Chapter 5
Chapter 5
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: What to Assess
Chapter 3: Using Objective Tests
Chapter 4: Using Essay Tests
Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Chapter 6: Using Observations, Oral Tests,
and Portfolios
Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of
Assessment Methods
Chapter 8: Item Analysis
Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores and
Reporting
Besides objective and essay tests, other methods of assessing students have been used. In
this chapter, we will focus on two types of such assessment methods, namely; the project
and practicals. The project is used in many subject areas while the practical test is
adopted for subjects that involve hands-on experience such as the sciences, technical and
vocational subjects, the hospitality industry and so forth. For, subjects such as
geography, geology and environmental education, the project may involve fieldwork.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.1 WHAT IS A PROJECT?
Most of us have done some form of project work in school or university and
know what is project. However, when asked to define, one will see varying
interpretations of the project and its purpose. A project is an activity in which time
constraints has been largely removed (compared to an examination) and can be
undertaken individually or by a group,
and usually involves a significant Most projects have certain common
element of work being done at home defining features (Katz & Chard, 1989)
or out of school (Firth and
Student centred
Mackintosh, 1987). Project work has
A definite beginning, middle, and
its roots in the constructivist approach
end
which evolved from the work of
Content meaningful to students;
psychologists and educators such as
directly observable in their
Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Jean
environment
Piaget
and
John
Dewey.
Real-world problems
Constructivism views learning the
Firsthand investigation
result of mental construction wherein
Sensitivity to local culture and
students learn by constructing new
culturally appropriate
ideas or concepts based on their
Specific goals related to curriculum
current and previous knowledge.
A tangible product that can be shared
In project work, the whole
with the intended audience
work process is as important as the
Connections among school, life, and
final result or product. Work process
work skills
refers to students choosing a
Opportunity for reflective thinking
knowledge area, delimiting it,
and student self-assessment
formulating a problem or putting
Authentic assessments (portfolios,
forward questions. It also involves
journals, etc.)
students investigating and describing
what is required to solve a given
problem, or answer a specific question through further work, collection of materials
and knowledge. Project work is planned so it can be carried out within the time
available. Preferably, the task should is drawn from knowledge areas in the current
curriculum. Project work is an integrated learning experience that encourages students
to break away from the compartmentalisation of knowledge and instead involves
drawing upon different aspects of knowledge. For example, making an object not only
requires handicraft skills, but also knowledge of materials, working methods and uses
of the object. Similarly, writing the project report requires writing skills learned in the
language classroom and applying it when analysing and drawing conclusions for a
science project. Generally, there are TWO types of projects: Research-based and
Product-based.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
PROJECT IDEAS
There are many types of effective projects. The following are just some ideas for
projects:
Survey of historical buildings in the students community.
Study of the economic activities of people in the local community
Study of the transportation system in the district
Recreate an historical event.
Develop a newsletter or Web site on a specific issue relevant to the school or
community (school safety, recycling, how businesses can save energy and
reduce waste, etc).
Compile oral histories of the local area by interviewing community elders.
Produce a Web site as a "virtual tour" of the history of the community.
Create a wildlife or botanical guide for a local wildlife area.
Create an exhibition on local products, local history, local personalities using
audiotapes, videotapes, and photographs.
Investigating pollution of local rivers, lakes and ponds.
The possibilities for projects are endless. The key ingredient for any project
idea is that it is student driven, challenging, and meaningful. It is important to realise
that project-based instruction complements the structured curriculum. Project-based
instruction builds on and enhances what children learn through systematic instruction.
Teachers do not let students become the sole decision makers about what project to
do, nor do teachers sit back and wait for the student to figure out how to go about the
process, which may be very challenging (Bryson, 1994). This is where the teachers
ability to facilitate and act as coach plays an important part in the success of a project.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
The teacher will have brainstormed ideas with the student to come up with project
possibilities, discuss possibilities and options, help the student form a guiding
question, and be ready to help the student throughout the implementation process such
as setting guidelines, due dates, resource selection and so forth (Bryson, 1994;
Rankin, 1993).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
a) What is a project?
b) What is the difference between a research-based project and
a product-based project. Give examples of projects in your
subject area.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Domains
Knowledge application
[Apply creative and critical
thinking skills]
Communication
[Improve communication
skills; both oral and written]
Collaboration
[Foster collaborative learning
skills]
Independent Learning
[Develop self-directed inquiry
and life-long learning skills]
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to make connections across
different areas of knowledge and to generate,
develop and evaluate ideas and information so as to
apply these skills to the project task.
