A Level Revision Guide
A Level Revision Guide
A Level Revision Guide
Contents
AQA SPEC 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components....................................6
3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and Components.....................................................6
AQA SPEC 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences................................8
3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market Influences.................................................8
AQA SPEC 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture.................................10
3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and Manufacture..................................................10
Fibres................................................................................................................... 14
Microfibers........................................................................................................ 17
Modern microfibers........................................................................................... 17
Natural Fibres...................................................................................................... 17
Cotton:.............................................................................................................. 17
Linen:................................................................................................................ 18
Sisal.................................................................................................................. 18
Wool:................................................................................................................ 19
Cashmere:........................................................................................................ 20
Mohair:............................................................................................................. 20
Ramie............................................................................................................... 21
Silk:................................................................................................................... 21
Cultivated Silk:................................................................................................. 21
Wild Silk:........................................................................................................... 22
Manufactured Fibres............................................................................................ 22
Asbestos:.......................................................................................................... 22
Viscose:............................................................................................................ 22
Lyocell:............................................................................................................. 23
Modal:............................................................................................................... 24
Acetate:............................................................................................................ 24
Rubber:............................................................................................................. 24
Acrylic: (Polyacrylic)......................................................................................... 25
PVC: (Chlorofibre) (Polyvinyl)............................................................................25
Elastane: (Elastomeric) (Lycra).........................................................................25
Fluorofibres:...................................................................................................... 26
PTFE:................................................................................................................ 26
Nylon: (polyamides).......................................................................................... 26
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Yarn types
Knowledge of basic yarn types and how they
influence the qualities of the fabrics made from
them, eg staple and filament yarns, single and plied
yarns, textured and bulked yarns, fancy yarns
Blending and mixing of fibres
Staple fibre blends, core spun
Fabric manufacture READ AQA BOOKLET& TEKOT
HANDOUT
Knowledge of the structure of the main construction
methods and the differences between them.
Understanding of the qualities given to the fabrics by
the construction methods, including typical end-uses
Woven
Plain (Tabby)
Twill and satin weaves
Pile weaves, eg cut/loop pile
Special effects achieved with coloured yarns and
Blended fibres, boucle and crepe fabrics
Knitted
Weft knits, eg single and double jerseys, rib knit,
hand and machine knits
Warp knits, including, tricot, velour
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Working Properties
Properties of fibres, yarns and fabrics
An understanding of how properties of different fibres, yarns
and fabrics can affect their use in a wide range of
commercial applications
An awareness of new performance codes in relation to the
selection of materials for a range of end uses
Identify, test and compare the relative properties of
fabrics
Knowledge of commercial testing to meet British Standards
Development of design
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0767725.html
History of design
Study to include some of the major developments of
design throughout the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries
Understanding of influences on aesthetic attitudes to
style and fashion up to the present day
Product evolution and product analysis
A study of manufactured products to illustrate the
way in which the demands of a product have evolved
as a result of new materials and technologies.
Appraisal of functional, aesthetic, technical and
economic considerations in the design and
manufacture of products
Consideration of aspects of physical surroundings as
shaped by designers, craftsmen and technologists
Design in practice
Design methodology
Analysis, research, inspiration, idea generation,
illustration, modelling, planning, evaluating and
testing
The role of the designer
An understanding of the varying roles of the
commercial designer
Exploring different approaches to designing
Understanding of manufacturing constraints on
product design
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Communication methods
Candidates should be able to communicate the detail
and form of products, environments and systems so
that they may be manufactured
They should be able to identify and use appropriate
means to communicate ideas, design proposals and
evaluations to a range of audiences, including clients
and potential users of the product, eg presentation
boards, fashion illustration, interior sketches,
swatches, colourways
Illustration
Selection and use of appropriate 2D/3D techniques,
eg sketching, drawing, use of mixed media, collage
Enhancement
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Applications/material areas
Apparel fabrics to satisfy basic clothing
requirements, eg protection, adornment, fashion,
utility, sportswear (performance sport and
leisurewear), footwear, accessories
Household fabrics, eg table/bed linen, furnishing
accessories, furnishings, floorings
Industrial textiles, eg fire protective wear,
components for vehicles/machines, automotive
fabrics, tents, awnings, harnesses, medical textiles
READ TEKOT HANDOUT
Environmental concerns READ AQA BOOKLET
Use of natural resources, materials utilisation,
conservation, waste disposal/management, pollution
in broad terms, recycling Green technology,
environmental problems
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Principles of grading
Basic adaptation to create unique individual styles
Product manufacture
Fabric preparation, lay planning, marking and cutting
out, methods of joining, shaping, finishing of edges,
selection of construction techniques appropriate to
the fabric being used and the product being made.
Pressing use of correct tools
Labelling and packaging
To plan appropriate methods and processes for the
manufacture of chosen products, including
amendments and adaptations of prototypes and the
use of industrial manufacturing processes
Product maintenance
Care and maintenance of products
Information shown on care labels, including symbols
used
Relationship between care recommendations and
fibre/fabric properties
Environmental concerns
An awareness of the environmental issues in relation
to fibre/fabric production and the dyeing of fabrics
and piece goods
Health and safety
Risk assessment and health and safety issues related
to the manufacture of textile products
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Absorbency
Comfort
(comfort)
(comfort)
(comfort)
Strength
Elasticity
Aftercare
(functional)
(functional)
(functional)
(aesthetics)
Natural fibres
Wool
Warm to
wear.
Slow, can
absorb
Silk
Cashmere
Mohair
Cotton
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Cool, but
good
insulation so
warm as
well.
Very warm.
Excellent
thermal
insulation.
Good
thermal
insulation.
35% warmer
than wool.
Cool to wear
unless
brushed.
1
3
its weight in
water and not
feel wet. Repels
water droplets.
Very slow
drying.
Fast, can
absorb
1
3
its weight in
water.
Slow
absorbency.
Poor.
Highly
absorbent.
Slow drying.
Very soft or
coarse
handle.
Good drape.
Medium
strength, not
durable.
Very good.
Creases
drop out.
Very
comfortable.
Soft handle
and elegant
drape.
Good
strength.
Very good,
creases
drop out.
Soft and
luxurious.
Excellent
comfort.
Excellent,
luxurious.
Luxurious
handle, light,
good drape.
Not-durable.
Luxury
handle, light
and good
drape.
Durable,
hardwearing.
10% stronger
than wool.
Good
elasticity.
Crease
resistant.
Good.
Crease
resistant.
Very
comfortable
unless wet.
Soft handle.
Good drape.
Good
strength,
abrasion
Poor.
Creases
easily.
Use extreme
care.
Very warm. 2
X warmer
than wool.
Average
warmth
Slow.
Very soft
Good
absorbency
Very
comfortable
especially in
warm weather
Fresh and
cool to wear.
Highly
absorbent. Fast
drying.
Stiffer and
harder than
cotton.
Low warmth.
More absorbent
than cotton.
Comfortable to
wear.
Lyocell
(high performance
viscose fibre)
Low warmth.
Very good
absorbency.
More absorbent
than cotton.
Very
comfortable.
Rubber
(natural from
latex)
(synthetic from
petrochemicals)
Modal
(regenerated)
Good, high
warmth.
Low
absorbency.
Stretchy,
poor drape.
Low warmth.
Highly
absorbent. 50%
more absorbent
than cotton.
Uncomfortable
due to lack of
breathability.
Warm, pliable
and soft.
Very
comfortable.
Very soft.
Asbestos
(mineral fibre
mined)
Acetate
Good
thermal
insulation.
Low warmth.
Poor.
Itchy, often
uncomfortable.
Comfortable, but
prone to static.
Polyester
Low warmth,
unless
textured.
Aramid
(Kevlar)
Low warmth.
Excellent
heat
resistance.
Low
absorbency.
Fast drying.
Very low
absorbency.
Hydrophobic.
Fast drying.
Average.
Rough
handle. Poor
drape.
Soft handle
and elegant
drape.
Soft or firm
handle.
Polyamide (Nylon)
Low warmth,
unless
textured.
Elastane
(elastomeric
fibres) (Lycra)
Fluorofibres
Low %
always used
in blends.
Low warmth.
Very low
absorbency.
Hydrophobic.
Fast drying.
Absorbent.
Dyes well.
Chlorofibre
(polyvinyl)
(PVC)
Polyolefines
(polyethylene)
(polypropylene)
Ramie
Linen
Manufactured fibres
Viscose
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Fair
elasticity.
One of the
strongest
natural fibres.
Even stronger
when wet. Not
very durable.
Little
elasticity.
Can be washed
or dry-cleaned.
Good strength
and durability.
Poor.
Creases
very badly.
Lower
strength than
cotton.
Stronger than
other cellulose
fibred,
including
cotton and
many types of
polyester.
Good natural
stretch.
Poor.
Creases
easily.
Poor.
Washable. Easy
to iron.
Excellent.
Does not
crease.
Lower
strength,
abrasion
resistance and
durability than
cotton.
Excellent.
Poor
elasticity.
Creases
easily.
Sensitive to light,
oils, solvents and
grease. Cant be
washed easily.
Recyclable.
Washable. Do not
bleach. Easy to
iron. Can be drycleaned and
ironed.
Low strength.
Poor abrasion
resistance.
Very strong
and abrasion
resistant.
Higher than
viscose, but
creases.
Very good.
Crease
resistant.
Soft, flexible
handle.
Good drape.
Five times
stronger than
steel.
Excellent.
Flexible.
Comfortable, but
prone to static.
Micro fibres
breathable.
Adds stretch
comfort.
Soft or firm
handle.
Very strong
and abrasion
resistant.
Very good.
Crease
resistant.
Soft or firm
handle.
Good
strength.
Breathable.
Flexible.
Soft, fine
handle.
Durable.
Provides
good
insulation.
Warm.
Non-absorbent.
Doesnt dye
well.
Low
absorbency.
Hydrophobic.
Waterproof.
Very high.
Crease
resistant.
Fair
elasticity.
Breathable and
flexible.
Strong, firm,
fine handle.
Very strong
and durable.
Flexible.
Low warmth.
Non-absorbent.
Good drape.
High strength.
Durable.
Good
stretch.
Crease
Comfortable, but
prone to static.
Micro fibres
breathable.
Flexible and
comfortable.
Soft handle.
