07 Chapter 2
07 Chapter 2
07 Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Banana has long been considered a food, fruit and fodder crop. In addition to
this, now a day, it is also gaining importance as a source of fibres. India is the
largest producer of banana in the world with an estimated annual output of
13.5 million tons, of which 80% is generated from six states, namely,
Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.
Annually about 1.5 million tons of dry banana fibres can be produced from the
outer sheath of pseudostem. With the increasing demand for banana in both
the Indian and International markets, the acreage and production are
expected to increase in the coming years, thus generating more of the
pseudostem biomass waste. Being a rich source of natural fibres, the
pseudostem can be profitably utilized for numerous applications and
preparation of various products. Thus in order to get acquainted with the
earlier reported details of banana fibre production and utilization and blending
possibilities, an extensive literature review was carried out. In order to have a
clear picture of the banana fibre utilization the literature collected has been
further classified under three categories.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
169
Jute. Banana-plant fibre is strong, soft, and coarse and technique developed
for processing the fibre on standard jute machinery is reported. In some trials
the banana fibre were also blended with Mesta (cellulosic fibre). The banana
81
87
82
3] Banana and cotton fibers dyed with vat dye have an excellent dye uptake,
wash-fastness, and light fastness and the fibers dyed with direct dyes
showed inferior properties in all respects.
4] Banana and cotton fibers dyed with reactive and azo dyes show similar
properties.
5] Cotton show better properties than banana fibre in all respect after
mercerization the dye uptake and that luster of the cotton fibre has
considerably increased.
Baruch. et al (1997) carried out Research on Micro structural study of fibre
extracted from wild banana (musa velutina) by X-ray line broadening
analysis. During the study crystallinity, crystallite size and lattice distortion of
wild banana (musa vetuling) cellulose were studied using X-ray line
broadening analysis (Diffraction data obtained using computer controlled Xray diffractometer). The degree of crystallinity of banana cellulose has been
found to be 45% and the results indicate that the banana species is suitable
for use as raw material for textile and pulp paper industries.
Kulkarni et. al (1982)
82
banana fibres (Musa sepientum). The stressstrain curve for banana fibre is
determined. Properties such as the initial modulus (YM), ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) and percentage elongation are evaluated as a function of fibre
diameter, test length and speed of testing. It is found that YM, UTS and %
elongation show little variation in their values for fibres of diameter ranging
from 50 to 250
increase in the test length while both breaking strength and breaking strain
remain constant with the increase of speed of testing from 0.5 to 100 10
and thereafter they both decrease. These observed properties are explained on
the basis of the internal structure of the fibre, namely, the number of cells, spiral
angle and the number of defects. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) studies
of the fractured surfaces of these fibres indicate that the failure is due
83
130
56
has discussed about the Japanese word bashfu literally means "banana-fiber
cloth." Both the cloth and the clothing made from it are now considered
important constituents of Okinawan identity. The Japanese Folk Craft
Movement in the 1930s brought attention to this special trait of Okinawan
material culture. After years of decline following World War II, the weaving and
use of bashfu saw a revival that accelerated after the return of Okinawa to
Japan in 1972 and still continues. Although today bashfu receives
considerable attention because of its status since 1974 as one of Japan's
important intangible cultural properties, its origins and history had remained
hidden. In this book Katrien Hendrickx searches for the origins of bashfu in
the Ryukyus, including the origins of ito bash, the plant that provides the raw
84
material, and studies the yarn-making methods and weaving techniques. She
also focuses on why and how the Ryukyuan people adopted those techniques
and introduced them into their own society. By careful analysis of all available
sources, considered from viewpoints from fields as various as pure history,
phytohistory, philology, ethnography, and folklore, Hendrickx convincingly
proves that bashfu was introduced in the Ryukyus from Southern China, and
not from Southeast Asia as is commonly argued. Her overview of present-day
bashfu-weaving and its use also provides valuable insights into the situation
of folk-craft within Okinawan society during the second half of the twentieth
century and up to the present day.
Mani and co workers (1990)
91
108
money
banana
fibre.
Puthenvelikkara,
village
in
116
It seems that banana fiber cloth was already being made around the 13th
century but it was much later that it became popular. In the old days banana
trees were planted in gardens and fields, and the womenfolk of a family wove
it into fabric for home use. Silk and cotton became much more readily
available during the 19th century but people still enjoyed wearing banana fiber
cloth. Kijoka Banana Fiber Cloth, which carries on these traditions, was
designated as a cultural property by the Prefecture in 1972 and two years
later in 1974 it was made an important intangible cultural property by the
nation.
Woven from fibers taken from the banana tree, banana fiber cloth is highly
representative of the weaving of Okinawa. It was very popular for making a
86
200
of
length,
softness,
strength
and
colour,"
explains
Dr.
process. In the existing manual process, the pseudostems are cut in to bits 60
cm long and 7.5 cm wide. By using a metal scraper (flat and blunt blade), the
psuedostems are scraped and the fibre is removed. An expert worker can
extract between 500-600 g of the fibres in a day of eight hours. The process is
also messy, as it will blacken the hands of the workers, and result in mail
ulcers. The spillage of the juice and the waste pith will also pollute the working
environment. The new machine will offer a clean atmosphere for work, and it
will help the workers to produce more fibres as well as get increased income.
The machine will provide excellent opportunity in by-product utilization in
banana, and it will come in handy when the crop gets damaged due to
cyclones and floods. It will ensure an additional income of Rs. 7500-Rs.
12,500
per
hectare
for
the
banana
growers,
according
to
Dr.
Venkatasubramanian.
Padmanabhan (1995)
118
banana fibre. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) of the Central Tobacco
Research Institute (CTRI), Rahajmundry, Andhra Pradesh, in a bid to
empower women workers engaged in manual extraction of banana fibre (from
the pseudostems) in all growing areas, has designed, developed and
commercialized a novel "Banana Fibre Extractor (BFE)" machine. Dr V.
Krishnamurthy, Director, CTRI (under the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research), told Business Line recently in Rajahmundra (Andhra Pradesh) that
a team of senior scientists and technicians attached to KVK had developed
this machine, enabling small entrepreneurs in the State to take up banana
fibre extraction as an enterprise for value addition and income generation. Dr
Krishnamurthy said banana fibre was extensively used as blending material in
textile industries in countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, Japan and
Korea. Being a natural fibre, it easily blends with other fibres such as jute and
mesta. He said the fibre can also be a good raw material in manufacture of
items such as tissue paper, filter paper and decorative kraft paper. Banana
fibre-based products, being chemical-free, also have large export potential to
countries such as the US, UK, Australia, Malaysia, Japan and Thailand.
Pointing out that the BFE machine has revolutionized the living conditions of
banana farmers and workers in the region, Dr Krishnamurthy said extraction
88
of fibre and preparation of organic manure from banana stems have been
found to be highly useful and economical to the farmers. He said banana is
grown, largely by small and marginal farmers, in an area of 0.68 million
hectares, spread over 10 States of the country, and only the fruits and leaves
are used while the pseudostems and petioles of the plant are thrown away as
waste material. It is estimated that 17,000 tonnes of fibre can be extracted
from this waste portion of the banana plant, valued at roughly Rs 85 crore (Rs
50,000 per tonne).
Iyer and co workers (1995)
68
164
cotton/banana union fabric with reactive dyes and to test its fastness
properties. In this study, the cotton/banana union fabric was bleached in
solution containing 1% hydrogen peroxide. After pre-treatment the samples
were washed thoroughly with water and air-dried. The screens were prepared
by the photochemical method. The dyes used were cold brand reactive dye
89
13
mordant and their various combinations. In this study Banana fibre was dyed
with Ratanjot and Eucalyptus dyes. Bundle tenacity, percentage reflectance,
and color fastnesses were measured for each dye. It was reported that,
eucalyptus dye gives better result in terms of wash-fastness, light-fastness
and bundle-tenacity compared to ratanjot. Among mordants, both alum, and
ferrous sulphate, gives good result except bundle tenacity. With use of
synthetic mordant all give good result except bundle tenacity.
Rawal (1999)
141
24
as weft and cotton rayon as warp and their suitability. The apparels made
were highly appreciated for their uniqueness by the experts stating that the
90
fibre
apparels
were
possessed
good
strength
characteristics, were wearable with lining, and are suitable for top garments.
The fibers take up dyes quite evenly. Designed colorful garment look beautiful
and have great market-appeal.
Vinita and Alka (1999)
98
Major obstacles limiting full market development for banana fibres include the
difficulties and expense of softening the fibre. These factors have led to
regular and relatively small production levels and supplies, unevenness in
quality and high prices in comparison to other fibers like cotton, wool, flax and
ramie. Banana fibers were extracted and softened with 20% acetic acid. The
results show that treatment with acetic acid causes a reduction of diameter of
the banana fibre but at the same time this treatment with acetic acid solution
enhances the properties of banana fibers to a great extent, which will further
improve the bending capacity of banana fibres for apparel use
4
coarser, thicker, stronger and possesses high moisture regain than cotton
fibre. The cotton banana union fabric is less extensible, less compressible
with high bending modulus and flexural rigidity than pure cotton fabric. The
cotton banana union fabric is stronger than cotton fabric in weft (banana fibre)
direction. Tensile strength decreased due to enzyme application for all the
fabrics. Cotton/banana union fabric appears to have some potential for ladies
wear & mens summer wear before and after enzyme application, as the
enzyme treatment endures improved surface characteristic (smooth surface)
and also contributes to the appearance of the fabric. Cotton/banana union
fabric possesses certain properties, particularly higher Shari (crispness)
value, which makes the fabric useful as a summer wear.
Iyer et al (2001)
68
72
92
fibre and phenol formaldehyde resin is much higher than that between glass
and phenol formaldehyde resin.
Katrien (2002)
80
and about the hand-made paper and textile dyeing methods. After the fruit is
harvested, the banana trunk is cut into slices manually. The slices are put in a
depither - the pith is separated from the fibre. The pith has high quantities of
lignin which is taken into a compost pit. The fibre is thoroughly washed and
put in a beater, adding adequate water. The sizing material is added in the
beater just before the completion of beating. After beating, filler is added.
Then water is added to the pulp and the pulp is laid out into sheets. The sizing
material and the filler are natural non-toxic organic products. The bag handles
are made of sisal fibre. The colours used for the bags are also eco-friendly.
The bags are totally eco-friendly and completely biodegradable.
Sapuan and Maleque (2003)
156
54
allied fibre crops, which speaks about the varied uses of textiles from apparel
grade lingo-cellulosic fibres like jute, mesta, roselle, sun hemp, flax, ramie,
banana etc, blending them between each other, or with any one fibre like
cotton, viscose, rayon and its modified forms have high potential for various
value added product manufacturers. Processing technologies are well
developed for certain n items. What is needed is availability of these fibres in
sufficient quantities in pre-cleaned and ready to use form on cost competitive
93
78
187
Paper, explains about a technology that turns banana waste into paper.
Banana trees produce fruit once year, and are then cut down, so banana fiber
is an abundant waste product. Papyrus makes the banana paper using an
economical process that uses no chemicals, no water, and about 1% of the
energy conventionally used. The company is preparing to tap into what it
believes is a potential multi-industry global empire. Others have produced
paper with banana fiber content, like Costa Rica Natural, but their paper only
contains 5% banana fiber. The founder of Papyrus Australia, Ramy Azer,
learnt the ancient technique of developing paper from papyrus reeds in his
native Egypt. Azer says: "What have caught the eye of international markets
are not banana papers' ingredients, but its versatility. It is waterproof and
believed to be up to 3,000 times stronger than wood-pulp paper, meaning it
94
can be used in packaging and even as a basis for building materials. Wallets,
hats, bags, clothes and even furniture are also in the pipeline.
Karolia and Malhan (2005)
77
fabrics (jute and banana). Minor fibre fabrics offers a lot of potential for
diversified end-uses, and printing has been proved to be a one successful
method for value addition to provide product diversification. A study was
carried out by the Dept of clothing and textiles, M S University of Baroda,
Baroda, India, to develop a diversified line of products for cotton banana union
fabrics (CBUF) and 100% jute fabrics by printing them with hand blocks using
eco-friendly pigment dyeing recipe. Another research was carried out with the
objective of producing diversified value added products by printing with ecofriendly pigment dyes. The study included preliminary market surveys,
preparation of print paste, designing print layouts, and preparation of tool for
data collection. The results reveal that these products are acceptable among
upper middle and upper-economic class of the society, and have greater
scope of commercial viability.