be able to choose a knowledge area and
within this delimit a task or a problem,
be able to choose relevant material,
methods as well as relevant tools,
be held to draw up a project plan and where
needed revise it
Students will acquire the skills to communicate
effectively and to present ideas clearly and
coherently to specific audience in both the written
and oral forms
be able to discuss with their supervising
teacher how their work is developing,
be able to provide a written report of the
project describing the progress of the work
from initial idea to final product
be able to produce a final product which
means an independent solution to the task
or problem chosen
Students will acquire collaborative skills through
working in a team to achieve common goals.
Students will be able to learn on their own, reflect
on their learning and take appropriate actions to
improve it.
be able to use a logbook documenting the
progress of their work and regularly report
the process
be able to assess either in writing or
verbally their work process and results.
Table 5.1 The Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Achieved with Projects
[source: Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real
world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]
PROJECTS aim at:
developing the skill of planning, structuring and taking responsibility for a larger
piece of work and providing experience of working in project form (like they do
in the real world!).
encouraging students to study in-depth knowledge within a subject or between
subjects.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
providing students with opportunities to explore the inter-relationships and interconnectedness of topics within a subject and between subjects.
encouraging students to synthesise knowledge from various areas of learning, and
critically and creatively applying it to real life situations.
5.1 ACTIVITY
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Do the students have easy access to the resources they need? This is especially
important if a student is using specific technology or subject-matter expertise from
the community.
Do the students know how to use the resources? Students who have minimal
experience with computers, for example, may need extra assistance in utilising
them.
Do the students have mentors or coaches to support them in their work? This
can be in-school or out-of-school mentors.
Are students clear on the roles and responsibilities of each person in the group?
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Authenticity
Does the project stem from a problem or question that is meaningful to the
student?
Is the project similar to one undertaken by an adult in the community or
workplace?
Does the project give the student the opportunity to produce something that has
value or meaning to the student beyond the school setting?
Academic Rigor
Does the project enable the student to acquire and apply knowledge central to one
or more discipline areas?
Does the project challenge the student to use methods of inquiry from one or more
disciplines (e.g., to think like a scientist)?
Does the student develop higher order thinking skills (e.g., searching for evidence,
using different perspectives)?
Applied Learning
Does the student solve a problem that is grounded in real life and/or work (e.g.,
design a project, organise an event)
Does the student need to acquire and use skills expected in high-performance
work environments (e.g., teamwork, problem solving, communication, or
technology)?
Does the project require the student to develop organizational and selfmanagement skills?
Active Exploration
Does the student spend significant amounts of time doing work in the field,
outside school?
Does the project require the student to engage in real investigative work, using a
variety of methods, media, and sources?
Is the student expected to explain what he/she learned through a presentation or
performance?
Adult Relationships
Does the student meet and observe adults with relevant experience and expertise?
Is the student able to work closely with at least one adult?
Do adults and the student collaborate on the design and assessment of the project?
Assessment Practices
Does the student reflect regularly on his or her learning, using clear project criteria
that he or she has helped to set?
Do adults from outside the community help the student develop a sense of the real
world standards from this type of work?
Is the students work regularly assessed through a variety of methods, including
portfolios and exhibitions?
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.2 ACTIVITY
include
Peer learning can improve the overall quality of student learning. Group work
enhances student understanding. Students learn from each other and benefit
from activities that require them to articulate and test their knowledge. Group
work provides an opportunity for students to clarify and refine their
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
understanding of concepts through discussion and rehearsal with peers. Many,
but not all, students recognise the value to their personal development of
group work and of being assessed as a member of a group. Working with a
group and for the benefit of the group also motivates some students. Group
assessment helps some students develop a sense of responsibility: 'I felt that
because one is working in a group, it is not possible to slack off or to put
things off. I have to keep working otherwise I would be letting other people
down'.
Group work can help develop specific generic skills sought by employers. As
a direct response to the objective of preparing graduates with the capacity to
function successfully as team members in the workplace there has been a trend
in recent years to incorporate generic skills alongside traditional subjectspecific knowledge in the expected learning outcomes in higher education.