Average
drape.
Can have
stiff or brittle
handle.
Doesnt
drape well
due to
stiffness.
Firm handle.
Smooth
surface.
Good drape.
resistance,
and durability.
Durable.
Soft or firm
handle.
Good drape.
Excellent
handle.
Good drape.
Silky, soft
handle.
Good drape.
Poor.
Disposable.
Totally
biodegradable,
can be recycled.
Biodegrades in 8
days.
Warm to
wear.
Fast drying.
Comfortable to
wear.
Very soft
wool-like
handle,
good drape.
Good
strength.
resistant.
Very good.
Crease
resistant.
Fibres
Fibres are the basis for all textiles. You need to know the difference between natural and synthetic
fibres, how each fibre is used, and which fibres can be combined together.
Textile materials are made in three stages:
1. spinning: fibres are spun into yarns
2. weaving or knitting: yarns become fabrics
3. finishing: fabrics are finished to make them more useful
A fibre is a fine and flexible textile raw material, which has a high ration of length to thickness. All
fibres can be classified as natural or manufactured. Fibres can be short or very long, depending on
where they came from and how they were manufactured.
Staple fibres are relatively short in length. Natural staple fibres can range in length from a few
millimetres, to around a metre.
All synthetic fibres are manufactured as continuous filaments of indefinite length, which run
the whole length of the yarn. Some synthetic continuous filaments are cut into staple lengths.
Silk is the only natural continuous filament fibre. It can be as long as one kilometre, when it is
taken from the silk cocoon.
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Machine
washable. Iron
with care, may
shrink.
Thermoplastic.
Fabric qualities
Durability-whether the fabric will withstand wear and tear, is it resistant to abrasion, will rubbing
cause the surface to pill (go bobbly)
Creasing- will the fabric keep creases in or shed them easily
Stretch- how far the fabric will stretch
Formability- does the fabric hold its shape well?
Handle- is the fabric soft? How does it feel when handled?
Drape- how the fabric hangs, is the fabric supple and flexible?
Weight- is the fabric heavy or light, is the weight suitable for its purpose?
Pattern repeat- is the printed pattern a large or small repeat? This will effect how economical it
will be to cut out the fabric pieces so that the pattern lines up when made into a garment
Directional pile- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabric, does it look different when
looked at from different directions, e.g. velvet that looked different from different angles.
Nap- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabric
Texture- what the fabric feels like, is it smooth, bobbly, rough etc
Microfibers
Microfiber technology combines a high number of very fine fibres into one yarn of decitex or less. This
means that 10 kilometres of the filament weigh one gram or less. A microfiber is around 60 to 100
times finer than a human hair. Microfibers can be:
Modern microfibers
Elastane (Lycra) is always used in a blend with other fibres. It is used to make sportswear,
body-hugging clothes and bandages. It has good handle and drape, is durable, crease
resistant, stretchy (more comfortable) and is easy care. It has low warmth and is absorbent.
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Tencel is a 'natural' microfiber made from cellulose derived from wood-pulp. It is used for
shirts and jeans. It has soft handle, good drape, is breathable, durable, crease-resistant,
easy-care and biodegradable. It is absorbent and has low warmth.
Natural Fibres
Vegetable Fibres (cellulose)
Seed
Cotton
Stem
Linen (flax)
Leaf
Sisal
Mineral Fibres
Silicate
Asbestos
Cotton:
Linen:
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Sisal:
This is a natural sustainable fibre, produced from the leaves of the agave cactus. Sisal is high
strength, durable, easy to dye, water resistant, has good abrasion resistance, good anti-static
properties and is fairly easy to keep clean. It is used for agricultural twines, ropes, hairbrush
bristles, baskets and natural floor coverings, which can be blended with wool to make them
softer and warmer.
Wool:
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1
3
Machine washable wool for wovens and knitwear at 40C, using the wool cycle and
approved detergents
Total Easy Care Wool for wovens and knitwear
Silicon treatment for weatherproofing
Typical wool fabrics include cool wool, felt, herringbone, flannel, sport wool, tartan, tweed
Typical end uses include blanket, carpets and upholstery, suits, jumpers, overcoats, sports
garments, ties, scarves, hats and socks, industrial felts, agricultural blankets and geotextiles
Washable (with care, unless easy finish), do not bleach, very slow drying, steam iron under a
cloth or fabric goes shiny. Can be dry-cleaned. Do not tumble dry, dry in direct sunlight or over
heat.
Woollen Process
Coarse, hairy, irregular, rustic appearance because they are
made from shorter, sometimes coarse staple fibres which are
rubbed during manufacture. Woollen fabrics are finished to
give a felted, hairy surface, suitable for jackets, blankets or
overcoats.
1. Almost any spinnable fibre can be spun using the
woollen system. Compressed bales of washed and
sorted raw wool, recovered wool or other fibres are
fed into a willowing machine for opening and
cleaning the loose fibres.
2. Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled
to improve spinning capability.
3. Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for
orientation and cleaning.
4. A fibre web is divided into ribbons and rubbed to
form the slubbing yarn, which is drafted to the
required fineness, twisted and wound into yarns.
Worsted Process
Smooth, uniform, regular, fine and lustrous because they are
made from longer types of staple wool fibres, which are
combed, doubled and drafted smooth and fine during
manufacture. Worsted fabrics are finished to give a smoothfaced fabric, which shows the yarn colours clearly. They are
used for suits, trousers and skirts.
1. The fleece wool is sorted according to quality,
separated into tufts, cleaned and dried.
2. These are fed into a willowing machine for opening
and cleaning the loose fibres.
3. Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled
to improve spinning capability.
4. Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for
orientation and cleaning.
5. Fibred are doubled, drafted and mixed to improve
their regularity.
6. The short fibres are combed, drafted and twisted
into a yarn roving of the required fineness, twisted
and wound into yarns.
Cashmere:
The fine under hair of the Kel goat from India, Mongolia and Iran, shorn once a year
Produced as staple fibres
One goat produces 200-250 grams per year (just enough for a scarf!)
Two goats produce enough yarn for a 1-ply sweater
It takes 24 goats to produce enough cashmere for a coat
Soft, luxurious handle and appearance
Light, lustrous
Good thermal insulator
Crease-resistant, dirt-repellent
Non-static, fire-resistant
Expensive due to limited supply
Typically blended with wool, silk and polyester
Expensive luxury fabric for coats, and suits
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Luxury knitwear
Luxury interior textiles for cars, planes and yachts
Mohair:
Hair of the angora goat, from Texas, South Africa, Turkey, shorn twice a year
Produced as staple fibres
Soft, silky, luxury handle and touch
Good thermal insulator 35% warmer than wool
Durable, hardwearing 10% stronger than wool, crease-resistant, dyes well
Dust-repellent, fire-resistant
Expensive due to limited supply
Typically blended with wool, cotton and silk
Expensive worsted fabrics for suiting
Eveningwear
Scarves and knitwear
Ramie
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Resistant to sunlight
Resistant to rotting and all types of bacteria
Keeps shape and doesnt shrink
Can be washed or dry-cleaned
Absorbent
Comfortable to wear especially in warm weather
Insulates well
High cost to the environment
Silk:
Cool but insulating so can be warm
Highly absorbent so slow drying
Very comfortable unless wet
Soft handle
Good drape
Very elegant
Good strength
Very good elasticity
Creases drop out
Wash and iron with care best dry cleaned
Cultivated Silk:
Can absorb up to
1
3
Wild Silk:
Silk filament fibres from the cocoon of the wild Tussah silk moth
Filaments ad spun silk
Coarse, rustic, uneven, thicker fibre
Harsh handle, heavier than cultivated silk
Absorbent and non-static because it always contains some moisture
Dyes to dark, dull colours, dull lustre
More sensitive than cultivated silk to perspiration could stain
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Viscose modal
Synthetic
polymers
Polyvinyl
Acetate
Chlorofibre
Rubber
Polyurethane
Fluorofibre
Polyamide
polyester
Inorganic
Acrylic
Carbon
Carbon fibre
Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
Elastane
Teflon
Nylon
polyester
glass
Glass fibre
Metallic
ceramic
Metal fibres
Ceramic fibres
Asbestos:
Viscose:
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Lyocell
The generic name given to a new family of cellulosic
fibres and yarns that have been produced by solvent
spinning. Marketed under the Tencel brand name, it is
a high performance staple Viscose fibre produced from
renewable sources of wood pulp.
The process is widely regarded as being
environmentally friendly and the product offers a
number of advantages over traditional cellulosic fibres.
Tencel
The brand name for a high performance Viscose fibre
made from 100% regenerated cellulose from trees.
Tencel is stronger than Viscose cellulosic fibre and is
characterised by its stiffness and drape.
Lyocell:
Fibrillation
Surface effects
Strength
Absorbency
Disposal
Characteristics
The ability for the fibres to spilt to give micro-fine surface hairs. Manufacturers
of technical products can develop these microfibers to suit specific end-uses.
Finishing processes such as dying, milling, felting, sueding, sanding and
brushing are used on woven fabrics, non-wovens and paper.
Lyocell is stronger than other cellulose fibres including cotton and outperforms
many types of polyester.
Lyocell is easy-care, dyes well, has good wicking properties and is breathable.
Totally biodegradable and can be recycled.
