Ziare Newspapers
Ziare Newspapers
Main Entry:
1
pulp
Pronunciation:
\plp\
Function:
noun
Etymology:
Middle English pulpe, from Latin pulpa flesh, pulp
Date:
14th century
1 a (1): the soft, succulent part of a fruit usually composed of mesocarp (2): stem pith
when soft and spongy b: a soft mass of vegetable matter (as of apples) from which
most of the water has been extracted by pressure c: the soft sensitive tissue that fills
the central cavity of a tooth see tooth illustration d: a material prepared by
chemical or mechanical means from various materials (as wood or rags) for use in
making paper and cellulose products2: pulverized ore mixed with water3 a: pulpy
condition or character b: something in such a condition or having such a character4: a
magazine or book printed on cheap paper (as newsprint) and often dealing with
sensational material; also : sensational or tabloid writing often used attributively
<pulp fiction>
Types of newspapers?
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Weekly newspapers are common and tend to be smaller than daily papers. In some
cases, there also are newspapers that are published twice or three times a week. In the
United States, such newspapers are generally still classified as weeklies.
Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole
country: a national newspaper, as contrasted with a local newspaper serving a city or
region. In the United Kingdom, there are numerous national newspapers, including
The Independent, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Observer, The
Daily Mail, The Sun, The Daily Express and The Daily Mirror. In the United States
and Canada, there are few truly national newspapers, with the notable exceptions The
Wall Street Journal and USA Today in the US and The Globe and Mail and The
National Post in Canada. Large metropolitan newspapers with expanded distribution
networks such as The New York Times and The Washington Post can fill the role of
de facto national newspapers.
As English has become the international language of business and technology, many
newspapers formerly published only in non-English languages have also developed
English-language editions. In places as varied as Jerusalem and Bombay (Mumbai),
newspapers are printed to a local and international English-speaking public. The
advent of the Internet has also allowed the non-English newspapers to put out a
scaled-down English version to give their newspaper a global outreach.
There is also a small group of newspapers which may be characterised as international
newspapers. Some, such as Christian Science Monitor and The International Herald
Tribune, have always had that focus, while others are repackaged national newspapers
or "international editions" of national-scale or large metropolitan newspapers. Often
these international editions are scaled down to remove articles that might not interest
the wider range of readers.
Job titles within the newspaper industry vary greatly. In the United States, the overall
manager of the newspaper sometimes also the owner may be termed the
publisher. This usage is less common outside the U.S., but throughout the Englishspeaking world the person responsible for content is usually referred to as the editor.
Variations on this title such as editor-in-chief, executive editor, and so on, are
common.
While most newspapers are aimed at a broad spectrum of readers, usually
geographically defined, some focus on groups of readers defined more by their
interests than their location: for example, there are daily and weekly business
newspapers and sports newspapers. More specialist still are some weekly newspapers,
usually free and distributed within limited areas; these may serve communities as
specific as certain immigrant populations, or the local gay community.
Newspapers often refine distribution of ads and news through zoning and editioning.
Zoning occurs when advertising and editorial content change to reflect the location to
which the product is delivered. The editorial content often may change merely to
reflect changes in advertising the quantity and layout of which affects the space
available for editorial or may contain region-specific news. In rare instances, the
advertising may not change from one zone to another, but there will be different
region-specific editorial content. As the content can vary widely, zoned editions are
Some say newspapers will resemble glossy magazines. Some say they will be
individually tailored to readers. Some envision networks of news generators and
digital news hubs.
All these future scenarios share one thing in common -- theyre all based on current
trends in the industry as newspapers evolve and grow as multimedia businesses.
"Envisioning the Newspaper 2020" will soon be published by the Shaping the Future
of the Newspaper project, exclusively for members of WAN. But the report served as
a centrepiece Thursday in a seminar on the future of newspapers at the World Digital
Publishing conference, which drew 400 media executives from 74 countries to
Amsterdam.
More on the conference, including summaries of presentations, can be found here.
The Shaping the Future of the Newspaper project identifies, analyses and publicises
all important breakthroughs and opportunities that can benefit newspapers all over the
world. SFN provides WAN members and subscribers with Strategy Reports on these
developments, a library of case studies and business ideas, and a wealth of other vital
information for all those who need to follow press industry trends. More on the
project and on WAN membership can be found at www.futureofthenewspaper.com.
Here are some excerpts from "Envisioning the Newspaper 2020," the first of seven
SFN Strategy Reports for WAN members to be published in 2007 and 2008:
"Regardless of the name of the service, the core competency of news and newspaper
publishers of the future will consist of generating content from highly efficient
networks, technically process and manage them via networks and continuously or at
regular intervals disseminate these contents through a multitude of channels. The
recipients of the content will increasingly want to decide for themselves which
channel they want to use at which time - letters and images on conventional or
electronic paper, the Internet, mobile phones or a combination of various information
carriers.
Gerd Finkbeiner, Chairman, Man Roland, Germany
"As digital media takes an increasing hold on the news industry, audiences, in turn,
will demand news reporting in which they can place the trust and confidence once
reserved primarily for newspapers. Collaborative filtering tools and trust metrics will
help to achieve those ends."
Craig Newmark, founder of Craiglist.org, USA
"A newspapers brand is its foundation and its greatest value. The newspaper is an
institution with the greatest credibility on earth. A newspapers brand represents a
readers trust, based on the supposed expertise of collaborators to understand the
world, identify what is relevant, deeply investigate and report with faithfulness and
impartiality, clearly distinguishing fact from opinion and publicity. This is what makes
a newspaper different from other players in the market, even those equally capable of
managing and distributing information.
Flavio Ferrari, CEO, IBOPE Media Information, Brazil
"Oh, printed products may well continue and in some countries still grow. But I
wouldnt mourn their deaths so long as we find ways for their journalism to live on
and prosper. A newspaper mustnt define itself by its medium. It isnt just paper. Its
strength and value do not come from controlling content or distribution. And
protecting those dwindling advantages is not a viable strategy for growth - or
survival."
Jeff Jarvis, media consultant, blogger and head of the interactive journalism
program at the City University of New York, USA
"Indeed, the more that life becomes globalised, digital and virtual, the more, I would
argue, people will seek out products like newspapers that slow things down a little
and tell us whats important and whats not, especially at a local level. And lets also
not forget that physical newspapers, like books, are superb examples of industrial
design, which, if invented today, would be greeted as a miracle innovation. They dont
need power, theres no screen glare, they dont crash and when youre finished with
them they can be safety recycled."
Richard Watson, futurist, Future Exploration Network, Australia
"By 2020 smart newspaper networks allow readers to receive best-of-breed material
in all specialties. The un-bundling of the newspaper that began in the early 21st
century has resulted in the un-bundling of the newsroom itself. Now readers sip from
rich networks of content providers who excel in individual areas."
Robert Cauthorn, CEO, CityTools, USA
"Newspaper companies will look very different in 2020. There are many reasons to be
confident that our industry has the vision, the energy and the fundamental business
strengths to emerge by 2020 as a multi-media communications business with a wider
market to operate in than it had before 2007."
"The most successful newspapers of the last decade launched Internet businesses that
behaved as strategic options for the core newspaper franchises. Similarly, the most
successful papers of the next decade are likely to be those that continue to launch new
ventures not as replacements for the paper, or as catalysts for its imminent
transformation, but instead as options on future shifts in strategy in response to
changes that today can only be dimly imagined."
Michael Raynor, Distinguished Research Fellow, Deloitte Consulting
"It takes tremendous time, effort and work to convince traditional print editors that
they are now part of a 24/7 news gathering and storytelling process, and that the
printed product is only one of the various platforms through which news and
information are dispensed. Management plays a key role."
Mario Garcia, Founder and CEO, Garcia Media
"The real disruptors of the next decade wont be companies, but people - creative,
entrepreneurial opportunists who are transforming the global economy - developers,
designers, marketers, sales people, business analysts, project managers, accountants,
lawyers and other professionals scattered around the globe, connecting and working
from anywhere to build businesses and solve problems everywhere."
Andrew Nachison, co-founder and CEO, iFOCOS, USA
"Technical innovations will change the future of newspapers. Computers and mobile
handsets double their capacity every nine months. This allows media companies to
continuously introduce new and improved services. New technical innovations and
improvements also drive change in human behaviour. Today, teens must be connected
to their friends at all times. Their technical devices become part of their personal
identity. As a result, teens carry a potential distribution channel for news and
entertainment with them at all times."
Stig Eide Sivertsen, CEO Broadcasting Division, Telenor, Norway
"If newspaper companies are to survive and prosper in this new environment,
managers of firms will need to engage in strategic planning and implementation that
builds upon existing capabilities and uses existing skills, knowledge and capacity to
improve existing papers and introduce new products that provide access to parts of the
public not well served today.
Robert Picard, Director, Media Management and Transformation Centre,
Jonkping University, Sweden
The Paris-based WAN, the global organisation for the newspaper industry represents
18,000 newspapers; its membership includes 76 national newspaper associations,
newspaper companies and individual newspaper executives in 102 countries, 12 news
agencies and 10 regional and world-wide press groups.
WAN conducts the SFN project with support from four international partners -PubliGroupe, the Swiss-based international advertising and promotion group; MAN
Roland, a leading company for newspaper production systems; UPM-Kymmene, one
of the worlds leading printing paper producers; and Telenor, the leading Norwegian
telecommunications, IT and media group.
Join WAN. Good for your company. Good for the industry. More at www.wanpress.org/membership.
Inquiries to: Larry Kilman, Director of Communications, WAN, 7 rue Geoffroy St
Hilaire, 75005 Paris France. Tel: +33 1 47 42 85 00. Fax: +33 1 47 42 49 48. Mobile:
+33 6 10 28 97 36. E-mail: [email protected].
Area:
GDP:
As % of All Ad Expenditures:
Number of Television Stations:
Number of Television Sets:
Television Sets per 1,000:
Number of Cable Subscribers:
Cable Subscribers per 1,000:
Number of Satellite Subscribers:
Satellite Subscribers per 1,000:
Number of Radio Stations:
Number of Radio Receivers:
Radio Receivers per 1,000:
Number of Individuals with Computers:
Computers per 1,000:
Number of Individuals with Internet Access:
Internet Access per 1,000:
1,972,550 sq km
574,512 (US$ millions)
13.80
236
25,600,000
251.3
2,263,800
23.1
668,000
6.6
1378
31,000,000
304.3
5,000,000
49.1
2,712,000
26.6
General Description
Mexico is located in Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico, with the United States to its north and Belize and Guatemala to the south.
The climate varies from tropical to desert, and its terrain consists of high, rugged
mountains, low coastal plains, and high plateaus (desert). The site of advanced
Amerindian civilizations, Mexico was under Spanish rule for three centuries before
achieving independence early in the nineteenth century. The language across the
country is Spanish.
Economically, the country was affected by a devaluation of the peso in late 1994,
which triggered the worst recession in over half a century. As of the early 2000s,
however, the nation was making an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and
social concerns include low wages, underemployment for a large segment of the
population, and inequitable income distribution, with the top 20 percent of income
earners accounting for 55 percent of income. Moreover, few advancement
opportunities existed at the turn of the millennium for the largely Amerindian
population in the impoverished southern states, one of which, the Chiapas, had been
in open rebellion since 1994.
The literacy rate in Mexico is high with about 92 percent of the population (as of the
early 2000s) over the age of 15 able to read and write. The Mexican population speaks
Spanish, with a small percent speaking various Mayan, Nahautl, and other regional
indigenous languages. The ethnic breakdown was as follows: mestizo (AmerindianSpanish) 60 percent, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 30 percent, white 9
percent, other 1 percent. About 89 percent were Roman Catholic, 6 percent Protestant,
and 5 percent other.
In July, 2000, when Vicente Fox won the presidential election, a new federal political
party, National Action Party (PAN), came into power after 71 years of another
dominant party, Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The government incorporates
a mixture of U.S. constitutional theory and civil law system; it also has judicial review
of legislative acts. Economically, the country is now a federal republic and favors a
free market economy, with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry.
elite class and a powerful Catholic clergy dominated Mexico. Nonetheless, printing
presses existed in Mexico as early as 1536, and small circulation newspapers, such as
the Gacetade in Mexico City, began to appear about 1660. These publications used
political cartoons as a medium for attacking the authorities of both the state and
church. General education was not available, and so illiteracy was high. In 1819, the
Spanish were removed as colonial overlords, and Mexico declared its independence
from Spain.
Throughout the nineteenth century, amid political instability, journalists pleaded for a
free press and frequently cited U.S. newspapers and U.S. constitutional guarantees as
models worth emulating. Yet the 1850s laws checked newspaper criticism of the
government. Many Mexican presidents resorted to closing newspapers and
imprisoning their employees. Prior to the Mexican Revolution of 1910, powerful
individuals in the government and the church successfully bribed journalists. This
practice of providing cash for coverage took hold quite easily throughout Mexico
because journalists were so poorly paid. These bribes became known as embutes.
Following the revolution in 1910, a number of new papers started, particularly in
Mexico City, for example, El Universal in 1916 and the Exelsior in 1917. During the
1920s and 1930s an alternative medium, radio, spread across Mexico. The ruling
president awarded these licensed stations to his wealthy friends; therefore, criticism
was non-existent. Then, too, the PRI party sustained its control for seven decades; it
used broadcast media including television, particularly with Televisa, as a series of
quasi-public relation stations. It makes sense then that Mexican electronic media did
not confront official censorship: its owners were close friends of those who ruled.
