Writing A Bibliography: APA Format: Basics
Writing A Bibliography: APA Format: Basics
Writing A Bibliography: APA Format: Basics
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28-09-2015 16:36:26
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Basics
Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered
title, References. Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter
system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) Only the initials of the first and middle names are given. If
the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.
For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of works
cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the monthday-year style (July 22, 1999) and be consistent. With the month-day-year style, be sure to add a comma
after the year unless another punctuation mark goes there.
Underlining or Italics?
When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most
typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the
names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are
below. Always check with your instructor regarding their preference of using italics or underlining. Our
examples use italics.
Hanging Indentation
All APA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry should be flush left, and the
second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2".
titles and proper names in a title which should still be capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case,
and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized.
If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. If there are
more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest.
Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the author. Place a period after
the closing parenthesis. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works within
longer works.
Format Examples
Books
Format:
Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication:
Publishing company.
Examples:
Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.
Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House.
Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating tables.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc.
Toomer, J. (1988). Cane. Ed. Darwin T. Turner. New York: Norton.
Tobias, R. (1991). Thurber, James. Encyclopedia americana. (p. 600). New York: Scholastic Library
Publishing.
Website or Webpage
Format:
Online periodical:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month
day, year, from full URL
Online document:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL
Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use
"n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line
after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no
period following a URL.
Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.
Examples:
Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23,
2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html
Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from
Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html
Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a
government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving
the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and wellbeing. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
Health Canada. (2002, February). The safety of genetically modified food crops. Retrieved March 22,
2005, from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics_genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk.html
Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New York Times.
Retrieved November 21, 2000, from http://www.nytimes.com
Sample
Sample Bibliography: APA Reference List Format
Booth, S.A. (January 1999). High-Drain Alkaline AA-Batteries. Popular Electronics, 62, 58.
Dell, R. M., and Rand, D.A.J. (2001). Understanding batteries. Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of
Chemistry.
Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved from
http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html
Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The University of Virginia Alderman Library Electronic Text
Center. Retrieved from http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and wellbeing. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
Health Canada. (2002, February). The Safety of Genetically Modified Food Crops. Retrieved from
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics_genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk.html
Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In Forecasting Their Emotions, Most People Flunk Out. New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Title Page
The title page should contain the title of the paper, the author's name, and the institutional
affiliation. Include the page header (described above) flush left with the page number flush right at
the top of the page. Please note that on the title page, your page header/running head should look
like this:
Running head: TITLE OF YOUR PAPER
Pages after the title page should have a running head that looks like this:
TITLE OF YOUR PAPER
After consulting with publication specialists at the APA, OWL staff learned that the APA 6th edition,
first printing sample papers have incorrect examples of Running heads on pages after the title page.
This link will take you to the APA site where you can find a complete list of all the errors in the APA's
6th edition style guide.
Type your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the page. APA
recommends that your title be no more than 12 words in length and that it should not contain
abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. Your title may take up one or two lines. All text on the
title page, and throughout your paper, should be double-spaced.
Beneath the title, type the author's name: first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Do not use
titles (Dr.) or degrees (PhD).
Beneath the author's name, type the institutional affiliation, which should indicate the location
where the author(s) conducted the research.
Examples:
Works by a single author
The last name of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the
text at the appropriate point.
from theory on bounded rationality (Simon, 1945)
If the name of the author or the date appear as part of the narrative, cite
only missing information in parentheses.
Simon (1945) posited that
text citation for a reader to locate its source in the Reference List without
difficulty.
(NIMH, 2007)
Reference List
References cited in the text of a research paper must appear in a Reference
List or bibliography. This list provides the information necessary to identify
and retrieve each source.
Authors: Write out the last name and initials for all authors of a
particular work. Use an ampersand (&) instead of the word "and" when
listing multiple authors of a single work. e.g. Smith, J. D., & Jones, M.
Titles: Capitalize only the first word of a title or subtitle, and any
proper names that are part of a title.
Indentation*: The first line of the entry is flush with the left margin,
and all subsequent lines are indented (5 to 7 spaces) to form a
"hanging indent".
* The APA has special formatting standards for the use of indentation and
italics in manuscripts or papers that will be typeset or submitted for official
publication. For more detailed information on these publication standards,
refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, or
consult with your instructors or editors to determine their style preferences.
** See the APA Style Guide to Electronic References for information on how to
format URLs that take up more than one line.
Examples:
Articles in journals, magazines, and newspapers
References to periodical articles must include the following elements:
author(s), date of publication, article title, journal title, volume number, issue
number (if applicable), and page numbers.
Journal article, one author, accessed online
Ku, G. (2008). Learning to de-escalate: The effects of regret in
escalation of commitment. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 105(2), 221-232.
doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.002
Books
References to an entire book must include the following elements: author(s)
or editor(s), date of publication, title, place of publication, and the name of
the publisher.