Modal:
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Acetate:
Rubber:
Natural rubber is made from latex, although synthetic rubber from petrochemicals is mainly
used today. Its natural stretch and pliability have made rubber useful for flooring, waterproof
coverings, types and Wellington boots. In the past, rubber yarns were used to provide stretch
in swimwear and underwear. Rubber can be printed onto garments and accessories and can
be used as moulded hoods and pockets. It can also be applied to specific areas of a product,
such as the fingers of work gloves. Natural rubber is:
o Warm pliable and soft
o Antistatic, antibacterial and anti-slip
o Sensitive to light, oils, solvents or grease
o Not breathable, so ventilation is needed
o Joined by stitching or adhesives
o recyclable
Acrylic: (Polyacrylic)
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typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer
fabrics, polyester or Elastane
Fluorofibres:
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PTFE:
Nylon: (polyamides)
Polyester:
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Trevira a branded type of Polyester, produced by Hoechst Fibres Inc. It offers better pilling
performance than regular polyester
Synthetic
Made from petrochemicals
Thermoplastic with a low melting point
High strength
Resistant to chemicals
Non-absorbent
Very good wicking properties
Crease-resistant
Soft when finely spun
Good soil and stain release but not oil or grease
Non-allergenic
Engineered for use in a wide range of end produces and is extensively used for carpet
backing, sacks, webbing, twine, fishing nets, vegetable bags and ropes
Used for upholstery and for the pile of carpets as it is very durable and has excellent soft
touch and crush recovery
The good wicking properties of polypropylene enable it to be used in medical and hygiene
products
Other end-uses include awning, synthetic surfaces for sports, sportswear and geotextiles
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Aramid:
Kevlar
Generic name for a family of synthetic polymer fibres made from petro-chemicals
Expensive high-tech aramid fibres can be engineered to produce woven, knitted, non-woven
or cabled technical textiles which provide high strength and heat-resistance
Brand name for a family of Aramid fibres
High strength
Lightweight
Flame and chemical-resistant
Flexible and comfortable
Important in a wide variety of industrial end-uses
Five times stronger than Steel
Flexibility and comfort make it suitable for a range of protective wear, such as chemicalresistant work wear
Used for bulletproof vests because of its bullet stopping power
Glass:
Fibreglass
Made of extremely fine fibres of glass. It is used as a strengthening agent, e.g. glass reinforced plastic
Commonly used as an insulation material and to produce flame retardant fabrics for specialised applications
Carbon:
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Graphite Fibres
Extremely thin and composed of mostly carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals which
make the fibre very strong for its size. Several thousand carbon fibres are twisted together to form a yarn, which may be used
by itself or woven into a fabric. Carbon fibre is very strong but lightweight and these properties make it very popular in
aerospace, civil engineering, military and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However it is relatively expensive
when compared to similar materials such as fibreglass or plastic. Carbon fibres are used in the production of electro-conductive
fibres used to make intelligent fabrics or wearable computers. Because the fibres are flame retardant they are used to make
some specialised fabrics such as those used for aeroplane interiors.
Metallic:
Ceramics:
Powdered compounds of metal oxide, metal carbide, metal nitride or their mixtures
Becoming more widely incorporated into garment fabrics
Ceramic content fabrics can regulate the body temperature wearer is cooler in heat or
warmer in cold temperatures
Resistant to very high temperatures
Provides UV protection
Good insulation
Resistant to chemicals
Low thermal conductivity
End uses: swimwear, UV protective clothing, industrial work wear, electrical, thermal and
sound insulation
Aftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried
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Yarns
Yarn is defined as a fine continuous length of fibres or filaments, with or without twist. To be useful,
yarns need to be strong enough to be made into fabric. Generally, lengths of fibres are produced
through the process of spinning into a variety of different yarn types, such as singles, ply, cabled, core
spun or fancy yarns. The thickness of yarn (the yarn count) and the tightness of the yarn twist, affect a
fabrics weight, flexibility, handle, texture, appearance and end use.
All staple yarns are spun from fibres into a variety of different yarns such as singles, piled,
cabled, core or fancy yarns.
The thickness of yarn (yarn count) and yarn twist affect a fabrics weight, flexibility, handle and
end-use.
Too much twist may make a yarn hard, whereas too little twist may result in a weak yarn. Soft
knitting yarns usually have less twist, but warp yarns for weaving need a higher twist so they
are strong enough to withstand the tension in the loom.
Staple yarns are made from fibres such as cotton, flax, wool, spun silk or cut manufactured
fibres.
Filament yarns are made from continuous filaments of silk and manufactured synthetic fibres
such as polyester or nylon.
Blended fibres like acrylic/cotton can be made permanently bulky using heat to increase the
volume of thermoplastic acrylic. This gives a warm soft handle, suitable for knitwear.
Thermoplastic continuous filament synthetic yarns can be textured using a heat process. This
gives an elastic, warm, soft handle, suitable for tights, swimwear, underwear, outerwear and
carpets.
Twist
Twist is put into yarns during spinning to make them stronger, so they are suitable for weaving or
knitting. Yarns can be spun clockwise (Z twist) or anti-clockwise (S twist). Fabrics made from spun
yarn usually have Z twist in the warp and may have S twist in the weft. Light is reflected in opposite
directions from the two types of yarn, so striped effects can be produced in fabrics by having alternate
stripes of S and Z twist in the warp.
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Continuous filament yarns are made by lightly twisting filament fibres together.
Staple yarns are made from short staple fibres; these have to be carded or combed, so that they all lie
in the same direction, before being twisted together to form a yarn.
Filament fibres can be chopped into short staple fibres; this means that they will need to be twisted
together to make a yarn. If a filament fibre is to be blended with a staple fibre, the long filaments need
to be cut into staple before being spun into yarn.
Filament yarns are smooth but staple yarns are hairy. Hairy yarns are good at trapping air between
the fibres this means that they are good insulators and will make fabrics which are warm. Smooth
yarns are not so good at trapping air and so make fabrics which are not good at insulating. The hairy
yarns can also trap moisture between the fibres.
Folded Yarns
Folded or piled yarns are made by twisting together at least two single yarns, in order to:
The direction of twisting is designated as S or Z, just as in single yarns. Normally the folding twist is in
the opposite direction to that of the single yarns. Folding twist may be soft, normal, or hard, according
to the number of turns per metre compared to that in the single components. Balanced twist is when
the folding twist is approximately equal and opposite of the singles. In single yarns, or in folded yarns
with unbalanced twist, the yarn contains residual torque resulting from the twisting together of the
fibres. This can cause the yarns to snarl during processing, and garments to become distorted after
laundering. Thus the highest quality knitted fabrics are made from two-folded yarns with balanced
twist.
Cabled yarns are made by twisting together folded yarns.
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Cabled Yarns-
Core Yarns-
Colour Effects
Mixture of Ingrain yarns are made
by mixing fibres of different
colours during spinning. This
results in a heather effect. For
example: Marengo
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Structure Effects
Slub yarns are single or folded
yarns having long thick places,
regularly or irregularly disposed.
The slub effect is made either in
spinning or folding. Fabrics may
have the character of linen or wild
silk, which is favoured in
furnishings.
Lustre Effects
Matt/lustre effects are
obtained by mixing
matt and bright fibres.
Lustre and Glitter
effects can also be
obtained by the use of
metal fibres
(uncommon today) or
metallised plastic films
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such as Lurex, or
clear films, or manmade fibres with
special cross-sections.
Fabric examples:
brocade, lame.
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Woven Fabrics
Most fabrics are made by weaving or knitting yarns, although non-woven fabrics are made by bonding
or felting fibres together. A fabric's appearance, properties and end use can be affected by the way it
was constructed.
Woven fabrics - Woven fabrics are made up of a weft - the yarn going across the width of the fabric and a warp - the yarn
going down the length of
the loom. The side of the
fabric where the wefts are
double-backed to form a
non-fraying edge is called
the selvedge.
Plain Weave
The most used weave structure and is made from most fibre types. Plain weave fabrics are
strong, firm and hardwearing. They are used for many types of end-uses, including garments,
household textiles and accessories.
In plain-weave fabric the warp and weft are aligned so that they form a simple criss-cross
pattern. Plain-weave is strong and hardwearing, so it's used for fashion and furnishing fabrics.
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Twill Weave
Produces fabric with diagonal lines, which generally run bottom left to top right of the fabric
face. Weaving twills in different directions produces chevron or herringbone fabrics. Twills are
made from many fibre types and drape well. They are used for a variety of end-uses including
jackets, suits, trousers, jeans and curtains.
In twill-weave fabric the crossings of weft and warp are offset to give a diagonal pattern on the
fabric surface. It's strong, drapes well and is used for jeans, jackets and curtains.
Satin Weave
Warp faced, with a smooth, shiny face and a dull back. Satin fabric drapes well so it is used
for curtain linings, evening wear, upholstery, ribbons and trimmings, depending on the fibre
used. Satin can be made from cotton, polyester/cotton, acetate, polyester or silk.
In satin-weave fabric there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft threads, which allows
longer float threads either across the warp or the weft. The long floats mean the light falling
on the yarn doesn't scatter and break up, like on a plain-weave.
The reflected light creates a smooth, lustrous (shiny) surface commonly called satin. The
reverse side is invariably dull and non-shiny. Weave variations include jacquard and damask.
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Pile Weaves
Pile weaves have tufts or loops of yarns which stand up from the body of the fabric
e.g. terry
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Cut Piles
Velvet has a cut warp-pile on the face of the fabric. This gives a smooth, rich, soft, dense and lustrous fabric. Velvet
should be used in one direction only, so pattern pieces run along straight grain with the pile stroking downwards from
head to toe. Cotton velvet is used for luxury products, such as evening wear. Polyester velvet is used for upholstery.
Needle cord has a cut weft-pile on the face of the fabric. The fine ribbed pile runs along the length of fabric, which
may be brushed. Needle cord is usually made from cotton and is used for dress-weights.
Brocade Weave
Brocade is a heavy, jacquard type fabric with a raised pattern or floral design. The pattern
appears in low relief. Traditionally the pattern was produced with gold or silver thread.
Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and sometimes product the effect of low
relief. Sometimes when you turn the fabric over to inspect it from the reverse you can see
floating threads of the brocaded parts hanging in loose groups.
Jacquard weave
The repeating motif involves a large number of threads both for the warp and for the weft.
These weaves are produced on looms with Jacquard machines. The contours of the patterns
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Tartan:
Tartan is a pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. Tartans
originated in woven wool, but now they are made in many other materials. Tartan is particularly
associated with Scotland. Scottish kilts almost always have tartan patterns.
Tartan is made with alternating bands of colored (pre-dyed) threads woven as both warp and weft at
right angles to each other. The weft is woven in a simple twill, two over two under the warp,
advancing one thread each pass. This forms visible diagonal lines where different colors cross, which
give the appearance of new colors blended from the original ones. The resulting blocks of colour
repeat vertically and horizontally in a distinctive pattern of squares and lines known as a sett.