Extremely wealthy themselves, these owners had no reason to promote change that
threatened to lead to a redistribution of wealth. To seal the arrangement, the Mexican
media were characterized by gracetillas (advertisements paid for by the government),
essentially propaganda pieces, which brought considerable revenue to radio and
television stations.
Numbers of Newspapers
The most popular newspaper format seems to be daily, yet there are a number of
weekly newspapers. Mexico's national English newspaper is The News. It is part of
Novedades Editores which publishes two papers and 15 magazines and has an online
publication, TheNewsMexico.com. Another paper, Express, is mainly distributed in
hotels and resorts. The average price of these papers ranges from 4 to 10 pesos.
The largest newspaper by circulation in Mexico, the tabloid Esto, had at 2002 a
circulation of 385,000. The second largest, a scandal driven newspaper with a
circulation of 330,000, was La Prensa. Next was El Universal, a widely respected
paper with growing influence, with a circulation of 170,000. The fourth was El
Financiero, a tabloid with a circulation of 147,000. Some of the smaller papers were:
Reform (125,000); El Norte (119,000); ElM (100,000); La Jornada (100,924).
Felix Fulgencio Palavicini started this paper to promote the ideas of the Mexican
Revolution. Through a sequence of owners, the newspaper grew steadily. It
implemented the latest technology and led the fight between press and government.
During the 1980s El Universal fought to end the governmental monopoly on
newsprint. In 2001 it initiated El Universal Online. In addition to this paper, the
second and third most influential ones are Reform and La Jornada. In 2002, the
Milenio and the La Presena still had the largest circulation, but their contents are
based upon yellow (sensational) press. The three most influential magazines in
Mexico are the Proceso (Politics), theContenido, and the Siempre.
ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK
Mexico's free market economy with its mixture of modern and outmoded industry and
agriculture was throughout the last quarter of the twentieth century increasingly
dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico fell
from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 2000. The Zedillo administration
(1994-2000) privatized and expanded competition in seaports, railroads,
telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports.
A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the
recovery in 1996-2000. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth in
2000, accompanied by increased employment and higher real wages. Entering the
twenty-first century, Mexico still needed to modernize its economy and raise living
standards. Trade with the United States and Canada had tripled since NAFTA was
implemented in 1994. Moreover, in 2000, Mexico completed free trade agreements
with the European Union (EU), Israel, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, and it
sought additional trade agreements with other countries in Latin America and Asia to
lessen its dependence on the United States.
Types of Newspapers
As of the early 2000s, Mexico had about 340 dailies, most of which were morning
editions. Most major cities had at least two competing dailies, with the exception of
Mexico City, which had 25 to 30 dailies. Despite a population in Mexico City of
about 2 million, the total circulation of all papers was only about 700,000 copies per
day.
Newsprint Availability
Newsprint was in 1935 handled by the government owned Productora Y Importa-dora
de Papel (PIPSA). Its monopoly was created to provide low cost newsprint material
for the newspapers, but over time it became a political weapon to be used against
newspapers that carried negative stories about the PRI ruling federal party. PIPSA
would punish newspapers that did not totally support the government by delaying
deliveries of newsprint or it would send inferior newsprint. However, the 62-year old
paper company lost its monopoly in 1990, and the new free market created much
competition. PIPSA in the 1990s had uneven productivity and then slow growth. With
some internal changes and by expanding facilities and product lines, PIPSA was able
PRESS LAWS
Of the following press laws, some applied to newspapers and others to the electronic
media. The application of these laws, however, has been inconsistent at best. In
general, friends of the ruling national party were able to avoid close monitoring or
prosecution whereas critics of the government inevitably faced legal difficulties.
However, under President Fox this historical trend seemed less prevalent and less
likely to continue.
CENSORSHIP
Senior governmental officials closely monitor daily newspaper coverage of the
government. This scrutiny existed in the early 2000s despite the fact that the
newspapers were mostly bought and read by educated urban people, the elite of whom
tended to favor the government. Although the two major television-broadcasting
outlets, Televisa and Aztec TV, are privately owned, they operate, as do newspapers,
in accord with an unwritten rule that they do not criticize the president. However, in
practice, media giants have little to fear because they are part of the ruling class that
governs them. Journalists attend prestigious events including foreign trips with
President Fox. Moreover, federal departments and agencies purchase considerable
advertising.
STATE-PRESS RELATIONS
While the Mexican press purports to be free, it is a fact that dozens of journalists and
editors were murdered in the 1980s and 1990s, among them Hector Felix Miranda
(1988); coeditor of Tijuana Weekly (ZETA), Victor Manuel Oropeza (1991); and
political columnist for Diario De Chihuahua, Jorge Martin Dorantes (1994). That this
criminal activity continued was the result of corrupt officials, including police and
military, and widespread failure to solve and successfully prosecute those responsible.
With the Fox administration, hope increased that state-press relations in the early
2000s would substantially improve.
PRESS ASSOCIATIONS
One of the Foreign News Bureaus represented in Mexico is the World Association of
Newspapers (WAN). Consisting of a group of 71 national newspaper associations,
with individual newspaper executives in 100 nations, 13 national and international
news agencies, a media foundation, and 7 affiliated regional and worldwide press
organizations, WAN represents more than 18,000 publications on five continents. It
has three goals: to defend and promote press freedom and the economic independence
of newspapers; to contribute to the development of newspaper publishing by fostering
communications and contacts between newspaper executives from different regions
and cultures; and to promote cooperation between WAN's member organizations,
whether national, regional or worldwide.
Also represented is the Inter American Press Association (IAPA), which includes all
major papers and many smaller rural papers in the United States, Mexico, and Latin
NEWS AGENCIES
As of 2002, four news agencies were operating in Mexico. Association de Editores de
los Estados (AEE), domestic news association, subscribed to the foreign news
association WAN. Also represented were Multimedios Estrellas de Oro (MEO); the
governmental organization, Agencia Mexicana de Noticias (Notimex); and Reuters
Mexico, the worldwide leader in financial information and services.
BROADCAST MEDIA
Radio
In 1997 there were 31 million radios in Mexico receiving broadcast from 865 AM
stations, about 500 FM stations, and about 13 short-wave stations. Grupo Radio
Centro, Mexico's leading radio broadcaster, produced the most popular stations, most
of which were located in Mexico City. Radio Centro had 20 production studios and
produced virtually all of its own programming. A subsidiary, Organizacin Impulsora
de Radio, served as a national sales representative and provided programming to more
than 100 affiliate radio stations across Mexico.
Television
In 1997 there were almost 30 million television sets owned across Mexico receiving
236 television broadcasting stations. As of 2002, Grupo Televisa was the largest
Spanish speaking communication conglomerate in the world. It began with radio
under the leadership of Emilio Azcarraga. The company expanded into television in
the 1970s, and afterward it became a multi-media corporation. In the early 2000s, it
was Mexico's largest television network controlling over 300 stations across four
networks. Almost 60 percent of the corporation's revenues came from television,
particularly the successful export of Spanish soap operas, known as telenovelas.
Moreover, with the expansion of the Spanish speaking population in the United
States, the U.S. market for Grupo Televisa products of all types increased
substantially. Televisa owned 17 radio stations along with music labels, mobile
phones, satellite interests, and other businesses. On the print side, Televisa controlled
Edivisa, S.A. de C.V, a publishing giant with over 40 Spanish magazines, including a
weekly television guide and other popular products. Edivisa also published Spanish
versions of Elle, Cosmopolitan, and Harper's Bazaar.
The television-broadcasting segment included the production of television
programming and nationwide broadcasting of Channels 2, 4, 5, and 9 (television
networks), and the production of television programming and broadcasting for local
television stations in Mexico and the United States. The broadcasting of television
networks was performed by television repeater stations in Mexico that were as of
2002 wholly-owned, majority-owned, or minority-owned by the Group or otherwise
affiliated with the Group's television network station broadcasts.
The programming for the pay television segment included programming services to
cable and pay-per-view television companies in Mexico, other countries in Latin
America, the United States, and Europe. The programming services consisted of both
programming produced by the Group and programming produced by others.
Programming for pay television revenues were derived from domestic and
international programming services provided to the independent cable television
systems in Mexico and the Group's DTH satellite businesses and formed the sale of
advertising time on programs provided to pay television companies in Mexico.
The programming licensing segment consisted of the domestic and international
licensing of television programming. Programming licensing revenues were derived
from domestic and international program licensing fees. The cable television segment
included the operation of a cable television system in the Mexico City metropolitan
area and derived revenues principally from basic and premium service subscription
and installation fees from cable subscribers, pay-per-view fees, and local and national
advertising sales. The radio segment included the operation of six radio stations in
Mexico City and eleven other domestic stations owned by the Group. Revenues were
derived by advertising and by the distribution of programs to nonaffiliated radio
stations. The other business segments included the Group's domestic operations in
sports and show business promotion, soccer, nationwide paging, feature film
production and distribution, Internet, and dubbing services for Mexican and
multinational companies.
Access Mexico Connect, popularly known as Mex-Connect, was in the early 2000s a
very successful free monthly electronic magazine focusing on information about
Mexico and promoting Mexico to the world. The electronic magazine was supported
by a searchable database of over 10,000 Mexican related articles. It received over a
half million hits per month, and 80 percent of its users were located in one of three
countries, the United States, Mexico, and Canada. As of 2002 it was Mexico's most
read English site and ranked in the top 5 percent of
all Internet sites in the world. In addition it offered a resource center with a variety of
Mexican activities such as classified aids, tourism, employment, email, and other ecommerce activities. MexConnect sought to promote Mexican trade, advertising, and
commerce around the world.
SUMMARY
Historically, the Mexican press has been compromised by violence and criminal
activity. Yet press laws in the twentieth century and governmental changes in the early
2000s suggested reasons to hope for the continued evolution of an increasingly
professional press. With the additional help of NAFTA, these changes bode well for
the future of the Mexican media. The passage in 2002 of a freedom of information act
indicated that journalists and others would in the early twenty-first century be able to
obtain government documents denied to them for generations. Then, too, increasing
numbers of well-educated, professional journalists entering the profession would
improve it. As traditional print sources in Mexico migrate to electronic services along
with new entrants such as MexConnect, media in Mexico are bound to find their place
in the global market.
SIGNIFICANT DATES
1994: NAFTA agreement is signed by Mexico, the United States, and Canada.
1994: Chiapas revolt begins.
2000: President Fox is elected.
2002: Freedom of Information Act is signed into law.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adler, Ilya. "Press-Government Relations in Mexico: A Study of Freedom of the
Mexican Press and Press Criticism of Government Institutions." Studies in Latin
American Popular Culture, vol.12 (1993): 1-30.
Barrera, Vivian and Denise Bielby. "Places, Faces, and Other Familiar Things: The
Cultural Experience of Telenovela Viewing Among Latinos in the United States."
Journal of Popular Culture vol. 34, 4 (2001): 1-19.
McAnany, Emile and Antonio La Pastina. "Telenovela Audiences." Communication
Research, vol. 21, 6 (Dec 1994): 828-847.
McPhail, Thomas. Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2002.
Perkins, Michael. "Freedom(s) of the Press in Latin America." Gazette 64 (2002): 519.
Vargas, Jocelyn. "Expanding the Popular Culture Debates: Puertorriqueas,
Hollywood, and Cultural Identity." Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, 15
(1996): 155-174.
Thomas McPhail
According to this article in Media Matters, Editor and Publisher have painstakingly
gathered data to determine what types of columnists are being published in what
markets. The results demonstrate a strong conservative bias in most newspapers.
Here are some of the results from the Executive Summary of the study:
Alternative press
The author has successfully chosen three different case studies (New York Times
Web's Technology section, Virtual Voyager of HoustonChronicle.com, and
Community Connection of New Jersey Online), which highlight different approaches
to the use of the innovative technology for the same purpose and subsequent different
outcomes. Boczkowski shows how differently the organizational relations (between
print and online newsrooms, between different categories of professionals - editors,
journalists, technicians), and different images of users shape the application of
technology and the online environment. The differences depended on the
understanding of the process of gatekeeping and editing, the image of the more or less
technologically-capable user, and the overall technical possibilities of the audience to
access the content.
For me the most appealing aspect was the treatment of users and their involvement as
co-authors and producers of the news. It would be most interesting to conduct similar
studies in other information mediating agencies, like book publishers and vendors,
libraries, magazine producers, and scholarly journals. On the other hand, it would also
be fascinating to investigate if the same tendencies can be detected in other countries
with different technology levels and media traditions.
Two other periodicals are noteworthy: Paradise of the Pacific and Mid-Pacific
Magazine. These glossy periodicals were produced locally but enjoyed a substantial
readership in North America and internationally. Both were in the business of
promoting Hawai'i as a tourist destination and a place for business investment.
Paradise of the Pacific, which survives today as Honolulu Magazine, is the oldest
Pulp magazine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Pulp magazines (or pulp fiction; often referred to as "the pulps") were inexpensive
fiction magazines. They were widely published from the 1920s through the 1950s.
The term pulp fiction can also refer to mass market paperbacks since the 1950s.
Contents
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11 See also
for the text, and had to use specific techniques to avoid blotting on the coarse texture
of the cheap pulp. Thus, fine lines and heavy detail were usually not an option.