An article (2005)
201
explains about the Saraswathi Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Puzhutheri, has chalked
out a special programme to propagate banana fibre extraction and production
of value added banana fibre products in the region. Since the areas bordering
Karur and Tiruchi districts have vast stretches under banana cultivation, rural
economy could get a fillip if individuals take up manufacturing of banana fibre
products that are finding increasing use, SKVK Programme Coordinator S.
Vallal Kannan said here recently. The SKVK is propagating the idea that
even the waste should not be wasted. The recent workshops conducted
for the benefit of self-help group women, especially from the intense banana
cultivating regions such as Kulithalai and Krishnarayapuram areas, have
given hope that a sustained programme will lead to creation of awareness on
the economic advantages of the banana fibre extraction and value addition,
he said.We want to create a situation similar to that in the Marthandam area
bordering Kerala, where almost every household is engaged in banana fibre
extraction and value addition works. The banana fibre, blended with natural
95
dyes, is used in making a wide range of goods such as hand bags, tablemats,
doormats, purse, hangings, papers and attractively patterned cloth. It is
greaseproof, water and fire resistant and totally bio-degradable, said Dr.
Vallal Kannan. The maximum quantity of fibre that an individual can extract by
manual process will be just 500 gram a day. For manual extraction, only
wooden boards and metal scrapper are required. A fibre-extracting machine,
with the capacity to extract 15 to 20 kg a day, has been bought at a cost of
Rs.30, 000 from Rajamundhry in Andhra Pradesh. The machinery uses very
little power and can be operated by using solar and wind energy. The KVK
has so far trained over 500 people, especially women self help group
members, in fibre extraction and is ready to help trainees and banana
cultivators purchase machines by arranging for bank credit tie-up. The KVK
has also opened a procurement centre, where a machine has been installed
for training purpose. The banana fibre is bought from farmers at prices
ranging between Rs.50 and Rs.100 per kg depending on the quality.
Singh (2005)
167
from banana fibres Even the waste should not be wasted. This seems to be
the motto of a large number of people, mostly women, of Bihar's Vaishali
district who are making a living out of the trunks of banana trees. A handful of
women of Sughai Jamalpur, Siduari, Panapur Langa and Dighi villages in
Vaishali district, known for producing a wide variety of bananas, hit upon the
idea of producing household items from banana trunks. These women are
making a variety of household items from the fibre extracted from banana
trunks, from flower baskets, wall hangings, tablemats, chappals, handbags
and rakhis. "Their enterprise has not only brought kudos to these women but
also transformed the living standards of their families. Says the banana
growers were a happy lot as apart from the fruit, which fetches them Rs 50 a
bunch, they were also selling the felled trees for Rs 5 a piece. "Earlier, even
dumping the banana trees was a major problem for them, but now, the
farmers are making the most of the situation by selling those to the women
engaged in extracting fibre," he says. A fibre-extracting machine with the
capacity to extract 25 kgs of fibre a day was bought at a cost of Rs 25,000
from Hyderabad and some women were imparted training. During the past
96
one year the institute trained over 1500 people in banana fibre extraction,
Singh says adding the institute helped some cultivators in purchasing such
machines with financing from banks. He said the institute has opened a
procurement centre at Hajipur where banana fibre was being bought from the
farmers at prices ranging between Rs 60 and Rs 100 per kg depending on the
quality of the product. Singh said the fibre was being sold to silk
manufacturers of Varanasi, Jaipur and Bhagalpur where the banana fibre was
mixed with silk fibre to produce high quality cloth, which was even exported to
foreign countries. Singh said a Horticulture and Agriculture Technology
Transfer Extension Core Committee has been constituted with the Vaishali
district magistrate as its chairman to propagate efforts of the people of
Vaishali, particularly women."If all goes well we will succeed in our endeavour
to provide the fibre extraction business the status of an industry," he said.
Goswami et. al (2006)
48
paperboards using eco-friendly processes Banana fibres used for the present
investigation was extracted mechanically in a fibre raspador. Bleaching of the
fibres was carried out using hydrogen peroxide. An enzymatic treatment was
given to the fibres prior to the bleaching in order to remove the gummy materials
and lignin. The fibres were beaten in laboratory valley beater up to 45 SR
freeness. The waste paper was also beaten at the same freeness. Wax emulsion,
natural latex and cationic starch solution was added to the pulp at stock during
the time of beating. Multilayer boards were made in the laboratory hand sheetforming machine using banana fibre and waste paper pulp at different blend
ratios viz: 20:80, 40:60, and 50:50.Boards of different thickness varies from 25mm were prepared and pressed in a hydraulic press and then dried in an aircirculating oven at 1002C temperature. Thus the process involves no hazards
effect. No harmful chemicals were used during the processing of fibres and
manufacturing of the boards. It may be concluded that mechanically extracted
banana fibres can be easily utilized for making special paperboard products like
cellullosic leather board. There is substantial scope for using this type of
paperboards in packaging and footwear industries.
97
12
106
composites of banana, hemp and agave with HDPE resin were separately
prepared in different ratios, 60:40, 55:45, 50:50 and 45:55 (wt/wt). These
fibres were treated with maleic anhydride and the effect was studied on the
surface resistivity and volume resistivity of wood polymer composites. The
Youngs modulus, flexural modulus, impact strength and Shore-D hardness all
decreased with increasing amounts of fibres in the natural fibre: polystyrene
composites. The sisal fibre composites showed the greatest mechanical
strength of all the other ratios. A maleic anhydride treatment shows significant
98
198
90
203
types of papers like security paper, insulating paper or carbon paper is made
from the banana fibres from the stem, trunk and leaves of the plant by cutting
into chips, pithing and degummimg by mechanical and chemical means,
followed by washing and pressing, digesting, cleaning, bleaching, and making
the paper.
Sudha et.al (2006)
178
100
fibre can also be blended with cellulosic fibres like cotton to produce apparels
and fancy items. This will help bringing down the overall cost of cotton.
Naik and Mishra (2006)
106
200
carboxymethyl cellulose and poly (vinyl alcohol) with banana fibre. Conducting
hydrogel copolymer was prepared by graft polymerization of carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC) and boric acid onto poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA). The dielectric
properties of CMC-g-PVA/pre-hydrolyzed banana blend had been investigated
as a function of frequency, with special reference to pure pre-hydrolyzed
banana. Also, the static bending for the blend was determined and no abrupt
failure was observed. The dielectric properties measured were dielectric
constant, dissipation factor and loss factor. At high frequencies, a transition in
the relaxation behavior was observed, whereby the dielectric constant, loss
tangent, and loss factor decreased with frequency behavior depends greatly
on the nature of the present group. The crystallinity of the system and the
degree of hydrogen bonding between the different chains.
102
140
113
103
203
other aesthetic purposes, It is claimed that the banana stain can be used to
ornament, label or outline many objects for aesthetic purposes. Ways of
extracting and treating the stain are also claimed, including collecting
drippings from the fruit, leaves, or the bark of the plant and/ or grating the
skin.
Mitra et .al (2007)
103
their blends for textile application. Ligno-cellulosic long vegetable fibres like
jute, mesta, Roselle, flax, banana, pineapple, ramie, sisal, manila etc have
wide textile use. Jute is traditionally used as packaging material like the
Hessian and sacking. Mesta and Roselle fibres are used as substitutes for the
jute to produce coarse type of twines or bags. Flax fibre is mainly used in
production of industrial (i.e.: -hose pipe, shoe twin etc) and apparel (i.e. linen
cloth) textiles. Banana fibre is available from the pseudostem of the banana
plant. The fibre is very coarse, but bright in appearance and at NIRJAFT
(Calcutta) the fibre has been utilized in blends with jute, Mesta to produce
packaging materials and ropes. Pineapple leaf fibre is very silky and strong
and is blended with jute and other fibres. Ramie is fine strong and silky fibre
104
after degumming. Higher density and wet strength along with high flexural and
torsional rigidity restrict their application to cordage industry.
Sugiura et.al. (2007)
205
186
density
polyethylene.
Morphological,
mechanical,
and
thermal
characteristics of the films were tested. Irregularities in the films prepared with
native and oxidized banana starches were observed by scanning electron
microscopy. This pattern is maybe due to the incompatibility between both
polymers. However, films elaborated with acetylated banana starch showed a
105
smooth surface. The tensile strength and elongation at break decreased when
starch level in the blend increased. An inverse pattern was showed for elastic
module. The effect on mechanical properties was more notorious in those
films elaborated with the acetylated and oxidized banana starches. Two
thermal transitions were observed by differential scanning calorimetry, the
principal transition at similar to 111 C was due to disorganization of the low
density polyethylene. Enthalpy value associated to that principal transition
was higher in the films elaborated with acetylated banana starch, showing
higher compatibility between both polymers. The use of biodegradable
polymers such as chemically modified banana starch might be feasible for
elaboration of films with adequate mechanical properties.
Zuluaga and co-workers (2007)
201
Fourier-transformed
infrared
spectroscopy
was
used
to
203
time (120min) at this concentration did not produce pulp of lower lignin
content. The marked effect of delignification was observed in case of 90%
formic acid concentration. Peroxyformic acid effectively reduced the residual
lignin of the formic acid pulp. In alkaline peroxide bleaching, formic acid pulp
was bleached to 75-83% brightness depending on the nonwood. The strength
properties were almost comparable to conventional pulp. The dhaincha pulp
was stronger than the banana stem and kash pulp. The bleaching improved
the strength properties of the pulp. The major devoilatization of formic acid
lignin was occurred between 200 and 550C as shown by the TG graph. The
xylose was the main sugar in water soluble fractions of formic acid spent
liquor that represented 50-60% of the content in original raw materials.
Finnie and Azer (2007)
40
removing sheets of fibres from banana plants for the production of paper
products. A method and apparatus for producing sheets from the
pseudostems of banana plants in the family Musaceae into a work station, and
contacting the rotating pseudostem along substantially its entire length with a
fibre separating device, whereby a continuous sheet of fibre is removed from
the pseudostem by the fibre separating device during rotation. Raw paper
may also be made by laminating two or more of these sheets together such
that the direction of the generally parallel fibres in at least two adjacent sheets
is not aligned and then curing the sheets to form raw paper.
Oliveira et al (2007)
114
morphological parts from Drawf Cavendish banana plant and their potential
as a non-woven renewable source of natural products . The study on
chemical
composition
and
structure
of
components
from
different
morphological parts of Drawf Cavendish banana plant had been carried out
aiming to evaluate their potential as eventual raw material for the chemical
processing. Macromolecular components were analyzed using solid state
NMR, ATR-FTIR and wet chemistry methods. Mineral components were
assessed by ICP analysis of ashes obtained after raw material calcinations. It
was verified that chemical composition of the studied fractions of banana plant
varies significantly. The major extremes were found in the contents of
107
205
of catalytic urea formaldehyde resin onto banana plant fibre and its physicochemical properties. The physico-chemical properties of bleached banana
plant fibre and modified banana plant fibre with catalytic urea formaldehyde
resin had been studied. The bleached banana fibre plant was modified with
urea formaldehyde resin in presence of magnesium chloride and COOH as
catalyst. The optimum modification conditions, viz. modifier concentration,
catalyst concentration, modification time and temperature were determined on
the basis of maximum weight gain of the fibre. Weight gain of the fibre
increases with the increases with the increase of modifier concentration from
10-90% and catalyst concentration from 0.25-1.75% and there after it remains
almost constant. Modification time and modification temperature also
influence the rate of reaction and maximum weight gain was obtained at 20-30
C for 45 mins. The degree of grafting was evaluated by means of moisture
content and infrared spectroscopy measurements. From the experimental
results, it was observed that the modification had positive effect on tenacity,
colorfastness and other physico-chemical properties of banana plant fibre.
