TRX Oil Test Properties
TRX Oil Test Properties
January2014.
PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL
THAT AFFECT EFFICIENCY.
DERICKNJOMBOGTANTEH.
SHAFIQYOUSEFALLIDDAWI.
DANIELSSEKASIKO.
School of Engineering,
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Blekinge Institute of Technology, S-371 79 Karlskrona
Phone: +46 - 455 - 38 50 00
Fax: +46 - 455 - 38 50 57
ThisthesisissubmittedtotheSchoolofEngineeringatBlekingeInstituteofTechnologyin
partialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofBachelorofScienceinElectrical
Engineering.Thethesisisequivalentto15ECTSpoints.
Contact:
DerickNjombogTanteh:
Email:[email protected]
ShafiqYousefAlLiddawi:
Email:[email protected]
DanielSsekasiko:
Email:[email protected]
Supervisor:
Dr.MattiasEriksson.
SeniorLecturer,
SchoolofEngineering,
BlekingeInstituteofTechnology,
Email:[email protected]
ToourParents:
DominicandBeatriceTanteh,
YousefandTamamAlLiddawi,
LivingstoneandRuthKiwanuka.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter1:Introduction1
1.1ProblemStatement1
1.2Scope1
1.3Outline.2
Chapter2:Background.3
2.1Corona..3
2.2Pyrolysis(Overheating)3
2.3Arcing4
2.4Transformers..4
2.5TransformerOils6
2.5.1Mineraloil7
2.5.2Vegetableoil.9
2.6OilTestingandanalysis..9
Chapter3:TransformerOilInsulatingProperties11
3.1Totalacidity.11
3.2Breakdownvoltage..12
3.3Viscosity...12
3.4Dielectricdissipationfactor(tandelta).13
3.5Specificresistance14
3.6Flashpoint..15
3.7Moisturecontent15
3.8Dielectricconstant(relativepermittivityr)..16
iii
3.9InterfacialTension..17
3.10DielectricStrength17
3.11Transformerinsulation(Paperinsulation)..18
Chapter4:TransformerOilAnalysis.19
4.1Partialdischarge(PD).19
4.2DissolvedgasAnalysis(DGA)...20
4.2.1DissolvedMoistureinTransformerOil..20
Chapter5:ExperimentalSetup...22
5.1Requirementsforexperiment..22
5.2ConditionsoftheoilSamples.25
5.3Breakdownvoltagemeasurementinoil.25
Chapter6:ExperimentalResultsanddiscussions....26
6.1VegetableOilexperiment..26
6.2MineralOilexperiments..31
6.3ComparisonbetweenVegetableandMineralOilCharacteristics..36
6.4Discussion.37
Chapter7:Conclusionandrecommendations...39
References..41
iv
Abstract.
Transformerexplosionscausedbydielectricfailureaccountforover50%ofthedisasters.Theaimof
thisthesisistoexamine,compareandoutlinethedifferences,infunction,asdielectricinsulators,
vegetablesoilhas,withrespecttothemineraloilusedinhighpowertransformers.Wewillfirst
considerthevegetableoilwhichhaslessdielectriccapabilitiesthanthemineraloilusedinpower
transformers.Laterintheexperiments,wewillfocusmainlytoexaminethebreakdownvoltage
property,aswetrytoaltersomepropertiesoftherespectiveoilsused.
Consideringthefactthatvegetableoilhaslowviscosity,withitschemicalcompoundsconstituting
lessmolecularmassescomparedtomineraloil,weendorse,fromourexperimentalfindings,that
mineraloilisindeedworthyandreasonabletobeusedasadielectricinhighpowertransformers.
Inthiswriteup,wehaveconsideredeleventransformeroilproperties.Intheexperimentproper,we
consideredonlytheacidity,whoseconcentrationinthetransformeroilincreaseswithagingifthe
transformer,moisture,andasuitableimpuritylikeNaOH(aq).Atfirstglance,onewouldbetempted
tothink,aswewere,thatsincetheincreaseinacidcontentoftheoildeterioratesitsdielectric
performance,anincreaseinalkalinecontentofthetransformeroil,wouldincreaseitsdielectric
ability;reversingtheacideffect.Butasweseeintheresultsfromourexperiments,thisisfalse.We
thinkthatthevisibledegradationoftheinsulatingpropertyoftheoil,withtheintroductionof
NaOH(aq),isbecauseitactsasanimpuritytosuitabledielectricfunction.
Fromtheexperiments,theheatingproceduresresultedintheproductionoftoxicgases.This
indicatedtheactuallossofchemicalstructureandsignificantbreakageofchemicalbonds.The
resultingchemicalcompositionoftheoildoesnotproducethesamedielectricpropertiesasthe
initialoilsample.
Also,herehasbeenconsiderableinconsistencyintheadditionofNaOH(aq)orHCl(aq)tobothoils.We
onlyaddedHCl(aq),beforeeverymeasurement,intwooftheexperiments.Theotherexperiments
wereeitherwithmoisture,orasingleadditionofsmallamountsofeitherHCl(aq)orNaOH(aq)before
heating;afterwhichseveralmeasurementsweretaken,atspecificintervals,asthemixturecools.
Wedidso,inthelatter,inwhichwehadonlyoneadditionofeitherchemical;becauseinreallife,
giventheshorttimeframeoftheexperiment,thetotalamountofacidintheoilhasanegligible
change.So,inafunctioningheatedtransformer,withinashorttimeframe,thereisactuallyavisible
tinydeteriorationinoilinsulationproperties.
Chapter 1: Introduction.
1.1
Problem statement.
Electricalfaultsthatoccurinpowertransformersaccountforoverfiftypercentoftransformer
failuresexpendituresintheUnitedStates,withinafiveyearperiod[1].Thenumbersare
probablymoreinthedevelopingworldduetolowtechnicalabilitiestomaintainandrecyclethe
oil.
1.2
Scope.
Thereareseveralpropertiesoftransformeroils.Wehaveconsideredtheelevenmostcommon
ones.Agoodnumberofthesepropertiesareexperimenteduponbyusingthebreakdown
voltagetodeterminethevalueoftheparameterintheconsideredproperty.Acidity,moisture
1
content,aswellasgeneralimpuritycontentaresomeofthepropertiesthatincreasewithageof
theoil,whileviscosity,flashpoint,specificresistance,transformerinsulation,interfacialtension
decreasewithage.Therespectiveincreaseordecreasearedetrimentaltothetransformer
functioning.Intheexperiments,theonlyparameterformeasurementweusedwasbreakdown
voltage(BDV);afteralteringacidcontent,impuritycontent,andmoisturecontent,whichareall
processingintheartificialagingprocess.
1.3
Outline.
Chapteroneintroducesthemaincauseforconcernfortransformerfailuresspecificallyinthe
UnitedStatesdielectricbreakdown.Themaincauseisasurgeinvoltage,followedbyalarge
currentsflowthroughadielectricgap.
TheSecondchapterexplainsstandardfindingsonphenomenaandprocessesrelatedtothe
studyoftransformeroilproperties.Theseincludethechemicalandcausesofthespecific
physicalpropertiesofthetestoils.
Inchapterthreeandfour,anextendeddiscussiononthetransformeroilpropertiesismade,
takingintoconsiderationtheelevenmostimportantones.Afurtherexaminationofthephysical
phenomenaofpartialdischargeandcorona,arcing,andpyrolysisisdoneinchapterfour.For
thecaseofpyrolysis,therespectivegasesfromthedecomposition,byoverheatingtheoil,are
reexamined.
Theexperimentalsetup,results,anddiscussionisdoneinchaptersfiveandsixrespectively.
Here,applyingahighvoltageacrosstheelectrodes,inatreatedoilsampleisourmaintoolto
examinethepropertiestested.Thepropertiesincludeacidity(HCl(aq)),moisture(water)andan
impurity(NaOH(aq)).
Thelastchaptercontainstheconclusionandrecommendationsfromsomeworldleading
companiesinthisarealikeABBinSweden.
Chapter 2: Background.
Inapowertransformer,thelightemittedbyasparkoccursbecauseofthematerialmedium
fluorescesasaresultofcollisionsfromtheelectrons.Ascollisionsoccurbetweenelectronsand
moleculesinthegap,electronontheatomshellsareexcitedtohigherenergylevels.Whenthe
electronsnolongergetmoreexcitation,thefallbacktothepreviousenergylevel,releasingthe
extraenergyintheformofheat,lightandsometimessound.[2]Thisiscalledthephotoelectric
effect.Thesparkscannotforminavacuumbecausetherewouldbenoairparticlesforcollision.