Shading was by crosshatching or pointillism, and even that had to be limited and
coarse. Usually the art was black lines on the paper's background, but Finlay and a
few others did some work that was primarily white lines against large dark areas.
Pulps were typically seven inches wide by ten inches high, about half an inch thick,
having around 128 pages. In their first decades, they were most often priced at ten
cents, while competing slicks were twenty-five cents.
The first "pulp" is considered to be Frank Munsey's revamped Argosy Magazine of
1896, about 135,000 words (192 pages) per issue on pulp paper with untrimmed edges
and no illustrations, not even on the cover. While the steam powered printing press
had been in widespread use for some time, enabling the boom in dime novels, prior to
Munsey, no-one had combined cheap printing, cheap paper and cheap authors in a
package that provided affordable entertainment to working-class people. In six years
Argosy went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million.
Street & Smith were next on the market. A dime novel and boys weekly publisher,
they saw Argosy's success, and in 1903 launched The Popular Magazine, which was
billed as the "biggest magazine in the world" by virtue of being two pages longer than
Argosy. It should be noted that due to differences in page layout, the magazine had
substantially less text than Argosy. The Popular Magazine introduced the use of color
covers to the pulp world. The magazine began to take off when, in 1905, the
publishers acquired the rights to serialize a new work, Ayesha, by H. Rider Haggard, a
sequel to his very successful novel She. In 1907, they raised the cover price to fifteen
cents and added thirty pages per issue; this, along with a solid stable of authors,
proved a successful formula and circulation began to approach that of Argosy. This
demonstrated that the market could support multiple competitors. Street and Smith's
next key innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, each magazine
focusing on one genre such as detective stories, romance, etc.
At their peak of popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, the most successful pulps could
sell up to one million copies per issue. Among the best-known titles of this period
were Adventure, Amazing Stories, Black Mask, Dime Detective, Flying Aces, Horror
Stories, Marvel Tales, Oriental Stories, Planet Stories, Spicy Detective, Startling
Stories, Thrilling Wonder Stories, Unknown and Weird Tales.[1]
The Second World War paper shortages had a serious impact on pulp production,
starting a steady rise in costs and the decline of the pulps. Beginning with Ellery
Queen's Mystery Magazine in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size;
smaller, thicker magazines. In 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp
magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks. The pulp format declined
from rising expenses, but even more due to the heavy competition from comic books,
television, and the paperback novel. In a more affluent post-war America, the price
gap compared to slick magazines was far less significant. In the 1950's Men's
adventure magazines began to replace the pulp.
The 1957 bankruptcy of the American News Company, then the primary distributor of
pulp magazines, has sometimes been taken as marking the end of the "pulp era;" by
that date, many of the famous pulps of the previous generation, including Black Mask,
The Shadow, Doc Savage, and Weird Tales, were defunct. Most all of the few
remaining pulp magazines are science fiction or mystery magazines now in formats
similar to "digest size", such as Analog Science Fiction and Fact and Ellery Queen's
Mystery Magazine. The format is still in use for some lengthy serials, like the German
science fiction weekly Perry Rhodan (over 2300 issues as of 2005).
Over the course of their evolution, there were a huge number of pulp magazine titles;
Harry Steeger of Popular Publications claimed that his company alone had published
over 300, and at their peak they were publishing 42 titles per month[2]. Many titles of
course survived only briefly. While the most popular titles were monthly, many were
bimonthly and some were quarterly.
The collapse of the pulp industry has changed the landscape of publishing in that
pulps were the single largest sales outlet for short stories; combined with the decrease
in slick magazine fiction markets, people attempting to support themselves by writing
fiction must now generally write novels or book-length anthologies of shorter pieces.
[edit] Genres
Pulp magazines often contained a wide variety of genre fiction, including, but not
limited to, fantasy/sword and sorcery, detective/mystery, science fiction, adventure,
westerns (also see Dime Western), war, sports, railroad, men's adventure ("the
sweats"), romance, horror/occult (including "weird menace"), and Srie Noire (French
crime mystery). The American Old West was a mainstay genre of early turn of the
century novels as well as later pulp magazines, and lasted longest of all the traditional
pulps.
Many classic science fiction and crime novels were originally serialized in pulp
magazines such as Weird Tales, Amazing Stories, and Black Mask.
Biggles
Bran Mak Morn
Buck Rogers
Captain Future
Conan the Barbarian
Dan Turner, Hollywood Detective
Doc Savage
Doctor Death
Dr. Yen Sin
Domino Lady
Flash Gordon
Fu Manchu
G-8
Green Lama
Hopalong Cassidy
John Carter of Mars
Jules de Grandin
Ka-Zar
Kull
Lord Lister AKA Raffles
Nick Carter
Operator No. 5
Secret Agent X
Sexton Blake
Solomon Kane
Tarzan
The Avenger
The Black Bat
The Continental Op
The Eel
The Phantom Detective
The Shadow
The Spider
Zorro
Kilgore Trout, the perennial character in the work of Kurt Vonnegut, is a fictional pulp
fiction writer.
Poul Anderson
Isaac Asimov
C. M. Eddy, Jr.
C. S. Forester
John D. MacDonald
Horace McCoy
Henry BedfordJones
Robert Leslie
Bellem
Alfred Bester
Robert Bloch
Leigh Brackett
Ray Bradbury
Max Brand
Fredric Brown
Edgar Rice
Burroughs
William S.
Burroughs
Ellis Parker Butler
Hugh B. Cave
Paul Chadwick
Raymond Chandler
Arthur C. Clarke
Joseph Conrad
William Wallace
Cook
Stephen Crane
Ray Cummings
Jason Dark
Lester Dent
August Derleth
Philip K. Dick
Arthur O. Friel
Erle Stanley Gardner
Walter B. Gibson
David Goodis
Zane Grey
Edmond Hamilton
Dashiell Hammett
Robert A. Heinlein
O. Henry
Frank Herbert
Robert E. Howard
L. Ron Hubbard
Donald Keyhoe
Rudyard Kipling
Henry Kuttner
Harold Lamb
Louis L'Amour
Emerson LaSalle
Fritz Leiber
Murray Leinster
Elmore John
Leonard
Jack London
H. P. Lovecraft
Johnston McCulley
Merriam Modell
Walt Morey
Talbot Mundy
Philip Francis
Nowlan
Emil Petaja
E. Hoffmann Price
Seabury Quinn
Sax Rohmer
Rafael Sabatini
Richard S. Shaver
Robert Silverberg
Upton Sinclair
Clark Ashton Smith
E. E. Smith
Guy N. Smith
Jim Thompson
Thomas Thursday
Mark Twain
Jack Vance
H. G. Wells
Tennessee Williams
Cornell Woolrich
Giles A. Lutz
Sinclair Lewis, first American winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, worked as an
editor for Adventure (magazine), writing filler paragraphs (brief facts or amusing
anecdotes designed to fill small gaps in page layout), advertising copy, and a few
stories.
Contents
[hide]
3.1 England
3.2 USA
[edit] Content
News was frequently highly selective: rulers would often use them as ways to publish
accounts of battles or events that made those rulers look good to the public.
Sensationalist material was also printed, such as accounts of magic or of natural
disasters; this material did not pose a threat to the state, because it did not pose
criticism of the state. Printers readily printed sensationalist material, because they
faced a ready market, which proved lucrative for them. Material was selective, as
stated above, however printers found that there was a market for news about rulers
that did not cast those rulers in a favorable light, and printed this material. Printers
could get away with doing so, because they would print the publication overnight, and
sell it quickly. This quick publication pace also resulted in quick returns on
investments for printers.
Private uses of early news publications: rulers and merchants both established
networks of people who were employed to provide them news from other lands, and
here is an early manifestation of correspondence in news writing. Rulers found out
political information from these networks, and merchants found out business
information, and also political information that directly affected their trade.
with his network that fiction and fact were both significant parts of early news
publications.
Sixteenth century Germany also saw subscription-based, handwritten news. Those
who subscribed to these publications were generally low-level government officials
and also merchants. They could not afford other types of news publications, but had
enough money to pay for a subscription, which was still expensive for the time.
Avisis, or Gazzettes (not gazettes), were a mid-sixteenth century Venice phenomenon.
They were issued on single sheets, folded to form four pages, and issued on a weekly
schedule. These publications reached a larger audience than handwritten news had in
early Rome. Their format and appearance at regular intervals were two major
influences on the newspaper as we know it today. The idea of a weekly, handwritten
newssheet went from Italy to Germany, and then to Holland.
[edit] Newspapers
The term newspaper became common in the seventeenth century, however in
Germany, publications that we would today consider to be newspaper publications,
were appearing as early as the sixteenth century. They were discernibly newspapers
for the following reasons: they were printed, dated, appeared at regular and frequent
publication intervals, and included a variety of news items (unlike single item news
mentioned above). The first newspaper however was said to be the Strasbourg
Relation, in the early seventeenth century. German newspapers, like avisis, were
organized by the location from which they came, and by date. They differed from
avisis in the following manners: they employed a distinct and highly illustrated title
page, and they applied an overall date to each issue.
[edit] Corantos
Newspaper publications, under the name of corantos, came to the Dutch Republic in
the seventeenth century, first to Amsterdam, which was a centre of trade and
travellers, an obvious locale for news publication. The term coranto was adopted by
other countries for a time as well. The coranto differed from the German newspapers
before it in format. The coranto dropped the highly-illustrated German title page,
instead including a title on the upper first page of the publication the masthead
common in today's periodicals. Corantos also adopted a two-column format, unlike
the previous single-column format, and were issued on halfsheets.
[edit] US newspaper
The first US newspaper was entitled Public Occurrences, and came out in 1690. It
only printed one issue however, as it was shut down by colonial officials, possibly due
to censorship and control issues. It followed the two column format, and was a single
sheet, printed on both sides.
[edit] Magazines
Newspapers and magazines were (and still are) connected in the circumstance of
periodicity, and three types of early magazines: miscellanies, single item magazines,
and book review journals. The Journal des Scavans came out in France in the mid
seventeenth century. Features that were noteworthy included its inclusion of book
reviews, as well as its inclusion of the reader as contributor. The Nouvelles de la
Republique des Lettres was another French periodical that came out in the late
seventeenth century. This periodical was said to have spread the the Enlightenment,
and to have censored certain ideas. French periodical censorship was a large issue (as
it was in other countries as well).
[edit] England
The Spectator was issued in the early eighteenth century. It employed a conversational
and humorous format. It was produced in large print runs, and circulated in social
settings, such as coffee houses and clubs.
Magazines were tied to a shift in reading practices in England. Reading for pleasure
was emerging. People had more leisure time, and literacy was increasing in scope.
There was also a social acceptability tied to being informed in literary terms, and
being educated in general. A shift was emerging from intensive to extensive reading.
People could more easily be caught up on various subjects through the practice of
extensive reading, that is, finding out as many information items as possible.
The Gentlemen's Magazine was significant in the eighteenth century. It was the first
magazine to use the term "magazine" in self-reference. It was also the first magazine
to command a large and "truly" national circulation in England. By the mid-eighteenth
century, it had reached a circulation of three thousand, and issues were generally read
by multiple people. It actively encouraged a readership among the gentry and the
educated tradesmen of provincial England. The magazine included book reviews,
which served to inform potential customers about books that they may wish to
purchase. It also marketed itself as the antidote to the age's problem for many: how to
sift through all the reading that had to be done (partially for social acceptability). It
claimed to gather together all the "best" material from other publications, and
repackage it, saving readers the hassle and time of reading various publications. The
magazine was approximately forty pages long (and this can be compared to The
Spectator, which was not more than a few pages long).
The demand for reading was increasing among the population, and as a result,
magazines were becoming more specialized. The number of women who were able to
read was increasing, and miscellanies found a ready market in these women.
Periodicals which were targeted specifically to women began around the mideighteenth century. The Female Spectator was a leading woman's miscellany, and was
said to be produced by and for women.
The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge encouraged a middle class reform
audience for mass market reform magazines (as well as for books). The Society
launched The Penny Magazine in 1832.
[edit] USA
The USA developed a significant mass market magazine audience in the midnineteenth century; Godey's Ladies Book began in 1850, and sold 40,000 copies.
Another publication, Harper's Monthly achieved a circulation of twenty thousand by
the mid-nineteenth century, and wiped out The Literary Garland, a popular Canadian
literary magazine.
National advertisers began to seek out American magazines, and this shift in revenue
model became the one that continues to a great extent in present-day North American
magazines. It also contributed to the commencement of the commercial magazine.
Use of Newspapers in Genealogy Research
By Judith Florian
whom, who moved where, and other local tid-bits. These may not seem important, but
they help in two ways. First, it gives an added insight into an ancestors daily life, and
more importantly, it may give relationship information that is new or verifies what
you have. Here is one fictional example: "Charles Algire and daughter, Mrs. Ann
Curry, were Sunday visitors at the home of Mr. Algires aunt, Mrs. Abbey Smith." I
just found a piece tonight that mentions my great-great- grandfather and greatgrandfather ("and children") visiting the home of my great-great-great grandfather, the
father of Mrs. Lane: "Mr. and Mrs. Frank Lane and children and Mr. and Mrs. Thomas
Gladfeller [sic] and children of the Wylandville section, have returned home after
spending a few days at the home of Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Waller." This gem was
buried on page 4, which is where Editors used additional "Local Glances" as fillers in
between advertisements which appear on pages 3 and 4 generally.