117
130
109
207
206
fibre extraction .The National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) plans to
extract banana fibre on a large scale for commercial purposes. Banana fibre
110
is used in textiles in Japan and Philippines, but in India, fibre extraction was
until now carried out only on a modest scale at the NRCB farm at Podavur to
educate the farmers about its potential. Though only about one per cent of the
banana plant's bio-mass is available for extraction, researchers sight immense
potential for this fibre. About 1,200 plants were being raised in an acre and
over 40,000 acres are under banana cultivation in Tiruchi district alone. The
fibre was extracted from the stem, which weighs about 50 kegs on an average
(per plant). Considering the availability and immense potential for extraction
and use of the banana fibre, the Tiruchi-based NRCB plans to extract this fibre
on a commercial scale. Value-added products like chappals and handicraft
items were made from banana plant. ``The extract is powdered, coloured and
put to use,'' he added. The NRCB had participated in an exhibition in Bangkok
last year, where it had bagged the first prize for its exhibit under the `non-food
banana item' category, he said. The Centre had developed value-added
products like banana figs, juice, jam, biscuits, health supplement and a baby
cereal and imparted a week long training course to the farmers. Though the
scientific process was available, the major hurdle was the lack of technical
knowledge and marketing expertise, he said. Emphasizing the enormous
market potential for the banana fibre extract, Dr Sathyamoorthy said `if the
process worked out well, it will be a boon for the banana growers, who are
now facing a severe economic crisis due to glut in the market'.
Saupan and co workers (2007)
155
204
system. Hike in cotton prices and decreasing demand for synthetics motivated
the global textile-scenario to be in search for new eco-friendly products to hold
the consumers attention. Hence, with a view to widen the scope for end-use of
eco-friendly CBUF, the pre-treated and bleached fabric was treated with a
combination of DMDHEU resin and two selected softeners namely silicone
softener and cationic softener. Results showed that better strength retention and
improved wrinkle recovery and drape could be obtained by silicone softener
treated fabric, thus reducing the cost of expensive resin. However, the most
important criteria that determines consumers acceptance to a fabric is its hand or
feel. Thus, Kawabata evaluation system was used for objective evaluation of the
feel of the fabric. The best result for the fabric feel was obtained by the silicone
softener treated fabric.
Singh et al (2008)
168
190
the key for successful production of banana and for its propagation as a
farmer friendly technology. India has largest area of 5.5 lakh ha under banana
requiring 0.125 billion plants per annum. This requirement is reduced by 50
and 33% in two subsequent years depending on replanting of plantation after
112
191
there exists a great scope foe effectively utilizing the pseudostem waste for
the preparation of a whole range of products like marine cordages, high
quality paper card boards, tea bags, string thread, high quality fabric materials
and paper. With the dwindling resources paper industry is facing an acute
shortage of raw material for the industry. This is catalyzed by the fast
urbanization and rise in literacy levels. There is an urgent need to look for biorenewable and biodegradable raw material. Banana satisfying both these
primary requirements forma a major alternative to polythene bags, which are
fast becoming an environmental pollutant. Fibres in their raw state produce a
highly sorbent material, which allows a more expedient and therefore more
expensive cleanup. Banana fibres can be used in sorbent socks, pillow and
brooms etc. Banana fibres are flame resistant in its natural form and
petroleum products can be recovered from the material thus allowing recycling
of recovered oil. Fibres have been already tested or use as a filtration agent in
the wastewater treatment industry. The fibres were reported to be elegant and
highly versatile. The fibres can be powdered and different colours of fibres can
be obtained using natural dyes, which can be made into beautiful pictures.
110
products of banana. Quality is the basic criterion on which the banana trade is
dependent besides the price in the international market. Though India is the
largest producer of bananas in the world, it has not been able to make its
presence felt in the international market, as the fruits produced are not of the
international quality and the prices to produce the high quality fruits are
113
180
105
in fibres extracted from pseudostem of the banana plant. This paper highlights
the variability of mechanical and thermal properties of banana fibres with
respect to aging and an analysis of the difference from the polymeric
viewpoint. The banana fibres were found to be good reinforcement in
polyester resin. It was found that the mechanical properties of the banana/
phenyl formaldehyde composites are comparable to those of the glass
fibre/PF composites. The effects of chemical modification on the physical
properties of banana fibres were analyzed. The behavior of fresh and aged
fibres and their reaction to alkali at different concentrations was investigated.
The results can be explained in terms of the internal structure of the fibre,
114
32
The banana fibres were reported to be elegant and highly versatile. The hand
extracted fibres were used in manufacturing of handicraft articles, bags, table
mats wall hangings, etc. The fibres can be powdered and different colours
may be applied using natural dyes foe making beautiful pictures. The banana
fibres were also blended with many natural and synthetic fibres to male
varieties of fabrics. However, the inherent drawback of the banana fibre is its
poor quality and higher irregularity owing to its multicellular nature of the
fibres. The fibre has not been exploited much commercially hitherto, as it was
considered inferior to abaca and other available hard fibres. Banana fibre is
classified as medium quality fibres and performs very well in combination with
other fibres for making fine articles like handicrafts, currency etc. Over the
years, there has been considerable interest in exploitating it for variety of
household and industrial uses on a larger scale.
Vasatwiki (2008)
207
banana fibres. According the author the banana fibres has long been a source
of fibre for high quality textiles. The banana shoots produce fibres of varying
degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for
specific uses. For example, the outermost fibres of the shoots are the
coarsest, while the innermost fibres are the finest. In another system
employed in Nepal, the trunk of the banana plant is harvested instead, small
pieces which are subjected to a softening process, mechanical extraction of
the fibres, bleaching and drying. After that the fibres are sent to the
Kathmandu valley for the making of high end rugs with a textural quality
similar to silk. These banana fibre rugs are woven by the traditional Nepalese
hand-knotted methods and are sold Rugmark certified. Bananas come in
115
variety of sizes and colours, most cultivars are yellow when ripe but some are
red or purple. Depending on the cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can be
starchy to sweet and firm to mushy. In addition to the fruit, the flower of the
banana plant is used in many areas, where they are either served raw with
dips or cooked in soups or curries. The tender core of the banana plants
trunk is also used in many regions for cooking purposes. Bananas are also
eaten as fritters, with ice-creams, baked in their skin in a split bamboo or
steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf. The juice extract
prepared from the tender core is used to treat kidney stones. The leaves of
banana are large, flexible and water-proof and are used in many ways
including surgical bandages, umbrellas, in wrappings etc. Banana chips are a
snack produced from dehydrated banana or fried banana. Mashed banana
pulp mixed with honey is used to treat jaundice in many countries.
Revathy(2008)
204
process the same quantity could be extracted in an hour,'' she said. Only
wooden boards and metal scrapper are used in the manual fibre extraction
process, Ms Kalpana said. NRCB had collaborated with a Mumbai-based
research institute for developing a low cost mechanical device for the
purpose. According to her, over 5 lakh hectares of area were under banana in
India, and the pseudostem alone would account for 28 million tonnes, from
which the fibre, if extracted should weigh around 2.2 million tonnes every
year. There are at least 117 different banana varieties. The fibre content in the
wild varieties is said to be more. She said that a survey conducted in the
Nagercoil belt showed that four red banana plants could yield one kg of fibre
as against 10 plants of the nendran variety. ``The fibre content is even less in
commercial varieties like robusta,'' she said.
In an article (2008)
industry,
206
Innovation sees no limit and Indian consumers can expect something big
coming up in the textile industry like fabrics and textiles woven from fine
quality banana fibre.
A research study is already being carried out by the National Research Centre
for Banana (NRCB) and if the proposition turns out to be viable, the country
can very soon expect the domestic market to be flooded with an array of
textile and garment products made from banana fibre. In India this fibre is
mostly used for making handicraft items but even the US market has a huge
demand for this raw material.
As of now, the NRCB has joined hands with the Central Institute of Cotton
Technology, Mumbai, with the aim of producing quality fibre by improving the
retting process, adding certain non hazardous chemicals to banana fibre to
produce lengthy fibre, with adequate strength and lustre. This process will
have to be undertaken as banana fibre drawn from the stem of the plants is
very brittle which makes drawing-out of long fibre a little difficult. In fact, the
NRCB had also brought special varieties of banana plants from the
Philippines and the Middle East that does not bear fruits or flower and only
117
yields fibre. However, crucial tests like long term durability of the fabric,
retention of fast color dyeing and stitching capability has to be conducted
before the technology can be adopted for commercial production.
In an exclusive interview with Fibre2fashion, Dr C K Narayana, Principal
Scientist at NRCB informed saying, The fibre is essentially made from
banana plant stem which is considered as a waste material after harvesting.
Although, there are a few available machines to extract banana fibre, there is
a lack of adequate methodology to make yarn from the fibre. While Central
Institute of Cotton Technology, Mumbai is working on developing that
methodology, the Khadi Village Industry Commission (KVIC) in Trivandrum
has already used banana fibres for blending with cotton to produce fabric from
it.
Dr Rajan P Nachane, Principle Scientist and Head, Quality Evaluation &
Improvement Division of Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology,
also pointed out that, Being completely biodegradable and naturally
occurring, the banana fibre products are expected to be in great demand in
the international markets as they pose no toxic effects to man and the
environment. A number of value added textile products can be made which in
turn would enhance the profitability of banana farming. Banana fibres can be
made available at cheap rate for preparation of fancy articles as well as
textiles. In the past spinning of Banana fibres has been tried on jute spinning
machinery for making ropes and sacks. However, spinning performance of
Banana fibres for the preparation of yarns and fabrics has not been tried
much in India. He further added that from an estimated yield of one million
tons of dry banana fibres annually, a very small quantity is presently being
utilized for the preparation of handicraft items. With the increasing demand for
banana in the Indian and international markets, the acreage and production
are expected to increase in the coming years, thus generating more of the
pseudostem biomass waste. Being a rich source of natural fibres, the
pseudostem can be profitably utilized for numerous applications and
preparation of various products.
118
In an article (2008)
185
the author has briefed about Mr. Njihia, 52, who owns a two-acre farm in
Maragua district, 70 kilometres north of the capital, Nairobi, make s a fortune
from banana fibre.We realized that theres more money in fibre products
than in the fruit itself, from a single stem, you can get four times more from the
fibre product, Njihia explained. He said the banana fibre has added to the
farmers creativity in their quest to earn bit money. From the fibre, farmers
weave the traditional baskets (kyondosi), photo albums, table mats, ear rings,
wall mats, fruit mats, bible carriers, picture frames, among other products.
Farmers also make honey care packaging materials, which are used to wrap
honey bottles. These articles sell from Ksh200 each and farmers sell up to
Ksh3, 000 per day during the peak of the tourism season. During elections,
farmers make fly-whisks which are popular with politicians. A former teacher,
Mr. Njihia said banana fibre has enabled his family earn decent income
besides the sale of the banana fruit. From fibre, he has invested in buildings
and tissue culture nursery, he said. Fibre has also created employment
opportunities for the youth in the country. Farmers are very innovative, Njihia
said at his exhibition stand during the Banana 2008 international conference
in Mombasa. Njihia who leads the 1,000-member strong Highridge Banana
Growers and Marketing Association in the central province, however,
bemoaned the fluctuations on the market. He said that tourists were the major
clients of the fibre products and business tended to be slow when tourism was
off peak. He said that during the recent political stand off in the country, which
led to clashes among the rival political groups, tourism was heavily affected,
so were the sales of their products. Global warming also has an effect,
when it is too dry, we have difficulties in getting good fibre materials, Njihia
said. He expressed his members frustrations at the failure to penetrate the
European and United States markets due to stringent procedures. Njihia cites
lack of patenting of their products as a drawback in their business because
other merchants from other countries and continents easily imitated their
products. The utilization of fibre products has added to unity among banana
growers, as they are able to share experiences. Mgenzi Byabachwezi, a
Ugandan scientist, said utilization of banana fibre was similar in the Eastern
African community. Byabachwezi said farmers in Tanzania also make bags,
119
mats, roofing materials, ropes as well as recycling it to make mulch which kills
weeds in the field. Mwenebanda, a Malawian research associate, echoed his
sentiments. Stella Mwashumbe, a technical assistant at Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute, based at Mtwapa Research Centre, said banana varieties
like bokoboko and mzdzavudza produce the best fibre because they are
straight and strong. She said while bokoboko was used for wrapping of
tobacco, mzdzavudza was used to make ropes for tying animals like goats.