Withoutinterruptingelectromagnetictransitions,onecanseethespark.However,inoil,itis
possibleforthesparkstooccurbutnotasreadilyasinair.ItisalsoworthmentioningthatOil
helpsextinguisharcs.Mostpowertransformersthatuseoilhavethreedielectricmaterials;oil,
paper(onthewallsandwindings),and/orpaintonthewindings.Thesethreelinesofdefense
istomakesurethatsparks,arcsorpartialdischargeofanykindshouldnotoccurinthe
transformer.
2.1 Corona.
Therearesomevitaldevelopmentalstepsforapositivecoronadischargetooccur.[3]
First:apositiveandnegativeelectrodecharacteristicconfigurationmustbemet.
Second:Ahighvoltageshouldbesupplied.
Third:Aroundthegapbetweentheelectrodes,freeelectronsshouldbeafloat.
Fourth:Accumulationofelectronsshouldbuildupinthegap,readytocauseanavalanche
breakdown.
Fifth:theupanddownchangeofelectronsfromhigherenergytolowerenergylevelsproduce
photons;asenergyisgainedandlost,whichinturnenergizenewchargecarriersaroundthegap
Sixth:Theinitialavalanchebreakdowncausesacascadeeffecttochargesclosertothecathode
(negativeelectrode).
Pyrolysisbeginwhentheoilheattoabout2000C.Atthistemperature,onlyhydrogenismost
likelytobethegaseousproductofthemilddecomposition.Astemperatureissteadilyincreased
toabout7000C,thereisalmostatotaldecompositionoftheoil,givingamixtureofmethane,
ethane,ethylene,acetylene,andhydrogengasasproductsofseveredecomposition.[4]
analytically,weconcludethatheatingincreasesoildecomposition.
2.3 Arcing.
Anarcisaluminouscurrentdischargeformedwhenalargecurrentforcesadielectricgapto
conductthelargecurrentbetweentwoelectrodes.[5]
Themaindifferencebetweenarcingandcoronaisthat;incorona,theaccumulationofcharges
issustained,resultinginabreakdown.Inarcing,asurgeincurrentcausesanimmediate
breakdownofthedielectric,releasinghugeenergy.Consequently,arcsaremoredangerous,
releasemoreenergy,andmoredifficulttohandle.
Arcsoccurusuallyduringvoltagetesting,shutdownandstartupofasystem,accidentalcontact
withenergizedcomponents,miscalculationsofratingparameters,rusting,decayand
degradationoftheequipmentthatcancausepotentiallyharmfulshortcircuitpaths.
Technologyhashowevermadearcsusefulinwelding.ThiscameasresultofthedesignofArc
weldingtransformers.[6]
2.4 Transformers.
Wewillbeginwithasimpletransformerliketheonepicturedbelow[7a].
Transformersweredevelopedfromtheknowledgeofthelawofelectromagneticinduction.
Transformerscanbeeitherstepuptransformer;wherethenumberofprimaryturnsislessthan
thenumberofsecondaryturns,seeFig1.1.1,orstepdowntransformer;wherethenumberof
secondaryturnsislessthanthenumberofprimaryturns.
Aseverepartialdischarge(PD)betweenanynumberofturnsinanypartofthetransformer,
resultsintheaffectednumberofturnstobehaveasonereducingthetotalnumberofturns.
Evidently,fromtheformulabelow,thenumberofturnsaffectsvoltageeitherway,hence,
efficiency.
N2/N2=V1/V2=I2/I1..(1)
Wherepower=P,current=I,voltage=V,Numberofturns=N.
Inanidealtransformerthepowerinputvalueissameasthepoweroutputvalue.
Power=P=V1xI1=V2xI2.............(2).
Inarealworld,equation(2)becomesinvalidsincethereareusuallylossesinafunctioning
transformer.[7b]
Efficiency=Poweroutput/Inputpower.
Efficiency= 1
Wherelosses=cupperlosses+ironlosses.
Thetransformerwindingsmust,therefore,beinsulated.Theoperationofthetransformer
producesheat.Thesearethemainfocusofthisthesis:heatandinsulation.
Transformeroilsperformatleastfourbasicfunctionsinanoilimmersedtransformer.Oil
providesinsulation,cooling(heatdistribution),andhelpsextinguisharcs(voltaicdischarge).Oil
alsodissolvesgasesgeneratedbyoildegradation,deterioration,andgasesandmoisturefrom
whateveratmospheretheoilisexposedto.Closeobservationofdissolvedgasesintheoil,and
otheroilproperties,providesthemostvaluableinformationabouttransformerhealth.
DissolvedGasAnalysis(DGA)isthemostimportanttransformerdiagnostictool.
Themineraloil,withthemainrolesofinsulatingandcoolinginpowertransformers,issimilarto
thebloodinhumanbody.Consideringtheworldwideneedforhighefficiencyofpower
transformersandtherisingpriceoftheoil,wehavetocontrolandmonitorthetransformeroil
characteristicsconsistently.Thereareseveralcharacteristicswhichcanbemeasuredtoassess
thepresentconditionoftheoil.Usingacombinationofthesediagnostictestsallowstheoilto
beexaminedforitsbehaviorwithrespecttovariouscharacteristicsasageincreases,whether
thechangesareduetothermal,dielectricorchemicaleffects.Thebenefitofexamininghow
quicklytheoilisagingisthatitpermitstheoiltobeusedaslongaspossible.Ifthisisdone
properly,areplacementorpurificationcanbedonebeforeitcancausedamagetothecontainer
orothermaterialsinsidethetransformer,ortotheenvironment.Wedonotwantthe
transformerstoundergoleakages,explosions,sparks,firesoranykindofdestructiontoitselfor
theenvironment.Thetransformermineraloilisoneofthemostexpensiveextractsproducedby
itsrefinementofcrudeoil.Refiningisthecollectivetermfortheprocessesinvolvedinchanging
5
thecrudeoilintooilwiththerequiredpropertiesforaparticularapplication.Onlyaboutthree
percentofthecrudeoilisappropriateforproductionoftransformeroil.Becauseofthe
importanceofthepowertransformersinelectricalnetworks,permanentlytakingcareoftheoil
qualityisvital.
Insulatingoilinatransformerduringoperationissubjectedtoheat,oxygenandelectrical
discharge,whichmayleadtoitsdegradationespeciallythroughtheprocessofoxidation.[8]This
severelycausestheoiltocarryoutitsprimaryfunctionsofinsulationandheattransferasaging
productsreduceelectricalpropertiesandcoolingefficiency.Oxidationproducts,suchasacids
andconsequentlytheformationofsludge,arealsovitalinagingacceleration.Therefore,
monitoringandmaintainingoilqualityisessentialinensuringthereliableoperationofoilfilled
electricalequipment.Eveninidealconditions,oilagesanddegradesovertime,asitsuseful
servicelifeisfinite.
Therateofagingisnormallyafunctionoftemperatureandmoisture,aswewilldiscusslaterin
DissolvedgasAnalysis(PDA).Oilwillagerapidlyathightemperaturesandmoistureactsasa
catalystforitsagingTherefore,oilaginginoilfilledtransformersisinevitable.Therearesome
catalystspresentinatransformerthatcouldaccountforoildegradation.Theseincludecopper,
paint,varnishandoxygen[9].Themainprocessofoildeteriorationisoxidation,whichcauses
somepolarcompoundstobeformed.Theseoxidationproductswillhaveadeleteriouseffect
endresult,givingrisetothevariationweseektogetourconclusion.Theprincipaloilproperties
areclassifiedintothephysical,chemicalandelectricalcharacteristics.Someofthemore
importantpropertiesoftheoilareviscosity,specificgravity,flashpoint,oxidationstability,total
acidnumber,dissipationfactor,volumeresistively,breakdownvoltage,anddielectricconstant.
GenerallytransformerOilexistsintwotypes[10]:
ParaffinbasedTransformerOil
NaphthabasedTransformerOil
Oncomparisonofbothtransformeroils,paraffinoilislessoxidizedthanNaphthaoil,though
oxidationproductforinstancesludgeinthenaphthaoilisextremelysolublecomparedto
paraffinoil.Hencethesludgecontentinnaphthabasedoilisneverprecipitatedatthe
transformerbottom.Thereforeitallowsoilcirculation,hencethetransformercoolingsystem
runningnormally.ForparaffinoilwhoseoxidationrateislowercomparedtothatofNaphthaoil
issludgeandinsoluble,itisprecipitatedatbottomofthetankthereforehindering
thetransformercoolingsystem.
Goodtransformeroilactsasaliquidinsulationinanelectricalpowertransformeranddissipates
heatfromthe transformer(coolant).Also,becauseit helpspreservethecoreandwindingsof
thetransformerfortheyaredippedinit.Duetooxidationsusceptibilityofthecellulosepaper
6
insulation made for the primary and secondary windings, the transformer oil prevents direct
contactofatmosphericoxygen.