Pages 3 and 4 of old newspapers mostly contain advertisements, want ads, and legal
notes. Before you skip those pages, reconsider. Advertisements first give you
impressions about life when your ancestor was living, and one of the store owners
may just be related to you! Want Ads, unlike today, often mention a name of the
subscriber. Legal notices, while difficult to read, are usually about Estate Notices or
Land Sales.
Estate Notices will give name of deceased, and the papers date will give you an idea
of death date, if you didnt know date before. These notices also are "signed" by the
executor of the estate; executors are often relatives. Land Sales give you basic
information found in deeds, but usually in less detail. It gives the name of the land
tract, location, neighbors names sometimes, total acreage, and date set for the sale.
Deed Indexes will point you to the Deed, but these newspaper land sale notices are a
nice compliment to the actual Deed. Remember also in looking at Deed Index Books
that many early deeds were never recorded at the time of the actual sale.
A Deed Transfer often was not filed in sales between family members until the land
was sold the next time, which could be 20 even 40 years later. Documents out of the
correct time period can be confusing and lead a researcher astray especially if there
were many same-name persons living in a small area. Land in one of my early
families transferred at the marriage of the second son in the 1830s, but a deed was not
recorded for it until the 1860s. As an early researcher, I skipped reading the 1860s
deed because it was "too late" for the Joseph I was seeking. Wrong! It was the same
property, and I lost months of research time, simply because I didnt look at that
1860s deed. In the 1860s, 2 Deeds appeared, one documenting the 1830s transfer, and
one for the newest sale. So, while actual deeds are the most important document,
newspaper Legal Notices may be the only real-time information of earlier land sales.
After looking for obituaries (and in later years separate funeral notices), Local
Glances type columns, and Legal Notices/advertisement pages, I use my eyes to scan
articles on all the pages. Titles may be deceiving but the articles may mention
employee names, such as at a mill, mine or factory, or may name local political
Topics in journalism
Professional issues
Magazine
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the magazine as a
published medium. For other uses, see
Magazine (disambiguation).
Magazines, periodicals or serials are
publications, generally published on a
regular schedule, containing a variety of
articles, generally financed by advertising,
by a purchase price, or both.
Contents
[hide]
1 Publication
2 Categories
3 Other publications
4 History
5 See also
6 External links
[edit] Publication
Magazines
The various elements that contribute to the production of magazines can vary wildly.
Core elements such as publishing schedules, formats and target audiences are
seemingly infinitely variable. Typically, magazines which focus primarily on current
events, such as Newsweek or Entertainment Weekly, are published weekly or
biweekly. Magazines with a focus on specific interests, such as Life Positive and Cat
Fancy, may be published less frequently, such as monthly, bimonthly or quarterly. A
magazine will usually have a date on the cover which often is later than the date it is
actually published. Current magazines are generally available at bookstores and
newsstands, while subscribers can receive them in the mail. Many magazines also
offer a 'back issue' service for previously published editions.
Most magazines produced on a commercial scale are printed using a web offset
process. The magazine is printed in sections, typically of 16 pages, which may be
black-and-white, be in full colour, or use spot colour. These sections are then bound,
either by stapling them within a soft cover in a process sometimes referred to as
'saddle-stitching', or by gluing them together to form a spine, a process often called
'perfect-binding'
Magazines are also published on the internet. Many magazines are available both on
the internet and in hard copy, usually in different versions, though some are only
available in hard copy or only via the internet: the latter are known as online
magazines
Most magazines are available in the whole of the country in which they are published,
although some are distributed only in specific regions or cities. Others are available
internationally, often in different editions for each country or area of the world,
varying to some degree in editorial and advertising content but not entirely dissimilar
[edit] Categories
Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business
magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those
periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers
which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and
often have little or no advertising. Many business magazines are available only, or
predominantly, on subscription. In some cases these subscriptions are available to any
person prepared to pay; in others, free subscriptions are available to readers who meet
a set of criteria established by the publisher. This practice, known as controlled
circulation, is intended to guarantee to advertisers that the readership is relevant to
their needs: they can assure their advertisers that most or all of their subscribers are in
a position to buy the goods or services advertised. Very often the two models, of paidfor subscriptions and controlled circulation, are mixed. Advertising is also an
important source of revenue for business magazines.
[edit] History
Types of magazines:
o Academic journals
o Architecture magazines
o Art magazines
o Boating magazines
o Car magazines
o Computer magazines
o Fantasy fiction magazines
o Health and fitness magazines
o History magazines
o Horror fiction magazines
o Humor magazines
o Literary magazines
o Luxury magazines
o Men's magazines
o Music magazines
o News magazines
o OSHA (magazine)s
o Online magazines
o Partworks
o Pornographic magazines
o Pulp magazines
o Railroad magazines
o Regional magazines
o Revolution magazines
o Satirical magazines
o Science magazines and scientific journals
o Science fiction magazines
o Teen magazines
o Trade journals
o Wildlife magazines
o Women's magazines
Serials, periodicals and journals
Amy R. Loucks-DiMatteo
Before media centers could be established, non-print technological instructional aids had to
be developed. Before libraries could be established, "books" had to be written. But before
books could be written man had to learn how to write. Thus the beginnings of today's library
media centers must be traced back to the earliest beginnings of writing more than 5,000
years ago.'
THE following is a chronology of the history of media librarianship. Although the term "media"
includes both print and non-print materials, this history primarily explores the development of
non-print materials.
The information is arranged chronologically. The symbol (c.) preceding a date indicates that
the date has been approximated. The symbol(_____) indicates that a date has not been
determined, but an effort has been made to fit the information in the proper place in the
chronology. The dates and information listed have been taken directly from the sources cited;
therefore, it is likely that the reader will find some conflicting dates and information.
Non-print media probably originated in the Orient, where shadow shows entertained the
people for over two thousand years.2 A reliance upon visuals has been demonstrated since
early history through cave wall drawings, Egyptian pictographs, Babylonian maps, clay
tablets, medieval art works, Renaissance woodcuts, and early illustrated books.3
Mesopotamia, the country between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, introduced writing to the
world. The Sumerian people who inhabited Mesopotamia used the cylinder seal to mark and
identify their property.4 Other cultures developed early forms of writing which were of two
basic types: cuneiform and hieroglyphics. Cuneiform writing resembled wedge shaped
characters and was used by the Sumerians, Akhadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and the
Persians. Egyptian hieroglyphics used figures or objects to represent sounds or words.5
Over a thousand years passed from the development of syllabic writing until alphabetic writing
was developed. Although a contribution of the Near East alphabetic writing was adapted as
an instrument of communication by the Greeks. The twenty-six character alphabet used today
in Western cultures was developed by the Romans.6
1700 B.C. The Babylonians were the first to establish libraries. (Cushing)
1100 B.C. The first libraries of historic times were found in the temples of Ancient Egypt.
(Thompson)
1100 B.C. Royal libraries were in existence in Phoenicia. The most famous royal library was
Assurbanipal at Ninevah. (Thompson: Parsons)
(______) The first of the great private libraries were supposed to have been as early as
Pisistratus of Athens, and Polycrates, tyrant of Samas. (Parsons)
900-700 B.C. The kings of Assyria maintained a collection of thousands of clay tablets written
in cuneiform. (Hostrop)
400 B.C. The private libraries of Euripides, Aristotle, and Plato were in existence. (Hessel)
300 B.C. The first known books were the clay tablets of Mesopotamia and the papyrus rolls of
Egypt. (Hostrop)
(_____) The first integration of print and non-print was found in the first picture book: Orbis
Pictus (Comenius)
384-322 B.C. Aristotle was the first known systematic collector and classifier of books. He
developed the concept of a classification hierarchy and was given the title of first librarian.
(Hostrop; Grove)
400 The codex, constructed from folded leaves which were bound together on one side, took
the place of papyrus rolls. (Hostrop)
600 The Rule of St. Benedict gave monasteries the responsibility for making books and
creating libraries. (Hostrop)
(_____)The first public library was established in Athens five hundred years before the
Christian Era by the tyrant Pisistratus. (Parsons)
(_____)The first public library was established in Rome during the close of the Pre-Christian
Era by Asinius Apollo. (Parsons)
(_____) The Library of Alexandria in Egypt was known as the first research library with its
"...incomparable resources of the first real and greatest collection of intellectual materials or
data ever assembled in antiquity..." (Parsons)
mid 1400s Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, invented the printing press. (Hostrop)
1583 The first use of a decimal classification system was by Lacroix du Maine, who classified
Henry III's library. (Dewey)
1600 Libraries began to resemble present day libraries with books on open shelves and
tables for readers. (World Book Encyclopedia)
1683 The first academic library in the United States was the Harvard College Library. It was
begun by a small collection of books donated by Reverend John Harvard, and it was the
largest library in the country for 200 years. (Bowker, 1964; Fay; Hostrop)
1700s Six college libraries were founded: Yale University in 1700; Princeton University in
1746; University of Pennsylvania in 1755: Columbia University in 1757; Brown University in
1767; Dartmouth College in 1770. (Fay)
1731 Benjamin Franklin founded the first subscription library in the American colonies, "The
Library Company of Phila delphia." (Bowker; Hostrop)
1976 New Jersey established the first state library. In the 1800s other state libraries were
established: South Carolina in 1814; Pennsylvania in 1816; New Hampshire and New York in
1818. (Fay)
1800 The United States Library of Congress was established, the largest library in the U.S.
(Hostrop)
1817 The large map collection of Christoph Daniel Ebling, a German scholar, was purchased
after his death by Israel Thorndike and donated to the Harvard College Library. (Mullins)
1822 The first free public library was the Juvenile Library of Dublin, New Hampshire. (Kane)
1854 The first large public library to be established was the Boston Public Library. (Chamber's
Encyclopedia)
c. 1866 The United States Library of Congress map collection was established. (Grove)
1871 Jacob Schwartz created the Cutter number system which preserved the alphabetical
order of authors in classification systems. (Grove)
1880s The first academic slide libraries were established at Bryn Mawr College, Cornell
University, Dartmouth College, the University of Illinois, Princeton University, and the
University of Michigan. Prior to 1884, these collections consisted of lanterns slides (31/4" x 4"
slides with the image printed on glass). (Grove)
1882 The first music library was established: Brooklyn (New York) Public Library. (Bowker,
1964)
1884 Henry C. Badger was appointed as the first map curator at the Harvard College Library,
which contained about 14,000 sheets. (Grove)
1887 The first library school was established at Columbia University, New York City, by Melvil
Dewey. (Bowker; Encyclopedia Americana, 1980)
1891 The first circulating picture collection was established at the Denver (Colorado) Public
Library, by John Cotton Dana. (Bowker; Smith)
1894 Paper or contact prints of motion pictures were deposited at the Library of Congress for
copyright purposes. (Grove)
1894 A motion picture deposit was begun at the Library of Congress. (Information)
1902 The first graduate library school was the New York State Library School. (Bowker, 1964)
1903 The Lowe Theatrical Library, the first theatrical library in the United States, opened at
Harvard University. (Encyclopedia Americana, 1957)
1904 The first circulating print and framed paintings collection was established at the Newark
(New Jersey) Public Library by John Cotton Dana. (Bowker, 1964)
1906 The New York State Library had 60,000 prints. (Grove)
1906 Lantern slides became widely used as teaching aids in universities. (Grove)
1906 Melvil Dewey recognized the importance of non-print materials to libraries when he
wrote: "Libraries are rapidly accepting the doctrine for which we have contended for many
years, that what we call books have no exclusive rights in a library. The 'library' has lost its
etymologic meaning and means not a collection of books, but the central agency for
disseminating information, innocent recreation, or, best of all, inspiration among the people.
Whenever this can be done better, more quickly, or cheaply by a picture than a book, the
picture is entitled to a place on the shelves and in the catalog." (Grove)
1910 Henry Evelyn Bliss constructed his subject classification system which eventually
included non-print media. (Bliss)
c.1910 The Bell & Howell Film Company had a film library of over a thousand silent and two
hundred sound 16mm motion pictures. (Saettler)
1913 A gift from a local citizen established the first phonorecord collection outside the Library
of Congress, at the St. Paul (Minnesota) Public Library. (Bowker, 1971)
1914 Librarians began to review and evaluate the mass media. Public demand, plus the
evaluation involvement stimu lated the collection of non-print formats in libraries. Public
libraries in large cities developed large collections of photographs, pictures, postcards,
clippings, and other formats in an effort to provide the public with non-print. (Grove)
1914 The first phonorecord collection was established at the St. Paul Public Library in
Minnesota. (Bowker 1964)
1914 The Kansas City (Missouri) Public Library circulated music rolls for the player piano..
(Clement)
1914 The Public Librarian, a library journal, advocated the acceptance of phonorecords in
libraries. (Edison)
1914-15 The American Library Annual reported that a public library in St. Joseph, Missouri,
used the Edison Home and School Kinetoscope to illustrate stories narrated for children
(Pringle)
1915 A statewide film exchange was proposed by James Gillis, a California state librarian.
(Grove)
1915 The St. Paul (Minnesota) Public Library record collection had ninty-three recordings for
limited use only. (Johnston)
1915 The August issue of Library Journal was devoted entirely to the music collections of the
public libraries in the United States. (Bowker)
19l6 The first photographic department in university library was established at Harvard
University. (Bowker. 1957)
1917 The Chicago Bureau of Visual Instruction established the first instructional film library in
a city school system. (Saettler)
1919 The Kern County Library, California, had a lantern slide and stereographic (threedimensional slide) collection and established a phonorecord collection. (Clement)
1920 Audiovisual materials began to be handled as a normal part of library service. (Quinly)
1923 The first collection of circulating phonorecords was established in the Springfield
(Massachusetts) Public Library. (Grove; Bowker, 1964)
1924 Audiovisual librarianship was introduced into the organizational framework of the
American Library Association. The proposal that marked the beginning of ALA's formal
audiovisual activity came from outside the Association. Ben Howe, a representative of the
motion picture industry, suggested to the Council of the ALA that libraries should be the
principal institutions for the distribution of educational films and should serve as information
centers concerning entertainment and industrial films. Ben Howe's suggestion sparked ALA to
create a Visual Methods Committee. (Clement)
1924 The American Library Association formally recognized the importance of films to library
service and appointed a committee on Relations Between Libraries and Moving Pictures.