Each thread in the warp crosses each thread in the weft at right angles. Where a thread in the warp
crosses a thread of the same colour in the weft they produce a solid colour on the tartan, while a
thread crossing another of a different colour produces an equal mixture of the two colours. Thus, a
sett of two base colours produces three different colours including one mixture. The total number of
colours, including mixtures, increases quadratically with the number of base colours so a sett of six
base colours produces fifteen mixtures and a total of twenty-one different colours. This means that the
more stripes and colours used, the more blurred and subdued the tartan's pattern becomes
The shades of colour in tartan can be altered to produce variations of the same tartan. The resulting
variations are termed: modern, ancient, and muted. These terms refer to colour only. Modern
represents a tartan that is coloured using chemical dye, as opposed to natural dye. In the mid-19th
century natural dyes began to be replaced by chemical dyes which were easier to use and were more
economic for the booming tartan industry. Chemical dyes tended to produce a very strong, dark colour
compared to the natural dyes. In modern colours, setts made up of blue, black and green tend be
obscured. Ancient refers to a lighter shade of tartan. These shades are meant to represent the colours
that would result from fabric aging over time. Muted refers to tartan which is shade between modern
and ancient. This type of tartan is very modern, dating only from the early 1970s. This shade is said to
be the closest match to the shades attained by natural dyes used before the mid-19th century.
The Warp
The Weft
Crepe:
A fabric characterised by a crinkled or puckered surface. Crimp: The waviness of a fibre or filament.
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Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed
by its own separate yarn. The loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are
stretchy but do not ladder and cant be unravelled. Warp knits such as velour and Terry are used for
leisure and sportswear, furnishings and sheets.
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Weft-knitted fabric is made by looping together long lengths of yarn. It can be made by hand
or machine. The yarn runs in rows across the fabric. If a stitch is dropped it will ladder down
the length of the fabric. The fabric is stretchy and comfortable and is used for socks, T-shirts
and jumpers.
In warp-knitted fabric the loops interlock vertically along the length of the fabric. Warp knits
are slightly stretchy and do not ladder. Warp-knitted fabric is made by machine. It is used for
swimwear, underwear and geotextiles.
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Double Jersey:
Weft Knit
Doubled jersey fabric is made on two sets of needle beds, in which the needles are
opposite each other and work alternately. It takes two courses to produce one row of
loops on the face and back, which look identical. Double jersey fabrics are compact,
stable, durable and retain their shape, although they are not very elastic. They can be
cut like woven fabrics and can be used for T-shirts, underwear, polo shirts,
sportswear, skirts and leggings.
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Jacquard Knit:
Weft Knit
Jacquard fabric has a patterned design in three of more colours. It is made by
selecting needles to knot coloured yarns in a specified pattern, using CAD/CAM
systems. In each succeeding course, the pattern is built up and if the colour is not
required on the face, it floats at the back. There is a limit to the length of float and the
fabric is not very elastic. Jacquard knits go in and out of fashion for winter knitwear.
Pique Knit:
Weft Knit
This is the fabric that is most associated with the original Lacoste Alligator Polo shirt.
Also sometimes called mesh, pique is characterized by a textured fabric face with lots
of tiny holes and a fabric back that is smooth. The construction is designed to pull
moisture from the skin and wick it into the air, keeping the fabric, and the wearer,
relatively dry and cool. Before the days of high tech and high performance Polyester
yarns, Pique was the original performance fabric.
In the 1920s, pique fabrics were an innovation that was used in the first use-specific
athletic wear, particularly in the original tennis and polo shirts, as athletes began to
move away from participating in sports in long sleeve button down shirts that covered
up all skin.
The extraordinary comfort of this fabric soon popularized it for less serious athletes.
Today, pique knit polo shirts are especially popular for everyday wear and corporate
apparel.
Warp Knit:
Tricot:
Warp Knit
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Tricot is industrially proceed warp-knitted fabric, mostly using synthetic yarns, with
each yarn working in a zigzag fashion. It is used for gloves, lingerie and lightweight
furnishing.
Locknit:
Warp Knit
A combination of Tricot and 2X1 plain knit stiches, made from filament yarns. The
resulting lustrous fabric is used for lining and underwear. The face of the fabric has
vertical wales of small loops, whilst the back shows a zigzag stitch formation.
Velour:
Warp Knit
Knitted pile fabric made from continuous filament fibres, has a raised fleecy surface
effect, formed from cut loops that stand up from the fabric.
Polar Fleece:
Warp Knit
Modern manufactured polar fleece, made from acrylic, nylon, or polyester, is a type of
double boucle knit, densely raised on one face or both, producing a fleece effect.
Polar fleece is a lightweight, high bulk, breathable and warm fabric used as insulation
in leisure and sportswear. This modern fleece should not be confused with natural
fleece, the entire wool coat of the sheep, which is shorn off in one piece.
Panel Knitting:
Garment length knitting is where the fabric is knitted in individual panels of a width to
suit the end product. The start of the knitting is secured with a ribbed edge. This type
of knitting produces some fabric waste.
Piece Goods:
Cut-and-sew blanket knitting is where long lengths of knitted fabric are produced in
the form of a tube on a circular knitting machine. The fabric can be processed in
tubular form or cut open (usually after dyeing). It is then cut to shape and sewn to
make the product. Although this type of knitting produces higher levels of fabric waste,
this is kept to a minimum through the use of CAD lay-planning systems.
3D Whole-Garment Knitting:
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3D knitting is where whole products are knitted in one piece, incorporating all the
garment shaping. There is minimal sewing necessary and no fabric waste.
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Woven or knitted
felt is made from
fabrics containing
animal hair or
wool, which are
matted by
moisture,
mechanical action
and heat in a
milling machine.
The original fabric
construction is
covered by a
smooth surface,
making the fabric
warm and
windproof. The
woven fabric
called Loden
(used for
overcoats) is
produced in this
way.
Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but does not fray and is warm and resilient. Acetate,
nylon and acrylic can be blended with wool in felt, to improve the drape, reduce shrinkage
and make it more economical to produce. Felt retains its shape and absorbs sound and can be
made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers, toys, insulation materials
and soundproofing in speakers. Felt made from animal hair, such as from rabbits is called fur
felt this is used for hats.
Felt
Bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the
thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded webs for garments are layered in a
carding machine, to build up a batt of the required thickness with the layers built either across
or down or a combination of both. This kind of non-woven fabric is mainly used for fusible
interlinings, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease-resistant, stable to
washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use.
thermoplastic property of
some or all of the fibres
under pressure and heat
the fibre surfaces soften
and fuse together
permanently.
Tufting is the most used manufacturing process for making carpets and rugs. They are made
by machines that insert pile yarns into a backing fabric. The pile, which can be looped or cut,
fixed into the backing with an adhesive coating.
Open-work fabrics
These fabrics include lace, braid and crotchet, all of which are minor textile techniques in
comparison with knitting and weaving.
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Crotchet is a hand-made
chain of loops, produced
from a single thread
using a hook. The chains
of loops can be linked to
make crotchet fabric.
When crotchet is in
fashion, it is generally
machine-made and used
to make accessories such
as bags and hats.
AQA definition A smart material is defined as one which is able to react to external stimulus /
changes in the environment without human intervention. Smart Materials include ones that:-
Microfiber
Technology
Woven polyester
Polar fleece
Brushed polyester,
warp knit
Gore-Tex
Laminated membrane
Micro-encapsulated
Heat sensitive
Thermochromatic
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Properties
Lightweight
Soft
Good drape
Breathable
Shower-proof
Lightweight
Soft
Breathable
Warm
Breathable
Lightweight
Waterproof
Gives off an aromatic
scent
Can reduce body
odour
Can provide vitamins,
medicines or reduce
skin irritation
Micro-encapsulated
End-use
Raincoats
Active sportswear
Childrens clothes
Light sensitive
Photchromatic dyes
Sports clothing
Fire-fighters clothing
Wound dressings
t-shirts
military clothing
Combination fabrics - Fabrics can be layered and combined to improve their handle,
appearance or performance. For example:
An interfacing fabric such as Vilene can be stitched or laminated to other fabrics. This
reinforces, stiffens and gives strength to collars and cuffs to prevent the fabric from stretching
or sagging.
A quilted fabric has two or more layers sewn together to give an attractive appearance and
added warmth.
Gore-Tex can be laminated to another fabric using adhesive or heat. Gore-Tex is used for allweather clothing and shoes because it is breathable and waterproof.
Kevlar is a high-strength, lightweight and flexible fibre. It is used in bicycle tyres, racing sails
and police bullet-proof vests because of its high strength-to-weight ratio.
Thinsulate is a highly insulating but thin fabric. The microfibers in Thinsulate are fine and
capture more air in less space, making it a better insulator. It traps air between the wearer
and the outside. It can be machine washed and dry cleaned, and is breathable as well as
moisture resistant. Scuba divers wear a Thinsulate suit under a dry suit when diving in cold
water.
Memory foam moulds to the user's shape and can return to its original state. It was originally
developed for NASA astronauts and is now used in memory-foam mattresses and seats.
Smart-shape-memory alloy returns to its original shape when heated. Smart memory fibres
are woven with nylon to make smart-memory shirts that don't need ironing.
Polymers
Textile materials are made from natural or synthetic fibre-forming polymers. A polymer is the generic
name for a combination of large molecules, made from a chain of smaller repeating chemical units
called monomers.
Natural polymers exist as short fibres, which need to be combed, lined up and twisted to
make longer, usable lengths.
Vegetable fibres, such as cotton and linen, are composed of the glucose polymer cellulose
The animal fibre wool, from the fleece of a sheep, is composed of the protein polymer keratin
Hair fibres, such as cashmere and mohair, are also based on the protein polymer keratin
Regenerated natural fibres, such as viscose and modal are manufactured from the cellulose
in wood pulp. This is dissolved in chemicals and extruded through the tiny holes in a spinneret
into an acid bath, to produce fine continuous filaments or pure regenerated cellulose.
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Most synthetic polymers are manufactured from petrochemicals, using the process of
polymerisation to produce long chains of fibre-forming linear polymers. These are converted
by solution or melted and extruded through spinnerets to form continuous filaments of
synthetic fibres. There are two main methods of polymerisation, called addition polymerisation
and condensation polymerisation.
Acrylic, PVC and PTFE are made by addition polymerisation in which similar monomers are
added to each other to form long chains, called homopolymers.
Polyamide and polyester are made by condensation polymerisation in which two different
monomers are added together to form long chains, called copolymers.