2.5.1 Mineral oil
Petroleumoilhasbeenusedfortransformeroilsince1891.Anoverviewofthesourceand
purificationprocessofpetroleumisasfollows:[11]
Cycloalkaneshaveaclosedring.Theyareoneofthreemainconstituentsofcrudeoil,theother
twobeingalkanesandaromaticcompounds.
Cycloalkanesareclassifiedintovarioussizescycloalkanes,wherecyclopropaneandcyclo
butanearethesmallestsizedcycloalkanes.cyclopentane,cyclohexane,cycloheptanearethe
commonones,cyclooctanethroughcyclotridecanearethemediumones,andtherestare
largerones.
Cycloalkanesaresimilartoalkanesintheirgeneralphysicalproperties,buttheirringstructures
allowthemtohavehigherphysicalpropertieslikeboilingpoints,meltingpoints,anddensities,
thanalkanes.Theirmeltingandboilingpointsare10Kto20Khigherthantheircorresponding
straightchainalkanes.[13]
Theclassificationofalkanesisderivedfromtheirsizesandshapesfromthechemicalstructure.
Methane,beingthesimplestofall,hasjustonecarbonatom.Thenethanehastwocarbon
atoms,propanewiththree,butanewithfour,andsoon.
Boilingpoints,meltingpoints,anddensitiesincreaseasthenumberofcarbonatomsincrease.
Thelongerthecarbonchain,thehigherthetotalmolecularmassofthemolecule;thus,increase
indensity,boilingpoints,meltingpoints,etc.
NB:Mineraloilisproducedbyseveralcountriesandisrelativelyinexpensive.But,themain
drawbackoccurswhenthereisatransformerleakageandthemineraloilwillcontributeto
environmentalhazardsbecauseofitspoorbiodegradability.
Thereexistbothsyntheticandnaturalvegetableoils.Esteroilshaveafunctionalgrouplikethe
onebelow.[15]
Statisticsproofthatmostdestroyedtransformerssufferedfromseveralconditionssuchas
overloadcondition,which,moreoftenthannot,isthemaincauseoftransformerfailures,as
discussedandshowninthefirstchapter.Othercomponentssuchasthematerialofthecore
andtypeoflaminationarealsovital,buttheinsulationsystemplaysoneofthemostimportant
rolesinthetransformerslife,courtesyofthestatisticsofmosttransformerfailures.
Acoupleoftestsareviewedinourstudy;knownasDissolvedGasAnalysis(DGA)andPartial
DischargeMeasurement(PD).Thedissolvedgasanalysis(DGA)iscarriedoutontheaged
samplestopredicttheincipientfaults.Thoughthereisnodirectmethodtodetectthese
incipientfaults,itisknownthatthesefaults,especiallyintheformofoverheating,
arcingorpartialdischarge,developcertaingaseoushydrocarbons,whichareretainedbythe
insulatingoilasdissolvedgases.Thustheevaluationofthesegascompositionsandtheir
interpretationknownasDissolvedGasAnalysis(DGA)seemstobeoneofthelifesaving
diagnostictestsonconditionmonitoringoftransformers.
Theearlydetectionofpartialdischargepresentinatransformerisveryimportantto
avoid/reducethelossestothecatastrophicfailureoftransformer.Also,oncethePDisdetected,
thelocationofthesameisveryimportantsothatthedefectscanbepinpointedandsolved
effectively.
Transformer/Insulatingoilisahighlyrefinedmineraloilthatisstableathightemperaturesand
excellentinsulatingproperties.Itisobtainedfromfractionaldistillationprocesswithsubsequent
processingofcrudepetroleum.Ithastwomainfunctionstoinclude:
Actingasaliquidinsulationinanelectricalpowertransformerandsecondlydissipatingheatof
thetransformer(coolant).Also,becauseithelpspreservethecoreandwindingsofthe
transformerfortheyaredippedinit.
Duetooxidationsusceptibilityofthecellulose(paperinsulation)madeforthewindings,the
transformeroilpreventsdirectcontactofatmosphericoxygen.[16][17]
TheTransformerOilparametersarecategorizedas:
Totalacidityalsocalledtotalacidnumber(TAN)referstothemeasurementofaciditythatis
gottenbytheamountofpotassiumhydroxide(expressedinmilligrams)whichisrequiredto
neutralizethehydrogenions(H+(aq))inonegramofoil.Thetotalacidnumbervalueshowstothe
crudeoilrefinery,thepossibilityofcorrosionproblems.Tofindthetotalacidity,different
methodscanbeusedtoinclude:
Potentiometrictitration;wheretolueneandpropanolaredissolvedwithasampleandalittle
waterthentitratedwithalcoholicNaOH(aq).Areferenceelectrodeandaglasselectrodeis
immersedinthesampleandconnectedtoavoltmeter/potentiometer.Themeterreading(in
millivolts)isplottedagainstthevolumeofthetitrantthentheendpointtakenatthedistinct
inflectionoftheresultingtitrationcurvecorrespondingtothebasicbuffersolution.
Colorindicatingtitration:ArightpHcolorindicatorforinstance,phenolphthalein,isused.
Titrantisaddedtothesamplebymeansofaburetteandthevolumeoftitrantusedtocausea
permanentcolorchangeinthesampleisrecordedandusedtocalculatetheTANvalue.
Transformeroilacidityisnevergoodfortheperformanceofthetransformer,ifatanymoment,
oilgetsacidifiedthenthemoisturecontentintheoilshallgethighsolubilitylevels.Thisshall
lateraffectthepaperinsulationofthewinding.Acidityincreasestheoxidationprocessinthe
transformeroil.Acidpresencealsoacceleratesrustingofironincombinationwithmoisture.The
10
KOHinmgisusedtocombatacidityofoilbyneutralizingitineverygramofoil.Thisisreferred
toasneutralizationnumber.[18]
Thebreakdownvoltageofaninsulatorreferstotheminimumvoltagewhichresultsinpartofan
insulatortobecomeanelectricconductor.Itisusuallyauniquepropertyofaninsulatorthat
definesthemaximumvoltagedifferencethatcanbeputacrossthematerialbeforeitsinsulator
conducts.Insolidinsulatingmaterials,thisoftencreatesaweakenedpathwithinthematerialby
creatingpermanentmolecularorphysicalchangesbythesuddenhighcurrent.
Thebreakdownvoltageofamaterialisnotadefinitevalue.Breakdownvoltageisalsoreferred
toaswithstandvoltagewheretheprobabilityoffailureatagivenvoltageissolowthatitis
consideredatthemomentofdesigninginsulation,withassurancethatthematerialwillnotfail
atthisvoltage.
Thereexiststwowaysformeasurementofbreakdownvoltageofamaterialwhichincludethe
impulsebreakdownandtheACbreakdownvoltages.ACvoltagesarethelinefrequenciesofthe
mains,whilewiththeimpulsebreakdownvoltages,theyaresimulatinglightningstrikes.[19]
3.3 Viscosity
Herewemainlyfocusofliquids/fluidsandtheviscosityofafluidreferstoameasureof
itsresistancewithreferencetoitsgradualdeformationbyshearstressortensilestress.
Itcorrespondstotheinformalnotionof"thickness";ifwefocusonliquids.Forexample,water
hasalowerviscositycomparedtohoney.Viscosityisbroughtaboutbyhighfrictionbetween
neighboringmoleculesofthefluidthataremovingatdifferentspeeds.Onforcingafluidintoa
tube,itwillmovefasterslowestnearthewallsofacontainerwhenpouredout.Thereforea
littlestressisneededtoovercomethefrictionbetweenlayersandkeepthefluidmoving.So
generally,viscosityofafluidishighlydependentontheshapeandsizeofitsparticlesplus
attractionsacrosstheparticles.[20]
Atverylowtemperatures,whenviscositycanbeobservedinsuperfluids.Afluidwithno
resistancetoshearstressiscalledanidealfluid.Otherwiseallfluidshavepositiveviscosity.For
instanceiftheviscosityisveryhighatpitch,thefluidismostlikelytoappearasasolidinshort
while,Aliquidwithaviscositygreaterthanwaterisreferredtoasaviscousliquidandtheother
liquidwhoseviscosityislowerthanthatofwateriscalledamobileliquid.
11
WithemphasisonViscosityoftransformeroil,viscosityreferstooppositiontoflowatallfactors
constant(normalcondition).Withreferencetotransformeroil,resistancetoflowsimply
describesoppositiontoconvectioncirculationofoilinthetransformer.