(Cocks)
1926 The Graduate Library School was established at the University of Chicago to provide
education beyond the first professional degree and offered a Ph.D. in library science.
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
1927 The Carnegie Corporation of New York authorized the distribution of "College Music
Sets" for music study in college libraries. (Grove)
1928 The first PhD. in library education was granted at the University of Chicago Library
School. (Encyclopedia AAmericana, 1962)
1928 The Carnegie Corporation assisted college libraries in the purchase of phonorecords,
which were later identified by audiovisualists as "disks." (Shores)
1928 Fifty-three academic institutions had libraries with music collections, but only twelve of
the collections held sound recordings. (Pierre)
1929 The first library to circulate educational films was the Kalamazoo (Michigan) Public
Library. (Bowker, 1964)
1930s Libraries began to put journals and newspapers on micro film. (Encyclopedia
Americana)
1933 Louis Shores determined that the library must have a range of subjects, levels, and
formats in its collection to match the interests of individuals. (Shores)
1934 The Department of Geography at the University of Chicago planned to develop a map
library of 400,000 sheets. (Development. . .) In 1968, the size of the collection was
approximately 210,000 sheets. (Special Libraries Association)
1934 A resolution was sent to the American Library Association Committee on National
Planning by the Visual Methods Committee, which recommended the establishment of
regional demonstration centers for audiovisual aids. The proposal was not implemented.
(Clement)
1934 The talking book was added to library service for the blind(Encyclopedia Americana,
1957)
1935 Louis Shores introduced the first audiovisual course at the library school of Peabody
College in the South. The course was taught by Milton Lanning Shane from 1936 to 1940.
(Shores)
1935 The United States National Archives set up a division of motion pictures and sound
recordings. (Grove)
1935 The Museum of Modern Art Film Library was established in New York City by a
Rockefeller Foundation Grant for the preservation, distribution, study, and development of
films. (Grove)
1936 The American Library Association set a standard for 35mm film as best suited for
research and library work. This decision was made at the Richmond Conference. (Doss)
1936 Visual aids were distributed through the city libraries of Kalamazoo, Michigan, and
Pasadena and Long Beach, California. (Dunn)
1938 The first Cooperative Microfilm Project was established at Harvard University. (Bowker,
1964)
1939 A $5,500 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation funded a Joint Committee on
Educational Films representing the American Library Association, the American Film Center,
The Association of School Librarians, and the Motion Picture Project of the American Council
on Education. The purpose was to "encourage library experimentation in the handling of
educational films . . . to cooperate with such libraries and to facilitate the exchange of
information between them, to devise uniform methods for recording experiences and to
encourage their use, and to report from time to time on the experiments." (Williams)
1940s-1964 Major phonorecord collections established. Late 1940s Sibley Music Library,
Eastman School of Music; 1958 Stanford University Archives of Recorded Sound; 1958
Archives of New Orleans Jazz at Tulane University; 1961 Historical Sound Recordings
Program of Yale University; 1964-The Syracuse University Audio Archives. (Grove)
1940 Hundreds of universities and school systems had estab lished audiovisual libraries.
(Grove)
1940 At the suggestion of Carl Milam, the former Visual Methods Committee was merged with
the former Radio Broadcasting Committee to form the Audiovisual Committee of the American
Library Association. (Clement)
1941 Gerald D. McDonald surveyed literature and visited libraries and submitted a report to
the American Library Association concluding, "Thus far librarians have done virtually nothing
in the handling of films and very little even in providing information which would further their
use." (McDonald)
c.1942 The first major public library film collection began inCleveland, Ohio. (Palmer)
1943 The term "media" appeared in the Post War Standards for Public Libraries, published by
the American Library Association, defined as: "... books, periodicals, news papers, pamphlets,
maps, film, pictures, recordings, music scores, and similar material." (Post War . . . )
1944 Fremont Rider, Librarian at Wesleyan University, pro posed that microcards be used in
libraries, "both to reduce the space required for the catalogs of their growing collections and
to produce more responsive catalogs." (Encyclopedia Americana, 1980)
1945 A Motion Picture Project was formed at the Library of Congress (Grove)
1947 The Carnegie Corporation awarded a grant to the American Library Association for
building lending collections of films. (Encyclopedia Americana, 1957)
1947 The Carnegie Corporation awarded a grant to support a Film Advisory Service at the
American Library Assoc iation. The purpose was to demonstrate that public libraries could
serve as distribution centers for audiovisual materials, in addition to books. (Saettler)
1947 The American Library Association obtained a grant of $27,000 from the Carnegie
Corporation for a "two year program to provide for film advisory service to help libraries
establish film lending service." (Clement)
1947 Librarians and audiovisualists were two separate entities. Many schools had a
separation of library and audiovisual facilities. At this time, the separation of the two was
strongly backed by school administrators, teachers, li brarians, and audiovisualists. (Shores)
1947 The Worcester Free Public Library had one thousand circulating phonorecords. (Grove)
1947 The Florida State University Graduate School of Library Service and Training was
established. The school was committed to the audiovisual education of librarians and
teachers. The school also advocated the unification of audiovisual departments with the
library instead of keeping them as separate entities. (Shores)
1947 "Listening posts" were introduced into the reading room at the Florida State University
Materials Center. The listening post consisted of a jack and eight headsets. (Shores)
1947 Dr. Charles Hoban was the first full-time professor ap pointed to a library school faculty
at the Florida State University Graduate School of Library Training and Service. He was a
strong force in the audiovisual movement and co-wrote, with his father and Zisman, the first
textbook in the audiovisual field. (Shores)
1948 The Audiovisual Committee of the American Library Association was made a board
which allowed for a subcommittee structure. The various committees were not wholly
successful in their efforts to establish cooperation and communication with other national
associations. (Clement)
1948 A mimeographed manual entitled Processing Audio Visual Materials was put into use at
Indiana University for library science courses. (Processing. . .)
1948 The first manual on integrated cataloging was published by the Materials Center at
Florida State University. (Shores)
1949 The American Association of School Librarians sponsored the publication Audiovisual
School Library Service, by Margaret Rufsvold. The book gave detailed information to guide
the traditional book-oriented librarian in establishing an instructional materials center.
(Rufsvold)
1950 The "Statement of Guiding Principles" in the Evaluative Criteria 1950 Edition, suggests
that " . . . schools should have available, organized in the library or as a separate department,
audiovisual materials for use in the educational program." (Evaluative Criteria. . .)
1950s Major film collections in academic libraries were not established until this period.
(Grove)
1950s The "Rapid Selector," developed under the guidance of Ralph R. Shaw, the librarian of
the United States Depart ment of Agriculture, was the first machine specifically designed for
searching the literature of a subject. It combined document images with binary coded
identification, both stored photographically on roll film.Encyclopedia Americana. 1980)
1950s Louis Shores developed the concept of the generic book which is "... the sum total of
man's communication possibilities . . . the evidence of life." The generic book recognizes that
subject, level, and format may affect communication. "In the concept of the generic book there
is no such thing as non-book material." The generic book has six format classes: print,
graphics, projections, transmissions, community resources, and programmed media.(Shores)
1950s The 35mm color slide was established as a necessary andintegral part of a slide
library. (Grove)
1950-60 Phonorecord archives were established in the Music Division of the Library of
Congress, Indiana and Stanford University Libraries, and the New York Public Library. (Nolan)
1952 A survey was undertaken by the Association of College and Research Libraries to
examine the extent to which audio visual services had developed in the United States
universities and colleges and to examine the patterns of service. The findings of the research
implied that the development of audiovisual collections was still at an early stage.(Bennett)
1953 Edgar Dale, a theorist, viewed libraries as experiencing a transitional phase, " . . .
shifting from being a repository of ideas in print to a repository of ideas on film, on tape." His
"cone of experience," and other ideas have contributed to the development of a learning
resource concept. (Dale)
1954 C. Walter Stone, a strong proponent of the unification of print and non-print, insisted that
libraries utilize a "cross media" approach for the benefit of students , teachers and
administration.
1954 The Library of Congress printed catalog issued two new sections: one for music and
phonorecords and another for filmstrips and motion pictures. (Schmeckebier)
1954-55 The San Jose (California) State College began the first program for curriculum
materials specialists. (Saettler)
1955 Over 250 libraries were lending film, 192 through member ship in a cooperative film
service, with the remainder owning individual film collections. (Bowker, 1957)
1955-57 The American Library Association Special Committee on the Bibliographic Control of
Audiovisual Materials sur veyed libraries in an attempt to assess their non-book holdings and
found the following holdings of non-book media. 115 libraries had motion picture collections
(31 academic, 46 public, and 50 school) and 176 libraries had phonorecord collections (56
academic, 72 public, and 48 school). (Hamman)
1956 The Southern Illinois University unified their audiovisual department and library, as did
Purdue, San Jose State, St. Cloud (Minnesota), and the University of Colorado. (Shores)
1960 Instructional Materials, by Louis Shore, was the first book devoted to the concept of
unifying library science and audiovisual education. (Shores) mid 1960s The crusade for the
unification of audiovisual departments and libraries was moving toward acceptance. (Shores)
1965 MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis Retrieval System) files were made available by
the National Library of Medicine for use by other libraries. (Lancaster, p. 78)
1967 The New York Public Library was the largest public libraryin the United States. (Hostrop)
1968 Trevor N. Duprey conducted a study of college libraries and identified unnecessary
competition between audiovisualists and librarians. (Duprey; Modern . . .)
1968 Trevor N. Duprey conducted a study of problem areas inadopting a learning resource
center approach. (Duprey; Ferment . . .)
1968 Sidney Forman conducted a survey of 1,193 college libraries which indicated that 10
percent of the libraries were involved in implementing some aspect of the learning resource
concept, and 37 percent were planning to introduce part of the concept in the future. (Forman)
1969 The crusade for the unification of audiovisual departments and libraries was successful.
Standards for School Media Programs was jointly published by the American Library
Association's American Association of School Librarians and the National Education
Association's (NEA) Department of Audiovisual Instruction. (Shores)
1970 The number of libraries in the United States was broken down as follows (statistics from
the U.S. Office of Education): 7,000 public libraries, 1,500 academic libraries, 1,200 two-year
college libraries, 3,500 special libraries, 450 law libraries, 800 medical libraries, 475 military
libraries, 125 institutional libraries, and 50,000 elementary and secondary school libraries.
(Hostrop)
1970 The Bureau of Libraries and Educational Technology was established by the U.S. Office
of Education. (Hostrop)
1970 The American Library Association published the Guidelines for Audiovisual Materials
and Services for Public Libraries. Included were definitions, standards for service, materials,
space, equipment, and personnel. It stressed the importance of non-print media in all formats.
(Audiovisual Committee . . .)
1970 Robert Brundin surveyed the development of learning resource centers on junior college
campuses. He concluded that the development of learning resource centers in junior colleges
was an attempt to make the library the "heart of the campus." (Brundin)
1970 Richard Vorwerk studied the organizational status and environmental demands of
academic libraries. He found that newer forms of media were being excluded in academic
libraries because administrators weren't quite sure what to do with them. (Vorwerk, 1970)
1972 John W. Ellison conducted the first study of learning resource centers on university and
college campuses. He identified principles that validated the concept of an integrated learning
resource center which would include both print and non-print materials. (Ellison)
1973 Melville Dewey is said to be the "Father of American Libraries." F. Dean McCluskey is
said to be the "Father of American Audiovisual Education."
Footnotes
1. Richard W. Hostrop, Education Inside the Library Media Center. Hamden, Conn.: Shoe
String Press, 1973, p. 3.
2. Pearce S. Grove, Nonprint Media in Academic Libraries. Chicago: American Library
Association, 1975, p. x.
3. John L. Nolan, "Audio-Visual Materials." Library Trends 10, (October 1961), p. 262.
4. Hostrop, p. 3.
5. Ibid., pp. 2-4.
6. Ibid.. PP. 4-5.
References
American Library Annual. New York: R.R. Bowker, 1957.
Audiovisual Committee, Public Library Association. Guidelines for Audiovisual
Materials and Services for Public Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1970.
Bliss, Henry Evelyn. "Economics in Libraries." Library Journal 28 (1910).
The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.
Bowker, 1957.
The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.
Bowker, 1958.
The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.
Bowker, 1960.
The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.
Bowker, 1964.
The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology 87
the Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.
Bowker, 1971.