No Author or editor, in print
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). (2003).
Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster.
Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of macroeconomics (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Edited book
Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (2001). Children of color:
Psychological interventions with culturally diverse youth. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dissertations
References for dissertations should include the following elements: author,
date of publication, title, and institution (if you accessed the manuscript copy
from the university collections). If there is a UMI number or a database
accession number, include it at the end of the citation.
Two editors
Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human
judgment. In H. R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgement and
decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (pp. 127-143).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (Eds.). (2002). The new Grove dictionary of
music and musicians (2nd ed., Vols. 1-29). New York, NY: Grove.
Encyclopedia article
Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt
Disney Company. In Encyclopedia of Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Audio-visual media
References to audio-visual media must include the following elements: name
and function of the primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date, title,
Audio recording
Nhat Hanh, T. (Speaker). (1998). Mindful living: a collection of
teachings on love, mindfulness, and meditation [Cassette
Recording]. Boulder, CO: Sounds True Audio.
Motion picture
Gilbert, B. (Producer), & Higgins, C. (Screenwriter/Director).
(1980). Nine to five[Motion Picture]. United States: Twentieth
Century Fox.
Television broadcast
Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (Producers). (2008, June 20). 60
Minutes [Television broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.
Music recording
Jackson, M. (1982). Beat it. On Thriller [CD]. New York, NY: Sony
Music.
Blog entry
Arrington, M. (2008, August 5). The viral video guy gets $1 million
in funding. Message posted to http://www.techcrunch.com
Examples
Journal articles
Newspaper article
Online article
Lecture
Interview
Web page
APA
Author's last name, First and Second Initial. (Year). Title italic. Publication
location*: Publishing company.
example:
Townsend, R. M. (1993). The medieval village economy. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
*Note: For U.S. cities, give first place of publication listed, including city
and 2-letter postal abbreviations for states (unless state is already included
in publisher's name). For non-U.S. cities, give city and country
unabbreviated; also include province for Canadian cities.
^ top
APA
Editor's last name, First and Second Initial. (Ed.). (Year). Title italic.
Publication location*: Publishing company.
example:
McRae, M. W. (Ed.). (1993). The literature of science: Perspectives on
popular science writing. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
*Note: For U.S. cities, give first place of publication listed, including city
and 2-letter state postal abbreviations (unless state is already included in
publisher's name). For non-U.S. cities, give city and country unabbreviated;
also include province for Canadian cities.
^ top
APA
Author's last name, First and Second Initial. (Year). Article title. Journal
title, volume number(issue number*), page numbers.
example:
Yeh, M. (1996). The "cult of poetry" in contemporary China. Journal of
Asian Studies, 55(2), 51-80.
*Note: Issue numbers are only given if each issue begins with page 1; if
issues use continuous pagination through the entire volume, give only the
volume number.
^ top
APA
Author's last name, First and Second Initial., Authors last name, First and
Second Initial., & Authors last name, First and Second Initial.
(Year). Article title. Journal title, volume number(issue
number*), page numbers.
example:
White, S., Winzelberg, A., & Norlin, J. (1992). Laughter and stress.
Humor, 5, 43-355.
*Note: Issue numbers are only given if each issue begins with page 1; if
issues use continuous pagination through the entire volume, give only the
volume number.
^ top
Newspaper article
APA
Author's last name, First and Second Initial. (Year, Month Date). Article
title. Newspaper title, volume and/or issue number (if applicable),
pp. page numbers.
example:
Taylor, P. (1993, December 27). Keyboard grief: Coping with computercaused injuries. Globe and Mail, pp. A1, A4.
^ top
APA
example:
Borsari, B., & Carey, K. B. (2000). Effects of a brief motivational
intervention
with college student drinkers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 68, 728-733.
If the article has a DOI (digital object identifier) assigned, include
it at the end. If there is no DOI, provide the homepage of the
journal, preceded by "Retrieved from". Database information is
not needed unless the article is difficult to locate; for example,
those archived online only in JSTOR or ERIC. Include date of
retrieval only if the source is likely to change.
Author's last name, First and Second Initial. (Year). Article title. Journal title,
volume, page numbers. Retrieved from [journal homepage URL] OR
DOI
examples:
Davis, C., & Strachan, S. (2001). Elite female athletes with eating
disorders:
A study of psychopathological characteristics. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 23(3), 245-253. Retrieved from
http://hk.humankinetics.com/jsep/
Vardar, E., Vardar, S. A. & Kurt, C. (2007). Anxiety of young female athletes
with disordered eating behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 8, 143-147.
doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.03.002
Clausen, J. A. (1967). The organism and socialization. Journal of Health
and Social Behavior, 8, 243-252. Retrieved from JSTOR.
^ top
Lecture
APA
Lector's last name, First and Second Initial. (Year, Month). Lecture title.