Oilusedintransformerswithlowviscosityisessentialandsimultaneouslyimportantinthat,
transformeroilviscosityshouldnotchangemuchiftemperatureisdecreased.Itshouldbe
notedthatallliquidsgetmoreviscouswithdecreaseintemperature.Lowviscosityisonethat's
betterrecommendedinordertoprovideenvironmentforlowresistancetoconventionalflowof
oilhencepropertransformercooling.
Itisworthmentioningthatviscosityofaliquid,moreoftenthannot,isusedtodeterminingitas
acoolingagent.Thustransformeroil,whichisthickandscarcelyfacilitatesconvection,inhibits
thespreadofheatbyconvectioninatransformer.However,sinceeveryliquidbecomesless
viscoswithtemperatureincrease,convectiontakesplacetofacilitatecoolingaswell.[21]
Dissipationfactorreferstoameasureoflossrateofenergyofamodeofoscillationina
dissipativesystem.Itisaswellreferredtoaslossfactor.Thedielectricdissipationfactorofan
insulatingmaterialisthetangentofthedielectriclossangle.Thisisanangleinwhichthephase
differencebetweentheappliedvoltageandconsequentialcurrentdivergesfrom/2rad,atthe
pointwherethecapacitor'sdielectricencompassesonlyofinsulatingmaterial.
Thedielectricdissipationfactorinrelationtotransformeroilisbrokendownasinthissimple
description:Thelossangleisavitalpropertyofdielectricoil.Withanidealdielectricmaterial,
voltageandcurrenthasaphaseangleas90betweenthem.Butbecauseofimpurities,certain
leakagecurrentflowsthroughthedielectricandactualphaseangleisslightlylessthan90.A
risingdissipationfactorisanindicationofoilcontaminationoroilageing.Polarcomponents
stronglyinfluencethedissipationfactorandarethereforeaverysensitiveparameter.Thetan
deltaoftransformeroilhappenswhenaninsulatingmaterialisplacedbetweenthelivepartand
groundedpartofanelectricalcircuit;resultinginleakagecurrentflow.Theinsulationideally
leadsthevoltageby90obecauseoftheinsulatingmaterialbeingdielectricnaturally,thereby
creatinginstantaneousvoltagebetweenlivepartandgroundoftheequipment.Inapractical
world,noinsulatingmaterialsareperfectdielectricinnature.ThisissimplycalledDielectric
DissipationFactororsimplytandeltaoftransformeroilcourtesyoftangentofanangleslightly
shortof90oduetoimperfectionsininsulatingmaterialsandtheirdielectricproperties.[22]
Wearegoingtoillustratetheaforesaidwithagraphthatillustratesthatasthetransformer
ages,impuritiesincrease,thereforedecreasingdielectricresistance.Impuritieswillincrease
currentflowthroughthedielectric.[23]Theangledeltaislessthan900whentheimpuritiesare
more.
12
NB:TheTanDeltatestworksontheprinciplethatanyinsulationinitspurestateactsasa
capacitor.ThetestinvolvesapplyingaverylowfrequencyACvoltage.Thevoltageisgenerally
doubletheratedvoltageofthecableorwinding.
Alowfrequencycausesahighervalueofcapacitivereactancewhichleadstolesserpower
requirementduringthetest.Besides,thecurrentswillbelimitedenablingeasiermeasurement.
Inapurecapacitor,thecurrentisaheadofthevoltageby90degrees.Theinsulation,inapure
condition,willbehavesimilarly.However,iftheinsulationhasdeterioratedduetotheentryof
dirtandmoisture,thecurrentwhichflowsthroughtheinsulationwillalsohavearesistive
component.
Thiswillcausetheangleofthecurrenttobelessthan90degrees.Thisdifferenceintheangleis
knownasthelossangle.ThetangentoftheanglewhichisIr/Ic(opposite/adjacent)givesusan
indicationoftheconditionoftheinsulation.Ahighervalueforthelossangleindicatesahigh
degreeofcontaminationoftheinsulation.
ReresistancewillreduceasFig3.4.1belowillustrates.[17]
Specificresistancewithreferencetoelectricalresistanceofanelectricalconductorreferstothe
oppositioninthepassageofanelectriccurrentthroughaconductor.TheSIunitofelectrical
resistanceistheohm(),andthatofelectricalconductanceisSiemens(S).[19]
Anyconductorwithspecifiedcrosssectionhasaresistancerelativelyproportionalto
itsresistivity,lengthandisinverselyproportionaltoitscrosssectionalarea.Apartfrom
superconductors,whichhavearesistanceofzero,therestofthematerialsshowsome
13
resistanceatanygivenpointintime.Aconductor'smaterialandtemperaturegreatly
determinesitsspecificresistance.
Resistance(R)ofanobjectisdefinedastheratioofvoltageacrossit(V)tocurrentthroughit(I).
Andconductance(G)istheinverse:
Wherevoltage(V)andcurrent(I)aredirectlyproportionalforawiderangeofmaterials.This
automaticallysetsRandGasconstantsbutcanaswelldependonotherfactorslike
temperatureasearlierexplained.
SpecificResistanceoftransformeroilfocusesonmeasureofresistancebetweentwoopposite
sidesofonecm3blockofoil,thestandardunitistakenasohmcmataspecifictemperature.The
resistivityofoilreducesdrasticallywhentemperatureincreases.Whenatransformerhasbeen
shutoffforalongtime,itsoiltemperatureshallbethesameasthatatambient.Withafullload,
thetemperaturecanriseupto90oCespeciallyatanoverloadedcondition.Thereforeinsulating
oilresistanceshouldbeabletoaccommodatetheneedsofboththehighandlowtemperatures;
thatisatambientlevel.
Itishighlyrecommendedtomeasurespecificresistivityoftransformeroilbothat27oCaswell
as90oChencecoveringtheexpectedhightemperaturesandminimum.
Thestandardsareasfollows:
Theactualminimumstandardforspecificresistanceoftransformeroilat90oCis35X1012ohm
cm(maximum)andatthelowerboundaryisestimatedat27oCis1500X1012ohmcm
(minimum).[25]
Theflashpointofachemicaloranyvolatilematerialisthelowesttemperatureatwhichitcan
evaporatetoformanignitablemixtureinairorcombustibleconcentrationofgas.Thispoint
indicateshowhardoreasythisvolatilematerialmayburn.Materialswithhigherflashpointsare
lessflammableorhazardousthanchemicalswithlowerflashpoints.Determiningaflashpoint
requiresanignitionsource.Theflashisnotdependentonthetemperatureoftheignition
source.
Mineraloilisaderivedproductofcrudepetroleum.Athighertemperatures,itwillvaporize.
Afteracertaintemperature,themixtureofthisoilvaporandatmosphericairproducesahighly
combustibleproductwhichiseasilyignitablebyanykindofspark.Anyburningfireoropen
flamewillnotnecessarilyignitethegasbutahotsurfacelikeaheaterwilldoforchemicalswith
morethanhighhazard.
14
Theflashpointhascommonlybeenusedtoexplainanddistinguishliquidfuel,andaswellhelp
uniquelyidentifythefirehazardsofliquids.
SobasicallyFlashpointmeansbothflammableliquidsandcombustibleliquids.Various
standardsfordefiningeachtermexist.
Thiscanbeevidencedmoreasfollows;Liquidswithaflashpointlessthan37.8Care
consideredflammableandthosewithaflashpointabovethepreviouslymentioned
temperaturesareconsideredcombustible.
Thistemperatureistheflashpointoftransformeroil.Generally,140Cistheminimum
thresholdflashingpointforstandardpowertransformers.
Flashpointwithreferencetotransformeroilappliesinthesamewayashasbeenexpressed
abovefortheotherliquids.Itisthetemperatureatwhichoilevaporatestoproducea
flammablemixturewithair.Themainimportanceofthemixtureistobrieflygiveaflashon
applicationofflameunderstandardcondition.
Thisprocessisveryvitalforitsignifiesthechancesoffirehazardinthetransformerforthat
reasonahigherlevelsoftemperaturepointsoftransformeroilflashpointaredesired.[25]
Moisturecontentisdescribedastheamountofwatercontainedinamaterial,suchassoilsoil
moisture,apple,foodandothers.Moisturecontentisusedinbothtechnicalandscientificareas
plusdaytodaylifeactivities.Itisoftenusedinrationswhichvaryfrom0tomeanwhenthe
materialiscompletelymoisturefree(dry)uptothevalueofthematerials'beingporousat
saturationpoint.Themoisturecontentisalwaysmeasuredinvolumeormassascontainedin
thematerialinfocus.
Waterisaveryundesirablepollutanttotransformeroilandotherinsulatorsinatransformer.
Firstly,consideringmoistureinoil,moisturemakestheoillessthickwithalowerboilingpoint
thanoil.Moisturecontentisadirectproportionalitytotransformeroilaging.