With competition emerging, Njihia says farmers should take advantage of
tissue culture to plan for the markets. With tissue culture, you can have
many harvests at the same time, get better bunches and good tasting
bananas, he said. He called for the change of eating habits in Kenya to take
advantage of the more nutritious banana products.
Kartik in an editorial article (2008)
204
terms of the banana fibre utilization. The banana fibre bag, folder, CD case,
hotel tariff card and a few other products have sold like hot cakes. At Union
Government-conducted exhibitions, products made of banana fibre have had
a good patronage, says Mr. Karthik, who is basically in to manufacturing jute
products. It was also highlighted that the banana fibre extraction is difficult
because machines in the market are not good enough. And, processing the
fibre is also a tricky issue. The author states that says corporate patronage is
important because it will lead to ordinary people using natural fibres, which is
environment-friendly.
Saupan et al (2008)
156
(flexural), the maximum load applied is 36.25 N to get the deflection of woven
banana fibre specimen beam of 0.5 mm. The maximum stress and Youngs
modulus in x-direction was recorded to be 26.181 MN/m2 and 2.685 GN/m2,
respectively. Statistical analysis using ANOVA-one way has showed that the
differences of results obtained from those three samples are not significant,
which confirm a very stable mechanical behavior of the composites under
different tests. This shows the importance of this product and allows many
researchers to develop an adequate system for producing a good quality of
woven banana fibre composite which maybe used for household utilities.
Khan (2008)
75
104
and
renewability.
Moreover,
they
are
recyclable
and
206
making a refreshing innovation. Rwandans are known for their exquisite and
truly majestic Imishanana traditional attires. Now the country has decided to
venture into the creative world of fabrics, this time on a discovery mission of
how to manufacture fabrics from banana fibre. Bananas are a staple food
here in Rwanda being consumed by the greater part of the population. While
we consume the fruit, cloth will be woven from tree fibres. Now imagine how
the local textile industry is set for a major boom, after the announcement
today of the seven-member technical team that is set for Japan, to start the
process of transferring banana textile technology to Rwanda. This team is
going to study this ancient tradition of transforming banana fibre into textiles
which dates back to the 13th century, in Japan. It's a no brainer, that perhaps
this will be one of the most innovative, income generating and community
empowering projects of our time. The initiative that is gaining momentum with
the support of Japan's Tama Art University (TAU), who are working with the
relevant government institutions and local investors, could revolutionarise the
local textile industry. This places a huge responsibility on the initiators of the
project, in particular UTEXRWA, the country's major textile company, to
122
ensure that all processes are duly complete for the project to take off. Every
bit of the process will impact national development positively in one way or
another. Stages that if well coordinated, among the players involved, can
actually form a positive cycle. Money accrued from sales can be reinvested in
training others on the trade of making textiles out banana fibre. One of the
major criticisms made against developing countries 'is the inability to develop
has been the lack of diversification, particularly when it comes to locally
produced products. And so as Rwanda gears for more competition, within the
East African Community, she will have a definitive competitive edge over the
other regional countries, especially in the textile industry, courtesy of this
venture.
Indicula and co workers (2009)
62
61
adsorption tests revealed that the presence of the adhesive affected the
amount of water absorbed.
The article reported on Fruity clothing with banana fibres (2009)
214
speaks
about the prospects of this fibre gaining global spotlight. Being completely
biodegradable and naturally occurring, the banana fibre products are
expected to be in great demand in the international markets as they pose no
toxic effects to man and the environment. A number of value added textile
products can be made which in turn would enhance the profitability of banana
farming. Banana fibres can be made available at cheap rate for preparation of
fancy articles as well as textiles. Application potential of banana fibre is not
having optimum utilization. Buyers for these fibres are also inconsistent.
Extraction of fibres requires a more systematic way. Government patronage
and useful applications of this fibre would regularize the demand and enable a
sturdy market for these fibre products. With the increasing demand for banana
in the global arena, much focus is required on increasing its production
generating more of the pseudo stem biomass waste. Being a rich source of
natural fibres, the pseudo stem can be profitably utilized for numerous
applications and preparation of various products.
Kanyesigye (2009)
203
125
when President Paul Kagame invited Japan's Tama Art University (TAU) to
help initiate it in the country.
14
coconut fibre and jute fibres- two non-similar fibres for production of HomeTextiles. Customer demand calls for value-addition, diversified products and
also technology refinement and innovation to ensure the demand both in
domestic and export market. The basic problem of the industry had been
inadequate and lack of R&D support on the basis of the raw material-coconut
fibre similar to jute and cotton in India. Hard fibres like coconut call for basic
studies from the very first stage of processing viz: retting, defibering, and
grading, softening, physical and chemical properties of the fibre variety wise,
production of quality yarns, composite yarns, value added high value products
etc. Jute and coconut fibres are different from each other so far as their
production, characterization, physical, chemical properties and end-uses are
concerned. Coconut fibre have been softened in four ways namely
autoclaving, boiling in NaOH, soaking in NaOH solution and passing through
mechanical gears. Any one of the methods or in combination with more can
be adopted to soften the coconut fibres prior to blending with jute, considering
the cost involvement in the process and the product envisaged. The authors
have also stressed for the need for further studies in this process.
Sett and Sur (1994)
159
Visually the yarns showed improved regularity and less hairiness compared to
the non-conventional yarn. The present study also reported important
information on the effect on the yarn tensile characteristics of twist variation in
case of rotor spun jute-viscose blend yarn of finer count. The tensile strength
and elongation decreased which helped to obtain improved yarn initial
modulus.
Kundu et.al (2005)
86
145
yarn, which is a novelty high bulk yarn developed from blends of three fibres,
viz, jute, high shrink acrylic (HSA) and poly propylene, using steam relaxation
treatment. The special characteristics of this new yarn are high bulk and soft
feel. A simple and inexpensive wet steam injection method was employed for
producing this yarn. This yarn has improved extension, higher diameter and
good strength. The yarn has vast scope in the development o various light
weight diversified products like the ladies wrapper cloth, warm garments,
knitted goods etc and may create a new avenue in the use of jute fibres.
Berger and co-workers (1999)
207
blending Kenaf with cotton, new high-end uses for Kenaf have been identified.
Kenaf fibres, bast fibres similar to jute are typically separated by mechanical,
chemical or bacterial means. Mechanically separated fibres are usually too
stiff to be blended with cotton and cannot be made into good yarns. Fibres
processed chemically and bacterially were blended with cotton and made into
127
fabrics and evaluated. The retted kenaf ribbons were carded to produce
straightened fibres which were cut into uniform lengths, blended with cotton,
converted into yarns which were then made into fabrics to compare the retting
treatments effects on fabric hand and appearance. In order to further improve
the hand of the retted fabrics, the fabric needed to be softened with routine
finishes. The effects of different fabric treatments such as enzymes, bleaching
and mercerization on blended light weight and heavy weight cotton/ kenaf
blend fabrics were compared and measured for softness of hand. This
collaborative effort resulted in cotton/kenaf blend fabrics that were
aesthetically appealing and had a soft hand. The light weight blend fabrics
had a linen look and after treatment, were suitable for use in apparel without
any type of lining. Mercerization was an adequate means to improve hand
and appearance of the heavy weight fabrics, resulting in excellent examples
of upholstery fabrics. Cotton enhanced the Kenaf fibres and resulted in a
higher value end product.
Natarajan
and
co-workers
(2000)
111
studied
textile
applications
of
unconventional natural cellulosic fibres as fibres for the next millennium. Many
study projects have been undertaken in India to study the techno-economic
feasibility of extraction and processing of unconventional cellulosic fibres. The
present studies covered three fibres, namely, a seed fibre (Kapok), a leaf fibre
(Furcrea) and a bast fibre (Hibiscus). This paper was a summary of the results
obtained on the above with respect to their extraction, fibre properties,
spinning, weaving and related conversion technologies and bleaching and
dyeing. The Indian Kapok popularly known as the silk cotton is a fine fibre,
short, sufficiently strong and extensible fibre having a Fibre Quality Index of
18.6 (compared to a value from 20 to 140 for cotton). The studies have
established that OE rotor yarns of 60 Tex can be produced in blends with
cotton and yarns are weavable in handlooms and slow speed power looms.
Kapok blended cotton fabrics are softer, shoe better drape compared to cotton
fabrics, the effect being more significant with higher proportion of Kapok fibre.
Studies on furcrea fibre extracted from the wild furcrea plants in the Nilgiri
Mountains of TamilNadu revealed that the fibre is strong and flexible to suit
textile processing but too coarse to be used in apparel
128
120
205
38
34
flabellifer L (palmyrah palm) fruit fibres. Natural cellulosic fibres such as coir,
sisal, cotton, jute and ramie have been widely used in fibrous forms and the
reinforcements in the composites due to their low density and bio-degradable
nature. Fibres from date palm leaves and oil palm trees have been analyzed
and attempts have been made to measure and reduce the sorption
130
206
processing. Spinning, weaving and processing of fibres and fabrics made out
of leaf fibres is a new concept of recent origin, where pineapple fibre is
gaining considerable importance, even though this fibre could not be blended
either with cotton or synthetic fibre due to its long length and high fibre weight,
it is expected that in the nearer future these fibres will be exclusively used for
a specific purpose, along with cotton either in warp or weft to produce carpet
type fabrics.
Samanta and Das (1997)
148
43
of Jute based products in the cottage industry. As jute is the principal cash
crop in the eastern part of the country, about 880 thousand hectares of land in
India are now under jute cultivation. The growing of jute, its harvesting,
processing and manufacture into textile based products is of major survival
and economic importance to the country with some 4.75 million families
supported directly by the industry. Various products are identified for jute
based cottage industry. Apart from the conventional different types of all jute
yarns, the R & D organizations have developed various unconventional
products like the furnishing fabric, upholstery fabric blankets, carpets, knitted
goods, floppy Ashan, Mufler, Wrapper cloth etc from the Jute-manmade/Synthetic fibre blended yarn. These can be easily manufactured in the
hand-loom and create a new avenue of jute products. The J.T.R.L has
developed small scale jute spinning plant for manufacturing of all jute and jute
synthetic blended yarn using fibres like viscose, polypropylene, acrylic etc.
The article gives a brief description of all the yarns along with coat of
manufacturing. Thus the growing up of this cottage industry may be of actual
help to the jute growers and villagers of jute growing area.
Rawal (1999)
141
hydrogen peroxide was effective for cotton, cotton/banana union fabric and
jute/cotton because the impurities whitened and reduced the yellowness of the
fabrics. Pretreatment with polyurethane glycol increased the yarn diameter for
cotton showing that it created sufficient space for other processes to follow.
The color yield of kerosene free pigment prints was compared to conventional
kerosene pigment prints. Addition of silicone softener in the printing paste
reduced the bending rigidity to all the fabrics improving the feel o the fabric. It
also improved the color retention after laundering. Light fastness properties
were found satisfactory however crocking of pigment was showing poor rub
fastness.
Doke and Garag (2003)
37
and spinnability of sunhemp fibres. The world has become conscious towards
ecology and needs eco-friendly, biodegradable fabrics for daily wear. This
keeps natural fibres the main resource for textiles in spite of increasing
competition from man-made fibres. Though sun hemp fibres are a natural
vegetable bast fibre and also bio-degradable, its potential in textiles is left
untapped. This work unfolds the suitability of it for use in textiles by improving
basic properties to overcome the inherent drawbacks by treating with NaOH
solution. With the basic aim, the Sunhemp fibres were grouped into three
parts 1) treated with 6% NaOH 2) treated with 18% NaOH and 2) untreated,
used for comparison studies. The untreated fibres were blended with V797
cotton variety with equal amount and spun on jute-cotton spinning system to
the nominal count of 9s Ne. The treated samples 1)and 2) were blended with
LRA cotton in the ratio 30:70 and spun on cotton system to the same nominal
count of 9sNe. Later fabrics were woven with these yarns as weft and 2/16
cotton yarn as warp with square weave of 3030 and with 30epi and 26 epi to
study fabric properties. Simultaneously, treated and untreated samples of
sunhemp fibres were examined for structural properties by electron
microscope and X-ray diffraction and also for their physical properties such as
fibre fineness, tensile strength etc. After the study of sunhemp fibres from
structure to spinnability to formation of fabrics, it was found that NaOH treated
fibres were well softened, crimpy, increase inter-fibre cohesion improving
spinnability to produce better yarns, which can be used to make apparel
133
16
natural fibre blends. Natural fibres either from vegetable origin or from the
animal origin, which have wide acceptance in textile application, are cotton,
jute, ramie, sisal, coconut (coir), silk, wool etc. Possibility of other fibres like
PALF, banana, sisal etc in textile applications has also been explored. Each
fibre has its own distinctive positive as well as negative characters. In order to
achieve the best utilization of the positive attributes of these fibres and to
minimize or to remove the negative characters as far as practicable, blending
of different fibres are done. The blending can be conceived at various stages
of mechanical processing depending upon the mechanical behavior of the
component fibres in the blend and on the desired characteristics of the end
products.