Symposium Coordinator's First and Second Initial and Last name
(Coordinator's position) (if applicable), Symposium title. Symposium
conducted at the meeting of Sponsoring Organization name,
Location.
example:
Atwood, M. (1993, December). Silencing the scream. Boundaries of the
Imagination Forum. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the
MLA Convention, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
^ top
Interview
APA
example:
K. W. Schaie (personal communication, November 18, 1993)
Note that published interviews are cited accordingly if they appear as journal
articles, newspaper articles, television programs, radio programs, or film
productions.
^ top
Web page
APA
Authors last name, First and Second initial. (Year, Month Day). Title of page.
^ top
APA
example:
T. Danford (personal communication, March 28, 1997).
^ top
APA
APA Formatting and Style Guide (OWL - Online Writing Lab, Purdue
University): Excellent guidelines for formatting papers (including a sample
paper), in-text citations and references lists, with lots of examples.
APA Style Guide (Ohio State University): Includes examples for both
reference lists and in-text citations.
APA Citation Style (Cornell University): Includes guidelines and examples
for in-text citations and reference lists.
APA Format (6th Edition, 2009) examples (University of Minnesota): Crib
sheet.
From the APA website:
ICMJE Recommendations has many optional areas. This guide has been created for
The Michener Institute and may differ from styles at other educational institutes and
those required by individual journals.
Placement of citations: In-text citation numbers should be placed after the relevant part
of a sentence. The original Vancouver Style documents do not discuss placement of the
in-text citation in regards to punctuation, so it is acceptable to place it before or after the
period. Be consistent.
References are numbered consecutively in the order they are first mentioned. Place
each reference number in parentheses throughout the text, tables, and legends. If the
same reference is used again, re-use the original number. (See number 3 in the box
below.)
Tables are numbered consecutively. Supply a brief title for each table and give each
column a short heading. Be sure that the table is mentioned in the text. If the data is
taken from another source, include the source in the list of references at the end of the
paper. Place explanatory matter in a note, not in the heading.
Example
Recently, the health sciences community has reduced the bias and imprecision of
traditional literature summaries through the development of rigorous criteria for both
literature overviews (1-3) and practice guidelines (4,5). Even when recommendations
come from such rigorous approaches, however, it is important to differentiate between
those based on weak vs. strong evidence (6). Recommendations based on inadequate
evidence often require reversal when sufficient data become available, (John Doe, April
1, 2002) while timely implementation of recommendations based on strong evidence
can save lives (3).
The last page of your paper is entitled References. References are single spaced, with
double-spacing between references.
Numbering: List all references in order by number, not alphabetically. Each reference is
listed once only, since the same number is used throughout the paper.
Authors: List each authors last name followed by a space and then initials without any
periods; there is a comma and space between authors and a period at the end of the last
author. If the number of authors exceeds six, give the first six followed by et al. (see
example 3 on next page). For edited books, place the editors names in the author
position and follow the last editor with a comma and the word editor (or editors). For
edited books with chapters written by individual authors, list the authors of the chapter
first, then the chapter title, followed by In:, the editors names, and the book title (see
example 7).
Title: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in the title. The rest of the title is in lowercase, with the exception of proper names. Do not underline the title; do not use italics. If
there is an edition for a book, it appears after the title, abbreviated and followed by a
period, for example: 3rd ed.
Publication information: Books: After the title (and edition if applicable), place a
period and space, then enter the city. If the city is not well known or there could be
confusion, enter the postal abbreviation for the state (U.S.) or province (Canada), or
enter the country (elsewhere) of publication, followed by a colon. Give the name of the
publisher as it appears in the publication followed by a semicolon. If the author is also
the publisher, use part of the name as the publisher, e.g., The Association for publisher if
the author is Canadian Medical Association. Give the year of publication followed by a
period. If no date of publication can be found, but the publication contains a date of
copyright, use the date of copyright preceded by the letter c, e.g. c2015.
Publication information: Journals: List the abbreviated journal title, place a period and
a space, year, (and abbreviated month and day if applicable), semi-colon, volume, issue
number in parentheses, colon, page range, and a period. For example, Brain Res.
2002;935(1-2):40-6. (The issue number may be omitted if the journal is paginated
continuously through the volume.)
To find the journal title abbreviation, go to Medlines Journals Database and search by
journal title. If the title is not found, abbreviate according to the style used for similar titles
in Medline.
Pages: For journals, the entire page range of an article is given, not the specific page on
which the information was found; usage is 124-7 (pages 124 to 127) or 215-22 (pages
215 to 222). For books, no page numbers are given, with two exceptions: the page
number of a dictionary entry is included (see example 10), as well as the page range of
a chapter with its own author (see example 7).
Place the word Internet in square brackets after the book title or abbreviated
journal title (see examples 2, 8, 9).
Indicate date of retrieval, preceded by the word cited, in square brackets after
the date of publication (see example 2).