Elastane is made by block polymerisation in which two different monomers are pre-formed
into blocks and then added together, to form block copolymers.
elastomers
Elastomers can be stretched
and return to their original
shape, such as the branded
Elastane fibre Lycra.
Thermosetting polymers
Thermosetting polymers have
cross-links between the long
chain molecules. They set with
heat and cannot be softened
when re-heated. They are not
used for textiles.
Thermoplastic polymers
Thermoplastic polymers have
long chain molecules that are
not cross-linked. They soften
when heated and become hard
again when cool. Acetate,
acrylic, polyamide and polyester
are all thermoplastics and
should be ironed with care.
Finishes
All fabrics used in products will have been finished in some way to make them suitable for their end
use. Good finishing can greatly improve the aesthetic and functional properties of fabrics, enhancing
their handle, drape and aftercare properties.
Finishing process
Physical finishing processes use heat, pressure
or steam and machine processes.
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Aesthetic, like pressing to improve the ease of manufacture. Final pressing improves
presentation of the product.
Decorative, like applying logos, braid or fringing to add to the style of image of the product.
Functional, like self-finishing seams by over locking to improve the product quality.
Finishing - Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers
many different processes, some mechanical and some chemical.
Biological finishes
- Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stonewashed finish to denim fabrics.
Thermochromatic finishes
- Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature.
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magnetic/optical performance
electrical conductivity
strength/elasticity
thermal conductivity
absorbency
UV absorbent and reflective transparent-looking nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide in
some sunscreens
a military battle suit that that will withstand blast waves (currently being developed by the
Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT)
Nanomaterial finishes
ZANO
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Characteristics
Uses
Summer clothing
Hammocks
Tents
Mountain wear
Climbing wear
Sportswear
Swimwear
Tents
Summer clothing
Umbrellas
Summer clothing
Tents
NanoGrain
CeO2
Integrated electronics
- LEDs and other electronic components such as sensors are being integrated into textile and other
products, and can offer a dual-purpose product like a wearable light-emitting garment or a roll-up
illuminated mat.
Testing of materials
British Standards Institute (BSI)- develops the tests that set the standards that products have
to meet to ensure their safety and quality. Products have to meet these standards and will be
awarded a number eg. BS 3320 (seam strength test). The BSI helps develop British,
European and International standards which are used to ensure safety and quality
of a wide range of products. Standard tests are often set at the request of
individual manufacturers and retailers and form an essential part of a quality
assurance system. Testing of materials and components, processes and prototypes
prior to manufacture requires the use of standard tests under controlled conditions.
Tests done in industry- tests are carried out on fibres, yarns and fabric before they are
manufactured. Testing is carried out under strictly controlled laboratory conditions. Tests include;
tensile strength, seam strength, burst strength, tear strength, crease resistance, flammability,
drape etc etc.
Consumer testing of garments is also carried out to asses the performance and acceptability of
the product.
Consumer advice- information given to the buyer of the product about the performance of
particular fabrics, e.g. a symbol or logo on the label to explain that the product meets certain BSI
standards. The kite mark shows that the product has been independently tested under strict
conditions and complies with BSI standards. The CE mark shows that the product meets
European safety standards.
Testing before manufacture
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Comparative testing
It is very difficult to carry out objective testing outside a textiles laboratory,
although two methods are appropriate testing against specification and testing
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Fire testing
Made from safe non-toxic materials
Must comply to a range of standards depending on their use
Decorative Techniques
Fabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products.
Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heat-sealing.
Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is used to
shape and stabilise fabrics.
Dyeing of fabrics:
- there are many different dyes available for colouring fabrics; most of them have
been developed for a particular application. Textile dyeing involves the
permanent application of a colorant to a fibre to give a uniform colour. In order to
be successful, the colorant must be able to be absorbed by, or react with, the
textile fibre. It must also be soluble so that it can go into the spaces between the
fibre molecules.
Dyes are classified according to their ability to dye different fibres:
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Solvent dyes have been developed which are applied to fabric using organic
solvents instead of water. This sis because water usage and disposing of it
afterwards in a form which will not cause pollution has become very expensive.
Solvent dyes are also very expensive to use because there is a cost involved in
recovering the organic solvent so that it can be used again. The equipment used
is also very expensive, making these dyes not especially economical to use.
There are a number of issues to consider when selecting dyes to use on a fabric
for a particular end use:
Colour requirements shade
Fastness requirements how well will the dye stay on/in the fabric
Cost
Generally dyes with better properties are more expensive but sometimes, in
order to meet consumer demand, dyes with poor properties are used because
they are the only ones available that will give a certain shade.
The process of dying consists of three steps:
1. Immersing the textile in the dye bath
2. The dye attaching to the textile fibre
3. Fixing the dye to the fibre
The strength with which the dye is held in the fibre depends on the physical
forces resulting from the shape of the dye molecule and structure of the fibre,
and also to the chemical forces that nay be present. The strength with which the
dye is retained within the fibre is related to the property of washing fastness.
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Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Wool
Fluorescent
whitening agents
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Hand dyeing
In hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye
bath is agitated so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is
achieved the fabric is removed and rinsed to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed
with a mordant or a fixing agent such as salt. The strength of a dye colour is
determined by the:
Commercial dyeing
- In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing.
Continuous dyeing -The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then
squeezed between rollers to spread the dye evenly and remove excess.
Continuous dyeing is used for colours that do not need to change too quickly
with fashion.
Batch dyeing -Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to
order in large batches according to the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for
fabrics that have to change in colour frequently because of fashion.
Printing
-Fabrics is printed by block or screen printing.
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The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper.
process, with the fabric moved through the machine on a conveyor belt and the
print repeating rapidly.
Rotary screen printing - Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One
roller is used for each colour. This is a very fast process used in the continuous
printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics.
Joining
Textile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing.
Stitching - Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam.
Finishing the seam prevents fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat
finish.
Fusing - Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an
adhesive resin.
Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is
also used to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories
and allows hems to be turned up without stitching.
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Typical end-use
Polyester button
Nylon buttons
Metal buttons
Leather buttons
Wooden buttons
Sports goods
Nylon Velcro
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Wire-frame modelling, surface modelling or solid modelling can be used to texture map or
simulate virtual products in 3D, from which clients can choose one to be sampled in fabric.
This saves the time and cost of sampling a large selection of real products.
Graphics applications enable ease the production and storage of accurate working drawings
and lay plans.
Use of CAD:
(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 2 p.175)
Fabric design/
Colourways
Product design/
Product modelling
Pattern production and
grading
Use of CAM:
(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 3 p.197)
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Weaving
Lay-planning
Computers used to work out the most efficient position of the pattern
pieces. They can give maximum utilisation of fabric to save on
wastage and costs. The marker (the actual plan) can then be sent by
computer to automated cutting machines.
Cutting
Sewing
Pressing
Embroidery
Use of ICT:
(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 1 page 166)
CIM
EDI
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CAA
PPC
Global Production:
Off-shore production
Imports/exports
Branded goods
Contracted goods
Wholesalers
CMT operations
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Production
One-off Production
This is wear a one-off textile product is made by and individual designer-maker, a craftsperson or a
company to meet an individual clients requirement. It is also called individual production, job
production and make through production. It is a traditional method in which a whole garment or textile
is assembled by one operator. Each product is only made once or only in small quantities. This
process needs highly skilled, experienced operators and versatile machinery. Tailors are one
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Batch Production
Items are produced in specific quantities. They may be made in one production run or in batches to be
repeated at certain times. A batch can range in number from two or three products to a hundred
thousand or more. In a batch production manufacturing system, each piece of equipment may be
used to make several different products, for example skirts today, trousers tomorrow. This means that
the machinery used must be far more versatile than that used in mass production. The workers who
operate the machines are likely to be more skilled because the job they do changes day by day
according to the batch run. In a large factory, many batches of different products, of varying quantities,
scheduled for different customers and delivery dates, will be processed at the same time. This
involves complex planning for the use of machines and the personnel to operate them, so that orders
can be met on time.
A reasonable number of products are produced, possibly to meet seasonal demand, e.g.
swimwear
Production costs are considerably less than for individual production
Mass Production
Large quantities of products are involved in mass production. Machines are in continuous use for long
periods of time, so they are very specialized and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are
highly specific for the job in hand. Equipment, labour and supply of materials and components are well
organised to ensure a smooth flow of work through the factory and to minimise the cost of making
each product. Increasingly, computers are used to monitor and control processes. Variations in the
manufactured products are kept to a minimum, to minimize any changes necessary to the tooling of
the machines, which take time and money.
Used to manufacture large numbers of identical products over a long period of time
Products are usually not complicated and can be made cheaply, e.g. tights or vests
Types of mass production include:
Synchronised/ straight-line production work is passed along a production line where
each operator is responsible for one task, which they perform repeatedly
Repetitive flow production manufacture is divided into sub-assembly lines that each
focus on one area of the process
Continual flow production used for massive volume items; the process runs 24
hours a day and is never shut down
Divide the workforce into small teams that all produce the same product
Rely on each team to take responsibility for the quality of the products produced by them
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Uses small teams that are each responsible for a particular part of the production process
Is like cell production, but for individual parts of the garment
Off-the-Peg Manufacture
Except for Haute Couture and individual/job production, the different production systems are designed
to produce off-the-peg garments (ready-made garments in standard sizes).
Uses templates in standard sizes helps to keep costs down.
One-off garments that are made to specific measurements for an individual are called bespoke and
are usually far more expensive.
Batch production
Mass/line production
Vertical production
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Progressive bundle
system
QRM
Pre-manufactured
components
Manufacturing
specifications
Sub-Assembly
Just-in-Time production
(JIT)
Stages of Manufacture:
1. Fabric manufactureFibre production
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Yarn production
2. Fabric preparationDyeing:
Preparation of fabric for
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Desizing: this means getting out the sizing agent which is sometimes
Batch Dyeing
Jig dyeing: passing of fabric through a dye bath from one roller to the
other roller, this keeps the fabric flat and gives an even colour
Winch dyeing: the fabric is bunched together to form a long rope
this is then circulated around rollers and winches through the dye
bath.
Jet dyeing: Fabric moves along a heated tube where jets of dye
solution are forced through it at high pressure.
Continuous dyeing
Fabrics are fed continuously into a dye solution. The speeds can vary
between 50 to 250 meters per minute. Continuous dyeing is a popular
dyeing method and accounts for around 60% of total yardage of the
products that are dyed.