Hazra and Karmakar (2004)
53
efficiency. On
the
contrary, in
application
areas
where
176
future prospects for diversified utilization of natural fibres other than cotton,
looks into the suitability of natural fibres for various applications like: high
quality blended apparel grade textiles, technical, industrial and home textiles
134
135
37
102
blends for textile application. Ligno-cellulosic long vegetable fibres like jute,
mesta, Roselle, flax, banana, pineapple, ramie, sisal, manila etc have wide textile
use. Jute is traditionally used as packaging material like the Hessian and sacking.
Mesta and Roselle fibres are used as substitutes for the jute to produce coarse
type of twines or bags. Flax fibre is mainly used in production of industrial (i.e.:
-hose pipe, shoe twin etc) and apparel (i.e. linen cloth) textiles. Banana fibre is
available from the pseudostem of the banana plant. The fibre is very coarse, but
bright in appearance and at NIRJAFT (Calcutta) the fibre has been utilized in
blends with jute, Mesta to produce packaging materials and ropes. Pineapple leaf
fibre is very silky and strong and is
136
blended with jute and other fibres. Ramie is fine strong and silky fibre after
degumming. Higher density and wet strength along with high flexural and
torsional rigidity restrict their application to cordage industry. The article also
speaks of the different blended yarns like jute-ramie, jute-flax, jute-PALF, juteviscose covered yarn, texturised jute-polypropylene blended yarn, and high
bulk acrylic blended yarn. It also speaks of blended products like curtain
cloths, upholstery fabric, furnishing fabric, blankets, carpets, knitted goods and
woven garments. Thus the present status of technology of various lingocellulosic fibre blended products are developed in existing jute mill processing
machinery. Weaving can be commercially performed in corporate and
decentralized handloom weaving sector.
Doke. et. al. (2007)
39
mechanical properties of fabrics. In the above study to make the shear testing
economical a shear testing attachment is made to Instron-4411 and further to
make it very easy, an attempt is made to develop software which works with
Instron-4411 and gives shear testing results instantaneously. The results of
this instrument were analyzed statistically to investigate the correlation with
results of KES-FB system. Further to investigate the effect of weaving
parameters on shear and mechanical properties of fabrics, 12 fabric samples
(woolen suiting) were woven by changing various fabric parameters and then
tested for shear and mechanical properties. The results were then statistically
analyzed.
Sarkar (2005)
151
According to the study blending of different fibres is primarily adopted for the
improvement of technological and or economical properties of the yarn. Fine type
of yarn (84 to 207 tex) needed for producing fine and strong fabrics like
furnishing, upholstery, industrial fabrics. Long, fine natural fibres like ramie; flax
and pineapple fibres were used in making of blended yarns with jute.
139
adequate scope for making fancy T-shirts. Jute, a cellulosic fibre can be ecofriendly replacement for textile fibres such as cotton and its blends with cotton
offers an adequate scope for making fancy apparel. Jute offers advantages
137
17
27
139
Bhatia et. al (2006) studied polyester blends on new spinning systems with
new cost equations in the spinning industry, it is imperative to have a fresh
look o open end, air jet and compact spinning systems for polyester and
blended yarns. Open end is traditionally looked upon as suitable for spinning
course counts using comber noils and other spinning soft wastes rather than
virgin fibres for applications in niwars, durries, tyre cord. Air-jet spinning offers
an alternative to ring spinning for the fine count range of 30s and 80s.It is
unique in that, the front roller delivery speeds can be maintained at the same
level of about 300 meters per minute in all the count range. The compact
spinning system is based on the elimination of spinning triangle at the front
roller nip at ring frame. The system is based on the principle of condensing of
the drafted fibre strand by air suction by additional front perforated roller. Thus
the New Spinning Systems viz. Open end, Air jet and the Compact spinning
are very much relevant and mills should evaluate the Techno Economics,
looking to superior quality of Yarn achieved.
Chellamani. et. al. (2006)
28
friction spinning for the industrial end-uses, Chattopadhay et.al (2001) have
studied the feasibility of production of coir-composite yarn, employing friction
140
spinning technology has also been attempted. The fibres like cotton, wool,
jute, viscose, polyester, acrylic and polypropylene have been used on the
surface of a composite yarn having either single or double ply coir rope in the
centre using Friction Spinning Technology. The end product intended were
composite yarns containing coir ropes in the centre, known as core and the
other staple fibres on the outer surface of the yarn Known as sheath.
Kimmel and co-workers (2006)
208
various cotton and DyneeemaR blend yarns. A series of ring and rotor spun
yarns had been produced from the low level blends of Dyneema R, a gel-spun
ultra high molecular weight, high density polyethylene fibre (HDPE) of varied
types, with selected white and naturally coloured cottons and the tensile
properties of blended yarns studied. The DyneemaR fibre is commonly
referred to as high performance polyethylene (HPPE) due to its exceptionally
high strength. The addition of small quantities of certain HPPE fibres
substantially increases the yarn tenacity and breaking elongation of certain
cotton blended yarns, particularly those made from naturally coloured cottons.
The resultant yarn tenacity appears to be influenced by the fineness of the
constituent fibres and the level of yarn twist. The effect is more pronounced for
the coloured cottons than for the HPPE blends with white cotton. Whereas the
yarn strength tends to increase for the pure brown and white cottons as the
twist increases, it decreases in the green cotton yarns with the increase in
twist within the range studied. However, the addition of small quantities of
HPPE fibres results in substantial increase in tenacity for all at a constant level
of twist. Finer HPPE fibre provides a greater improvement in yarn strength as
compared to coarser HPPE fibres. The different frictional properties and
geometries of the constituent cottons and synthetic fibres play a role in their
blending and associated resultant yarn strength. The use of small quantities of
1-denier HPPE fibre significantly increases the strength and elongation of
cotton blended yarns, particularly those made from brown cotton, with the
minimum change in observed colour. Such cotton and DyneemaR blends may
find application in special purpose denims, where pure cotton yarns or the
traditional cotton rich blends with conventional synthetics may not meet the
performance requirements for fabric strength.
141
42
206
spinning system. Sunhemp is coarse, strong and stiff bast fibre similar to jute
fibre but not considered by textile technologists for the purpose of spinning
into yarn, which can be further woven into fabrics. The objective of this study
was to spin 100% Sunhemp fibres into different yarns of same count on a jute
spinning system by using different number of passages of carding and
drawing to find how the structural changes in the fibre after each stage
mechanical processing. To observe structural changes in the fibre, random
sampling method was done using microscope. It was found that a lot of
changes occur in the fibre structure due to mechanical processing. The
structural details about the fibre entity are depicted in the article. Further,
correlation was established between various fibre parameters such as fibre
length, fibre diameter and fibre number of branches. Finally, an exponential
frequency distribution of the fibre lengths for various stages in the spinning
process was calculated. This curve explains how the degree of
142
individualization increases as the fibre length decreases and makes the fibre
spinnable into better quality yarn.
Reddy et.al (2006)
143
produced from cornhusk fibres and their blends with other fibres. Natural
cellulose fibres extracted from cornhusks have been blended with cotton and
polyester and processed on the ring and rotor spinning machines. The
processability of cornhusk fibres on the conventional spinning systems,
compatibility with cotton and polyester, and properties of the blended yarns
had been studied. The properties of cornhusk fibres blended yarns are also
compared with those of the similar yarns produced from unconventional fibres,
such as pineapple and banana leaves, milkweed and kenaf. It is observed that
the blending of cornhusk fibres with cotton does not adversely affect the
properties of yarns while the blending of cornhusk fibres with polyester
improves the strength and elongation of the yarns.
Marwaha (2007)
207
growing concerns for the degrading environmental conditions have led to the
development of eco-friendly and biodegradable fibres. These fibres, being
eco-friendly, do not pose the toxicity and waste disposal problems. Ecofriendly fibres are natural fibres, sub-divided into organic (vegetable and
animal) and inorganic (mineral) fibres. The fibres discussed in this article are
banana, sisal, mesta, hemp, flax, angora rabbit hair, and pineapple leaf fibre.
Dhamija and Chopra (2007)
33
the tearing strength of cotton fabrics in relation to certain process and loom
parameters. Tearing strength of cotton fabrics made of ring- as well as
compact spun weft yarns has been studied in relation to certain process and
loom parameters. It is observed that the fabrics made of compact spun weft
yarns are more tear resistant. The tearing strength further improves
particularly in the weft way direction with the increase in the weft yarn linear
density and the weft tex twist factor. There is an initial increase in strength
followed by a decrease as the number of picks per inch is increased in the
cotton fabrics made of compact spun yarns. However for the fabrics made of
ring yarns, it shows a general decreasing trend. The 2/2 designs are found to
143
34
L (palmyrah palm) fruit fibres. Natural cellulosic fibres such as coir, sisal,
cotton, jute and ramie have been widely used in fibrous forms and the
reinforcements in the composites due to their low density and bio-degradable
nature. Fibres from date palm leaves and oil palm trees have been analyzed
and attempts have been made to measure and reduce the sorption
characteristics of oil palm fibers using various treatments. Borassus fibre is a
natural cellulosic fibre obtained from fruit extracts of palmyrah (toddy) palm
trees. Fibres are available from the covering of the fruits that can be separated
by mechanical peeling operation, followed by minor beating. Though synthetic
fibres exhibit superior properties and performance compared to many natural
fibres, the latter has still strong acceptance in many applications.
Unconventional natural fibres are often explored due to their eco-friendliness
and availability in many regions. Such fibres are often used in low cost
composites, technical applications such as ropes and cordages. The structural
properties and the physical properties were studied in detail. It showed some
unique properties that are normally observed in other cellulosic fibres. Very
low density values and higher moisture regain levels appear to be the distinct
aspects of the fibres. Also, the fibres are capable of withstanding high
temperatures without any degradation or transitions. The tenacity values
remained unchanged even under wet conditions and there is presence of
elastic region represented by the yield point, which is absent in many natural
cellulosic fibres.
Ramesh (2007)
136
upon the settings and spindle speeds. The study has been conducted for five
counts like 34s carded, 40s carded, 40s combed, 60s carded and 80s
combed. The spindle speed variation was between 13,500 to 19,500 rpm. The
144
paper also gave the results on the effect of different spindle speed on
evenness, imperfections and hairiness then different back-zone setting in ring
frames on imperfections. At increase spindle speeds, yarn quality attributes
like strength, evenness and thick places do not get high affected. Thin places,
strength C.V % and hairiness show a tendency to increase with spindle
speed. While increasing back-zone setting of the ring frame thin places fault
(measured Uster tester-3) get reduced.
Sivakumar (2007)
multifunctional
170
property.
The
multifunctional
auxiliaries
and
energy
171
agents , results in the generation of COD and BOD low values, anti-soiling
agents etc The successful application of disperse dyes on P/C blends with the
help of PRG and CD bring out numerous advantages such as dyeing of P/C
blend in a single stage process using disperse dyes, saving of water, energy
time,
replacing
conventional
surfactants
and
thickeners
using
CD,
performances of fibres. When the staple fibres are converted to yarn they go
through various processes such as opening, cleaning, combing, drafting, etc.
These processes cause various deformations such as tension, bending and
compression. The behaviors of fibres during the processes are dependent
upon the combined effect of inter-fibre cohesion and resiliency. Though there
are wide spread recognition of the roles of fibre cohesion and resiliency in
textile process, reliable measures of their combined effects do not exist.