Secondly,thepaperwinding,whichisalsoaninsulatorandadielectricintheoiltransformer,is
alsoadverselyaffectedbymoisture.Themoistureslowlysoaksthepaperasthetransformeroil
ages.Asoakedpaper,ontransformerwindings,decreasesinsulation,andthusthetransformers
functioningandefficiency.Whenthetemperaturehasincreasedinthetransformer
environment,thisverysoakedpaperagainreleaseswaterintothetransformeroil.Thisleadsto
oxidation,hence,increasestheamountofacidandwater.Thiscausesoilqualityreductiondue
tooildecomposition.[19]
Fortheabovereasons,itishighlyrecommendedtoavoidwaterintransformeroilforincreased
performance.
15
Relativepermittivity,inthiscontext,isthemeasureoftheresistanceencounteredinthe
formationofelectricfieldsbetweentheelectrodesintheoilinsulationmedium.
Adielectricmaterialisanelectricalinsulatorthatgetspolarizedwhenanelectricfieldisapplied
toit.Whenadielectricisplacedinanelectricfield,electricalchargesneverflowthroughthe
materialascomparedtothewaytheyflowinaconductor;theyjustslightlyshiftfromtheir
meanequilibriumpositionscausingdielectricpolarization.Theeffectofdielectricpolarizationis
that:positivechargesaredisplacedtowardsthefieldandnegativechargesshiftintheopposite
direction.
Dielectricconstantisanelementofanelectricalinsulatingmaterialwhichisequaltotheratioof
thecapacitanceofacapacitorfilledwiththegivenmaterialtothecapacitanceofanidentical
capacitorinavacuumwithoutthedielectricmaterial.Asaresult,aninternalelectricfieldis
createdthatreducestheoverallfieldwithinthedielectricitself.Moleculesofadielectric
materialthatareweaklybondedshallbepolarizedandtheiraxisofsymmetrywillgetre
organizedtothefield.[26]
Studiesfocusedondielectricpropertiesemphasizestorage,dissipationofelectricandmagnetic
energyinmaterials.
Amaterialwitharelativepermittivityequalingtoafrequencyofzeroisreferredtoasitsstatic
relativepermittivity.[27]
Thisisdescribedassurfacetensionatthesurfaceseparatingtwononmiscibleliquids.Itisa
tensionwithacontractivetendencyofthesurfaceofaliquidthatgivesitthepotentialtoresist
anexternalforce.Whatactuallyhappensis;allmoleculesatthesurfaceoftheliquidforma
weakbondwitheachothercreatingasurfaceblankettotheothermoleculesoftheliquid
beneath.Agoodexampleisfloatingobjectsonthesurfaceofwater,eventhoughtheyaremore
densecomparedtowater.[19]
Interfacialtensionhasdimensionofenergyperunitarea,thiskindofenergyisusedcommonly
insurfacetensionorsurfacefreeenergy.
Cohesiveforcesbetweenliquidmoleculescreateinterfacial/surfacetension.Whenreferringtoa
heavyorbulkoftheliquid,everymoleculeisseparatedequallyineverydirectionbyneighboring
liquidmoleculeshenceanetforceequalingtozero.Themoleculesatthetopoftheliquidhave
16
noneighboringmoleculesontopofthemsotheyareonlypulledinwardsorneighboring
moleculesunderthem.Asaresult,internalpressurewillbecreatedcausingtheliquidsurfaces
tocontracttotheminimalarea.
Surfacetensionisresponsiblefortheshapeofliquiddrops;dropletsofwatertendtobepulled
intoasphericalshapebythecohesiveforcesofthesurfacelayereveniftheyareeasilyde
shaped.Withoutforcesforinstancegravity,dropsofalmostallliquidswouldnormallybe
sphericalwhichshapereducesthenecessary"walltension".
Alsowithemphasistoenergy,moleculesincontactwiththeirneighborsareinalowerstateof
energythaniftheywerenotincontactwithadjacentneighbors.Insidemoleculeshavemany
neighborsasmuchastheycouldbutthemoleculesontheboundarymissneighborsandso
automaticallyhavehigherenergy.Therefore,ifaliquidistoreduceitsenergystate,thenumber
ofmoleculesofhigherenergyontheboundaryshouldbereduced.Thiswilldefinitelyreduce
surfacearea.
Withminimizingthesurface,itwillhaveasmoothshapehencehighenergywillbegained,and
gravitationalpotentialenergyshallaswellbereduced.
Withsurfacetensionisresponsibleforseparationofoilandwaterduetotensioninthesurface
betweendissimilarliquids.Newlyacquiredtransformeroilshowshighinterfacialtensionwhile
contaminants,duetooxidation,lowertheInterfacialtension.Thisphenomenonisusefulin
determiningthepresenceofpolarcontaminantsandtransformeroildecayproducts.[28]
Thetermdielectricstrength(canaswellmeanvoltagebreakdown)hasdifferentmeanings
dependingontheprimaryfocus,withreferencetoaninsulatingmaterialitreferstothe
maximumelectricfieldstrengththatthematerialcanwithstandcontinuouslywithoutbreaking
down;tobespecific,withoutexperiencingfailureofitsinsulatingproperties.[19]
Withmajorfocusontransformers,dielectricstrengthappliestotransformeroil.Thedielectric
strengthisdeterminedtakingnoteofatwhatvoltage,sparksbetweentwoelectrodesimmersed
inoilandaspecificgapbetweenthem.Lowvalueofdielectricstrengthshowspresenceof
moistureandmaybeotherconductingsubstancesintheoil.Thisisdonewithabreakdown
voltagemeasuringkitinwhichonepairofelectrodesisfixedandhasagapmeasuringabout
2,5mmapart.Thenvoltageshallbeappliedtothepairofelectrodes.
Withcarefulincreasingofvoltageonbothelectrodes,criticalobservationshouldthenbetaken
onwhenthesparksbetweenelectrodeshappen;exactlywhenthedielectricstrengthof
transformeroilbetweenelectrodeshasbeenbrokendown.[29]
17
Paperinsulationisusedforseveralinsulationpurposesintheelectricalfield;severalelectrical
insulationpapertypesexistandareusedinmanyapplications,thisisbecausepurecellulosehas
unbelievablygreatelectricalproperties.Celluloseisanoutstandinginsulatoraswellasapolar
substance.Thisisbecauseofitshavingadielectricconstantsignificantlygreaterthanone.
Classificationofelectricalpaperdependsonthicknessfromlessthan1.5mmtoover20mils
(0.508mm)thickness.[19]
Moisturecontentintransformeroilisneveragoodcombinationforitinterferesgreatlytheoil
dielectricproperties.Thewatercontentinoilalsoaffectsthepaperinsulationofthecoreand
winding of transformer. Paper is extremely hygroscopic so it absorbs a lot of water from oil
whichaffectspaperinsulationpropertyplusloweringitslifespan.Withaloadedtransformer,oil
temperature increases, resulting in the solubility of water in oil increase. Hence the paper
releasesmoisture,resultingtoanincreaseinthewatercontentinthetransformeroil.[30]
18
SignsofpartialdischargewerefirstobservedinanoscilloscopeintheSixties.Laterinthe
Eighties,computerizeddataacquisitionbecamecommonlyavailable.Thisgreatlyenhanced
storageanddigitalprocessingofdischargepatterns.[31]
PD,moreoftenthannot,startsinsidetinybubbles,voids,cracks,orinclusionswithinasolid
insulator(dielectric),atconductordielectricinterfaceswithinsolidorliquiddielectrics,orin
voidsthatoccurinliquidinsulatorsusedasdielectrics.SincePDsonlyoccurataparticular
portionintheelectrode,thefaultscreatedbythedischargesonlypartiallyconnectthe
separationoftheelectrodes.
PDintransformersdegradesthepropertiesoftheinsulatingmaterialsandcanleadto
eventualfailures.PDscanbeidentifiedbyusinganalysisfromacousticmeasurementsorby
measurementsoftheelectricalsignals.Anotherpreferredmethodisbydoingchemicalteststo
analyzethegasesproducedfromthepartialdischarges.
PDscauseconsiderabledeteriorationtotheinsulation(dielectric)itoccursin.Itisworth
mentioningagainthatwhenthegasesarecollectedbyupwarddeliveryordownward
displacementofair,andtheresultoftheanalysisofthegasescanbeusedtodeterminethe
typeoffaultthatoccurred.Forthecaseofpartialdischarge,hydrogengasisproduced.
Generally,andforalloiltypes,thepartialdischargeexperimentsshowthattherateofpartial
dischargeisdirectlyproportionaltoageoftheoil.