Brundin, Robert. "Changing Patterns of Library Service in Five California Junior
Colleges." PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1970.
Chamber's Encyclopedia. vol. 8. London: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1967.
Clement, Evelyn G. "Audiovisual in Libraries; the Past." Paper presented at the 95th ALA
Conference, ISAD Audiovisual Section Program, July 1976. ERIC document #ED 129 328.
Cocks, Orrin. "Motion Pictures and. Reading Habits." Library Journal 43
(February 1918): 67-70.
Comenius, John Amos. The Orbis Pictus. Syracuse, N.Y.: C.W. Bardeen,
1887.
Dale, Edgar. Challenges to Librarianship. Tallahassee, Fl.: Florida State Uni
versity, 1953.
_. "Development of the Collection of Maps at the University of Chicago."
Science 79 (February 23, 1934).
Dewey, Melvil. Detvey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 16th ed. Lake
(1914) .
Ellison, John W. ' The Identification and Examination of Principles Which Validate or Refute
the Concept of College or University Learning Resource Centers." PhD. Dissertation, Ohio
State University, 1972.
Encyclopaedia Britannica 1, vol.#10. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.,
1978.
Encyclopedia Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1957.
Encyclopedia Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1962.
Encyclopedla Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1980.
Evaluative Criteria. Washington, D.C.: Cooperative Study of Secondary School
Standards, 1950.
Fay, Lucy E., and Eaton, Anne T. Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries.
Post War Standards for Public Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1943.
Pringle, Eugene A. "Films in Public Libraries." Drexel Library Quarterly 2 (October 1961): 26167.
Processing Audio Visual Materials. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1948.
Quinly, William J. "Audio-Visual Materials in the Library." Library Trends 5 (October 1956)
294-300.
Richardson, Ernest Cushing. Classification: Theoretical and Practical. 3rd ed. New York: H.W.
Wilson, 1930.
Rufsvold, Margaret. Audio-Visual School Library Service. Chicago: American Association of
School Librarians, 1949.
Saettler, Paul. A History of Instructional Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1968.
Schmeckebier, Laurence F., and Eastin, Roy B. Government Publications and Their Use. Rev.
ed. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1961.
The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology 89
Shane, M. Lanning. "Audiovisual Aids & the Library." College and Research Libraries 1
(March 1940): 143-46.
Shores, Louis. Audiovisual Librarianship. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1973.
Smith, Josephine Metcalfe. A Chronology of Librarianship. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press,
1968.
Special Library Association, Geography and Map Division, Directory Revision Committee.
Map Collections in the United States & Canada: A Directory. 2nd ed. New York: Special
Library Association, 1970.
Stone, C. Walter. "The Place of the New Media in the Undergraduate Program." Library
Quarterly 24 (October 1954).
Strabo. The Geography of Strabo. New York: Putnam, 1917.
Thompson, James Westfall. Ancient Libraries. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press,
1940.
Thompson, Oscar, ed. The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. Rev. ed. New
York: Dodd, Mead, 1958.
Vorwerk, Richard J. "The Environmental Demands and Organizational Status of Two
Academic Libraries." PhD. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1970.
Williams, Edwin E. "ALA Notes." Wilson Library Bulletin 14 (June 1940): 778-79.
Woods, Bill M. "Of Map Librarianship - A Very Personal Report." Bulletin 76 (June 1969): 4-6.
World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 12. Chicago: Worldbook-Childcraft International, Inc., 1982.
Journalism
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article or section deals primarily
with the United States and does not
represent a worldwide view of the
subject.
Please improve this article or discuss the issue
on the talk page.
Topics in journalism
Professional issues
News Reportage Writing Ethics
Objectivity Values Attribution
Defamation Editorial independence
Education Other topics
Fields
Arts Business Entertainment
Environment Fashion Politics
Science Sports Trade Traffic
Weather
Genres
Advocacy journalism
Citizen journalism
Civic journalism
Community journalism
Gonzo journalism
Investigative journalism
Literary journalism
Narrative journalism
New Journalism
Opinion journalism
Visual journalism
Watchdog journalism
Social impact
Fourth Estate
Freedom of the press
Infotainment
Media bias
News propaganda
Public relations
Yellow journalism
News media
Newspapers
Magazines
News agencies
Broadcast journalism
Online journalism
Photojournalism
Alternative media
Roles
Journalist Reporter Editor
Columnist Commentator
Photographer News presenter
Meteorologist
government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics
have raised questions on the accountability of the press.
The word journalism is taken from the French journal which in turn comes from the
Latin diurnal or daily; The Acta Diurna, a handwritten bulletin, was put up daily in
the Forum, the main public square in ancient Rome, and was the world's first
newspaper.
News-oriented journalism was described by former Washington Post editor, Phil
Graham, as "a first rough draft of history", because journalists often record important
historical events as they are happening, but at the same time, they must produce their
news articles on short deadlines.
Journalism's activities include stating What, When, Where, How, and Why, famously
quoted by Rudyard Kipling (see the Five Ws), and stating the significance and effects
of certain events or trends. Journalism exists in a number of media: newspapers,
television , radio, magazines and, most recently, the World Wide Web through the
Internet.
Journalists report and write on a wide variety of subjects: politics on the international,
national, provincial and local levels, economics and business on the same four levels,
health and medicine, education, sports, hobbies and recreation, lifestyles, clothing,
food, pets, and relationships; journalists report on anything that news organizations
think consumers will read. Journalists can report for general interest news outlets like
newspapers, news magazines and broadcast sources; general circulation specialty
publications like trade and hobby magazines, or for news publications and outlets
with a select group of subscribers. Journalists are usually expected and required to go
out to the scene of a story to gather information for their reports, and often may
compose their reports in the field. They also use the telephone, the computer and the
internet to gather information. However, more often those reports are written, and
they are almost always edited in newsrooms, the offices where journalists and editors
work together to prepare the content of news items.
Journalists, especially if they cover a specific subject or area (a 'beat') are expected to
cultivate sources, people in the subject or area, that they can communicate with, either
to explain the details of a story, or to provide leads to other subjects for stories yet to
be reported. They are also expected to develop their investigative skills to research
and report stories better.
Print journalism can be split into several categories: newspapers, news magazines,
general interest magazines, trade magazines, hobby magazines, newsletters, private
publications, online news pages and others. Each genre can have its own requirements
for researching and writing reports.
For example, newspaper journalists in the United States have traditionally written
reports using the inverted pyramid style, although this style is used more for straight
or hard news reports rather than features. Written hard news reports are expected to be
spare in the use of words, and to list the most important information first, so that if the
story must be cut because there is not enough space for it, the least important facts
will be automatically removed. Editors usually ensure that reports are written with as
few words as possible. Feature stories are usually written in a looser style which
usually depends on the subject matter of the report, and are in general granted more
space (see Feature-writing below).
News magazine and general interest magazine articles are usually written in different
styles, with less emphasis on the inverted pyramid. Trade publications can be more
news-oriented, while hobby publications can be more feature-oriented.
Contents
[hide]
1 Broadcast journalism
2 Online (Cyber) journalism
3 Variations of journalism
o 3.1 Sports journalism
o 3.2 Science journalism
o 3.3 Investigative journalism
o 3.4 New journalism
o 3.5 Gonzo journalism
o 3.6 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism
o 3.7 'Convergence Journalism'
o 3.8 Ambush journalism
o 3.9 Gotcha journalism
4 Role of journalism in a democracy
o 4.1 The Elements of Journalism
5 Professional and ethical standards
o 5.1 Recognition of excellence in journalism
o 5.2 Failing to uphold standards
o 5.3 Reporting versus editorializing
6 Legal status
o 6.1 Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and
organizations
o 6.2 Right to protect confidentiality of sources
o 6.3 Right of access to government information (United States of
America)
7 See also
8 External links
9 Other Reading
Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see under heading feature style at
article news style) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of indepth journalism.
Feature articles usually are longer than straight news articles, and are combined with
photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic
effects or colors.
Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because
while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and
report the facts of the story, the reporter must also find a creative and interesting way
to write the article, especially the lead, or the first one or two paragraphs of the story.
The lead must grab the reader's attention yet accurately embody the ideas of the
article. Often the lead of a feature article is dictated by its subject matter. Journalists
must work even harder to avoid clichd images and words when writing the lead and
the rest of the article.
In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news reporting and
feature writing blurred as more and more journalists and publications experimented
with different approaches to writing an article. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S.
Thompson and other journalists used many different approaches to writing news
articles. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers went even further in blurring the
distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news.
Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV
shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by many critics,
because their content and methods did not adhere to accepted journalistic standards.
National Public Radio, on the other hand, is considered a good example of a good
mixture of straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually
meeting standards of high quality. Other U.S. public radio news organizations have
achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear distinction
between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations.
New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and
journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The
term was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of
journalism articles.
It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech,
first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using
scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of
reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the
primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject
what they were thinking or how they felt.
Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature
writing or book-length reporting projects.
Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe,
writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman
Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay
Talese.
understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed
with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed
someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information
plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public
would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the
elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the
business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the
public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites,
as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the
bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from
experts/elites.
Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding
the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that
decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly
vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists not
only had to inform the public, but should report on issues differently than simply
passing on information. In Dewey's world, a journalist's role changed. Dewey
believed that journalists should take in the information, then weigh the consequences
of the policies being enacted by the elites on the public. Over time, his idea has been
implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community
journalism."
This concept of Community Journalism is at the centre of new developments in
journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the
experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that
while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey
believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's
knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not
the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and
society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a
democracy.
While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government
leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their
role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function.
Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists,
but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses
and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the
time.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
On the April 2007 edition of the book [2], they have added one additional element,
the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of
journalism.
This was in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the
media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually
had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumpton of balance or objectivity.
E.g., see (1).
Nations or jurisdictions that formally license journalists may confer special privileges
and responsibilities along with those licenses, but in the United States the tradition of
an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled
examinations or licensing.[citation needed] Some of the states have explicit shield laws that
protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes'
definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and
broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed.
In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or censored by their
governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights
actually intimidate journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property
(especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or
murder.
Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies
within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not
giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or
detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to
their national government.
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Journalism at:
The School of Journalism
Wikinews has related news:
Journalism
Journalism Portal
History of Journalism
History of American Newspapers
Yellow journalism
Fashion journalism
Sports journalism
Parachute journalism
Journalism in Australia
Journalism education
Online Journalism
Community journalism
Reporters without borders
Citizen journalism
Advocacy journalism
Environmental journalism
Science journalism
Video journalism
Objectivity (philosophy) main article discussing the concept of objectivity in
various fields (history, science, journalism, philosophy, etc.)
Objectivity (journalism)
Journalism ethics and standards
Freedom of the press
Journalist
Magazine
Mass media
Newspaper
Journalism school
Pen & Pencil Club
Media studies
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Media Studies is the study of the constitution, history, and effects of media. Media
studies employ theories and methods from a number of fields which include political
economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, Media influence,
film/video studies, cultural anthropology, cultural studies, philosophy, museum
studies, art history/criticism, information theory, and economics. Accordingly Media
Studies, a comparably young academic field, differ in the extent to which Media itself
are thematic and to what extent a unified definition of Media is attempted.
Media Studies in the tradition of social sciences like communication studies,
sociology and economics generally focus on Mass Media, their political, social,
economic and cultural role and impact in creating and distributing content to media
audiences.
Media Studies in the tradition of humanities like literary theory, film/video studies,
cultural studies and philosophy focus on the constitution of media and question in
how far they shape what is regarded as knowledge and as communicable.
Contents
[hide]
10 External links
Although most production and journalism courses incorporate media studies for
contextual purposes (see Fourth estate), the terms are not interchangeable.
Separate strands are being identified within media studies, such as audience studies,
producer studies, television studies and radio studies. Film studies is often considered
a separate discipline, though television and video games studies grew out of it, as
made evident by the application of basic critical theories such as psychoanalysis,
feminism and Marxism.
Critical media theory looks at how the corporate ownership of media production and
distribution affects society, and provides a common ground to social conservatives
(concerned by the effects of media on the traditional family) and liberals and socialists
(concerned by the corporatization of social discourse). The study of the effects and
techniques of advertising forms a cornerstone of media studies.
Contemporary media studies includes the analysis of new media with emphasis on the
internet, video games, mobile devices, interactive television, and other forms of mass
media which developed from the 1990s. Because these new technologies allow instant
communication across the world (chat rooms and instant messaging, online video
games, video conferencing), interpersonal communication is an important element in
new media studies. Another factor influencing contemporary media studies is
globalization: the debate of globalization as a historical event or as a social
construction rages on [1].
