambiente.
Artigo 12
(Proteco da Biodiversidade)
1. So proibidas todas as actividades que atentem contra a conservao, reproduo, qualidade e
quantidade dos recursos biologicos, especialmente os ameaados de extino.
2. O governo assegurara que sejam tomadas medidas adequadas com vista :
a) Manuteno e regenerao de espcies animais, recuperao de habitats danificados e
criao de novos habitats, controlando-se especialmente as actividades ou o uso de
substncias susceptiveis de prejudicar as espces faunsticas e os seus habitats;
b) Proteco especial das espcies vegetais ameaadas de extino ou dos exemplares
botnicos, isolados ou em grupo que, pelo seu potencial gentico, porte, idade, raridade,
valor cientfico e cultural, o exijam.
Artigo 13
(reas de Proteco Ambiental)
1. A fim de assegurar a proteco e preservao dos componentes ambientais, bem como a
manuteno e melhoria de ecossistemas de reconhecido valor ecolgico e scio-econmico, o
governo estabelecer reas de proteco ambiental devidamente sinalizadas.
2. As reas protegidas podero ter mbito nacional, regional, local ou ainda internacional, consoante
os interesses que procuram salvaguardar e podero abranger reas terrestres, guas lacustres, fluviais
ou martimas e outras zonas naturais distintas.
3. As reas de proteco ambiental sero submetidas a medidas de classificao, conservao e
fiscalizao, as quais devem ter sempre em considerao a necessidade de preservao da
biodiversidade, assim como dos valores de ordem social, econmica, cultural, cientfica e
paisagstica.
4. As medidas referidas no nmero anterior devero incluir a indicao das actividades permitidas ou
proibidas no interior das reas protegidas e nos seus arredores, assim como a indicao do papel das
comunidades locais na gesto destas reas.
Artigo 14
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(Implantao de infraestruturas)
1. proibida a implantao de infraestruturas habitacionais ou para outro fim que, pela sua
dimenso, natureza ou localizao, provoquem um impacto negativo significativo sobre o ambiente,
o mesmo se aplicando deposio de lixos ou materiais usados.
2. A proibio inserida no nmero anterior aplica-se especialmente zona costeira, s zonas
ameaadas de eroso ou desertificao, s zonas hmidas, s reas de proteco ambiental e a outras
zonas ecologicamente sensveis.
3. Sero estabelecidas por regulamento as normas para a implantao de infraestruturas nas reas
referidas no nmero anterior. Ser igualmente regulamentada a implantao de infraestruturas nas
reas que circundam as rodovias, as ferrovias, as barr...., os portos e aeroportos, entre outros, de
modo a que se no prejudique seu funcionamento, a sua possibilidade de expanso, assim como a
harmonia da paisagem.
Captulo V
Preveno de Danos Ambientais
Artigo 15
(Licenciamento Ambiental)
1. O licenciamento e o registo dans actividades que pela sua natureza, localizao ou dimenso,
sejam susceptveis de provocar impactos significativos sobre o ambiente, sero feitos de acordo com
o regime a estabelecer pelo governo, por regulamento especfico.
2. A emisso da licena ambiental ser baseada numa avaliao do impacto ambiental da proposta de
actividade, e preceder a emisso de quaisquer outras licenas legalmente exigidas para cada caso.
Artigo 16
(Avaliao do Impacto Ambiental)
1. A avaliao do impacto ambiental ter como base um estudo de impacto ambiental a ser realizado
por entidades credenciadas pelo governo.
2. Os moldes da avaliao do impacto ambiental para cada caso, assim como as demais
formalidades, sero indicados em legislao especifica.
Artigo 17
(Contedo Mnimo do Estudo do impacto Ambiental)
O estudo do impacto ambiental, compreender, no mnimo, a informao seguinte:
a) Um resumo no tcnico do projecto;
b) Descrio da actividade a desenvolver;
c) Situao ambiental do local de implantao da actividade;
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ANNEXES
d) Modificaes que a actividade provocar nos diferentes componentes ambientais
existentes no local;
e) Medidas previstas para suprimir ou redzir os efeitos negativos da actividade sobre a
qualidade do ambiente;
f) Sistemas previstos para o controle e monitorizao da actividade.
Artigo 18
(Auditorias Ambientais)
1. Todas as actividades que data d entrada em vigor desta lei se encontrem em funcionamento sem
a aplicao de tecnologias ou processos apropriados e, por consequncia disso, resultam ou podem
resultar em danos para o ambiente, sero objecto de auditorias ambientais.
2. Os custos decorrentes da reparao dos danos ambientais eventualmente constatados pela
autditoria so da responsabilidade dos empreendedores.
Captulo VI
Direitos e Deveres dos Cidados
Artigo 19
(Direito informao)
Todas as pessoas tm a direito de acesso informao relacionada com a gesto do ambiente do pais,
sem prejuizo dos direitos de terceiros legalmente protegidos.
Artigo 20
(Direito Educao)
Com vista a assegurar uma correcta gesto do ambiente e a necessaria participao das
communidades, o governo dever criar, em colaborao com os orgos de comunicao social,
mecanismos e programas para a educao ambiental formal e informal.