Thisisreasonablebecauseduringpartialdischarge,manychemicalbondsarebrokentoform
severalgasesandthiseffectivelyshortensthenhydrocarbonchainsoftheoil.PD,therefore,
wouldbeworthwhiletobedetectedearlyfortechnicalintervention;else,itcanruinthe
transformer.
Someofthegasesdissolveintheoil.ThisbringsustoDissolvesGasAnalysis.
Dissolvedgasanalysisisthestudyofdissolvedgassesintransformeroil.Thegassescomefrom
thedeteriorationofthematerialsthatformthecontainerofthetransformeroil.These
materialsincludeboththeelectricalequipment,theinsulatingmaterialsforthecoils,andthe
ore.
Whenthegasesareanalyzed,thestatisticscanbeusedtodeducetherealelectricalfaultofthe
transformer,ortheequipmentatfault.
19
Sincetheoilisincontactwiththeinternalequipment,thegasesformedbyoxidation,
vaporization,decomposition,insulation,oilbreakdownandelectrolyticaction,aredissolvedin
thetransformeroil.Atthatinstance,theoilishot.Theheatenhancesthedissolutionofthe
gasses.
Duringnormaltransformeroperation,gassesareproduced.Butwhenthereisafault,thegasses
areproducedinlargerquantities.Thegassesproducedareproportionaltothefault.Below,are
themostcommonfaultsandgassesproduced;inincreasingseverity.[32]
Partialdischargeorcorona:Produceshydrogengas(H2(g)).
Localizedhotspots(Pyrolysisorthermalheating):Atlowertemperatures,itproducesCH4,C2H6
andathightemperatures,itproducesamixtureismethane,C2H4(ethylene),ethaneand
hydrogengas.
Arcing:producesamixtureofethaneacetylene(C2H2),ethylene,methane,andhydrogen
gas.[33]
Free water causes few problems with the dielectric strength of oils in transformers;
however,itshouldbedrainedassoonasitisnoticed.
Moisture is given in the dissolved gas analysis in ppm, and some laboratories also give
percent saturation. Percent saturation means percent saturation of water in the oil. This is a
percentageofhowmuchwaterisintheoilcomparedwiththemaximumpossiblesaturationof
waterinoil.Thesaturationofwaterinoilgreatlydependsontemperature.
Thecurves,inFig4.,belowshowsomepercentsaturationcurves.Ontheleftline,findthe
ppmofwaterfromyourDGA.Fromthispoint,drawahorizontallineandextrapolatetoreadthe
corresponding temperature and corresponding level of percentage saturation on or between
thecurves.[34]
20
Forexample,iftheoilis50ppmandthetemperatureis40C,youcanseeonthecurves
that this point of intersection falls about halfway between the 20% curve and the 30% curve.
Thismeansthattheoilisapproximately35%saturated.
However,expertsdisagreeonhowtotellhowmuchmoistureintheinsulationbasedon
howmuchmoistureisintheoil(ppm).Atbest,methodstodeterminemoistureintheinsulation
basedsolelyonDGAarenotveryaccurateinaccurate.
21
Thischapterwilldiscusstheexperimentalsetupsusedinthisthesisproject,includingtheaging
processonbothtypesofoil,themeasurementprocedureofBreakdownvoltage.
Additionalrequirementsusedintheexperiment:
1.HydrochloricAcid(HCL).
2.SodiumHydroxideNaOH(aq).
Theoldsamplesarepreconditioned.Then,theacceleratedthermalagingprocessisstarted.
First,thesamplecontaineriscleanedbeforeitisfilledwithnewoilsample.
Thesetupwasasshowninthepictureabovethattheywereusedintheexperimental
measurements.Afteraddtheoilsampleinthecontainer,theoilsampleissubjectedtoa
steadilyincreasingalternatingvoltageuntilbreakdownoccursinthedielectricintheBDVtest
kit.Thebreakdownvoltageisthevoltagereachedatthetimeofthefirstsparkappearsbetween
theelectrodes.Thesparkvoltage,whichindicatesthehighsurgeofcurrent,isrecorded.The
testiscarriedoutninetimesoneachsample.Theelectrodesaremountedonahorizontalaxis
withatestspacingofabout0.1mm.
Fig(5.1.1)showsthelogicallayoutofthephysicalexperimentallayoutweconductedasshown
inFig(5.1.2).Thenextpagecontainsthepicturesduringtheartificialagingprocess.InFig
(5.1.3),theoilwasheatedwithaheatsourceof6000C,aswellastheoilsphysicalstateduring
thethermaldisintegration.
23
Fig (5.1.3): The operation of heating the mineral oil about 60 minute with a
600 degrees heat source. Figures of artificial aging in the lab.
24
Beforestartingtheacceleratedthermalagingprocess,theoldsamplewasreplacedbeforethe
acceleratedthermalagingprocessisstarted.Afterthat,thecompletesetupwasconnectedasin
thelayoutaboveandthentheresultsweretaken.Thisoiltreatmentprocedureelevatesthe
humidityoftheoilduringandaftertheheating.
Also,treatmentoftherespectiveoilsampleswithHClandNaOH,includetheintroductionof
calculatedamountsofthechemicals;aslatershowninchaptersix.Themoisturecontentofthe
oilaffectsitsdielectricproperties,suchasbreakdownvoltageanddielectriclossangle(tan
delta).
TheBreakdownvoltage,knownastheminimumvoltagethatthesparksoccurbetweenthe
electrodes,causesaportionofaninsulatortobecomeelectricallyconductive.
Inourmeasurementstheelectrodeswereinstalledinhorizontalposition.
Theelectrodeswerepolarized,andtheaxisoftheelectrodesystemshallbehorizontalandat
least20mmbelowthesurfaceofthetestoil.Thegapbetweentheelectrodesissetto0.1mm,
andthecontainershouldbealmostfilledwithoilsample.Themeasurementsarecarriedout
untilninebreakdownsoneachsample,andthentheoilsampleissubjectedtoasteadily
increasingalternatingvoltageuntilbreakdownoccursinthedielectricintheBDVtestkit.
25
Allpresenteddatafromthedielectricpropertymeasurementswhichincludethebreakdown
voltage,relativepermittivity,andhumiditycontentaremeasuredandthedataarepresentedin
trendplotstobeusedforcomparingthedielectriccharacteristicsbetweenmineraloiland
(vegetable)esteroil.
HCLwasaddedwithdifferentpercentage.Weuseda4MHCLsolutionappliedvoltagetotheoil
andincreasedthevoltagecarefullybyanACvoltagecontroluntilbreakdownoccurs.
Firstreading:3.1KVrms.
Secondreading:3.1KVrms.
Thirdreading:3.1KVrms.
Average:3.1KVrms.
Theresultsofbreakdownvoltage(BDV)measurementsforthevegetableoilscoolingarelisted
intables.
Coolingtimeforvegetableoil
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
20
Breakdownvoltage
2.51
2.50
2.00
2.18
1.99
2.02
2.01
2.01
2.02
Table (6.1.1): Shows minutes of cooling after heated for 60 minutes with
10ml of water against breakdown voltage.
26
3
2,5
BDV
2
1,5
Figer(611)cooling
timeVsBDV
Linear(Figer(611)
coolingtimeVsBDV)
0,5
0
0
10
15
20
25
coolingtimeofVegetableoilwithexposuretomoisture
Breakdownvoltage
2.21
2.22
2.10
2.14
1.92
2.04
1.91
1.81
1.82
Table (6.1.2): Shows minutes of cooling after heated for 60 min with
addition of 2ml of 4mol/dm 3 HCL solution against Breakdown voltage.
27
2,5
2
1,5
BDV
Figure(612)cooling
timeofvegetableoil
withHCL
Linear(Figure(61
2)coolingtimeof
vegetableoilwithHCL)
0,5
0
0
10
15
20
25
coolingtimeofVegetableoilwithHCL
Timeofcoolingafteradding2cm3ofNaOH
andheatingfor60mins.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
20
Breakdownvoltage
2.54
2.30
2.00
2.88
2.92
2.42
2.11
1.21
2.22
Table (6.1.3): Shows minutes of cooling after heated for 60 min with added
NaOH (a q) solution Vs Breakdown voltage.
3,5
3
BDV
2,5
2
vegetableoilwith
NaOHVsBDV
1,5
Linear(vegetableoil
withNaOHVsBDV)
1
0,5
0
0
10
15
20
25
coolingtimeofvegetableoilwithNaOH
graphcanbeaccountedforbytheunstabledielectricgapandtinydustparticlesfromthe
environmentthatenteredtheoil.
Intable(6.1.4),wegotthesolutepercentagecontentofHCLinthevegetableoilbythis
equation,
12%ofHCL=>120g/dm3ofsolutionbecause12gexistin100g(givenacidsolutionmass).
