The pig performance testing scheme in Zimbabwe

Kennedy Dzama (2002)

The Department of Paraclinical Veterinary Studies, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box
MP167, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

Introduction
Commercial pig production in Zimbabwe largely involves the use of exotic pig breeds
numbering approximately 104 thousand out of a total of 295 thousand pigs (CSO 1999a,
1999b). In pig production there are many traits of economic importance and improving these
traits requires improvement of the environment together with genetic improvement. The
genotype of an animal sets a ceiling to which the animal can be improved through
manipulation of the environment. It is, therefore, important to complement advances made in
management practices by improving the pigs genetically.
Genetic improvement within breeds can only be achieved by means of selection. Selection is the
act of choosing those animals which will be the parents of the next generation and which have
the highest breeding value. Information on the breeding value of an animal can be obtained by
testing its relatives, e.g. sibs and progeny, or by evaluating the animals own performance. In
Zimbabwe genetic evaluation of pigs is done only for the large-scale commercial pig production
sector.

Genetic evaluation scheme in Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, the Pig Industry Board (PIB) has the mandate for genetic evaluation of pigs.
This is done in two ways;
1. nucleus testing which is done centrally at the PIB station in Arcturus 30 km east of
Harare; and
2. multiplication testing which is done on farm.
In both the nucleus and multiplication tests, animals are evaluated based on their own
performance. Progeny testing was once a component of the nucleus test but was stopped in the
early 1980s. The board at that time viewed it as an expensive methodology, which also took a
long time to yield results. The current nucleus test evaluates two traitsbackfat thickness and
feed conversion efficiency (FCE)while the multiplication test evaluates growth rate and
backfat thickness.
Nucleus testing

This is conducted at the PIB station in Arcturus. Pig breeders from all over the country bring
their animals to the central station at the PIB for testing. This system necessitates the bringing
together of animals from different sources, which is contrary to the basic principles of disease
control. To reduce the risk of spreading diseases the animals are quarantined for three weeks at
the PIB quarantine station before being moved into the main station. While the animals are in
quarantine, a veterinarian inspects them on a weekly basis. Any animal that dies in the station
is sent to the veterinary laboratories for post mortem.
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The breeder pre-selects the animals to be sent for testing. Both boars and gilts are eligible for
testing. Pigs are only taken in for testing if they are from gilt litters of not less than 9 born and
7 weaned and sow litters of not less than 10 born and 8 weaned. Control over numbers weaned
per litter assists in standardising the pre-test environment.
Performance is measured from 3586 kg live weight. During this period the pigs are
individually fed and all the feed issued is recorded. The animals are tested on a restricted
feeding system. Any treatments carried out on the pigs are recorded. At the end of the test, the
FCE is calculated and backfat thickness measured. The amount of fat is measured at the P2position, which is 7 cm from the midline along the last rib. This is the same position used by
government graders on slaughtered pigs throughout the country. The two measurements (FCE
and backfat thickness) are used to decide whether to cull or keep an animal. Other data
available on the animal include its pedigree, date of birth, its birth weight, 21-day weight and
weaning weight.
Selection is based on a method referred to as independent culling levels (ICL). With ICL, a
minimum standard is set for each character and an animal is kept if it exceeds the standard for
all characters. At PIB each combination of the two traits is given a score. This score is
calculated based on the profitability potential of a herd with that trait combination. The
profitability potential is based on an income over feed costs index. The base profitability
potential is set at 100, representing a backfat thickness of 20 mm in boars and 21 mm in gilts
and a FCE of 2.7 between 35 and 86 kg. Proportional figures for different levels of
performance are then calculated from the baseline. In the PIB nucleus test, all pigs that score
below 100 are culled. Selection is therefore based on the animals phenotype and an economic
score. Neither genetic values or breeding values are calculated, nor are they used for making
selection decisions in this test.
For animals passing the nucleus test, a visual appraisal on external features is also done. In
doing the visual appraisal the following factors are considered:

pigs with obvious faults such as genetic conditions like hernia and cryptorchidism are
rejected and pigs with leg weaknesses are also culled

the gait of the animal should be free and easy and not stiff

the pasterns should be short and inclined upright

widely open and unbalanced digits are undesirable

the animal to be selected should be wedge-shaped

the shoulders should be light in relation to the hams

the hams should be filled down to the hock

the animal should have at least twelve well-developed and evenly spaced teats animals
with blind or inverted teats are culled

males with poorly developed testicles are culled

A disadvantage of this system is that it is subjective but the best guideline is to keep a picture
of an ideal pig in mind. Culling of animals with excellent index scores is avoided if possible.
The breeder is notified of the results of the animal. Animals that fail the test are sent for
slaughter and approved animals are sold back to the breeders. The breeders can either sell the
animals or retain them on their farm for further breeding.