It has been argued that media studies has not fully acknowledged the changes which
the internet and digital interactive media have brought about, seeing these as an 'add-
on'. David Gauntlett has argued for a 'Media Studies 2.0' which fully recognises the
ways in which media has changed, and that traditional boundaries between 'audiences'
and 'producers' has collapsed.
by next 4 to 5 years. The third biggest media institute of the world Asian Academy Of
Film & Television is also based in India.
scepticism as to whether these courses teach students the skills and understanding
they want".[8]
However, Paul Smith, professor of media and culture at the University of Sussex says
that the rising number of media studies programmes is not "dumbing down", but
reflects changes in the real world. "In the current cultural, social and political
circumstances that we live in, the media is so pre-eminent, that some way of
understanding it is fairly crucial for an informed citizenship. We are trying to
understand how [the media] operates, what kind of structures it has and the cultural
impact it has."[8] Boris Johnson, the UK shadow minister for higher education has also
supported the subject: "[media studies] is an excellent preparation for the real thing,
by the way" [9] and has cited media studies as an example of a degree thought by some
journalists to be "complete rubbish" but which was often "a good way of getting
employment."[10]
Its relation to polytechnics, and subsequently the post-1992 New Universities, are also
a target for ridicule. The now annual moral panic in the UK every August when GCSE
and A-level results are released normally focuses upon Media Studies as an example
of the alleged dumbing down of education.[11]
Anthropology of media
Media ecology
Mass media
Hot and cool media
Mass communication
Multimedia literacy
Journalism
o Yellow Journalism
Transparency (humanities)
Behavioural sciences
Political Economy
Virtual ethnography
Time- and space-bias
Marshall McLuhan's tetrad of media effects
Cultural sociology
[edit] References
1. ^ The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization
Debate David Held (Editor), Anthony G. McGrew (Editor). Polity Press, 2000
2. ^ Herman, Edward S. (2000). "The Propaganda Model: A retrospective".
Journalism Studies 1 (1). (Herman, 2000)
3. ^ Crisell, Andrew (2002). An Introductory History of British Broadcasting.
London: Routledge, 186-7. ISBN 0-415-24792-6.
4. ^ Moores, Shaun (1993). Interpreting Audiences: The Ethnography of Media
Consumption. London: Sage. ISBN 0-8039-8447-2.
5. ^ Katz, E., Peters, J.D., Liebes, T., & Orloff, A. (2003). Canonic Texts in
Media Research. Cambridge: Polity Press, p 214-215.
6. ^ "Media Studies. Discuss", BBC News, 18 August 2005. Retrieved on 200612-01.
7. ^ "'Mickey Mouse' degrees defended", BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
8. ^ a b c "Is media studies a doss? Discuss", BBC News, 2000-03-03. Retrieved
on 2006-12-01.
9. ^ Johnson Website
10. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4642806.stm BBC
11. ^ Barker, Martin (with Julian Petley) (2001) "On the problems of being a
'trendy travesty'" In: M. Barker and J. Petley (eds) Ill effects: the
media/violence debate. (2nd ed.) London: Routledge. pp. 202-224. ISBN 0415-22513-2
Press
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For questions regarding Wikipedia, please visit the Wikimedia Foundation
press room or, email press(at)wikimedia.org.
Look up Press in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Press may refer to:
In publishing:
Journalism
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article or section deals primarily
with the United States and does not
represent a worldwide view of the
subject.
Please improve this article or discuss the issue
on the talk page.
Topics in journalism
Professional issues
News Reportage Writing Ethics
Objectivity Values Attribution
Defamation Editorial independence
Education Other topics
Fields
Arts Business Entertainment
Environment Fashion Politics
Science Sports Trade Traffic
Weather
Genres
Advocacy journalism
Citizen journalism
Civic journalism
Community journalism
Gonzo journalism
Investigative journalism
Literary journalism
Narrative journalism
New Journalism
Opinion journalism
Visual journalism
Watchdog journalism
Social impact
Fourth Estate
Freedom of the press
Infotainment
Media bias
News propaganda
Public relations
Yellow journalism
News media
Newspapers
Magazines
News agencies
Broadcast journalism
Online journalism
Photojournalism
Alternative media
Roles
Journalist Reporter Editor
Columnist Commentator
Photographer News presenter
Meteorologist
For example, newspaper journalists in the United States have traditionally written
reports using the inverted pyramid style, although this style is used more for straight
or hard news reports rather than features. Written hard news reports are expected to be
spare in the use of words, and to list the most important information first, so that if the
story must be cut because there is not enough space for it, the least important facts
will be automatically removed. Editors usually ensure that reports are written with as
few words as possible. Feature stories are usually written in a looser style which
usually depends on the subject matter of the report, and are in general granted more
space (see Feature-writing below).
News magazine and general interest magazine articles are usually written in different
styles, with less emphasis on the inverted pyramid. Trade publications can be more
news-oriented, while hobby publications can be more feature-oriented.
Contents
[hide]
1 Broadcast journalism
2 Online (Cyber) journalism
3 Variations of journalism
o 3.1 Sports journalism
o 3.2 Science journalism
o 3.3 Investigative journalism
o 3.4 New journalism
o 3.5 Gonzo journalism
o 3.6 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism
o 3.7 'Convergence Journalism'
o 3.8 Ambush journalism
o 3.9 Gotcha journalism
4 Role of journalism in a democracy
o 4.1 The Elements of Journalism
5 Professional and ethical standards
o 5.1 Recognition of excellence in journalism
o 5.2 Failing to uphold standards
o 5.3 Reporting versus editorializing
6 Legal status
o 6.1 Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and
organizations
o 6.2 Right to protect confidentiality of sources
o 6.3 Right of access to government information (United States of
America)
7 See also
8 External links
9 Other Reading
Radio journalists must gather facts about and make them fairly and accurately, but
also must find and record relevant and interesting sounds to add to their reports, both
interviews with people involved in the story and background sounds that help
characterize the story. Radio reporters may also write the introduction to the story
read by a radio news anchor, and may also answer questions live from the anchor.
Television journalists rely on visual information to illustrate and characterize their
reporting, including on-camera interviews with people involved in the story, shots of
the scene where the story took place, and graphics usually produced at the station to
help frame the story. Like radio reporters, television reporters also may write the
introductory script that a television news anchor would read to set up their story. Both
radio and television journalists usually do not have as much "space" to present
information in their reports as print journalists. Television Journalists have to be well
presented and well prepared.
The growth of blogs as a source of news and especially opinion on the news has
changed journalism forever. Blogs now can create news as well as report it, and blur
the dividing line between news and opinion. The debate about whether blogging is
really journalism rages on.
Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more
creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis
on accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis
on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an
important part of sports journalism.
New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and
journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The
term was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of
journalism articles.
It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech,
first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using
scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of
reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the
primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject
what they were thinking or how they felt.
Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature
writing or book-length reporting projects.
Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe,
writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman
Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay
Talese.
middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information,
distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind
this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex
flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to
filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to
understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed
with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed
someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information
plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public
would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the
elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the
business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the
public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites,
as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the
bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from
experts/elites.
Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding
the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that
decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly
vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists not
only had to inform the public, but should report on issues differently than simply
passing on information. In Dewey's world, a journalist's role changed. Dewey
believed that journalists should take in the information, then weigh the consequences
of the policies being enacted by the elites on the public. Over time, his idea has been
implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community
journalism."
This concept of Community Journalism is at the centre of new developments in
journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the
experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that
while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey
believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's
knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not
the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and
society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a
democracy.
While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government
leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their
role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function.
Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists,
but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses
and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the
time.
providing the people with the information they need to be free and self-governing.
They must follow these guidelines:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
On the April 2007 edition of the book [2], they have added one additional element,
the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of
journalism.
This was in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the
media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually
had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumpton of balance or objectivity.
E.g., see (1).
maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization
to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine,
Columbia Journalism Review, has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives
who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over
journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures.
Self-censorship is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries
that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace
grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by
producing unflattering stories. For example, CNN admitted that it had practiced selfcensorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure
continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent
Christiane Amanpour also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq
due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media
are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the
Iranian regime in order to maintain a presence in the country.
well as the perception that the press often represents their consumers. These privileges
extend from the legal rights of journalists but are not guaranteed by those rights.
Sometimes government officials may attempt to punish individual journalists who irk
them by denying them some of these privileges extended to other journalists.
Nations or jurisdictions that formally license journalists may confer special privileges
and responsibilities along with those licenses, but in the United States the tradition of
an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled
examinations or licensing.[citation needed] Some of the states have explicit shield laws that
protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes'
definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and
broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed.
In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or censored by their
governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights
actually intimidate journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property
(especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or
murder.
Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies
within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not
giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or
detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to
their national government.
allows them to withhold. Other federal legislation also controls access to information
(see Freedom of information in the United States).
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Journalism at:
The School of Journalism
Wikinews has related news:
Journalism
Journalism Portal
History of Journalism
History of American Newspapers
Yellow journalism
Fashion journalism
Sports journalism
Parachute journalism
Journalism in Australia
Journalism education
Online Journalism
Community journalism
Reporters without borders
Citizen journalism
Advocacy journalism
Environmental journalism
Science journalism
Video journalism
Objectivity (philosophy) main article discussing the concept of objectivity in
various fields (history, science, journalism, philosophy, etc.)
Objectivity (journalism)
Journalism ethics and standards
Freedom of the press
Journalist
Magazine
Mass media
Newspaper
Topics in journalism
Professional issues
Journalism school
Pen & Pencil Club
Newspaper
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A newspaper is a written publication
containing news, information and
advertising, usually printed on low-cost
paper called newsprint. General-interest
newspapers often feature articles on
political events, crime, business,
art/entertainment, society and sports. Most
traditional papers also feature an editorial
page containing columns which express the
personal opinions of writers.
Supplementary sections may contain
advertising, comics, coupons, and other
printed media. Newspapers are most often
published on a daily or weekly basis, and
they usually focus on one particular
geographic area where most of their
readers live. Despite recent setbacks in
circulation and profits newspapers are still
the most iconic outlet for news and other
types of written journalism.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Types
3 Format
o 3.1 Online-only
o 3.2 Electronic paper
4 Circulation and readership
5 Advertising
6 Journalism
7 Future
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit] History
There is some debate over which publication was the first newspaper because the
definition of a newspaper has been flexible. In ancient Rome, Acta Diurna, or
government announcement bulletins, were made public by Julius Caesar. They were
carved on stone or metal and posted in public places. Between 713 and 734, the Kai
Yuan Za Bao of the Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was
handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582 there was the first
reference to privately-published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty;
[1]
by 1638 the Beijing Gazette switched from woodblock print to movable type
printing.[1] However, the World Association of Newspapers recognizes Johann
Caroluss Relation aller Frnemmen und gedenckwrdigen Historien, published in
1605, as the worlds first newspaper. The Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c.
of 1618 is also considered by some to be the first modern newspaper since the
Relation looks more like a book than what is now considered a newspaper. The
newspaper Opregte Haarlemsche Courant from Haarlem, first published in 1656, is
considered by some to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, though it was
forced to merge with the newspaper Haarlems Dagblad in 1942 by the German
occupier. Since then the Harlems Dagblad appears with the subtitle Oprechte
Haerlemse Courant 1656 and considers itself to be the oldest still-publishing
newspaper in the world.
In the English-speaking world, Nathaniel Butter is often credited with the creation of
the first news periodical in 1622. The earliest papers in the United Kingdom were
devoted to politics and government proceedings. In 1702, the first daily newspaper
called The Daily Courant was published.[2] In Boston in 1690, Benjamin Harris
published Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick. This is considered the
first newspaper in the American colonies even though only one edition was published
before the paper was suppressed by the government. In 1704, the governor allowed
the Boston News-Letter to be published and it became the first continuously
published newspaper in the colonies. Soon after, weekly papers began publishing in
New York and Philadelphia. These early newspapers followed the British format and
were usually four pages long. They mostly carried news from Britain and content
depended on the editors interests. In 1783, the Pennsylvania Evening Post became
the first American daily. In 1751, John Bushells Halifax Gazette became the first
Canadian newspaper. By the early 19th century, many cities in Western and Eastern
Europe, as well as North and South America, published newspaper-type publications
though not all of them developed in the same way; content was vastly shaped by
regional and cultural preferences.[3]
population. In 1833, Benjamin Day printed the first penny press newspaper, The New
York Sun (historical). Penny press papers cost about one sixth the price of other
newspapers and appealed to a wider audience.[5]
Recent developments on the Internet are, however, posing major challenges to the
business model of many newspapers. Paid circulation is declining in most countries,
and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of most newspapers income, is
shifting from print to online, resulting in a general decline in newspaper profits. This
has led to some predictions that newspapers will shrink or even disappear, although
new media technologies such as radio and television never supplanted print media.
[edit] Types
A daily newspaper is issued every day, sometimes with the exception of Sundays and
some national holidays. Saturday and, where they exist, Sunday editions of daily
newspapers tend to be larger, include more specialized sections and advertising
inserts, and cost more. Typically, the majority of these newspapers staff work
Monday to Friday, so the Sunday and Monday editions largely depend on content
done in advance or content that is syndicated. Most daily newspapers are published in
the morning. Afternoon or evening papers are aimed more at commuters and office
workers.
Weekly newspapers are common and tend to be smaller than daily papers. In some
cases, there also are newspapers that are published twice or three times a week. In the
United States, such newspapers are generally still classified as weeklies.
Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole
country: a national newspaper, as contrasted with a local newspaper serving a city
or region. In the United Kingdom, there are numerous national newspapers, including
The Independent, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Observer, The
Daily Mail, The Sun, The Daily Express and The Daily Mirror. In the United States
and Canada, there are few truly national newspapers, with the notable exceptions The
Wall Street Journal and USA Today in the US and The Globe and Mail and The
National Post in Canada. Large metropolitan newspapers with expanded distribution
networks such as The New York Times and The Washington Post can fill the role of de
facto national newspapers.