Add retrieval information at the end of the citation using the full URL. There is no
punctuation at the end of the URL unless it ends with a slash, in which case a
period is added (see example 9).
If a DOI exists, it is optional to add it after the retrieval information (see example
3).
Include a short note after the URL if special access information is required (see
example 12).
Note: Bolded headings are for the purposes of this document only; they would
not appear on an actual reference page.
References
Journal article, up to 6 personal author(s):
1. Al-Habian A, Harikumar PE, Stocker CJ, Langlands K, Selway JL. Histochemical and
immunohistochemical evaluation of mouse skin histology: comparison of fixation with
neutral buffered formalin and alcoholic formalin. J Histotechnol. 2014 Dec;37(4):115-24.
Electronic journal article:
2. Poling J, Kelly L, Chan C, Fisman D, Ulanova M. Hospital admission for communityacquired pneumonia in a First Nations population. Can J Rural Med [Internet]. 2014 Fall
[cited 2015 Apr 27];19(4):135-41. Available from: http://www.srpc.ca/14fal.html by
selecting PDF link in table of contents.
Electronic journal article, 7 or more personal authors, optional DOI information:
3. Aho M, Irshad B, Ackerman SJ, Lewis M, Leddy R, Pope T, et al. Correlation of
sonographic features of invasive ductal mammary carcinoma with age, tumor grade,
and hormone-receptor status. J Clin Ultrasound [Internet]. 2013 Jan [cited 2015 Apr
27];41(1):10-7. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcu.21990/full
DOI: 10.1002/jcu.21990
Book, personal author(s):
4. Buckingham L. Molecular diagnostics: fundamentals, methods and clinical
applications. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis; c2012.
Book or pamphlet, organization as both author and publisher:
5. College of Medical Radiation Technologists of Ontario. Standards of practice.
Toronto: The College; 2011.
Book, editor(s):
6. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC, editors. Robbins basic pathology. 16th ed.
Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; c2013.
18 p. Available from:
https://secure.cihi.ca/free_products/ccrs_depression_among_seniors_e.pdf
Page on a website:
18. Alzheimer Society of Canada [Internet]. Toronto: The Society; c2015. Benefits of
staying active; 2013 Jan 28 [cited 2015 May 29];[about 1 screen]. Available from:
http://www.alzheimer.ca/en/kfla/Living-with-dementia/Day-to-day-living/Stayingactive/Benefits-of-staying-active
Streaming video:
19. Allen S, Waerlop I. The Gait Guys talk about great toe dorsiflexion [Internet]. [place
unknown]: The Gait Guys; 2014 May 11 [cited 2015 May 29]. Video: 3 min. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8O8TLtunUQ
Electronic image:
20. Bickle I. Swallowed foreign body [radiograph]. 2014 Jul 14 [cited 2015 May 29]. In:
Radiopaedia.org [Internet]. [place unknown]: Radiopaedia.org; c2005-2015. [about 1
screen]. Available from: http://radiopaedia.org/cases/swallowed-foreign-body-1
Blog post (no given name, so screen name used as author):
21. Munkee. Nuclear Munkee. [blog on the Internet]. [place unknown]:[Munkee]; [date
unknown] . In-111 pentetreotide imaging; 2013 Mar 19 [cited 2015 May 29]; [about 3
screens]. Available from: http://nuclearmunkee.blogspot.ca/2013/03/in-111pentetreotide-imaging.html
Poster presentation/session presented at a meeting or conference:
22. Chasman J, Kaplan RF. The effects of occupation on preserved cognitive
functioning in dementia. Poster session presented at: Excellence in clinical practice. 4th
Avoiding Plagiarism
From Micheners Academic Integrity Policy and Procedure:
Plagiarism is the portrayal, claiming or use of another persons work or ideas (sentence,
thought, paragraph, intellectual property, data, drawings or images) without specific
reference. In the academic world this is considered to be theft. It is dishonest and
irresponsible and will result in serious consequences.
As you can see from the quote above, plagiarism is taking, using, and submitting the
thoughts, writings, etc., of another person as your own. If a concept or theory is
common knowledge in the field, e.g., one of the symptoms of measles is a rash, you
do not need to provide a reference; if it is not common knowledge or if you are not sure,
provide a reference. Examples of concepts that require a reference include discoveries,
theories, controversies and opinions. Dont forget to acknowledge the source of
illustrations, charts, and tables of data. For more information, consult Micheners
Avoiding Plagiarism: Why Use References?
Surname Initial(s). Book title. Edition - if available. Place of publication: Publisher; Year.
Dybvig DD, Dybvig M. Det tenkende mennesket. Filosofi- og vitenskapshistorie med vitenskapsteori.
2nd ed. Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag; 2003.
Bick J. 101 Thing You Need to Know about Internet Law [Internet]. New York: Three Rivers Press; 2000
[cited 2004 Mar 30]. Available from: http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ntnu/
Anthology (book with articles)
An anthology is a book with one editor, but where the chapters are written by several different authors.