Resist methods
Means where methods are used to "resist" or prevent the dye from
reaching all the cloth, thereby creating a pattern and ground. The
most common forms use wax, some type of paste, or a mechanical
resist that manipulates the cloth such as tying or stitching. Examples
are Tie-Dye and Batik (using wax)
Direct dyeing
The type of dye used for cellulosic and some protein fibres
Reactive dyeing
Used for natural fibers making them among the most permanent of
dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes are very easy to use because the dye can
be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best
choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibres.
Vat dyeing
Disperse dyeing
Acid dyeing
Stages of dyeing
Printing:
Direct printing
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Transfer printing
The transference of an image to fabric via paper (like the heat transfer
press in school) sublimation inks are used.
Roller printing
Where the print is applied to fabric using and inked roller, not used
much nowadays in manufacturing. More of a traditional method.
Rotary screen printing: dye is applied to the fabric from within a rotary
tube which is engraved with the printing pattern.
Flat bed screen printing: the printing paste is pushed through a screen
onto the fabric. The pattern is created by blocking out areas of the
screen with filler.
Digital printing
Uses ink jet printers to print CAD designs directly onto fabric using
special printing inks.
Finishing Processes:
See page 100 of TatCE
Fixation
Where the colour or print is fixated into the fabric (made permanent)
can be through chemicals or steam. To make the fabric colourfast (so
that the colour doesnt wash out)
Washing
Drying
Heat-setting
Mechanical Finishes:
Raising
Calendering
Embossing
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Beetling
Stone/sand washing
Laser-cutting
Chemical Finishes:
Water repellency
Laminating
Stain resistance
Flame resistance
Mothproofing
Anti-pilling
3. Pattern Drafting:
Basic pattern/template
Basic block
Ease
Principles of grading
4. Garment production:
lay-planning
Methods of joining
Finishing edges
Pressing
Seams
A plain seam is the most commonly used method of joining woven fabrics.
An overlock seam stitches, cuts and finishes the seam in one process. This is used for a
range of products including underwear and knitwear.
A flat seam (seam cover) is made using twin needles to create a stitch on top and an overlock
stitch below. This binds the cut edges of straps. Belt loops or the hems of fabrics that fray, e.g.
for T-shirts or belt loops on jeans.
A cup seam is used for the seams of knitted fabrics.
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A lap seam is commonly used on the seams of jeans and shirts, providing a very strong seam
with two rows of stitching.
Heat-sealed joins are applied to fabrics made from thermoplastic fibres, like polyester and
polyamide (nylon). Heat-sealing is often used in combination with taped seams to help
waterproof products such as all-weather wear or tents.
BS 5722, flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in
dressing gowns mandatory for nightwear for children and the elderly. Flammability
performance relates to the whole garment, including all threads, trimmings, decorations and
labels.
BS EN 23758, the care labelling code. Care labels are voluntary and use symbols that are
consistent with those used on washing machines, irons and detergent packs.
Regulations require that most textile products be labelled with the type and quantity by percentage of
different fibres used. The label must:
Use the generic name of the fibre, such as acrylic, rather than a trade name like Dralon
Give the percentage fibre composition, such as 60% cotton, 40% polyester, with the highest
quantity first.
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Implementing
Childrens nightwear
includes night-dresses,
dressing gowns and
bathrobes, all of which
must meet the
requirements of BS 5722:
flammability performance
of fabrics and fabric
assemblies used in
sleepwear and in dressing
gowns.
A hazard is a source of
potential harm or damage
or a situation with potential
for harm or damage.
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Example of application
Cant say a product is waterproof if its not. A
fabric can be waterproof.
Fibre content must be accurate, but there is a
tolerance of 3%.
Stated sizing must be accurate.
The onus of proof of a fault is on the consumer.
Product must have correct labelling description.
In normal use childrens wear must not give any
risk or potential risk.
Health and safety at work is the responsibility of employers and employees. Manufacturers are
required to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce risks in using materials, machinery and
manufacturing processes. It makes employers criminally liable for failure to meet regulations. It set up
the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which is responsible for checking that the Act is being
followed. HSE and local authority inspectors visit workplaces to make sure that health and safety
regulations are being followed. It gives employees the right to be represented on health and safety
matters. It places and obligation on employees to use safety equipment. The Act requires business to
make a risk assessment of their activities. The company must appoint a Health and Safety Officer
who will check the workplace for possible risks and puts into place the necessary procedures and/or
equipment to reduce risks for the employers.
Many chemicals are used in the textile industry, and these may be dangerous to health is not stored
and used correctly. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations (1994)
form part of the risk assessment. All workplaces should appoint a person to be in charge of first aid,
and workplaces should have clearly marked and well stocked first aid kit.
Fabrics must be considered for their ability to burn and/or melt easily. This can be
particularly[y dangerous in certain situations e.g. nightclothes for children and elderly
people, furnishings in public buildings.
Soft toys may be dangerous for young children, especially the wadding material used
inside them.
In some occupations where fire is a hazard, protective clothing will be needed. Any
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Temperature
Sharp
Edges
Certain products need padding to provide insulation against extreme heat e.g. oven
gloves.
Firm corners and sharp edges in a product must be well padded the user may not
realise that under and attractive fabric there is a sharp corner. Wire can be particularly
dangerous as it may work its way through the fabric over a period of time. Textile
products are checked to ensure that there are no metal objects, e.g. Broken needle
parts, in the item before it leaves the factory.
Legislation:
Nightwear (Safety) Regulations 1985
These regulations prohibit the supply of
childrens nightwear that do not meet
flammability performance requirements. The
regulations also specify labelling
requirements.
Fibre content, which is the percentage of each fibre used to make a fabric, e.g. 50 percent
cotton, 50 percent polyester. This is a legal requirement.
Standard size, which is a standard measurement of the human body. For example, women's
clothes might come in sizes 10, 12, 14, 16.
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Instructions
Symbol
Instructions
Wash at 30 degrees
Wash at 50 degrees
Wash at 40 degrees
Do not wash
Washing instructions are shown as a washing bowl. Similar symbols are found on washing machines
to show different cycles. The number in the washing bowl shows the maximum temperature, and the
line underneath the bowl tells you to use a special wash for synthetic fabrics. A hand in the bowl
means you can only hand wash the product.
Bleaching instructions
Symbol
Instructions
Bleach
Symbol
Instructions
Do not bleach
Bleaching instructions are shown as a triangle. A cross over the triangle means do not wash with
bleach.
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Ironing instructions
Symbol
Instructions
Symbol
Instructions
Ironing instructions are shown by a picture of an iron. The dots on the iron show the maximum
temperature at which it is safe to iron the product: three dots is very hot; one dot is cool. A cross over
the iron means do not iron.
Instructions
Symbol
Instructions
Dry clean with perc (dry-cleaning fluid,
tetrachloroethylene) only
Dry cleaning instructions: a circle symbol means that it's safe to dry clean the product. The letter
inside tells the dry cleaners what method should be used. A cross over the circle means do not dry
clean.
Instructions
Tumble dry: high temperature
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Symbol
Instructions
Do not tumble dry: viscose
Tumble drying instructions are shown by a square with a circle inside. The dots show the temperature
at which it is safe to dry the product. A cross over the symbol means do not tumble dry.
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Yarn production
Blended yarns such as Lyocell and Lycra. Heat treatments on yarn to give
texture such as crimping or bulking.
Fabric production
Garment production
Mass production and automated systems mean that clothes can now be made
very quickly and cheaply. Manufacturers can respond quickly to demand
(QRM= Quick Response Manufacture) Many made overseas.
Finishes
Colour application
Printing techniques such as; dye sublimation and digital printing mean higher
definition of colours, higher quality print.
Higher colour-fastness of dyes.
Decoration
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Design in Practice
Marketing
Disposal/environmen
tal issues
Read more in Textiles at
Cutting Edge p.293 onwards.
81 | P a g e
Fashion/Standard-
Classic/Basic-
A fashion cycle is a variation of the product life cycle which reflects the sales
history of the prevailing style of consumer articles such as clothes, accessories or
interior products. A fashion cycle is seen as comprising three stages defined as
distinctiveness, primary emulation and secondary emulation. Take up of a new
fashion is done by innovators seeking distinctiveness who will then be emulated
by early adopters who wish to copy them. In urn if the fashion appears to be
attractive to the mass market manufactures will bring out large quantities of
similar products at much lower prices which will attract the early majority; with
the result that the innovators may well look elsewhere to regain distinctiveness
and start a new fashion cycle.
Trickle-down effect the oldest theory of distribution is the trickle-down theory. In
this model, a style is first offered and adopted by people at the top of society
with status and gradually becomes accepted by those lower classes. Once the
fashion is adopted by those below, the first adopters reject that look and find
another. Fashion generally works on a trickle-down system as designers are the
inspiration that leads to mass production of any particular product.
An example is Burberry. Once famed for their upper class status,
Burberrys iconic check fabric was worn by Kate Moss and other fashion icons.
However, their iconic print led to their downfall, as the masses knocked off cheap
bags, clothes and accessories. Burberry struggled to retain its polished image
and resulted in a new advertising campaign, seen today rarely displaying the
traditional and iconic check.
Bubble up effect the development of street fashions worn by ordinary people
into exclusive fashions for celebrities. The bubble up effect in fashion is a term
used to denote styles that originate as street fashion before developing into
exclusive designer versions. In the 21st century there is less trickle down from
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Trends:
The influence of trends on textile and product design is very important,
especially for fashion products. Trend forecasting is and essential activity for
designer of fibres, yarns, fabrics, accessories, garments and interiors. They use
market research techniques to research colour, style and fashion trends, so they
can predict what people will want and will then buy.
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Industry
development
cycles from
colour, fibre
trends and
predictions to
products.
Read more in Textiles
at the Cutting Edge p.6
onwards
Influence of
trends from
fashion, cultural
and media
sources.
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Importance and
purpose of
trade fairs
Trade shows are held all over the world to showcase the latest
fibres and fabrics. Suppliers have stands at which designers,
merchandisers and buyers can browse and find inspiration. For
example, Premiere Vision which is held twice a year in Paris.
This fashion and textile trade show is the ultimate in the
industries trend forecasting and innovative design events.