As English has become the international language of business and technology, many
newspapers formerly published only in non-English languages have also developed
English-language editions. In places as varied as Jerusalem and Bombay (Mumbai),
newspapers are printed to a local and international English-speaking public. The
advent of the Internet has also allowed the non-English newspapers to put out a
scaled-down English version to give their newspaper a global outreach.
There is also a small group of newspapers which may be characterised as
international newspapers. Some, such as Christian Science Monitor and The
International Herald Tribune, have always had that focus, while others are
repackaged national newspapers or international editions of national-scale or large
[edit] Format
[edit] Online-only
Main article: Online newspaper
With the introduction of the Internet, web-based newspapers have also started to be
produced as online-only publications, like the Southport Reporter[6]. To be a WebOnly newspaper they must be web published only and must not be part of or have any
connection to hard-copy formats. To be classed as an Online Only Newspaper, the
paper must also be regularly updated at a regular time and keep to a fixed news
format, like a hardcopy newspaper. They must also be only published by professional
media companies and regarded under the national/international press rules and
regulations [7] unlike blog [8] sites and other news websites, it is run as a newspaper
and is recognized by media groups in the UK, like the NUJ and/or the IFJ. Also they
fall under the UKs PCC rules.
with newspapers, and as printing became easier and less expensive giving rise to a
greater diversity of publications, market penetration began to decline. It wasnt until
the early 1970s, however, that market penetration dipped below 100 percent. By 2000,
it was 53 percent 1.
Many paid-for newspapers offer a variety of subscription plans. For example,
someone might want only a Sunday paper, or perhaps only Sunday and Saturday, or
maybe only a workweek subscription, or perhaps a daily subscription.
Some newspapers provide some or all of their content on the Internet, either at no cost
or for a fee. In some cases, free access is available only for a matter of days or weeks,
after which readers must register and provide personal data. In other cases, free
archives are provided.
[edit] Advertising
Most newspapers make a majority of their income from advertising; the income from
the customers payment at the news-stand is small in comparison. The portion of the
newspaper that is not advertising is called editorial content, editorial matter, or
simply editorial, although the last term is also used to refer specifically to those
articles in which the newspaper and its guest writers express their opinions.
In recent years, the advertorial emerged. Advertorials are most commonly recognized
as an opposite-editorial which third-parties pay a fee to have included in the paper.
Advertorials commonly advertise new products or techniques, such as a new design
for golf equipment, a new form of laser surgery, or weight-loss drugs. The tone is
usually closer to that of a press release than of an objective news story.
[edit] Journalism
Since newspapers began as a journal (record of current events), the profession
involved in the making of newspapers began to be called journalism.
In the yellow journalism era of the 19th century, many newspapers in the United
States relied on sensational stories that were meant to anger or excite the public,
rather than to inform. The more restrained style of reporting that relies on fact
checking and accuracy regained popularity around World War II.
Criticism of journalism is varied and sometimes vehement. Credibility is questioned
because of anonymous sources; errors in facts, spelling, and grammar; real or
perceived bias; and scandals involving plagiarism and fabrication.
In the past, newspapers have often been owned by so-called press barons, and were
used either asa rich mans toy, or a political tool. More recently in the United States, a
number of newspapers (and all of the largest ones) are being run by large media
corporations such as Gannett, The McClatchy Company, Hearst Corporation, Cox,
LandMark, Morris Corporation, The Tribune Company, Hollinger International, News
Corporation, etc.
Newspapers have, in the modern world, played an important role in the exercise of
freedom of expression. Whistle-blowers, and those who leak stories of corruption in
political circles often choose to inform newspapers before other mediums of
communication, relying on the perceived willingness of newspaper editors to expose
the secrets and lies of those who would rather cover them. However, there have been
many circumstances of the political autonomy of newspapers being curtailed.
Opinions of other writers and readers are expressed in the op-ed (opposite the
editorial page) and letters to the editors sections of the paper.
Some ways newspapers have tried to improve their credibility are: appointing
ombudsmen, developing ethics policies and training, using more stringent corrections
policies, communicating their processes and rationale with readers, and asking
sources to review articles after publication.
[edit] Future
The future of newspapers is cloudy, with overall readership slowly declining in most
developed countries due to increasing competition from television and the Internet.
The 57th annual World Newspaper Congress, held in Istanbul in June 2004, reported
circulation increases in only 35 of 208 countries studied. Most of the increases came
in developing countries, notably China and India.
Front page of The New York Times on Armistice Day, November 11, 1918.
A report at the gathering said circulation declined by an average of 2.2 percent across
13 of the 15 countries that made up the European Union. One growth area is the
distribution of free daily newspapers, which are not reflected in the above circulation
data. Led by the Metro chain of newspapers, they grew 16 percent in 2003.
Newspapers also face increased competition from internet sites such as Craigslist for
classified ads, especially for jobs, real estate, and cars, the advertising of which has
long been key sources of newspaper revenue. Also from online only newspapers.
Already in the UK a newspaper called Southport Reporter started out in 2000 and
remains online as a recognized newspaper, but only published online and others now
exist through out the world. This opens the debate as to what constitutes a newspaper.
Further information: Online Newspapers
[edit] References
News media
Fourth Estate
Freedom of the press
Infotainment
Media bias
News propaganda
Public relations
Yellow journalism
News media
Newspapers
Magazines
News agencies
Broadcast journalism
Online journalism
Photojournalism
Alternative media
Roles
Journalist Reporter Editor
Columnist Commentator
Photographer News presenter
Meteorologist
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Broadcasting
3 Newsmagazines
4 Newspapers
5 Newsreels
6 Online journalism
7 News coverage
8 See also
[edit] Etymology
A medium (plural media) is a carrier of something. Common things carried by media
include information, art, or physical objects. A medium may provide transmission or
storage of information or both.
The industries which produce news and entertainment content for the mass media are
often called "the media" (in much the same way the newspaper industry is called "the
press"). In the late 20th century it became commonplace for this usage to be construed
as singular ("The media is...") rather than as the traditional plural.
[edit] Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video signals (programs) to a number of
recipients ("listeners" or "viewers") that belong to a large group. This group may be
the public in general, or a relatively large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet
channel may distribute text or music world-wide, while a public address system in
(for example) a workplace may broadcast very limited ad hoc soundbites to a small
population within its range.
The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule.
Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable,
often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having decoding equipment in
homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services.
A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs at the same time,
through several channels (frequencies), for example BBC One and Two. On the other
hand, two or more organizations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed
part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed
programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble.
When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.
Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media.
Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.
[edit] Newsmagazines
[edit] Newspapers
Main article: Newspaper
[edit] Newsreels
A newsreel is a documentary film that is regularly released in a public presentation
place containing filmed news stories.
Created by Path Frres of France in 1908, this form of film was a staple of the
typical North American, British, and Commonwealth countries (especially Canada,
Australia and New Zealand), and throughout European cinema programming schedule
from the silent era until the 1960s when television news broadcasting completely
supplanted its role.
Path would eventually merge with RKO...
An example of a newsreel story is in the film Citizen Kane (which was prepared by
RKO's actual newsreel staff), which includes a fictional newsreel that summarizes the
life of the title character.
Online journalism is reporting and other journalism produced or distributed via the
Internet.
An early leader was The News & Observer in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
Many news organizations based in other media also distribute news online. How
much they take advantage of the medium varies. Some news organizations, such as
the Gongwer News Service, use the Web only or primarily.
The Internet challenges traditional news organizations in several ways. They may be
losing classified ads to Web sites, which are often targeted by interest instead of
geography. The advertising on news Web sites is sometimes insufficient to support the
investment.
Even before the Internet, technology and perhaps other factors were dividing people's
attention, leading to more but narrower media outlets.
Online journalism also leads to the spread of independent online media such as
openDemocracy and the UK, Wikinews as well as allowing smaller news
organizations to publish to a broad audience, such as mediastrike.
By covering news, politics, weather, sports, entertainment, and vital events, the daily
media shape the dominant cultural, social and political picture of society. Beyond the
media networks, independent news sources have evolved to report on events which
escape attention or underlie the major stories. In recent years, the blogosphere has
taken reporting a step further, mining down to the experiences and perceptions of
individual citizens.
An exponentially growing phenomenon, the blogosphere can be abuzz with news that
is overlooked by the press and TV networks. Apropos of this was Robert F. Kennedy
Jr.'s 11,000-word Rolling Stone article apropos of the 2004 United States presidential
election, published June 1, 2006. By June 8, there had been no mainstream coverage
of the documented allegations by President John F. Kennedy's nephew. On June 9, this
sub-story was covered by a Seattle Post-Intelligencer article. [1]
Contents
[hide]
5 References
Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times (owned by the Washington Post), as well
as news magazines such as Time and Newsweek.[citations needed] They often keep editorial
opinions in separate columns from news. However, they generally carry little
international news compared to the practice in other countries.[neutrality disputed][citation needed]
OWNERSHIP: the "big six" compaines are:
1) General Electric.
media-related holdings include television networks NBC and Telemundo, Universal
Pictures, Focus Features, 26 television stations in the United States, and cable
networks MSNBC, Bravo and the Sci Fi Channel.
2)Time Warner
holdings including: CNN, the CW (a joint venture with CBS), HBO, Cinemax,
Cartoon Network, TBS, TNT, America Online, MapQuest, Moviefone, Netscape,
Warner Bros. Pictures, Castle Rock, and New Line Cinema, over 150 magazines such
as Time, Cooking Light, Marie Claire and People.
3)Walt Disney Company
ABC Television Network, cable networks including ESPN, the Disney
Channel, SOAPnet, A&E and Lifetime, 227 radio stations, music and
book publishing companies, production companies Touchstone, Miramax
and Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios, the cellular
service Disney Mobile, and theme parks around the world.
6)Viacom
holdings include: Music Television, Nickelodeon, VH1, BET, Comedy
Central, Paramount Pictures, Paramount Home Entertainment, Atom
Entertainment, publishing company Famous Music and music game
developer Harmonix. Viacom 18 is a joint venture with the Indian
media company Global Broadcast news.
source: http://www.freepress.net/ownership/chart.php?chart=main
Major providers of television news:
ABC
CBS News
CNN
Fox News Channel
MSNBC
NBC News
Newsweek
TIME
U.S. News & World Report
fee currently set at 10.96 pounds sterling per household per month. [2] In France, a
news giant is TV5.
[edit] Agenda-setting
An important role which is often ascribed to the media is that of agenda-setter.
Wasserman describes this as "putting together an agenda of national priorities - what
should be taken seriously, what lightly, what not at all". Gary Wasserman calls this
"the most important political function the media perform." [5] Agenda-setting theory
was proposed by McCombs and Shaw in the 1970s and suggests that the public
agenda is dictated by the media agenda.
In a commercialized media context, the media can often not afford to ignore an
important issue which another television station, newspaper, or radio station is willing
to pick up. The media may be able to create new issues by reporting what should be
taken seriously, but it is not so obvious how they can suppress issues by reporting that
they should not be taken seriously. If people are affected by high crime rates, or
unemployment, for instance, the media can reduce the time they report on such
problems in comparison to other issues, but they cannot reduce the direct effects of
these problems on the lives of the public. The media cannot make the problem go
away by ignoring it, but the public can go away to another media source, so it is in the
media interest to try to find an agenda which corresponds as closely as possible to
peoples lives. They may not be entirely successful, but the agenda-setting potential of
the media is considerably limited by the commercial competition for viewers, readers
and listeners. It is difficult to see, for instance, how an issue which is a major story to
one television station could be ignored by other television stations.
Different US media sources tend to identify the same major stories in domestic
politics, which strongly implies that the media are prioritizing issues according to an
exogenous set of criteria.
The only way in which the media can be expected to be able to set the agenda is if it is
in an area in which very few Americans have direct experience of the issues.[neutrality
disputed]
This applies to foreign policy. When American military personnel are involved,
the media needs to report because the personnel are related to the American public.
The media is also likely to have an interest in reporting issues with major direct
effects on American workers, such as major trade agreements with Mexico. In other
cases, it is difficult to see how the media can be prevented[weasel words] from setting the
foreign policy agenda.
In practice, the American media appears to "set" the foreign policy agenda by
ignoring foreign policy as much as possible, if the US is not very heavily involved.
[neutrality disputed]
McKay lists as one of the three main distortions of information by the
media "Placing high priority on American news to the detriment of foreign news. And
when the US is engaged in military action abroad, this 'foreign news' crowds out other
foreign news". [6]
[edit] References
1. ^ PBS | About PBS | Corporate Facts
2. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/annualreport/text/bbcexecutive.txt
3. ^ Internet News Takes Off, The Pew Research Centre for the People and the
Press, http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=88
4. ^ Internet News Takes Off, The Pew Research Centre for the People and the
Press, http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=88
5. ^ Wasserman, Basics of American Politics (London, Longman, 2003) p. 234
6. ^ McKay, American Politics & Society (Oxford, Blackwell, 2005) pg 144
7. ^ "Study: Media Focused On Tactics Not Issues", October 29, 2007,
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/business/media/29coverage.html also
archived at: http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/29/4880/
8. ^ "Study: Media Focused On Tactics Not Issues", October 29, 2007,
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/business/media/29coverage.html also
archived at: http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/29/4880/
9. ^ New York Times, July 30, 2004, Paul Krugman, "Triumph of the Trivial,"
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?
res=9C05E4DA113DF933A05754C0A9629C8B63