Artigo 21
(Direito de Acesso Justia)
1. Qualquer cidado que considere terem sido violados os direitos que lhe so conferidos por esta lei,
ou que considre que existe ameaa de violao dos mesmos, pode recorrer as instneis jurisdicionais
para obter a reposio dos seus direito ou a preveno da sua violao.
2. Qualquer pessoa que, em consequncia da vialao das disposies da legislao ambiental, sofra
ofensas pessoais ou danos patrimoniais, incluindo a perda de colheitas ou de lucros, poder processar
judicialmente o autor dos danos ou da ofensa e exigir a respectiva reparao ou indemnizao.
3. As aces legais referidas nos nmeros 1 e 2 deste artigo seguiro os termos processuais
adequados.
4. Compete ao Ministrio Pblico a defesa dos valores ambientais protegidos por esta lei, sem
prejuzo da legitimidade dos lesados para propor as aces referidas na presente lei.
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Artigo 22
(Embargos)
Aqueles que se julguem ofendidos nos seus direitos a um ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado
podero requerer a suspenso imediata da actividade causadora da ofensa, seguindo-se, para tal
efeito, o processo do embargo administrativo ou outros meios processuais adequados.
Artigo 23
(Obrigao de participao de infraces)
Qualquer pessoa que verifique infraces s disposies desta lei ou de qualquer outra legislao
ambiental, ou que razoavelmente presuma que tais infraces estejam na iminncia de ocorrer, tem a
obrigao de informar as autoridades policiais ou outros agentes administrativos mais prximos
sobre o facto.
Artigo 24
(Obrigao de utilizao responsvel dos recursos)
Todas as pessoas tm a obrigao de utilizar os recursos naturais de forma responsvel e sustentvel,
onde quer que se encontrem e independentemente do fim, assim como o dever de encorajar as outras
pessoas a proceder do mesmo modo.
Captulo VII
Responsabilidades, Infraces e Sanes
Artigo 25
(Seguro de responsabilidade Civil)
Todas as pessoas que exeram actividades que envolvam elevado risco de degradao do ambiente, e
assim classificadas pela legislao sobre a avaliao do impacto ambiental, devero segurar a sua
responsabilidade civil.
Artigo 26
(Responsabilidade Objectiva)
1. Constituem-se na obrigao de pagar uma indemnizao aos lesados todos aqueles que,
independentemente de culpa e da observncia dos preceitos legais, causarem danos significativos ao
ambiente ou provocarem a paralisao temporria ou definitiva de actividades economicas, como
resultado da prtica de actividades especialmente perigosas.
2. Compete ao governo supervisar a avaliao da gravidade dos danos e a fixao do seu valor, que
sero efectuadas por via de uma peritagem ambiental.
3. Sempre que as circunstncias o exijam, o Estado tomar as medidas necessrias para prevenir,
conter ou eliminar qualquer dano grave ao ambiente, gozando, contudo, do direito de regresso pelos
custos suportados.
Artigo 27
(Crimes e Contravenes Ambientais)
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As infraces de carcter criminal, bem como as contravenes, relativas ao ambiente, sero objecto
de previso em legislao especfica.
Captulo VIII
Fiscalizao Ambiental
Artigo 28
(Agentes de Fiscalizao Ambiental)
O Governo criara, em termos a regulamentar, um corpo de agentes de fiscalizao ambiental
competentes para velar pela implementao da legislao ambiental e para a tomada das
providncias necessrias para prevenir a violao das suas disposies.
Artigo 29
(Dever de Colaborao)
Todas as pessoas encarregues de uma actividade ou lugar sujeito fiscalizao devero colaborar
com os agentes de fiscalizao na realizao das suas actividades.
Artigo 30
(Participao das Comunidades)
Com vista a garantir a necessria participao das comunidades locais e a utilizar adequadamente os
seus conhecimentos e recursos humanos, o governo, em coordenao com as autoridades locais,
promover a criao de agentes de fiscalizao comunitrios.
Captulo IX
Disposies Finais
Artigo 31
(Incentivos)
O governo criar incentivos econmicos ou de outra natureza com vista a encorajar a utilizao de
technologias e processos produtivos ambientalmente sos.
Artigo 32
(Legislao Sectorial)
1. A legislao existente que foge a gesto des componentes ambientais dever ser ajustada s
disposies da presente lei.
2. Na regulamentao da presente lei compete ao governo fixar os prazos para que os projectos j
autorizados e os empreendimentos em curso que contrariem os dispositivos da presente lei sejam a
esta ajustados.
Artigo 33
(Legislao Complementar)
1. Cabe ao governo adoptar as medidas regulamentares necessrias efectivao da presente lei.
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ANNEXES
2. Na regulamentao presente lei, compete ao governo fixar os prazos para que os projecto j
autorizados e os empreendimentos em curso que contrariem os dispositivos da presente lei, sejam a
esta ajustados.
Artigo 34
(Vigncia)
A presente lei entra em vigor 60 dias aps a sua publicao no Boletim da Repblica.
Aprovada pela Assembleia da Repblica.
Publique-se: O Presidente da Repblica.
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