Surname author Initial(s). Chapter title. In: Surname editor Initial(s), editor(s). Book title. Place of
publication: Publisher; Year. page(s).
Beizer JL, Timiras ML. Pharmacology and drug management in the elderly. In: Timiras PS, editor.
Physiological basis of aging and geriatrics. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1994. p. 279-84.
Fermann G, editor. International politics of climate change: key issues and critical actors. Oslo:
Scandinavian University Press; 1997.
Nrvg K. Space-Efficient Support for Temporal Text Indexing in a Document Archive Context. In: Koch
T, Slvberg I, editors. Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries. 7th European
Conference, ECDL; 2003 Aug 17-22; Trondheim, Norway. Berlin: Springer; 2003. p. 511-22.
Newspapers and popular magazines
Surname Initial(s). Article title. Newspaper title. Date:page.
Ringen S. La ikke Erna Solberg rasere det lokale folkestyre. Aftenposten. 2004 March 25:10.
Grosh A, Graff J. A strike at Europes heart. Time Magazine. 2004 March 22:22.
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References
1. Hoppert M. Microscopic techniques in biotechnology. Weinheim:
Wiley-VCH; 2003.
2. Drummond PD. Triggers of motion sickness in migraine
sufferers. Headache. 2005;45(6):653-6.
3. Meltzer PS, Kallioniemi A, Trent JM. Chromosome alterations in
human solid tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The
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alchohol and tobacco on the health of Western Australians.
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Examination : bulletin of information for candidates. Bismarck
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J, Knupfer G, Saukko P, editors. Encyclopedia of forensic
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Two or more authors or editors
3. Lawhead JB, Baker MC. Introduction to veterinary science. Clifton Park (NY): Thomson Delmar Learning; 2005.
4. Gilstrap LC, Cunningham FG, Van Dorsten JP, editors. Operative obstetrics. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill;
2002.
Later edition
5. Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Kobyashi GS, Pfaller MA. Medical microbiology. 4th ed. St Louis: Mosby; 2002.
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Licensing Examination: bulletin of information for candidates. Bismarck (ND): The Committee; 2001.
Government publications
10. Australia. Commonwealth Department of Veterans' Affairs and Defence. Australian Gulf War veterans' health
study 2003. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia; 2003.
11. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Disability, ageing and carers: summary of findings. Canberra: ABS; 1999. ABS
publication 4430.0.
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12. Lugg DJ. Physiological adaptation and health of an expedition in Antarctica: with comment on behavioural
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13. Pagedas AC, inventor; Ancel Surgical R&D Inc., assignee. Flexible endoscopic grasping and cutting device and
positioning tool assembly. United States patent US 20020103498. 2002 Aug 1.
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http://wjn.sagepub.com/content/19/2/243.short
Western journal of nursing research.mpact Factor:1.032 | Ranking:Nursing (SSCI) 46 out of 108 | Nursing (SCI)
49 out of 110 | 5-Year Impact Factor:1.371 | 5-Year Ranking:Nursing (SSCI) 36 out of 108 | Nursing (SCI) 39 out of
110
Source:2014 Journal Citation Reports (Thomson Reuters, 2015)
Barbara K. Redman
University of Connecticut School of Nursing, Storrs, CT
Martha N. Hill
Center for Nursing Research and Post-Doctoral Programs, Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, MD.
Abstract
This article summarizes the body of research about ethical conflicts described by nurses in variousfields
ofpractice and recommends direction for the use and extension of this information. Twenty-three studies that fit
criteria for inclusion were located. As a group, studies use inconsistent terminology, pay little attention to
measurement characteristics of the instruments used, and do not use explanatory theory about how and why
ethical conflicts develop or are experienced. Several studies of nurses practicing in community and home care
settings, in intensive care units, and in administrative roles show some common areas of ethical conflict.
Studies of ethical conflicts can be used as a basis for improving practice.