Considering the importance of these parameters an instrument had been
developed which can be used to measure the processing propensity of staple
fibres which follows the principle of opening roller of rotor spinning unit which
was modified to simulate the carding action. Seven varieties of cotton were
tested using the instrument and the same cotton was tested for basic fibre
properties and cohesive force. They were further tested for unevenness and
imperfections using UT4.The results showed higher strength, length and
cohesive force values. The instrument Developed by SITRA will help mills in
assessing the fibre processing propensity, which will in turn produce yarns of
optimum quality from a given fibre.
146
Balasubramanian (2007) have tried to analyze the hairiness of yarns: and its
relative merits of various systems, protruding fibres, loops from the surface of
the yarns and loosely wrapped wild fibres constitute hairiness, is a unique
feature of staple fibres and that distinguishes it from a filament yarns. In spite
of the various drawbacks of hairiness like excessive lint droppings, affecting
the appearance, performance gets affected, prints look hazy and lack
sharpness, in sewing breakages would be high, increased tendency to pilling,
increase in air drag etc, it has some beneficial effects as it adds to fabric
comfort, liveliness, warmth. The article also discusses in detail about the
procedures for measurement of hairiness like microscopic, photoelectric etc.
The various tests to measure hairiness and the methods to control hairiness
in different spinning systems. Hairiness is lower in air vortex spinning
compared to air-jet spinning and while hairiness increases with cotton content
in air-jet, no such trend is found in air vortex spinning.
Gautam and Bhattacharya (2007)
41
other fibres which requires running the spinning machines at lower speeds
because most other fibres have lower strength because most of the jute
spinning machines are designed for handling only jute. To facilitate control of
speed in a manner that does not result in excessive end breakages, when
blending jute accessories like infrared sensors and closed loop controlled
drive circuitry were tried and have met with limited success. It was observed
that very minor slippage takes place due to increment and change of load
between the belt contact positions, which can be neglected for any practical
purposes and applications. Thus it may be concluded that work done on
control and measurement of flyer speed of jute spinning machines using
infrared sensor is a unique one and is highly suitable for production of
diversified blended jute products. However demand for blended jute products
is growing and the importance of improving productivity in blended jute
spinning cannot be over emphasized.
Naik and co workers (2007)
107
23
blends in the apparel market, have explained the term blending, which is the
process required to convert two or more kinds of staple fibres into a single
yarn composed of an intimate mixture of the component fibres which is
necessary to obtain a uniform yarn from different varieties of the same fibrous
polymer. The various reasons for development of blends are to make the
fabric economically viable, durability of fabrics, improving the physical
properties, to create new colour variations, to improve spinning, weaving and
finishing efficiency etc. This paper deals with cotton blending with different
varieties of fibres and their properties. Thus the textile industry in India
contributes lot in foreign exchange earnings of the country. In which garment
industry contributes to 6% of the gross domestic product of India. Hence the
148
29
silk/cotton blends in short staple ring spinning system, have explained the
technology of production of spun silk yarn from silk waste which involves a
long sequence of machines. There has been a great demand for silk blended
fabrics in recent years due to increased price of raw silk. Therefore this study
was carried out with the objectives of spinning of silk/cotton blended yarns in
short staple spinning systems, evaluation of quality attributes of silk/cotton
blended yarns and the assessment of handle and performance properties of
silk/cotton fabrics. It concluded by stating that 60s and 80s combed yarns
were spun and there is a tendency for the silk/cotton blended yarns to show
better yarn quality attributes I terms of imperfections and hairiness. The
thermal c0onductivity of silk/cotton blended yarn fabrics is relatively better as
there was a marked improvement in the comfort characteristics making it ideal
for summer wear. The total hand value as measured by Kawabata Evaluation
system was better for the cotton/silk blended yarn fabrics.
Rao (2007)
137
fibres: Vakka, date and bamboo. This paper aimed at introducing new
natural fibres used as fillers in a polymeric matrix enabling production of
economical and light weight composites for load carrying structures. An
investigation of the extraction procedures of Vakka, date and bamboo fibres
had been undertaken. The cross-sectional shape, the density and tensile
properties of these fibres, along with established fibres like sisal, banana,
coconut and palm were determined experimentally under similar conditions
and compared. The fibres introduced in the present study could be used as an
effective reinforcement for making composites, which have an added
advantage of being light weight.
Edward and Mrinal (2008)
97
uniform yarn from different varieties of the same fibrous polymer. The various
reasons for development of fibre blends are the economic, durability, physical
properties, colour, appearance etc. here are four major types of coloured
effect achieved by blending like the solid, reserve, shadow and the contrast
and each of this is discussed in detail.
Sengupta et al (2008)
157
mechanical processing of jute. Jute is one of the most important fibre used for
industrial applications. Development in jute mechanical processing sector is
remarkable in some areas, but industry is reluctant to accept the new
technology and products. The wide variation and unique characteristics in jute
fibre properties and the meshy structure make this fibre difficult for
processing. Hence its processing machineries are quite different than any
other fibre processing machine. Most extensive research; intensive production
and marketing expertise have to be built into the jute sector to make jute nonwovens a commercial success for jute diversifications. It seems that there is
potential of use of jute in stitch bonded non-woven, which is unexplored till
date. Extensive research is required for jute fibre quality improvement for
better processing and yarn quality.
Bhattacharya and co workers (2008)
18
Itagi and co workers (2008) had reported on polyester cotton blended saree
of Shigli (Karnataka). In northern part of Karnataka, weaving is part and parcel
150
of life, as it has given employment opportunity in the rural areas. Central Silk
Board, DCTSC dept, has conducted survey of weaving clusters in Gadag
district. This paper reports one such area of Shigli as potential for weaving
poly cotton saree, which has developed good market in southern areas. Here
power loom uses cotton and polyester yarns for production of sarees, where
the cotton of about 2/100s count, is used as warp which is 40%. Polyester
yarns of 2/80s count id used for border and 80s for the weft, which is around
60%. Both yarns are dyed and converted to hanks in bobbins. Value addition
is also provided by hand embroidery (Kasuti) by trained workers. As per
survey, a weaver can produce a saree of 6.2 meters in length in a period of
just 31/2 hours and 2 sarees in 8 hours of time. The price varies from around
3000- 500 depending upon the amount of work gone into it. The KSPLDC,
Bangalore has constructed 16 sheds, which has been given master weavers
to help the weaving community and development of power looms. The
polyester cotton blended sarees are having good demand among the
customers of different states because of the comfort and low price when
compared with other sarees in the market with good colour combinations.
Saktivel et. al (2005)
153
highlighted the importance and wide textile applications of natural fibres which
are mostly used in different areas namely wearable textiles, household textiles
and industrial textiles, based on the advantages obtained from the particular
type of fibres. Large numbers of varieties of unconventional natural textile
fibres are available, but due to their unavailability, it is not familiar in the field
of textiles. Some of the unconventional fibres like milkweed, pineapple,
banana, funcraea and spider silk are used in different applications in the field
of textiles, because of their own advantages.
The article Current scenario and future prospects for diversified utilization of
natural fibres other than cotton looks into the suitability of natural fibres for
various applications like: high quality blended apparel grade textiles,
technical, industrial and home textiles including non-wovens, bio-composites,
pulp and paper, fine chemicals, cosmetics, health care products and bio-fuel,
its scope for enhanced use and projected demands in terms of quality and
151
quantity. The article also looks into the basic physical, chemical, structural,
morphological traits of natural fibres, the blending of cotton with jute,
pineapple, flax, ramie etc, in preparation of particle boards, hard-board from
crop residues like cotton stalks, craft paper from cotton stalk pulp, making of
corrugated boxes etc are outlined. In addition to the current global trends,
emerging areas of newer applications for natural fibres are highlighted. Based
on the international scenario and increasing governmental thrust for post
harvest processing, value addition including packaging of agricultural
produce, it is felt that the demand for natural fibre products is bound to
increase in years to come.
125
152
135
application in composites, for the study jute fibres were subjected to an alkali
treatment with 5%NaOh solution fore 0, 4 and 8 h at 30C. Composites were
prepared with untreated as well as alkali treated jute fibres and vinyl ester
resin with a fibre loading of 35% by hand pultrusion method. The modulus of
the jute fibres increased by 12% and 79% after 4 and 8 h alkali treatment
respectively. For the 4h treated composites the flexural strength improved by
20% and modulus improved by 23%. However, this was not reflected in their
impact fatigue behavior. On the contrary, the composites reinforced with the
untreated and the 8h treated fibres displayed superior impact fatigue
resistance. The higher defect concentrations in the untreated and 8h treated
composites lowered their mechanical properties, but acted as shock absorber
to the repeated impacts and improved their impact fatigue resistance property.
The improved bonding between the alkali treated jute fibres and the vinylester
resin increased the relative thickness of the bonded interface. Tiny humps
were observed at a temperature higher than the primary transition
temperature in the loss modulus curves of the composites. The damping
parameter of both the transition peaks showed an increasing trend in the
treated composites indicating higher viscous dissipation in the treated
composites.
Menezes (2007)
96
having meshy structure obtained from the bark of jute plant. Retting and
extraction processes have a profound effect on the quality of fibre produced,
and on the cost of fibre production affects the efficiency of manufacturing,
quality of the end products, competitiveness in market and ultimately
determining the level of earnings for industry and returns for growers. The
article also explores about the options that existed for qualifying and
developing improved microbial retting practices, for determining water
requirements and for use of low cost bleaching agents. It also concentrated
on studies of mixed bacterial cultures which are efficient retting agents and
which have a measure of symbiosis within the culture. It further briefs on the
various bleaching techniques like reductive bleaching, sodium hypochlorite
bleaching, sodium chlorite bleaching, hydrogen peroxide bleaching, one bath
153
scouring and bleaching, including the chlorine free bleaching, retting in field,
and carding, batching, carding, drawing/grilling, spinning, chemical treatment
of jute. Various methods of dyeing of jute fibres especially with reactive dyes
and the finishes that can be applied on jute fabrics depending on its end use
as well as to improve aesthetic and feel properties.
Samanta and coworkers (2005)
147
treatments and subsequent mixed enzyme treatment on properties of jutecotton union fabric. Jute-cotton (75:25) union furnishing fabric had been
treated with varying dose of mixed enzyme (cellulose, xylanase and
pectinase) system with or without selective pre-treatments and the
consequent changes in important textile related properties of the fabric
evaluated. For untreated jute-cotton union fabric, 4% (owf) mixed enzyme
treatment at 55 C for 2h using pH 4.8-5.0 is found to be optimum. Between
cotton (warp) and jute (weft), enzyme action is found to be more pronounced
in cotton than in jute. However, the degree of enzymatic hydrolysis and
associated weight loss for jute are found to be more pronounced in cotton
than in jute. However, the degree of enzymatic hydrolysis and associated
weight loss for jute are found to increase if the mixed enzyme treatment is
done after selective pre-treatments. 1% NaOH pretreatment at 30 C for 30
min offers some unique advantages, except browning of surface colour, when
subsequently treated with 4% (owf) mixed enzyme, Steaming of wetted jutecotton union fabric t 130 C for 5 min shows almost negligible weight loss and
marginal or no strength loss, although the reduction in stiffness in jute is poor
and inadequate. Conventional scouring followed by 2% bleaching with
stabilizer AWNI instead of sodium metasilicate makes the fabric most suited
for subsequent 4% mixed enzyme treatment. The use of 5 steel balls in the
rotating beaker of the launder-o-meter during the enzyme treatment is found
to be very useful for removal of surface fuzz. Changes in the functional group
pattern and chemical composition of jute have also been analyzed after the
treatments. Scanning electron microscopic and X-ray crystallographic studies
respectively reveal the changes in the surface morphological features and the
fine structure of differently treated jute component of jute-cotton union fabric.
There is apparent increase or decrease in X-ray crystallinity due to associated
154
mass loss from non-cystalline zone/crystalline interface for different pretreatments and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis.