Multiplication testing

The test is conducted on the breeders farms by PIB officers. The animals tested are the
progeny from either nucleus or multiplication tested animals. Animals are pre-selected in the
same manner as in nucleus testing. Recording is carried out by the farmer using performance
cards supplied by PIB. Information recorded includes the animals pedigree, date of birth, its
birth weight, 21-day weight and weaning weight. After weaning, animals are weighed
periodically depending on the farmers preference. The test runs until the pigs attain a weight
of 86 kg. The PIB staff visit the participating farmers once a month to see if records are being
collected properly and to answer any queries the farmers may have about the scheme. In
multiplication testing, the number of animals tested is not limited. Approval is based on the
animals age at 86 kg, which is an indirect measure of average daily gain and also the amount
of backfat at the P2 position. As in the nucleus test, the system is based on independent culling
levels and the following approval standards are used:
Boars

Gilts

Age to reach 86 kg

<170 days

<175 days

Backfat at position P2

<19 mm

<20 mm

Any animal with values above the stated values is culled. Animals that pass the test are used
within the herd or made available for sale to other producers. Some breeders even export seedstock animals to countries in the region.

Strengths and weaknesses of the scheme

Traits

Selection of pigs at both the nucleus and multiplication stages is based on two traits only while
others traits like litter size and conformation are selected for indirectly during pre-selection.
There is clearly a need to include other economically important traits in the current selection
programmes. Traits like litter size, mortality, three-week weight (which is highly correlated
with the dams ability to produce milk), weaning weight and boar fertility are important in
Zimbabwean pig production systems (Mungate et al. 1999). To improve accuracy of selection
of some traits with low heritabilities, e.g. litter size, it may be necessary to employ progeny
testing at the nucleus level (Shoniwa and Dzama 1995).
Progeny testing

Initially progeny testing was used to evaluate the genetic merit of pigs at PIB. Progeny testing
was abandoned because it was considered costly and it also took more time to assess the
animals compared with assessment of the animals own performance. Despite these demerits,
progeny testing in combination with the animals own performance would provide a strong
foundation for testing animals at PIB, especially if the set of traits is expanded to include litter
size as recommended. The accuracy of selection for traits with low heritabilities, like litter size,
will be enhanced significantly. The accuracy of prediction of additive genetic value from
records on 30 progeny for a trait with a heritability of 0.1 would be twice as great (0.66) as that
of predicting breeding value from the animals own record (0.32). In addition progeny testing
is important for evaluating traits which are sex limited (e.g. litter size) or traits where
destructive sampling is involved (e.g. carcass traits).

If progeny testing is reintroduced at PIB it may become necessary to promote extensive use of
artificial insemination (AI). This will enable boars to be used faster and more widely thus
generating larger databases for more accurate evaluations. Currently the use of AI in the
industry is almost non-existent. The economic benefits in terms of increased FCE, improved
litter sizes and leaner carcasses derived from accurate selection of pigs of high merit at national
level far outweigh the costs of progeny testing.
Data management and analysis

Progeny testing will result in generation of large data sets, which will inevitably need to be
stored on a powerful computer. Data on animals progeny and relatives will not only be
collected on station but also on farm through the existing PIB multiplication scheme. Even
though data collection and record keeping at the PIB is meticulous, there is need for
computerisation. The database created will be analysed with powerful statistical tools to
generate estimated breeding values (EBV) for the traits of interest. An EBV is an estimation of
the genetic value of an animal. It indicates its value as a parent. EBVs can be updated as more
information on the animals progeny and relatives becomes available. EBVs can be used to
construct a selection index incorporating the breeders choice of traits. The current selection
methodology in use at the PIB uses phenotypic records and breeding values are not computed.
One of the biggest strengths of the scheme is that it has fostered the culture of keeping records
among farmers. This will make computerisation and analysis of records easier. Farmers are
already working in close liaison with PIB staff and this will make it easier to implement new
programmes or upgrade existing ones.
One tool that can be used to compute EBVs is called Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP),
(van Vleck et al.1987) consisting of mixed model equations which take into account the
heritability of the trait, the amount of information available for each boar or sow, the genetic
level of the herd, genetic trend and non-genetic factors such as management groups. In the
southern Africa subregion, the genetic evaluation scheme in South Africa is the only one that
uses BLUP to compute breeding values for breeding animals. Besides Zimbabwe no other
country in the region has an organised performance testing and recording scheme.
Feeding system during test