Lifestyle
analysis
Target Market
groups
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Importance and hopefully develops a band loyalty with consumers. Most textile
of labelling, products do not require much packaging other than swing tag.
packaging
and
corporate
identificati
on
Advertising
and
promotion
of textile
products
(range of
media)
Media
TV
Radio
Internet
Magazines
In-store
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Disadvantages
Advantages
The
marketing
mix:
product,
place,
promotion,
price.
Visual
merchandis
ing
Different
retail
markets
and points
of sale
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Virtual reality
product
simulation
Mutli-national
textile companies
and global
marketing
Identifying socioeconomic groups,
demographic
trends, niche
marketing.
Fashion designers work on the design of items of clothing and fashion ranges. Some may focus completely on one
specialist area, such as sportswear, children swear, footwear or accessories.
They produce designs for the haute couture, designer ready-to-wear and high street fashion markets.
Developments in technology mean that a design can be on sale as a finished product in the high street within six
weeks.
Depending on their level of responsibility and the company they work for, designers may work to their own brief or
be given a brief to work towards, with specifications relating to colour, fabric and budget.
The main areas of work for fashion designers are:
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High street fashion: this is where the majority of designers work and where garments are mass
manufactured (often in Europe or East Asia). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk
influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial area and heavily media led;
ready-to-wear (also known as prt--porter): where established designers create ready-to-wear
collections, produced in relatively small numbers;
haute couture: requires large amounts of time spent on the production of one-off garments for the
catwalk - which are often not practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a look
creating/visualising an idea and producing a design by hand or using computer-aided design (CAD);
keeping up to date with emerging fashion trends as well as general trends relating to fabrics, colours
and shapes;
planning and developing ranges;
working with others in the design team, such as buyers and forecasters, to develop products to meet a
brief;
liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams on an ongoing basis to ensure the item suits the
customer, market and price points;
understanding design from a technical perspective, i.e. producing patterns, toiles and technical
specifications for designs;
sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics, trims, fastenings and embellishments;
adapting existing designs for mass production;
developing a pattern that is cut and sewn into sample garments and supervising the making up of these,
including fitting, detailing and adaptations;
overseeing production;
negotiating with customers and suppliers;
Managing marketing, finances and other business activities, if working on a self-employed basis.
Experienced designers with larger companies may focus more on the design aspect, with pattern cutters and
machinists preparing sample garments. In smaller companies these, and other tasks, may be part of the
designer's role.
Buyer
A retail buyer is responsible for planning and selecting a range of products to sell in retail outlets. The buyer must
consider the following factors when making purchasing decisions:
market trends;
store policy;
Financial budgets.
Buyers source new merchandise and review existing ones to ensure products remain competitive. By fully
understanding customer needs, they are able to maximise profits and provide a commercially viable range of
merchandise at competitive prices. Keeping up to date with market trends and reacting to changes in demand are
key elements of the role.
Retail buyers have a considerable amount of responsibility and autonomy in what is often a pressured
environment.
Merchandi
ser
maintaining relationships with existing suppliers and sourcing new suppliers for future products;
liaising with other departments within the organisation to ensure projects are completed;
attending trade fairs, in the UK and overseas, to select and assemble a new collection of products;
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planning product ranges and preparing sales and stock plans in conjunction with buyers;
liaising with buyers, analysts, stores, suppliers and distributors;
maintaining a comprehensive library of appropriate data;
working closely with visual display staff and department heads to decide how goods should be displayed
to maximise customer interest and sales;
producing layout plans for stores;
forecasting profits and sales, and optimising the sales volume and profitability of designated product
areas;
planning budgets and presenting sales forecasts and figures for new ranges;
controlling stock levels based on forecasts for the season;
using specialist computer software, for example to handle sales statistics, produce sales projections and
present spreadsheets and graphs;
analysing every aspect of bestsellers (for example, the bestselling price points, colours or styles) and
ensuring that bestsellers reach their full potential;
monitoring slow sellers and taking action to reduce prices or set promotions as necessary;
gathering information on customers reactions to products;
analysing previous season's sales and reporting on the current season's lines;
making financial presentations to senior managers;
accompanying buyers on visits to manufacturers to appreciate production processes;
meeting with suppliers and managing the distribution of stock, by negotiating cost prices, ordering stock,
agreeing timescales and delivery dates, and completing the necessary paperwork;
identifying production and supply difficulties and dealing with any problems or delays as they arise;
Fabric and
Garment
Technologi
st
They also work on the development of products, improving production efficiency and quality while liaising with
those involved in the production process.
The textile and clothing industries are closely linked and end products range widely from clothing to household and
industrial textiles.
Visual
Merchandi
ser/
Display
Designer
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Visual merchandisers create window and in-store displays of goods for retail shops and department
stores.
The work involves researching to get an understanding of what is needed, and coming up with design
ideas. Visual merchandisers also source elements such as lighting, props and accessories.
It is important to make the most of the space available, work within a budget and meet deadlines.
Installing and dismantling displays may also be part of the job description.
discussing the brief with the client and identifying the key messages they wish to convey
gaining an in-depth understanding of the client's organisation, products, image and target market
considering factors such as the space available for the display, any special features it should
incorporate (such as chairs, models and computers) and the client's budget
coming up with design ideas, images and graphics incorporating the client's logo and corporate
colours, and discussing these with the client
revising designs according to feedback from clients and other members of the design team
Overseeing the production of the chosen design, checking the quality and making sure the project is
completed to schedule.
Producing a display usually involves working with printers, exhibition contractors, plastics
manufacturers and metal fabricators. The job could also involve arranging for the display to be
transported to and from exhibitions, installed, dismantled and stored when not in use. Designers may
liaise with suppliers of lighting, furniture, flower arrangements and other accessories.
Visual merchandisers create imaginative, eye-catching displays of goods in retail stores. They aim to
attract the attention of customers and encourage them to buy. Their tasks can include:
researching lifestyle and design trends and making sure designs will appeal to the target audience
working with other members of the design, marketing and buying team to develop themes and colour
schemes for displays - for example Christmas, Valentine's day, sales and special promotions
sketching designs and developing floor plans, making the most of the space available
preparing visual merchandising packs, including plans and photographs, for other stores in the chain,
to make sure all displays present a consistent image
Areas of fashion:
The main areas of work for fashion designers are:
High street fashion: this is where the majority of designers work and
where garments are mass manufactured (often in Europe or the Far
East). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk
influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial
area and heavily media led.
Ready-to-wear: Established designers create ready-to-wear
collections, produced in relatively small numbers.
Haute couture: This requires large amounts of time spent on the
production of one-off garments for the catwalk - which are often not
practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a
look.
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overseeing production;
Working to client
specifications, designing
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Simply put, the term eco-fashion refers to stylized clothing hat uses
environmentally sensitive fabrics and responsible production
techniques. Eco-fashion clothes can be defined as, clothes that take
into account the environment, the health of consumers and the
working conditions of people in the fashion industry. Clothes and
accessories that meet such criteria are usually made using organic
raw materials, such as cotton grown without pesticides, or re-used
materials such as recycled plastic from old soda bottles. Eco-fashions
don't involve the use of harmful chemicals and bleaches to colour
fabricsand are made by people earning fair wages in healthy
working conditions.
Designers need to take into account the resources of the company for
which they work. They need to appeal to the customer profile which
may have a set price point. They need to work to a set budget,
bearing in mind at all times the cost of raw materials and components
and manufacturing processes that will be needed e.g. loads of
seams, complex construction = more expensive.
Risk Assessment
This means identifying the risks and putting control systems in place
to minimise the risk of injury or accident. Each production task to be
performed will have to have a risk assessment carried out. Risk
assessment is also carried out on textile products to ensure that they
do not pose a threat of injury or accident.
HSE
COSHH
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Environmental concerns:
Read up on this; page 293 Textiles at the Cutting Edge
Use of natural
resources
Organic production
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Materials utilisation
Waste disposal
Pollution
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Recycling
Planned
obsolescence
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Industrial Textiles
These are textile materials manufactured to meet specific technical requirements in a
wide variety of industries. They are used for functional end-uses, either as part of an
industrial process or incorporated into industrial products. Industrial textiles are often
used in the aerospace and transport industries. They often replace existing traditional
materials because they provide superior characteristics and properties such as strength,
lightness, durability and resistance to heat or corrosion.
Examples: Fire resistant space suits, optical fibres, Seat belts, airbags, tyres, belts, carpet
backing and upholstery, Conveyor belts, filters, cables and ropes
The average car contains 13-14kg of textiles. These are used not only in carpets,
upholstery, seat belts and airbags but also as flexible reinforcements in the tyres, brake
pipes, water hoses and belts. The bodywork may be made from glass-reinforced
composites and insulation is achieved through the use of heat and sound absorbing
textiles. Oil and petrol filters keep the car running smoothly.
Technical requirements relate to the functional performance of a textile, matching its
properties and characteristics with its end-use. Technical requirements can relate to the
way a textile performs, such as its strength, elasticity, breathability, durability or fireresistance. For example, the technical requirements of a bouncy castle could be strong,
hardwearing, waterproof, puncture proof and non-slip.
Technical Textiles
Technical textiles are manufactured mainly for their technical performance and functional
properties rather than for aesthetic characteristics. Only a small proportion of technical
textiles are manufactured from high-tech fibres like Kevlar, Nomex or carbon fibres. Most
technical textiles are made from everyday fibres such as polyester, polypropylene,
polyamide (nylon), acrylic, viscose or cotton.
The properties and structures of technical textiles are usually modified to meet the
requirements of specific end-uses. This may include the use of microfibers, which can be
blended with other synthetic or natural fibres to make fabrics that are strong, lightweight,
easy-care and weatherproof. Technical fabrics can be woven, knitted or non-woven,
depending on the end use. Many geotextiles, for example, are warp knitted. Technical
fabrics are often coated with Teflon or PVC to give them enhanced properties, like stainresistance.
Technical textiles are used in a wide range of applications including protective clothing,
upholstery, furnishings, buildings, civil engineering, sports products, leisure goods,
agricultural products, medicine and health care.
Performance Textiles
Technical textiles that are used for more fashion-orientated products for outdoor pursuits
or sport are sometimes called performance textiles. These are textiles that relate to a
products performance in a specific end-use, such as skiing or swimming.