Grancaric et al (2006)
51
193
meshiness to alkali treatment. The study was carried out in two parts, firstly to
study the Effect of alkali concentration and treatment temperature on crimp
development in jute fibres For the above study four different varieties of jute
fibres with different levels of meshiness were carried out at three different
conditions of concentration and temperature, namely 9% conc./2C temp (9/2),
18% conc./30C temp (18/30) and 18% conc./10 C temp (18/10). Crimping
behavior in terms of decrimping extension, decrimping stress, decrimping energy
and crimp stability has been studied. It has been observed that under the
condition 18/10, crimp development is maximum because of its inherent higher
shrinkage potential. Decrimpimng energy is also found to be highest but the
parameter crimp energy decay, having considerable practical
155
46
156
33
relation top certain process and loom parameters. Tearing strength is one of
the important aspects of a finished fabric as it is directly involved in the
assessment of serviceability of the fabric in use. Three different varieties of
cotton was used and `it was observed that the fabrics made out of compact
spun weft yarns are more tear resistant. The tearing strength further improves
particularly in the weft way direction with the increase in the weft yarn linear
density and weft tex twist factor. There is an initial increase in strength
followed by a decrease as the number of picks/inch is increased in the cotton
fabrics made of compact spun yarns. However, for the fabrics made of ring
yarns, it showed a general decreasing trend. The 2/2 designs are found to be
superior in warp way but inferior in weft way directions. The fabrics woven on
air jet looms show lower tearing strength than those woven on projectile
looms. The mechanical finish as well as the variation in shed opening does
not affect the tearing strength of cotton fabrics produced from compact spun
weft yarns.
Hebsiba and Thambidurai (2007)
55
cotton yarns after slack swelling and stretching in presence and absence of
sodium hydroxide. For the study cotton yarns of 16s count was made on a
ring and rotor spinning frame from a single fibre mix and yarn samples were
prepared in lea forms and treated. The properties of ring and rotor spun cotton
yarns subjected to combined swelling and stretching at pre-determined time
intervals have been studied. Yarn stretched in the solution exhibit spectacular
changes in their properties. The increments in shrinkage values were found to
be more in slack swollen rotor- spun yarns. Crystallinity values showed a
decreasing trend with the increase in swelling time. Yarns stretched in solution
showed a tremendous increase in packing fraction. Tenacity and elongation
values showed significant increase with the solution stretch. The values of
packing fraction, tenacity and percent elongation were found to be higher in
the case of ring spun yarns. Scanning electron microscopy proved the
swellability and packing of fibres in the yarns.
157
207
126
fabrics. Jute is a vegetable fibre derived from the bark of an annual plant.
Traditionally used for Hessians and sacking, it may commercially viable as a
textile fibre because of it good strength, durability, antistatic properties and low
thermal conductivity. The demand for jute decorative goods and upholstery
materials would increase if its colour instability could be eliminated. For this
reason, jute bleaching has received fresh attention. One advanced method for
bleaching of jute fibres is ozonation. The whiteness of ozonated fabric was
found to be superior to that of fabrics bleached with hydrogen peroxide and
calcium hypochlorite. Ozone is a strong oxidizer, capable of participating in
many chemical reactions with inorganic and organic substances. Ozone
bleaching techniques have shown some promising results
158
in delignification. This work demonstrated that ozone gas could provide the
same degree of whiteness as traditional methods, with shorter treatment
times. For this study the roles of fabric moisture, pH, treatment time and
ambient temperature during ozone bleaching had been investigated. The
results showed that an acceptable degree of whiteness, hydrophilicity, and
strength loss can be obtained by ozonation in a very short time as compared
to fabrics bleached using conventional methods. An acceptable degree of
whiteness can be achieved by using ozone for a very short time, providing
savings of thermal energy, water, chemicals in comparison to conventional
bleaching techniques. Moreover ozonated fabrics showed less surface
roughness, the lignin content and DP values were also decreased. And as it is
carried out in a closed system it s environment-friendly.
Ram (2007)
132
149
oxo-disulphate combined room temperature bleaching of jute, cotton and jutecotton union fabrics- An energy-efficient eco-friendly process. The demand for
jute and jute-cotton union fabrics is gradually increasing due to consumers
preference for eco-friendly natural fibres. In the present study, attempts were
made to optimize the bleach-bath composition and the process parameters for
room temperature bleaching. A tentative mechanism for the effect of K2S2O2
in boosting the action of H2O2 has also been proposed and discussed. The
measurement of physical properties like the breaking tenacity, weight loss and
surface appearance study indicates that the proposed room temperature
bleaching is less damaging to the three types of fabrics studied as compared
159
189
Alam and coworkers (2008) had explained about the dyeing of cotton fabrics
with reactive dyes and their physio-chemical properties. The effect of dye
concentration, electrolyte concentration, dyeing time and the dyeing
temperature on the dyeing performance of the cotton fabric dyed with reactive
dyes, viz: Reactive Red 6B and Reactive Yellow l were studied. The dye
absorption increases with the increase in the electrolytic concentrations,
dyeing time and the dyeing temperature in the dye concentration. Considering
the effects of various external influences on the dyed cotton fabrics, it has
been observed that the Reactive Yellow RL imparts better physio-chemical
properties than the Reactive Red 6B in most cases. The cotton fabric dyed
with both the above dyes was very sensitive to strong acids and alkalis. I n
160
case of colour fastness and other physio-chemical tests, both the dyes gave
satisfactory results.
Ian in the review article on Textile bleaching a modern perspective have
discussed about bleaching, a process with a long complex history and is
dominated by the use of hydrogen peroxide and FBAs. The results are faster
processing, unprecedented high standards of whiteness and a much reduced
load on environment. The major bleaching agents for textiles are hydrogen
peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, sodium chlorite and peracetic acid. Are all
oxidative bleaching and the reductive bleaching is based on sodium
hydrosulphite. Bleaching increases the reflectance across the whole of the
visible waveband, but more especially at the blue end of the spectrum. The
two methods of increasing the whiteness are by use of tinting (bluing) or by
the application of a fluorescent brightening agent or optical whitening. These
are colourless substances that strongly absorb energy in the invisible near
ultraviolet region and is re emitted, though some energy is lost as heat in this
conversion process, so the re-emitted radiation is of lower energy but of a
higher wavelength. Thus the energy that is strongly absorbed in the invisible
near-UV region id re-emitted by fluorescence as visible violet or blue light.
This results in increased blueness, with a small increase in lightness which
leads to overall increase in the perceived whiteness of the textile.
Teli and co-workers (2002) et al studied the response of jute to the dyes of
synthetic and natural origin. India is the second largest country in jute
production in the world and jute is becoming increasingly important in various
textile products as well as its blends with other fibres in apparel as well as
non-apparel field. Chemical composition of jute and its high absorbency offer
promising potential of getting it dyed with different classes of synthetic dyes
also natural dyes. At present the information available on jute dyeing is
scanty, as the use of jute till now was limited mainly to packaging material,
where the coloration of finished goods is not so important. In the present work
it was intended to study the response of jute towards the dye ability with
different classes of synthetic and natural dyes.
161
201
single bath full bleaching of flax fibres using an activation of sodium chlorite/
hexamethylene tetramine system. Flax possesses natural impurities in
contrast with cotton; it is more sensitive to alkali and oxidizing, bleaching
agents. That is why bleaching of flax based textiles is lengthier and requires
more care and precautions than cotton based textiles. The present work gives
us an appropriate method to bleach flax in one-step process keeping in mind
the quality, cost of the bleaching process and its environmental impact. The
process was based on activation of sodium chlorite by hexamethylene
tetramine in the presence of a nonionic wetting agent. The factors affecting
the bleaching such as HMTA concentration, temperature, duration of
treatment was studied to optimize the bleaching conditions. The bleached flax
fibres were assessed for critical properties like whiteness index, loss in fibre
weight, tensile strength, carboxyl groups and carbonyl groups. Based on the
results obtained the optimum formulation for bleaching flax was determined.
For comparison purposes, different types of flax fibres namely grey, card and
waste properties after bleaching were also examined. Furthermore, tentative
mechanisms for the reactions involved in bleaching were also suggested. It
seems that, when optimum formulation was used, HMTA activates
decomposition of NaCIO2 mainly to liberate nascent oxygen rather than
chlorine dioxide.
160
fabrics. As resin finish affects the fibre itself, the finishing depends on the
quality of the grey goods, quality of chemicals used for finishing and the care
and technique devoted to the application of the fabric. Maintenance of solution
of the finish is very important in order to maintain the tearing strength, tensile
strength, abrasion resistance, wrinkle resistance, dimensional stability, spot
and stain resistance and hand and feel.
Manjrekar (1999)
206
industry. Increasing
environmental
concerns
have
forced
the
manufacturers to rethink about the process being carried out in the textile
industries. The emphasis is on total elimination of ecologically non-friendly
chemicals. This lead to an intensive research in finding out suitable
alternatives of which enzymes are found to be most suitable ingredient for
textile wet processing. Also, due to the advanced technology enzymes gave
better results than some chemicals used for similar purposes. When the
possibilities of textile biotechnology today are compared with those just ten
years ago, considerable progress is evident. Thus, due to advances in
biotechnology we can get production of safe, highly active, efficient e4nzymes
capable of performing various specialized functions so as to change the
traditional textile processing operations. They are considered to be
environment friendly biochemicals due to their ease of inactivation and
disposal.
Tao and Chen (1999)
205
kenaf fibre bundles are blended with Pima cotton and spun on a cotton
processing system to yield blended 30/70 kenaf/cotton yarns. For comparison,
100% cotton yarn, 30/70 jute/cotton yarn and 30/70 flax/cotton blended yarns
were also prepared. The kenaf/cotton blended yarns are comparable to the
jute/cotton and flax/cotton blends. Experimental woven fabrics made from
100% cotton yarn and from the blended yarns revealed that the breaking
strength of kenaf/cotton blended fabric is similar to that of other blends, but
lower than that of 100% cotton fabric. The kenaf blended fabric displays the
greatest air-permeability. When the Kawabata evaluation system is used to
evaluate the fabrics, the results showed that the blends are stiffer and less
recoverable after deformation than the 100% cotton fabric, but the measured
surface properties of the blended fabrics are comparable to those of 100%
cotton.
Byrne (1999)
206
lifetime of a new product development is such that, within a few years, the
advantages responsible for its success no longer command a price premium,
hence the constant drive to produce new ideas, concepts and technologies to
maintain market momentum. For cotton products the major developments in
recent years ha been the easy care finishes, enzyme wash down treatments
and latterly, stain resistance utilizing fluorocarbon finishes, but in many
product areas it is blends, which have formed the backbone of apparel
product development programmes. This concept has also extended to
accommodate blends of wool with cotton and in view of the advantages in
terms of aesthetics, comfort and warmth associated with such blends; it is
perhaps somewhat surprising that the development of such products has not
been actively pursued. Apart from the obvious difficulties associated with
dyeing wool/cotton blends to solid shades, one of the major disadvantages of
this fibre combination is that of the inherent tendency of the wool component
to shrink, or felt, when machine washed and/or tumble dried. This property is
of course incompatible with the production of garments which exhibit the full
range of modern easy care performance criteria, namely washing machine
washability, wrinkle resistance, smooth drying and crease stability. However
depending on the blend and the fabric structure, and also the level of
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205
165
207
industry. After weaving the yarn into fabric; the greige goods are in an
unfinished state. Varieties of processes are available to improve the
appearance, handle, performance and durability of the fabric. Before the more
specialized finishing processes are applied, fabrics usually require cleaning
(scouring) to remove warp sizing, oils and other additives and dirt. Cotton is
frequently boiled or may undergo enzymatic desizing, wool is frequently
carbonized and scoured and silk is degummed. Finishing includes all
processes that a fabric undergoes once it leaves the mill and before final
garments or materials reach the consumer. Processes such as desizing,
carbonization of wool, degumming of silk, bleaching, stone washing,
biopolishing and processing in aqueous solutions. In this paper are provided
examples of some finishing processes with enzymes which depend on the
ultimate use of the textile.