In Zimbabwe, selection of breeding stock on the performance testing programme at PIB is

based on the restricted feeding system. However, the majority of producers raise their pigs on
an ad libitum feeding system. It is therefore important to test animals under the feeding system
that their progeny will experience on the different farms. This will prevent genotype x
environment interaction. Under the current system, the ranking of animals may differ under the
two feeding regimes practised on farm and on station.
When one tests animals under a restricted feeding system one will be limiting the genetic
potential of some animals. Testing of animals on an ad libitum or to appetite basis has its
disadvantages. As the pig proceeds to satisfy its appetite on an ad libitum system, its FCE will
start to deteriorate and its lean content to decline because of increasing fat deposition. Thus,
selection for carcass lean content and FCE on ad libitum feeding will tend to favour pigs with a
lower appetite. Pigs with lower appetites have serious problems during and after lactation. It is
imperative therefore that the feeding system during the test at PIB matches the one practised on
farm.

Other constraints

The method of selection used by PIB is the ICL. This is not the most efficient method of
selection in livestock production (Dzama 1993). The major disadvantage of using ICL is that
superiority for one character is not allowed to offset lack of merit for a different character. In
addition the profitability potential that is used to calculate the culling level needs to be updated
frequently so that it is in line with the prevailing economic environment. The profitability
potential currently in use at the PIB was last updated more than a decade ago.
Perhaps one of the most serious threats to the PIB performance testing scheme is the steady
decline in the number of farmers participating in the scheme. The number of farmers actively
involved in the nucleus scheme has declined from a peak of ten breeders in 1980 to the current
three breeders, with more breeders set to exit in the near future. The pig population on largescale commercial farms itself has fallen from 125 thousand in 1997 to 104 thousand in 1999
(CSO 1999a). Some of the reasons cited for the decline in the membership of the scheme
include the land redistribution programme in Zimbabwe since 1980, unsuccessful attempts to
form rival splinter schemes and lack of funding in the face of spiralling costs. The PIB officers
have visited fewer and fewer farmers in recent years to conduct multiplication testing. In
addition, the pig producers do not seem to appreciate the economic benefit from improved
genetics primarily because of cheaper inputs like labour.

Conclusions
There is clearly a need to improve the reproductive performance, growth rates and carcass
characteristics of pigs in Zimbabwe. This can be achieved by having sound genetic evaluation
schemes. Certainly the PIB scheme provides a sound base from which to launch the proposed
improvement programmes. This is possible because the basic infrastructure is there. Moreover,
at the central station farmers already appreciate the value of record keeping. In future, it may
also be necessary to include small-scale farmers who now keep more pigs than the large-scale
commercial sector.

Questions for discussion groups

1. Do you think traits of economic importance are the same for all pig production systems
worldwide and why?
2. Do you think African countries should have livestock evaluation schemes for production
systems based on imported pigs?
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of progeny testing. Do you think the merits outweigh the
demerits? Would you recommend it for testing pigs in your country?
4. Why is it that farmers may not be interested in joining national livestock testing schemes?

References
CSO (Central Statistical Office). 1999a. Livestock on large scale commercial farms 1999.
Ministry of Finance, Harare, Zimbabwe. 31 pp.
CSO (Central Statistical Office). 1999b. Agriculture and livestock survey in communal lands.
Ministry of Finance, Harare, Zimbabwe. 46 pp.

Dzama K. 1993. Genetic simulation of beef cattle production for growth and milk production.
PhD thesis. Texas A&M University, USA. 88 pp.
Mungate F., Dzama K., Shoniwa A. and Mandisodza K. 1999. Some non genetic factors
affecting pig production in Zimbabwe. South African Journal of Animal Science 29 (3) 164
173.
Shoniwa A. and Dzama K. 1995. Future prospects of pig production in Zimbabwe. In:
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Livestock Improvement through Animal
Breeding and Genetics held at Harare, Zimbabwe, 1011 May 1995. pp 7476.
van Vleck L.D., Pollak E.J. and Oltenacu E.A.B. 1987. Genetics for the animal sciences.
AW.H. Freeman and Company, New York, USA. 391 pp.