Abstract
Influencers of ethical beliefs and the impact on moral distress and conscientious
objectionNurs Ethics November 1, 2012 19: 738-749
Abstract
Nurse Moral Distress and Ethical Work EnvironmentNurs Ethics July 1, 2005 12: 381-390
Abstract
o
o
Abstract
Full Text
Abstract
Nurse Moral Distress: a proposed theory and research agendaNurs Ethics November 1,
2002 9: 636-650
Abstract
Moral Problems Experienced by Nurses when Caring for Terminally Ill People: a literature
reviewNurs Ethics March 1, 2002 9: 155-178
Abstract
Nurses' Ethical Perceptions of Health Care and of Medical Clinical Research: an audit in a
French university teaching hospitalNurs Ethics March 1, 2001 8: 114-122
Abstract
^md
http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketPlace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/Columns/Ethics/Cu
lturalValuesandEthicalConflicts.aspx
Ruth Ludwick, PhD, RN, C
Mary Cipriano Silva, PhD, RN, FAAN
Citatation: Ludwick, R., Silva, M.C., (August 14, 2000) "Ethics: Nursing Around the World: Cultural Values
and Ethical Conflicts" Online Journal of Issues in Nursing Vol. 5 No. 3 Available:
www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/Columns/Ethics/CulturalV
aluesandEthicalConflicts.aspx
Keywords: culture, cultural values, ethical conflicts
Related Issue: "Nursing Around the World"
In a recent article, Heller, Oros, and Durney-Crowley (2000) note 10 trends to watch regarding the future of
nursing education. The first trend listed relates to diversity and its impact on disease and illness and the
subsequent challenge to change education and practice to be congruent and respectful of differing values
and beliefs. In a like manner other authors (e.g., Bellack& ONeil, 2000; Gibson, 2000 ; Hegyvary,
2000; Outlaw, 1997) have called attention to the need for closer scrutiny of our values and beliefs about
diversity. Outlaw, for example, expressively requests "a call for scholarly inquiry on human diversity" (p.
69).
Implicit or explicit in the works of these authors are the notions of culture and of values. Both words have
many interpretations but each word has a primary association with a discipline. Cultures primary homebase
is anthropology. Values primary homebase is philosophy, especially as it relates to ethics. One can identify
subsets of words associated with each. For culture, terms that immediately come to mind are ethnocentrism,
cultural imposition, cultural importation, and cultural exportation. (Seedefinitions and assumptions)
For values, terms that immediately come to mind are belief systems and norms. The rubber meets the road
when the two terms are joined: cultural values. Therefore, our purpose in writing this article is threefold: a)
to clarify the relationships among cultural values, ethics, and ethical conflicts; b) to demonstrate with
examples from the culture predominant in the United States how cultural attitudes and values in nursing
may lead to conflict as a result of increasing globalization, and c) to formulate nursing strategies to decrease
ethical conflicts related to cultural values.
Cultural Values, Ethics, and Ethical Conflicts
Cultural values refer to enduring ideals or belief systems to which a person or a society is committed. The
values of nursing in the States are, for example, embedded in the values of the U.S. American culture with
its emphasis on self-reliance and individualism (Davis, 1999). Basic to the value placed on individualism are
the beliefs that "individuals have the ability to pull themselves up by their bootstraps" and that an
individuals rights are more important than a societys.
However, many cultures do not share the primacy of the value of individualism. Consider the factual data
presented by Davis that about 70% of all cultures are collectivistic (i.e., loyalties of a person to a group
exceed the rights of the individual) rather than individualistic (i.e., the rights of the individual supercede
those of the group). "With individualism, importance is placed on individual inputs, rights and rewards"
(Andrews, 1999, p. 476). In many cultures, health decisions are not made by an individual but by a group:
family, community and/or society. Socialized medicine or government sponsored health care for all residents
is reflective of the value placed on collectivism.
Therefore, reflecting on the values that predominate in the culture you practice, attain an education, visit, or
read about is a requirement for ethical thoughtfulness. Ethics has many definitions but, typically, ethics is
viewed as a systematic way of examining the moral life to discern right and wrong; it also requires a
decision or action based on moral reasoning. Ethical conflicts occur when a person, group or society is
uncertain about what to do when faced with competing moral choices (Silva, 1990). Ethical conflicts and
issues occur within or among cultures and are usually precipitated by cultural/subcultural values in
opposition.
respect for persons whose cultural values are different from ones own and to potential and real harm to
those persons, whether culturally, psychologically, physically, or spiritually.
How can the situation be improved? Here are some suggestions to improve communication and nursing care
and, thus, decrease ethical conflicts:
1. Recognize that values and beliefs vary not only among different cultures but also within cultures.
2. View values and beliefs from different cultures within historical, health care, cultural, spiritual, and
religious contexts.
3. Learn as much as you can about the language, customs, beliefs and values of cultural groups,
especially those which you have the most contact. Related Links from Transcultural Nursing: Basic
Concepts and Case StudiesAvailable: www.culturediversity.org/links.htm.
4. Be aware of your own cultural values and biases, a major step to decreasing ethnocentrism and
cultural imposition. (A questionnaire that can help you with this goal can be found in Andrews and
Herberg, 1999).
5. Be alert to and try to understand the nonverbal communications of your own and various cultures
such as personal space preferences, body language, and style of hair and clothing.
6. Be aware of biocultural differences manifested in the physical exam, in types of illness, in response
to drugs, and in health care practices.
Terms & Definitions
Ethnocentrism - A persons belief in the inherent superiority of ones own culture over that of other
cultures.
Cultural Imposition - A situation where one culture forces their values and beliefs onto another culture or
subculture.