Group work can facilitate the development of skills, which include:
o teamwork skills (skills in working within team dynamics; leadership
skills);
o analytical and cognitive skills (analysing task requirements;
questioning; critically interpreting material; evaluating the work of
others);
o collaborative skills (conflict management and resolution; accepting
intellectual criticism; flexibility; negotiation and compromise); and
o organisational and time management skills: 'Having to do group work
has changed the way I worked. I could not do it all the night before. I
had to be more organised and efficient'
Group work may reduce the workload involved in assessing, grading and
providing feedback to students. Group work, and group assessment in
particular, is sometimes implemented in the hope of streamlining assessment
and grading tasks. In simple terms, if students submit group assignments then
the number of pieces of work to be assessed can be vastly reduced. This
prospect might be particularly attractive for staff teaching large classes.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.6 ASSESSING PROJECT WORK
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
However, it is suggested that evaluation of product and process be done separately
rather than attempt to do both at once. [We will discuss how process in project work
may be evaluated later].
89-80%
79-70%
69-60%
59-50%
49-40%
39-30%
29-20%
19-10%
Very poor work or work where very little attempt has been made. A
lack of technical or expressive skills. Work displaying fundamental
weaknesses in the criteria assessed.
9-1%
Extremely poor work or work where no serious attempt has been made.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.3 ACTIVITY
All group members receive the same mark for the work submitted regardless of
individual contribution. It is a straightforward method that encourages group work
where group members sink or swim together. However, it may be perceived as
unfair by better students who may complain that they are unfairly disadvantaged
by weaker students and the likelihood of sleeping partners is very high
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Method 2: Share-Out Marks
The students in the group decide how the total number of marks should be shared
between them. For example, a score of 40 is given by the teacher for the project
submitted. There are 5 members in the group and so the total score possible is 5 x
40 = 200. The students then share the 200 marks based on the contribution of each
of the 4 students; which may be 35, 45, 42, 38 and 40. This is an effective method
if group members are fair, honest and do not have ill-feelings towards each other.
However, there is the likelihood for the marks to be equally distributed to avoid illfeelings among group members.
Each student in the group submits an individual report based on the task allocated
or on the whole project.
a) Allocated task : From the beginning, the project is divided into different parts or
tasks and each student in the group completes his or her allocated task that
contributes to the final group product and gets the marks for that task. This method
is a relatively objective way of ensuring individual participation and may motivate
students to work hard on their task or part. The problem is breaking up the project
into tasks that are exactly equal in size or complexity. Also, the method may not
encourage group collaboration and some members may slow down progress.
b) Individual report: Each student writes and submits an individual report based on
the whole project. The method ensures individual effort and may be perceived as
fair by students. However, it is difficult to determine how the individual reports
should differ and students may unintentionally plagiarise.
Examination questions specifically target the group projects, and can only be
answered by students who have been thoroughly involved in the project. This
method may motivate students more to learn from the group project including
learning from the other members of the group. However, it may not be effective
because students may be able to answer the questions by reading the group reports.
In the Malaysian context, national examinations may not be able to include such
questions as it involves hundreds of thousands of students.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.4 ACTIVITY
Logs can potentially provide plenty of information to form the basis of assessment
while keeping minutes helps members to focus on the process which is a learning
experience in itself. These techniques may be perceived as a fair way to deal with
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
'shirkers' and outstanding contributions. However, reviewing logs can be time
consuming for teachers and students may need a lot of training and experience in
keeping records. Also, emphasis on second hand evidence may not be reliable.
Please answer all of the following questions honestly, completely and true to what your
experiences were in your group.
Your evaluation of your peers may impact and be considered up to 20% of the final grade
for this project.
This form is to filled out in a confidential manner and is not to be discussed; this is
private and is only between you and your teacher.
1. Were you absent on any of the days that your group was working on this project?
2. Were any of your group members absent while working on this project? WHO and
how many days?
3. If any of the group members were absent, did this absence affect the amount of
work that you were able to complete that day? HOW?
4. Do you feel like the work load was distributed evenly between ALL group members?
5. Please give an estimate, using 100% as the total group and divide up the amount of
work that you feel each group member contributed, please write down each group
members name and then put the appropriate percent next to it.
Group Members
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Percent (%)
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
6. What areas do you feel you contributed the most to on this project? Write down
the details.
Group Members:
1 ..
2 ..
3 ..