Sheth and Musale (2001)
208
166
206
121
blended fabric. Characteristics of pure flax and flax blends with jute and cotton
are explored in furnishing material applications. Flax types, textile properties
and end-uses are reviewed. Developing flax/cotton blends will also extend the
use of cotton for other purposes. Fibre and yarn testing was detailed followed
by the testing of the fabrics. Microscopic appearances of flax, jute and cotton
fibre strands were studied and chemical properties and chemical constituents
were determined. Cost issues during the production process for the samples
were considered. The physical properties of both fibre and yarn were
described, followed by the physical properties of flax/ jute and flax/cotton
blended fabrics which included abrasion resistance, tear strength and
elongation percent, crease recovery, fabric stiffness, pilling propensity and
chemical properties of fibres. The jute/flax blend of 80:20 demonstrated the
best characteristics.
Raskovic (2003)
205
migration of dye in the capillary spaces of the cotton substrate. Gray cotton
fabrics show a hydrophobic character due to the presence of the cuticle
around the fibres. Cellulases are natural catalyst for modification of cellulosic
fibres and fabrics. In this work a cotton fabric were treated with some
pectinase, lipase and cellulase at acetate buffer, and the effects of the
treatments on the technical properties, such as strength, sorption, FTIR, air
permeability and weight loss of the fabrics were evaluated. The results show
that the treated cotton fabric is cleaner without large damages of own
structure.
202
202
206
123
comfort of cotton and polyester fabrics. The aim of this work was to examine
the effect of fabric softeners on the thermal comfort properties like airpermeability, thermal insulation value, wick-ability of cotton after repeated
laundering. Three different parameters such as different fabric softener levels,
different fabric types and different laundering cycles were chosen and tested
for the thermal comfort properties. The respective yarns and fibres were
coated with lubricants, humectants and softeners which make the fabric soft
and flexible by internal lubrication of the fibres, which further also acts as an
antistatic agent by enabling the synthetic fibres to retain moisture to dissipate
static charge, thus making it more comfortable.
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85
fabric. The appearance and handle of the jute-cotton union fabric have been
significantly improved by treatment with a commercial enzyme preparation,
Biocellulase ZK. The treatment leads to the removal of surface hairs from the
fabric and induces improvement in soft feeling. The handle of the fabric is
improved due to increased drapability and compressibility and reduced
stiffness and rigidity. The principal parameters affecting the treatment are
concentration of enzyme and mechanical friction. Strength loss of fabric after
the treatment is accompanied with a loss in fabric weight and is acceptable if
it is kept within a controlled limit.
Fakin (2006)
205
colours of bleached and dyed flax fibres. In this paper the effect of enzymatic
bio-scouring on the bleaching and dyeing of flax fibres was studied in
comparison with conventional alkaline scouring. Enzymatic bioscouring was
performed with a commercial multi-enzyme system consisting of pectinases,
hemicellulases and cellulases. The enzyme and alkaline scoured flax fibres
were subsequently oxidatively bleached with hydrogen peroxide and dyed with
direct dye C.I.Direct red 80 under the same conditions. The efficiency of both
the scouring and bleaching processes were evaluated by weight loss and the
whiteness of the bleached samples was determined according to CIE formula.
The exhaustion profile of the used dye was followed on-line during the dyeing
process using absorbance measurement. The colours of bleached and dyed
samples were evaluated using CIELAB colour values. The residual
pretreatment and dyeing baths were ecologically analyzed with COD, degree
of whiteness, comparable dyeing properties and is more environmentally
friendly.
Ibrahim (2004)
60
cotton wet processing. A new approach was used to search for the optimal
conditions for enzymatic scouring with an alkaline pectinase and to investigate
the feasibility of performed combined bioscouring and bleaching and
combined bioscouring and reactive dyeing of unsecured cotton fabrics. The
possibility of conducting enzymatic desizing, bioscouring and bleaching of
170
starch sized cotton fabrics in a single bath was also examined. The results
indicated that changes in the parameters of the bioscouring process, the
types and the concentrations of the treating bath components, and the
sequence of the treatment and addition had pronounced effects on certain
properties of the treated cotton substrates (e.g., the residual size, weight loss,
wettability, yellowness and whiteness and dyeability with reactive dyes). The
optimal conditions for efficient bioscouring alone and in combination with
bleaching, reactive dyeing and enzymatic desizing and bleaching were
determined.
Salaskar and Desai (2005)
207
183
and pilling resistance. The polyester/ cotton blend fabric of 67:33 proportion
was treated to swelling procedure with disperse or vat dyes. Disperse or vat
colours are found to be more responsive in the case of polyester or cotton
blend dyeing, since the vat dye is not covalently bonded and the enzyme
action is not reduced. The reduction in the K/S values, used to analyze the
samples, with increased enzyme treatments was also evident.
Prabhu and co-workers (2006)
128
205
70
94
Silicones in textiles have seen an almost uninterrupted growth since the last 4
-5 decades. Softening and water repellency are almost synonymous with
silicone finishing in textiles. Today the basic structure of silicone finishing in
textiles is thoroughly manipulated to give rise to series of functional modified
silicones and bringing in the family of amino, carboxyl and epoxy modified
silicones for processing of textiles. The article takes a look at the versatility of
these wonder molecules in textile processing and highlights the usage in
newer areas and even explores the synergies in existing applications.
Vishnu and Selvakumar (2006)
196
treatments given to the fabrics. This review exclusively deals with all the
above mentioned factors in order to bring out the current status of
understanding on acid cellulases and its application on cotton fibre and
products made from it.
Bhat (2007)
19
for easy care textiles have increased due to lifestyle shift, which has opened
new vistas for the textile manufacturers. Some bonus properties like antimicrobial, flame-retardant, UV-protection, moisture and temperature control
and skin treatment can be added to textiles along with easy care properties
which would be a strong differentiation tool for the marketers for marketing
their merchandize in the competitive business scenario. Today soil stain
release finishing is imparted by incorporation of low surface energy
fluorochemicals, which allow oil and water stains to penetrate the fabric and
when laundered the stains easily get removed. The article explains about
fluorochemical treatments, which protect against both water and oil based
soils and resists wetting by oily and watery liquids. Silicone treatments protect
against water based soils and watery liquids only. The repellent products
prevent the textile substrate from wetting and soiling, also called the dual
effect. Thus the selection of primary soil release finishing chemical and allied
silicones and softeners play a very important role in delivering the desired
effect in processing, if factors like fibre type, construction, durability desired
etc is considered before finalizing the product for achieving the final finish.
Bagyalakshmi and Kokilavani (2007)
20
on herbal antimicrobial finish for cotton fabric. In the past textiles were
primarily for economical and functional point of view. But now some end-users
and in particular demands on the safety of textiles for the health has gained
considerable importance. The odour development resulting from biological
growth on textiles exposed to perspiration had not been considered a real
need until relatively recently. TO overcome this problem, now days
antiperspirants are used, but they shrink sweat glands and block pores
causing toxins that are normally eliminated by perspiring, therefore to control
sweating and also to avoid use of antiperspirants, herbal antimicrobial finishes
174
were introduced onto the fabric. The fabric was converted to arm pads, which
are mainly used as sweat absorbents. Absorption of sweat by the arm pad
alone does not give freshness instead it provides medium for the growth of
microbes. It is important to resist the growth of microbes, which is possible, at
least to some extent with the use of herbal antimicrobial agents. The herbal
sources selected were neem, aloe vera, tulsi, pomegranate and coffee sena.
The results of subjective and objective evaluation were satisfactory.
Chellamani et al (2007)
30
finish on fabrics made out of compact and conventional ring spun yarns.
Nanotechnology is an emerging inter-disciplinary technology booming in
various areas, wherein the properties of substances are drastically changed,
when their size is reduced to the nanometric range. A variety of anti-microbial
finishes have been developed for textile use, which in addition to effective
bacterial control exhibit durability of activity to laundering. The paper also
briefly discusses about the studies conducted on anti-microbial and softness
properties of fabrics while applying nano as well as conventional finishing
chemicals.
Goyal and Prabhu (2007)
49
175
79
74
is today a widely used enzyme for the treatment of celulosic material, most
commonly for cotton materials. In this work the effect of cellulase treatment
was evaluated by means of phenol-sulphuric acid method. This method was
performed by determining sugar liberation in the treatment bath with the
amount
expressed
in
glucose
equivalence. As
compared
with
the
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Krishnaveni (2007)
81
101
177
124
131
138
ethoxylated alcohol blend (wetting agent) and the recipe containing amino silicon
polyether copolymer and hydrophilic polymer in the ratio of 1:2 with ph of 5.5 at
60-70C temperature is the optimum finishing process than the other two
combinations so as to attain better comfort properties for sportswear.
Roda (2007)
144
174
the
economic
situation,
companies
that
adopt
the
latest
technologies will have the edge in providing superior products with the best
balance of properties at the lowest possible price.
Shyamsunder and coworkers (2007)
165
enzyme application in textiles, as they have their own merits and limitations
and they often shorten the process cycle reducing time, water consumption
and wastewater generation. As with all the chemicals and products, enzymes
too have their own merits and limitations. They show specific action without
undesirable effects on other components and normally operate under mild
179
temperature and pressure conditions, but at the same time are sensitive to
temperature, pH, humidity and contaminants. Thus stating that enzymes are
emerging in the field of textile wet processing and can be utilized in a much
bigger way if cost management is applied concluded the article.
Sivaramakrishnan (2007)
173
181
silk and polyester fabrics. Flammability has become an important concern for
consumers, foe technical organizations, manufacturers, fibre producers and
government agencies. It is influenced by the inherent characteristics of
different types of fibres and their inherent characteristics of different types of
fibres and their blends. Flame retardant finishes for textiles materials includes
a various chemical compound and polymer that are appropriate for each type
fibre, fibre blend, fabric weight and construction. For preventing the textiles
from fire, researchers have developed various types of non-durable, semi
durable and durable flame proofing products. As silk is a costlier fibre, is self
extinguishing, a cheaper flame retardant chemical has been used in the
present study to observe the suitability of the finished material. Thus the study
was undertaken with a view to study the effectiveness of different flame
retardant finishes on different silk and polyester fabrics with varying density, to
study the time to propagate appropriate length of fabric before and after
washings, to determine the tenacity and crease behavior after two washings.
It was seen that the time to propagate certain length of fabric increased with
increase in the add-on percentage, which depends on the areal density of the
fabrics. It was also observed that antimony oxide is more suitable than lead
monoxide for both the substrates. Washing reduces the add on % of polyester
180
fabrics more than silk. Resin treatment increases the tensile strength and
crease recovery of silk fabrics more than polyester.
Periyasamy and Khanna (2007)
127
133
150
enzyme and silicone treatments on jute fibre to study the effect on textile
related properties. The present study relates to broad-based assessment of
raw jute and selectively pre-treated jute fibres under the action of mixed
enzymes
(cellulose,
xylanase
and
pectinase)
and
textile
grade
softer, cleaner and brighter jute fibre with some lowering of bundle tenacity.
However, pre treatment of jute fibre under combined oxidative action of 3%
H2O2 and 0.75% K 2S2 O8 for 2 h at 30 deg C(pH 11) followed by subsequent
treatment with 1% mixed enzyme offers a better balance of textile related
properties covering moisture related properties, covering moisture regain,
fineness, bundle tenacity, flexural rigidity, surface reflectance, whiteness
index, yellowness index and brightness index. Treatments of jute fibres with
0.5-1% aminosilicone softener under a specified condition also make jute fibre
much softer, smoother, and brighter and cause noticeable reduction in
coefficient of friction without much change in bundle tenacity. However,
keeping all textile related properties in view, a pre-treatment of conventional
3% H2O2 bleaching for 2 h at 85 deg C (pH 11) or an oxidative treatment
under combined action of 3% H 2O2 and 0.75% K 2S2 O8 for 2 h at 30 deg C
(pH 11) prior to 1% aminosilicone treatment of jute fibre were found to be
much useful for textile purpose.
Nair (2007)
109
84
cellulose by using an assay with reading at 492nm. The retained activity was
investigated by cellulose assay for every successive cycle of operations.
Under different process parameters and conditions the activity amount of
cellulose immobilization has been tried to increase the immobilization
efficiency. Epoxy resin shows a greater amount of cellulose immobilization
when compared to ion exchange resin. The immobilized epoxy resin with
maximum activity was used on cotton fabric for biopolishing instead of free
enzyme for successive cycles and the treated fabrics physio-mechanical
properties were studied. Results show that immobilized cellulose can be used
for biopolishing for successive cycles efficiently.
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