Cultural Importation - A situation where one culture buys or brings in products and goods from foreign
countries (cultures) to be used or sold in the importing culture.
Cultural Exportation - A situation where one culture sends products or goods to foreign countries
(cultures) to be used or sold in the exporting culture.
Belief Systems - A totality of enduring facts, principles and values that a person or a culture deems to be
true or to be trusted.
Norms - Standards that are accepted, often implicitly, by a culture.
Assumptions
1. Goods or products imported/exported intact to another culture may not meet the needs of that
culture or therefore, may need modification.
2. Both ethnocentrism and cultural imposition show insensitivity to the culture(s) who receive them.
3. Both belief systems and norms are needed for a stable culture.
Authors
Ruth Ludwick, PhD, RN, C
Mary Cipriano Silva, PhD, RN, FAAN
References
Andrews, M. M. (1999). Cultural diversity in the health care workforce. In M. A. Andrews & J. S.
Boyle, Transcultural concepts in nursing care (3rd ed., pp 471-506). Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Andrews, M. M., & Herberg, P. (1999). Transcultural nursing care. In M. A. Andrews & J. S.
Boyle, Transcultural concepts in nursing care (3rd ed., pp 25-27). Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Bellack, J. P., & ONeil, E. H. (2000). Recreating nursing practice for a new century: Recommendations and
implications of the PEW health professions commissions final report. Nursing and Health Care Perspectives,
21(1), 14-21.
Davis, A. J. (1999). Global influence of American nursing: Some ethical issues. Nursing Ethics: An
International Journal for Health Care Professionals, 6(2), 118-125.
Donnelly, P. L. (2000). Ethics and cross-cultural nursing. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 11(2), 119-126.
Gibson, D. M. (2000). The internationalization of higher education. In M. L. Kelley & V. M. Fitzsimons
(Eds.), Understanding cultural diversity: Culture, curriculum, and community in nursing. Boston: Jones and
Bartlett.
Hegyvary, S. T. (2000). Scholarship for a new era. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 32, 4-5.
Heller, B. R. , Oros, M. T., & Durney-Crowley, J. (2000). The future of nursing education: 10 trends to
watch. Nursing and Health Care Perspectives, 21(1), 9-13.
Leininger, M. (1991). Culture care diversity and universality: A theory of nursing. New York: National League
for Nursing Press.
Leininger, M. (1996). Culture care theory, research, and practice. Nursing Science Quarterly, 9 (2), 71-78.
Outlaw, F. (1997). A call for scholarly inquiry on human diversity. In V. D. Ferguson (Ed.), Educating the
21st century nurse: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 69-90). New York: National League for Nursing Press.
Silva, M. C. (1990). Ethical decision making in nursing administration (pp. 40-80). Norwalk, CT: Appleton &
Lange.
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all nursing courses However, in this paper, it is argued that the implicit adoption of notions of science based in a
positivistic paradigm gives rise to conflicts with a humanistic philosophy It is contended that nursing has inherited a
legacy of positivism, which promotes objectivity and reductionism and which excludes subjective meaning and the
personal from the research process In part this has been due to the powerful influence of medical hegemony, which
has defined the nature of legitimate knowledge and controlled nursing research through the gatekeeping function of
doctors If nursing is to make progress in the development of a knowledge base, the contradictions between
humanism and positivism must be acknowledged as a barrier to an integration of the art and science of nursing This
paper suggests that what is required is a paradigm shift, a redefinition of nursing science, which not only
rehumanizes the nature of research, but also refutes and challenges the notion of objectivity and the objective
attitude
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urses' Perceptions of Their Role and Role Conflicts
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Rehabilitation Nursing
Volume 20, Issue 4, pages 204211, July-August 1995
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Cited By
Medical Therapy
Neonatal care
When a neonate with a cleft is born, a pediatrician has 3 major concerns:
As with any other medical condition, each case is different. A child with a severe cleft may do very well,
whereas a child with a much less severe condition may experience many problems. An individual approach is
necessary; however, several major rules apply to every neonate born with a cleft.
A pediatrician/neonatologist is usually the first person to take care of a neonate born with a cleft and the first to
talk to the parents. As soon as possible, refer each baby born with orofacial cleft to the cleft palate or
craniofacial center, where each specialist evaluates the baby, delineates the best management options and
treatment plan, and continuously revises individual procedures and treatment during follow-up visits.
o
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More upright or seated positions prevent the milk from leaking to the nose and causing the
infant to choke.
o
Advise the mother to stop feeding and allow the infant to cough or sneeze for a few seconds
when nasal regurgitation occurs. A palatal obturator may be used.
Gaining weight and preventing aspiration and ear infections are the most important parts of caring for neonates
with a cleft during their first days and weeks of life.
o
Multidisciplinary team
Most individuals with cleft lip, cleft palate, or both (and many individuals with other craniofacial anomalies)
require the coordinated care of providers in many fields of medicine and dentistry, as well as those in speech
pathology, otolaryngology, audiology, genetics, nursing, mental health, and social medicine.