4 ..
Work Contributed
7. What areas do you feel others in your group contributed the most to on this
project? Write down each name with the details next to it.
Group Members
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
Grade
Comments/Explanation
.
.
.
.
8. Do you feel that your group worked well together on this project?
WHY? Or WHY NOT?
9. If you were given another project of this magnitude what qualities would you look
for in future group members?
10. Based on your answers above please grade each of your group members,
including yourself on the scale below:
A He/she worked great together, work was evenly distributed, he/she
pulled their fair share of the work with no absences.
B He/she worked okay with the group, work was almost evenly
distributed, he/she mostly pulled their fair share, an absence was made
but it had minimal impact on the project.
C He/she had difficulties working with the group, the work was not evenly
distributed, he/she did less than their fair share, any absences made an
impact on the project progress.
D He/she did not work well with the group, did little work, less than their
fair share, and any absences did hinder the project progress.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
SELF ASSESSMENT IN PROJECT WORK
Self-assessment is a process by which students learn about themselves; for
example, what they have learned about the project, how they have learned and how
they reacted in certain situations when carrying out the project. Involving students in
the assessment process is an essential part of balanced assessment. When students
become partners in the learning process, they gain a better sense of themselves as
readers, writers and thinkers. Some teachers may be uncomfortable with selfassessment because traditionally teachers are responsible for all forms of assessment
in the classroom, and here we are asking
students to assess themselves. Self-assessment
can take many forms:
Discussion involving the whole class or
small groups
Reflection logs
Self-assessment checklist or inventories
Teacher-student interviews
These types of self-assessment share a common
theme; they ask students to review their work
to determine what they have learned and areas
of confusion still exist. Although each method
may differ slightly, they all include enough
time for students to consider thoughtfully and
evaluate their progress.
Because project learning is student driven, assessment should be student
driven as well. Students can keep journals and logs to continually assess their
progress. A final reflective essay or log can allow students and teachers to understand
thinking processes, reasoning behind decisions, ability to arrive at conclusions and
communicate what they have learned. According to Edwards (2000), the following
are some questions the a student can ask himself or herself while self-assessing:
What were the projects successes?
What might I do to improve the project?
How well did I meet my learning goals? What was most difficult about
meeting the goals?
What surprised me most about working on the project?
What was my groups best team effort? Worst team effort?
How do I think other people involved with the project felt it went?
What were the skills I used during this project? How can I practice these skills
in the future?
5.5 ACTIVITY
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
? ?
This may explain why the training and education of professionals such as
doctors, dentists, engineers and teachers involves engagement in a substantial amount
of practical work that is regularly assessed. In schools, students engage in practical
work in subjects such as biology, chemistry, physics, geography, living skills and
even religious education. Should involvement in practical work in primary and
secondary school be assessed? If yes, how do we go about assessing practical work
or conducting practical tests. Many areas of study involve practical work, but it is
often much more difficult to assess such work. Assessing reports such as laboratory
reports or the objects produced in practical work may only be measuring the quality of
the end-product of the practical work, and not the work itself.
Macintosh and Hale (1976) see practical assessment as being essentially
concerned with presentation of problems and with the provision of opportunities for
students to suggest and to justify solutions to these problems. It is thus necessary for
them to demonstrate mastery of relevant skills. It involves the teacher setting pieces
practical exercises and continuously assessing the skills involved in completing these
exercises.
WHY EVALUATE PRACTICALS?
Practical work may be really important. For example, none of us wants to
be treated by a surgeon who has the best theoretical knowledge available, but
whose practical work is slipshod!
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Employers may need to know how good students' practical work is (and
not just how good their reports are.) It is therefore useful to reserve part of
our overall assessment for practical skills in such cases.
Get students to self-assess how well they undertook tasks. This at least
helps students to reflect on their performance in practical work, and since the
overall contribution to their final grades of the process side of their work will
probably be small, the risk of any error due to over-confidence or underconfidence is well worth the benefits accruing from reflection.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
22
Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.6 ACTIVITY
23
Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
general manual dexterity
the use of specialised equipment
extracting, organising and analysing information from a variety of sources
designing controlled experiments to test hypotheses
thinking critically and creatively about ideas, information and problems
interpreting and using mathematical data and methods in science
communicating ideas related to science using a variety of media and
methods.