Therefore0.24gexistsin2gofsolution.
TogetthepercentagemassofHCLin250gofoilintheexperiment,
Sowesaythat(0.24)(250+2)
Volumeofoilis250cm3.Therefore,thegeneralequationwillbe[(N0.24)(250+M)]X100.
N:istheexperimentnumber.
M:numberofmillilitersof12%ofHCL.
VariationofHCLMolarityinpercentage
0.09
0.18
0.28
0.37
0.46
0.54
Breakdownvoltage(BDV)
3.15
3.04
2.83
2.62
2.22
2.01
A graphic presentation of the breakdown voltage comparison vegetable oil
along the time is described in Figure (6.1.4.)
30
3,5
3
BDV
2,5
Figure(614)
VariationofHCL
Molarityin
percentageVsBDV
2
1,5
Linear(Figure(614)
VariationofHCL
Molarityin
percentageVsBDV)
1
0,5
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
percentageHCL
Theoilsampleissubjectedtoasteadilyincreasingalternatingvoltageuntilbreakdownoccursin
aBDVtestkit.Thebreakdownvoltageisthevoltagereachedatthetimeofthefirstspark
appearsbetweentheelectrodes.Thetestiscarriedoutninetimesoneachsample.The
electrodesaremountedonahorizontalaxiswithatestspacingofabout0,1mm.Wereplace
theoldoilbyanewsample,andthenweaddedHCLwithdifferentquantities.
Weuseda4MHCLsolution,appliedvoltagetotheoil,andincreasedthevoltagecarefullybyan
Acvoltagecontroluntilbreakdownoccurs.
Firstreading:4.50KVrms.
Secondreading:4.45KVrms.
Thirdreading:4.44KVrms.
Average:4.46KVrms
31
Coolingtimeofheatedmineraloil
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
20
Breakdownvoltage
4.24
4.21
4.22
4.12
4.19
4.20
4.15
4.09
4.10
4,26
4,24
4,22
BDV
4,2
4,18
Fig(621)coolingtime
VsBDV
4,16
4,14
Linear(Fig(621)
coolingtimeVsBDV)
4,12
4,1
4,08
0
10
15
20
25
coolingtimeofMineraloilwithexposuretomoisture
Theoilisfirstartificiallymoisturizedbyheatingwith10mlofwaterfor60minutes.Atthe
beginningoftherecordingtime,thecurveonFig(6.2.1)showsthattheBreakdownvoltageof
mineraloildecreasedslightlybetween02minutes.ThentheBDVslightlyjumpedupastime
approaches4minutesbeforegoingdownagainduringthe6thminute.Betweenthe6th10th
minutes,theBDVvalueincreasedtoaveryhighvalue,whichwasstilllowerthanthebreakdown
voltageatthebeginningoftest.Itthendecreasestothelowestvaluebetween1014minutesof
cooling,beforeslightlyincreasingslightlytill20min. Inspiteofinconsistencies,thegeneral
trendisaslightnegativegradient.Thegeneralslopedetectedbythecomputerisaslight
decrease;indicatedbytheblackline.Theirregularityofthegraphcanbeaccountedforbythe
unstabledielectricgapandtinydustparticlesfromtheenvironmentthatenteredtheoil.
32
Coolingtimeofmineraloilafterheatedwith
HCl.
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
Breakdownvoltage
4.20
4.23
4.25
4.29
4.27
4.28
4.15
4.05
3.77
Table (6.2.2): Minutes of cooling after heated 60 minutes with add HCL solution to the
mineral oil against breakdown voltage.
4,4
4,3
BDV
4,2
Figure(622)cooling
timeofvegetableoil
withHCLVSBDV
4,1
4
Linear(Figure(622)
coolingtimeof
vegetableoilwithHCL
VSBDV)
3,9
3,8
3,7
0
10
20
30
40
coolingtimeofMineraloilwithHCL
Weweregiven4mol/dm3NaOH(aq)butwithoutthepercentagemass.Tocalculatethemass,we
needthenumberofmoles.Sincemolarmass,MofNaOHis34wecancalculatethenumberof
grams(ofNaOH)usedintheexperimentbyusingmolarityasfollows:
TotalMass,mtot=4 34=136g.
1361000100%=13.6%.
Foreachexperiment,weusedat2.0cm3ofNaOH.
MassofNaOHineachdrop,mexp=2%X136%=0.27g.
Volumeofoilis250cm3.Therefore,0.27252100=0.11g
0.11gistheamountofsoluteNaOH(aq)weuseintheexperimentbelow.
Mineraloil(NaOH)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
20
Breakdownvoltage
4.45
4.42
4.34
4.28
4.02
4.42
4.01
4.91
4.02
BDV
4
3
2
Linear(Figur(62
3)coolingtimeof
mineraloilwith
NaOH)
1
0
0
10
20
30
coolingtimeofMineraloilwithNaOH
Fig (6.2.3): Minutes of cooling after heated for about 60 minutes with NaOH
against BDV.
34
Intheaboveexperiment,afterheatingtheoilwithNaOHsolutionfor60mins,andcoolingfor
20minutes,thebehaviorofthedielectricpropertyslightlydeteriorates,almostuniformlytillthe
8thminuteasseenonthefirstpartofFig(6.2.3).Later,werecordedirregularresultstillthe20th
minute.Inspiteofinconsistencies,especiallyinthebeginning,thegeneraltrendisaslight
negativegradient.Thegeneralslopedetectedbythecomputerisaslightdecrease;indicatedby
theblackline.Fromthebeginningofthisexperiment,thereisacontinuousdecompositionof
theoilschemicalcomponents.Thisgraduallydecreasesastheoilcools,givingrisetothe
negativegradientofthegraph.Theirregularityofthegraphcanbeaccountedforbythe
unstabledielectricgapandtinydustparticlesfromtheenvironmentthatenteredtheoil.
Inthefollowingexperiment,wegotthesolutepercentagecontentofHCl(aq)inthemineraloilby
thisequation:
(N0.24)(250+M)X100.where:
N:istheexperimentnumber.
M:numberofmillilitersof12%ofHCL.
VariationofHCLMolarity
0.09
0.18
0.28
0.37
0.46
0.54
Breakdownvoltage
4.55
4.44
4.30
4.12
3.99
3.86
Table (6.2.4): The solute percentage content of HCl in the mineral oil by
multiplying the 12% 4M HCl we had, by the quantity of mineral oil we used
(250cm 3 ).
4,7
4,6
4,5
BDV
4,4
Figure(624)Variation
ofHCLMolarityin
percentageVsBDV
4,3
4,2
4,1
Linear(Figure(624)
VariationofHCL
Molarityinpercentage
VsBDV)
4
3,9
3,8
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
precentageofHCL
Afteraddingthesolutionandatapplyingthevoltage,thebreakdownvoltagedecreasedslightly
between4.55to4.44andtheBDVslightlywentdownto4.30andthencontinuouslygoesdown
till3.86.TheBDVvalueofmineraloilwasreducedfrom4.55kV(newoil)to3.86kV(endof
aging).Fig(6.2.4)isaconcisecharacteristicgraphofartificiallyagedmineraloilsbreakdown
voltagecharacteristic.
Asearliermentioned,Mineraloilcanbeobtainedfrompetroleumanditisagoodinsulating
materialbecauseofitsgoodelectricalproperties.OthercharacteristicssuchashighBDValso
enhancetransformeroperation.Themostimportantthingisthatmineraloilisalreadyproduced
worldwideandofferedatalowcost.Butthebiggestproblemwilloccurwhenthereisa
transformerleakageandthemineraloilwillendangertheenvironmentbecauseofitspoor
biodegradability.
Thevegetableoilhasnearlythesamedielectricconstantasthatfoundinmineraloil.The
mineraloilmainlyconsistsofrefinedpetroleumwhichcontainsnonpolaralkanemolecule.So
wecancomparethetwotypesofdifferentoilsbylookingattheirexperimentresults.
Vegetableoilcanbeobtainedfromfishoil,animalfats,palmfruitsorseedswithdifferent
processes.Severaltypicaloilseedswhichareobtainedandprocessedbeforetheyarereadyto
beusedasthetransformerinsulationarerepresented.
Whenwementioncomparisonbetweenmineraloilandvegetableoilcharacteristic,wehaveto
mentionseveralCriteriabetweenbothofthosetypes:
Forexample;Keypropertiesformineraloilcharacteristic:producedfrompetroleumcrudeand
nonrenewablepowerandscarcesources.
Keypropertiesforvegetableoilcharacteristic:Producedfromdomesticallygrownandfrom
renewablesources,suchassoybeansandcorn.