Treatment of cleft lip and palate anomalies requires years of specialized care and is costly. The average
lifetime medical cost for treatment of one individual affected with a cleft lip and palate is $100,000. [1] Although
successful treatment of the cosmetic and functional aspects of orofacial cleft anomalies is now possible, it is
still challenging, lengthy, costly, and dependent on the skills and experience of a medical team. This especially
applies to surgical, dental, and speech therapies.
Because otitis media with effusion is very common among children with cleft palates, involvement of an
otolaryngologist in the multidisciplinary treatment plan is very important. The otolaryngologist performs
placement of ventilation tubes in conjunction with the cleft palate repair.[39] If a concurrent cleft lip is present, the
ventilation tubes are placed during that repair. Many of these children see otolaryngologists well beyond the
time they see many of the other specialists because some children continue to have eustachian tube
dysfunction after their palates are closed.
A team for the multidisciplinary treatment of a child with an orofacial cleft includes the following specialists:
Pediatrician
Nurse practitioner
Plastic surgeon
Pediatric dentist
Otolaryngologist
Geneticist
Genetic counselor
Speech pathologist
Orthodontist
Maxillofacial surgeon
Social worker
Psychologist
No single treatment concept has been identified, especially for a cleft lip and palate. The timing of the individual
procedures varies in different centers and with different specialists.
Below is the most common treatment protocol presently used in most cleft treatment centers:
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Surgery-related orthodontics
Early management (since birth until the time of surgical closure of the palate)
Orthodontics related to alveolar bone graft
Permanent dentition management
Cleft-related orthodontics (not related to surgical treatments)
Patient Education
For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicineHealth's Children's Health Center.
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supplement preparation Spofavit (vitamins A, B-1, B-2, B-6, C, D-3, and E; nicotinamide; and calcium
pathothenicum) either immediately after a subsequent pregnancy was confirmed or periconceptionally when
pregnancy had been planned.[52] Although Burian's observations were mainly empirical, a prospective trial of
periconceptional multivitamin and high folic acid supplementation was conducted in women at risk of giving
birth to a child with a cleft lip with or without cleft palate.
In a nonrandomized interventional study completed in the Czech Republic, a dramatic reduction of cleft
recurrences was found after periconceptional supplementation with multivitamins and a high dose of folic acid.
[53, 26]
In this study, 221 pregnancies in women at risk for a child with a cleft lip and palate were prospectively
evaluated. The 10-step protocol included multivitamin supplementation with Spofavit and folic acid (10 mg/d),
beginning at least 2 months before planned conception and continuing for at least 3 months thereafter. A
comparison group comprised 1901 women at risk of giving birth to a child with a cleft lip with or without cleft
palate; this group received no supplementation and gave birth within the same period as the study group.
In the supplemented group, 3 of 214 informative pregnancies resulted in neonates with cleft lip with or without
cleft palate, a 65.4% decrease from the expected value (see the image below).
Subset analysis by proband sex, severity of cleft lip with or without cleft palate, and both variables showed the
highest supplementation efficacy in probands with unilateral cleft (82.6% decrease from the expected value).
No efficacy was observed for female probands with bilateral cleft lip with or without cleft palate. Generally, the
efficacy was higher for subgroups with unilateral clefts than for those with bilateral clefts and for male than for
female probands (see the image below).
Similarly, a large population-based case control study of fetuses and live-born infants in the 1987-1989 cohort
of births in California reported that periconceptional use of multivitamins, which usually contain 0.4 mg or more
of folic acid, reduced the occurrence of cleft lip with or without cleft palate by approximately 27-50% (see the
image below).[54] In this study, 734 mothers with an infant with an orofacial cleft and 734 control mothers with an
infant without a birth defect were evaluated.
In contrast, the study completed by Hayes did not support a protective association between the
periconceptional folic acid supplementation and the risk of oral cleft. [55]
However, the most interesting results that strongly support using a high dose of folic acid in the prevention of
nonsyndromic clefts are those of Czeizel and his colleagues in the Hungarian Case-Control Surveillance of
Congenital Anomalies.[56, 57] The Hungarian randomized double-blind, controlled trial of periconceptional
supplementation with a multivitamin including a low "physiologic" (as the authors call it) dose of folic acid (0.8
mg/d) did not show any preventive effect on the first occurrence of isolated cleft lip with or without cleft palate
and cleft palate alone.[56, 57] However, the general evaluation of congenital anomalies in this study indicated a
reduction of nonsyndromic clefts after the use of high doses of folic acid (3-9 mg/d) in the early postconception
period.[57]
Czeizel's latest article discusses these 2 controversial findings and suggests a "dose-dependent effect" of folic
acid in the prevention of orofacial clefts.[56]
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