Specifically, practicals in science instruction enhance performance in the following
domains (see Figure 5.8):
o process skills: observing, measuring, manipulating physical objects
o analytical skills: reasoning, deduction, critical thinking
o communication skills: organizing information, writing
o conceptualisation of scientific phenomena.
The National Science Teachers Association of America (1990) makes the following
recommendations with regards to practical work in science teaching and learning:
Preschool and Elementary Level
o Preschool/Elementary science classes must include activity-based, hands-on
experiences for all children. Activities should be selected that allow students
to discover and construct science concepts; and, after the concept is labelled
and developed, activities should allow for application of the concept to the real
lives of students. Provisions also need to be included for inquiry activities in
which students manipulate one variable while holding others constant and
establish experimental and control groups.
o Children at all developmental levels benefit from science experiences.
Appropriate hands-on experiences must be provided for children with special
needs who are unable to participate in classroom activities.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
o A minimum of 60 percent of the science instruction time should be devoted to
hands-on activities, the type of activities where children are manipulating,
observing, exploring, and thinking about science using concrete materials.
Reading about science, computer programs, and teacher demonstrations are
valuable, but should not be substituted for hands-on experiences.
o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect hands-on
experience. The full range of student experience in science should be
measured by the testing program.
Secondary School Level
o All secondary school science courses must offer laboratory experiences for all
students.
o A minimum of 40 percent of the science instruction time should be spent on
laboratory-related activities. This time includes pre-lab instruction in concepts
relevant to the laboratory, hands-on activities by the students, and a post-lab
period involving communication and analysis. Computer simulations and
teacher demonstrations are valuable but should not be substitutions for
laboratory activities.
o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect the laboratory
experience. The full range of student experience in science should be
measured by the testing program.
5.7 ACTIVITY
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
1 Presents a poor plan and shows little evidence of insight into how
to translate the problem into action.
2. Experimental Execution
4 Demonstrates a consistent ability
to carry out the experiment work
and takes account of the precision
of the apparatus.
3 Demonstrates a consistent ability
to carry out the experiment but is
limited in a number of psychomotor skills.
2 Sets up the apparatus consistently but often needs advice to
complete the investigation.
1 Careless in handling apparatus. Often fails to follow instructions.
Consistently needs advice.
3. Observation of Changes
4 Correct observations specified, unexpected results recorded, errors
are identified and explained.
3 Presentation of data consistent with experimental conditions, but
little attention to errors.
2 Observations lacking in fine detail. Some consistency in
presentation of data, but generally consistent with experimental
data. Some measurements outside the range of the instrument
accepted.
1 Poor presentation. Help needed in measuring. Poor discrimination
ability in observing. No concept of error range.
4. Interpretation and Explanation
4 Demonstrates a definite analytical approach, calculates results
accurately, relates investigation to problem stated.
3 Presents an adequate analysis, calculates correctly, but liable to
minor errors.
2 Makes tentative judgments about problems stated and the
investigation. With assistance under data into acceptable results.
1 Demonstrates little understanding of the relevant data and proceeds
with difficulty in carrying out the calculations.
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
5.8 ACTIVITY
SUMMARY
A project is an activity in which time constraints has been largely removed and
can be undertaken individually or by a group, and usually involves a significant
element of work being done at home or out of school
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
The abilities and skills assessed in practical involve the student being able to plan,
implement, analyse and evaluate.
The laboratory provides an optimal setting for motivating students while they
experience what science is.
KEY TERMS
Projects
Six As of a project
Product-based project
Group work
Research-based project Marks allocation
Project ideas
- shared group mark
Project design
- shared out marks
Practicals
- planning
- implementation
- analysis
- evaluation
REFERENCES:
Bottoms, G., & Webb, L.D. (1998). Connecting the curriculum to real life.
Breaking Ranks: Making it happen. Reston, VA: National Association of
Secondary School Principals.
Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real
world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]
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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
Curriculum Develop-ment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED352389)
Katz, L. (1994). The project approach [ERIC digest]. Urbana, IL: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED368509)
Katz, L.G., & Chard, S.C. (1998). Issues in selecting topics for projects [ERIC
digest]. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Childhood Education.
Sutherland, M. (2003). Checklist for evaluating processes in project work. East Side
Union High School District, San Jose, California.
Thomas, J.W. (1998). Project based learning overview. Novato, CA: Buck
Institute for Education.