EnvironmentalPropertiesforthemineraloil:Containscompoundsthatdonotreadily
biodegrade.Itmayalsocontaintracesofaconfirmedcarcinogen.
EnvironmentalPropertiesforthevegetableoil:Highlybiodegradable;nontoxic;doesnot
containpetroleum,silicone,orhalogens.
LeaksandSpillsforthemineraloil:Thelatestfindingsofthescientistsofgeneticengineeringto
eliminatethisproblem.Somebacteriahavetheabilitytoabsorbthesesubstancestoxicoilsand
syntheticallyconvertitintoafooditems.Itcouldbeformedbyhybridizationformorethanone
typeofbacteriafoundinnature.Thiscouldpossiblycausealargenumberofexchanges
betweendifferentgenestoreachthedesiredqualitiestoproduceanewtypeofbacteriathatdo
notexistinnature.
36
LeaksandSpillsforvegetableoil:Relativelyrapidbiodegradationmayeliminatetheneedfor
environmentalawarenessrelatedtofindnewcomplicateddynamicprocessestocurbeco
concernsduringspills.
FireRiskforthemineraloilcharacteristic:Catchesfiremoreeasily,leadingtohigherprobability
oftransformerfires
FireRiskforthevegetableoilcharacteristic:reducesthefrequencyandimpactoftransformer
fires;virtuallyeliminatessustainedfires.
TransformerPerformanceforthemineraloil:Doesnotslowdownthestandardinsulationaging
rate,requiresspecialandexpensiveprocessingtodryoutthepaperinsulation.
Transformerperformanceforthevegetableoil:ithasproventoslowdowntheagingrateofthe
insulationsystem,resultinginanincreaseintheexpectedlifeofatransformerbydecades,also
promotesautomaticdryoutofpaperinsulation.
UtilityCostforthemineraloil:Itleadstoshortenedlifeofthetransformeranddiminished
economicreturns;increasesliability
UtilityCostforthevegetableoil:Itprolongstransformerlifeandleadstolongertermeconomic
benefits.
6.4 Discussion.
Theacceleratedthermalagingprocessshowedadifferenteffecttothecolorofthevariousoil
samples.Thecoloroftheagedmineraloilchangedmorethanagedvegetableoiltodarker
probablybecauseoftheirspecificchemicalproperties.Therewasalsoindicatedsludgecontent
inagedmineraloil,whileinthevegetableoil,itwashardlyobserved.TheBDVofbothtypesof
oilshowedadynamicbehavioralongtheacceleratedthermalagingprocess.Therewasa
tendencyofalloilsamplestogetlowerBDVattheendofaging.Wenotethatpuretransformer
oilreachbreakdownvoltageatvaluearound4.46KVrms.Whencontaminationispresentin
theoilthenthebreakdownvoltageanddielectricstrengthoftheoilwilldecrease.
Alltheheatingproceduresresultsintheproductionofsomegases.Thisindicatedtheactualloss
ofchemicalstructureandsignificantbreakageofchemicalbonds.Theresultingchemical
compositionoftheoildoesnotproducethesameeffectastheinitialoilsample.
WhenweaddHCLtothevegetableoilwithpercentageof4Mandheatedfor20minutes,then
appliedvoltagetotheoil,withdistanceofabout0.1mmbetweentheelectrodes,thebreak
downvoltagedecreasedto3.1KV.
WecanconcludethattheadditionofHCLandheatedmoisturebadlydecreasestheBDVofthe
oilaswhenwecompareFigures(6.1.1)with(6.1.2).
37
WhenweaddNaOH(aq)tothevegetableoilwithpercentage4MFig(6.1.3)andheatedfor20
minutes,thenappliedvoltagetotheoil,thebreakdownvoltagedecreasedthenincreaseandat
thedecreased.SowecanconcludethatwhenweheattheoilandaddapercentageofNaOH(aq)
isbadlydecreasingtheBDVoftheoil.
WegotthesolutepercentagecontentofHCLinthevegetableoilbymultiplyingthe12%
4mol/dm3ofHCLwehad,bythequantityofvegetableoilweused,whichwas0.25dm.Fig
(6.1.4)wasthenobtainedwiththeotherspecificationskeptsame.WhenweaddHCl(aq)tothe
vegetableoilwithpercentageof4mol/dm3andheatedfor20minutes,thenappliedvoltageto
theoil,withdistance0.1mmbetweentheelectrodes,thebreakdownvoltagedecreasedfrom
3.15KVto2.01KV.
Whenweheatthemineraloilforabout60minuteswithexposuretomoisture,wegetFig
(6.2.2).Thesamedistanceof0.1mmbetweentheelectrodeswasused
WhenweaddHCl(aq)tothemineraloilwithpercentageof4Mandheatedfor60minutes,then
appliedvoltagetotheoil,withdistance0.1mmbetweentheelectrodes,thebreakdownvoltage
decreasedto3.77KV.
WhenweaddNaOH(aq)tothemineraloilwithpercentageof4Mandheatedfor60minutes,
thenappliedvoltagetotheoil,withdistanceofabout0.15mmbetweentheelectrodes,the
breakdownvoltagedecreasedfrom4.45KVto4.02KV.
WegotthesolutepercentagecontentofHCl(aq)inthemineraloilbymultiplyingthe12%4M
HCl(aq)wehad,bythequantityofmineraloilweused(0.25dm3).SotheBDVdecreasedto
3.86KV.
Wecanconcludethattheadditionofmoisture,HCl(aq)andNaOH(aq)tothemineraloiland
vegetableoils,aswellastheheating,forsomereasonableamountoftime,badlydecreasesthe
BDVoftheoil.
38
Followingthefactthatalltheheatingproceduresresultsintheproductionofatoxicgas,we
concludethattherewastheactuallossofchemicalstructureandsignificantbreakageof
chemicalbonds.Theresultingchemicalcompositionoftheoildoesnotproducethesameeffect
astheinitialoilsample.Thereis,ineffect,areasonablepointtoconcludethat;viewingthe
interestingtrendswegotfromourgraphs,andconsideringthealreadyprovenscientific
statementsontransformeroilproperties,wecameoutwiththefollowingconclusions:
1. Aged(acidified)transformeroilhasalowerbreakdownvoltage.Itcanruinthe
transformerssmoothfunctioning.Thisourconclusionisanalogoustothefollowing
publicationbyPowerSubstationServices:[35]
AcidcontentinOil.(N)
Oilstatus
0.010.03
Excellent
0.050.10
Good
0.110.15
Marginal
0.160.40
Bad
0.410.65
VeryBad
0.661.50
Extremelybad
0ver1.50
HighRisk(Transformerfailureimminent)
N=Normality.
2. Moisturizedtransformeroilhasalowerbreakdownvoltage.Heatincreasesmoisture
solubilityandsoakingofthepaperonthetransformerwindings.
3. Contaminatedtransformeroilcanalsoreducebreakdownvoltagebydecreasingits
dielectricinsulationproperties.Weseethatinthedecreasingtrendintheexperiments
withNaOH(aq).
4. Alsowewouldnotleaveoutcommentingonthebeautifultrendygraphwegotfromthe
experimentwithmoisturizedandoverheatedtransformerandvegetableoil.Therewas
aremarkabledecreaseinthetransformeroilinsulationproperties.Thiswasdefinitely
becauseofthebreakingofbondsandformationofsmallermolarmasscompounds
whichdonothavegoodinsulationanddielectricproperties.Aswecanseefrom
Fig(6.2.1),weobservedtheformationofmanybubbleswhenwereachedhigh
temperatures.Bubbles,whichconsiderablydecreasesurfacetension,areaveracious
indicationofthepresenceofimpurities;inthiscase,moisture.
5. Arcinghorngapscanbeusedtopreventovervoltagesandotherimpulsevoltage
surges.[36]
6. Coronaringscouldalsobeusedtodistributetheelectricalfields,preventingthe
protectedhardwareandthecoronaringitselffromcorona.Thiscanbeusedon138Kv
voltagelinesorhigher.
7. Mostimportantly,acknowledgingthefactthattransformeroil,despiteitsfantastic
insulationandcoolingproperties,ithasamajordisadvantageofbeinghighlytoxicto
39
theenvironment,andverylowbiodegradability.Wewouldlovetoborrow,wordfor
word,SwedensABBsidealsontransformeroilpurificationandrecyclingwiththemain
goalofsustainability:[37]
ReclaimingoilwithareactivatedFullersearthsystemistheonlyeconomicalmethodto
restorethepropertiesofthetransformeroiltoclosetothevaluesofnewoilwitha
lastingeffect.Alsoreclaimingoilprovidesanenvironmentaladvantageinsteadof
replacinganonrenewableresource,theoilisprocessed.
40
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43