Performance textiles are developed from technical specifications that define how the
product should perform, such as windproof, breathable or aerodynamic. The look of
these products is also important if they are to sell into a competitive market, so aesthetic
properties are an important factor I their design. The development of performance
textiles has been the driving force behind many innovations in clothing fabrics. Some of
the benefits originally incorporated into performance wear such as breathable are now
seen to be indispensable in many fashion products. Similarly, Lycra is now used
extensively in fashion clothing to provide comfort properties.
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Technological Developments
Technology Push
Improving product
quality through
development of new
materials or processes
Explained through:
Developments in
materials technology
or processes e.g.
Tencel or Teflon
coating
Development of new
technologies e.g.
using Bio-sensors in
sportswear to
monitor heart rate
The need to increase
market share e.g.
creating the need to
be modern or
fashionable
Developments in
fibres e.g. Sport wool
Developments in
biotechnology e.g.
bio polishing
cellulose fabrics to
reduce pilling
CAD/CAM enables
faster time to market
ICT enables Quick
Response
manufacturing
Laser technology
results in garment
size measuring
booths
Resulting in:
Updating existing
products or
developing new ones
Creating new smart
products
Updating existing
products through
colour and styling
Creating new
modern brands
Updating existing
products
Creating new brands
Faster turn-round of
fashionable styling
Fast response to
customer demand
Mass-produced
bespoke garments
Market Influences
Market Pull
Market place demand
creates a need for:
Higher quality
products
Value for money
New or modern
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Explained through:
A rise in consumer
expectations e.g.
more money to
spend
Changes in lifestyle
e.g. an ageing
Resulting in:
Updating existing
products
Creating new brands
Targeting specific
market groups
styling
Changing consumer
attitudes creates a
demand for:
Environmentallyfriendly or
recyclable
products
Demographics creates a
demand for:
Products with
improved
performance,
function or appeal
Bespoke garments
population
The influence of the
work of fashion
designer e.g. the
need to be
fashionable
Greater awareness
of environmental,
ethical or moral
issues e.g. global
warming or
deforestation
Changes in lifestyle
e.g. greater leisure
time results in need
for higher
performance
sportswear
An ageing population
needs clothes with
better fit, form and
function
Using different
materials of
processes to
manufacture existing
products
Creating new eco
brands
Updating existing
products
Using different or
new materials or
technology
Mass-produced
bespoke garments
Environmental Issues
The manufacture, use and disposal of textile materials and products can have serious
consequences for the environment in the following ways:
Fibre sources o Growing cotton uses fertilisers and pesticides which can pollute the
atmosphere and waterways
o Synthetics are made from petrochemicals which come from non-renewable
resources and burning of which releases harmful gasses
Waste is produced when fabrics are made into products, and this may end up in
landfill sites
The manufacture of components may use plastics and metals as well as energy
Packaging of the products can be wasteful of paper, card, plastics, printing inks,
and the energy used to produce and transport the packaging
Caring for textile products requires the use of detergents, dry cleaning fluids,
energy and water
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Transportation of raw materials and finished goods produces co2 emissions from
transport systems
o Contributing to global warming and damage to infrastructures as well as
pollution to water
There are many ways in which textiles can be made greener and reduce their carbon
footprint. These include:
Recycling of fabrics and the production of new fabrics from recycles materials can
reduce waste
Development of new fibres, such as Tencel, which come from sustainable sources
and use clean technology in their manufacture. Inego, a new fibre to replace
polyester, is made from plant starches and is fully bio-degradable
Using fewer dyes or develop fibres which grow coloured. Microfibers and dark
colours use enormous amounts of dye and water to achieve the desired colour
Assessing a products life cycle and considering its impact from cradle to grave
Reducing the amount of packaging; ensure its biodegradable and recyclable
Using detergents which are effective at lower temperatures (30C) and washing
machines which are energy efficient and use less water. Only wash clothes when
they are dirty and dry them outside when possible
Considering using energy produced from renewable resources
Using more environmentally friendly forms of transport and consider manufacture
of materials and products nearer to the places that they will be sold
Reducing the need to discard perfectly serviceable products just because fashion
has changed by having fewer changes in fashion no more disposable or fad
fashions
Moral Issues
Consumers are becoming more aware of the conditions in which textile products are
manufactured. In the UK, there are laws to protect health and safety of workers and
prevent them from being exploited by employers.
When textile products are made in other countries, especially less economically
developed ones (LEDCs), those laws dont apply.
The pesticides and fertilisers used on cotton crops can have disastrous effects on the
health of farmers and other workers if they breathe in the spray, or if it comes into
contact with their body. Chemicals from the pesticides and fertilisers can pollute water
courses, poisoning drinking water.
Growing cotton uses vast amounts of water. In many countries where cotton is grown,
there is not enough water for the people who live there to drink.
Many workers in LEDCs are paid very little and forced to work long hours, often in hot,
cramped and dangerous factories. Sometimes these workers are young children. Some
manufactures in the UK have been known to employ illegal immigrants to manufacture
textile products for little pay in dangerous conditions.
Many of the fashion textile products that are sold at low process have been
manufactured with no regard for the workers health, safety or dignity. People buying
such cheap products need to ask themselves if the cheap fashion products, which they
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Fashion designers
Vivienne Westwood
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1991 designs slash and cut menswear collection. Awarded Fashion Designer of the Year for the
second year running.
1992 awarded an O.B.E as well as being made Honorary Senior Fellow at the Royal College of Art
1993 designs the Vivienne Westwood iconic Orb
2005 joins the board of trustees for Liberty and designs a T-shirt in defence of Liberty and Human
Rights
In 2011 she was named Britain's Greatest British Fashion Designer in a poll conducted by Greenall.
Over 3000 people voted with the Westwood scooping 24 per cent of the national vote.
She dedicated her spring/summer2012 menswear show to the Olympics. Westwood made sure each
catwalk look referred to the Games in some manner including T-shirts that came covered in printed
torches, medals and statuesque Greek figures.
Vivienne Westwood and photographer Juergen Teller went to Africa in 2011 to work on her
autumn/winter 2011-12 Ethical Fashion Africa collection. A programme which enlists thousands of local
women to use their skills to produce bags for Westwood and earn a fair wage in return. "This project
gives people control over their lives," she said. "Charity doesn't give control, it does the opposite, it
makes people dependant."
In 2011 she joined the Occupy London anti-capitalist protesters outside St Paul's Cathedral. She has
often outlined her concerns for climate change and during a talk at the V&A in 2009 Westwood said:
"There is hardly anyone left now who believes in a better world."
Never shy of controversy, Westwood complained of the lack of style in society. "People have never
looked so ugly as they do today, regarding their dress," she told journalists after her Red Label show in
London. "We are so conformist, nobody is thinking. I'm a fashion designer and people think 'what do I
know?' but I'm talking about all this disposable crap. So I'm saying buy less, choose well, make it last
in history people dressed much better than we do. If you saw Queen Elizabeth it would be amazing,
she came from another planet. She was so attractive in what she was wearing."
To celebrate the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, she launched a new capsule collection inspired by gowns
Queen Elizabeth had previously worn. The range, entitled the Red Carpet Capsule Collection, also paid
homage to the British flag. Took out iconic as Alex doesn't like us using it.
In 2012 Westwood criticised plans of a London council to ban charity Scope from basing its clothing
banks on council-owned land. A keen supported of charity shops she told the Evening Standard:
Charity shops are part of the fabric of our great city, but this short-sighted approach is totally unfair
and damages charities at the expense of a quick buck."
Vivienne Westwood credited London and its thriving culture scene as her biggest inspiration in a film
for the Tate Britain's 'This Is Britain' campaign. "The great thing about London for me is the culture the museums," the designer said in the film.
In 2012 Westwood triggered controversy when she created a T-shirt in support of Julian Assange. The
T-shirts were given to her guests to wear front row at her spring/summer 2013 show. "I'm a big
supporter of Julian Assange," Westwood told Reuters.
She selected the grand setting of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to show her
spring/summer 2013 Red Label collection. The choice of the venue was a result of Westwood's
involvement in the government's GREAT campaign. The designer fronted an international campaign as
part of the initiative, which celebrated excellence in the creative industries, while promoting Britain as
the preeminent place to study, visit or invest.
In 2012 she partnered with The Woolmark Company to create a luxury 12-piece-collection made from
the finest Australian merino wool. "When I first began as a fashion designer, well over 30 years ago, I
succeeded in re-introducing into fashion the idea of knitwear, the English twinset," Westwood told
British Vogue. "Wool is one of the world's great natural fibres, famous for its versatility and comfortwarm in winter, cool in summer."
In January 2013 she helped rebrand the English National Ballet with a new campaign that shows the
ballet dancers wearing her creations. "It's a dream come true to be able to collaborate with someone
of such stature," said Tamara Rojo, the English National Ballet's artistic director. "Her designs capture
the creativity and ambition of our dancers who, in turn, add drama and movement to the clothes."
Paul Smith
Paul Smith is a label that has become synonymous with classic British tailoring and style. Inspired by the
traditional British menswear he admired as young boy - such as his brother's Post Office shirts and the tweeds
of the Nottinghamshire country set - Smith's greatest attribute is simplicity. He has described his designs as
"well-made, good quality, simple cut, interesting fabric, easy to wear" and often adds a splash of vibrant colour,
a floral print or his signature multi-coloured stripes.
Born in 1946 in Nottingham, England, Smith's childhood ambition was to become a professional racing cyclist.
He left school at 15 with no qualifications and began working in a Nottingham clothing warehouse as an errand
boy. He relished his cycle to and from the warehouse each day until aged 17 he was in a serious accident and
sustained injuries that put an end to his racing ambitions. Six months in hospital followed, during which Smith
made friends with people from the local art college who would introduce him to the world of art and fashion.
Returning to his job at the warehouse, he used his newly acquired interest in art and fashion and began making
displays for the showroom. Soon after, he was made menswear buyer.
Smith also started to take evening classes in tailoring in Nottinghamshire where he learned to cut cloth as well
as the basics. Soon after, he joined Lincroft Kilgour in Savile Row after being spotted by Chairman Harold
Tillman, where his designs were worn by celebrities including footballer George Best.
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Alexander McQueen
Born in the East End and the son of a taxi driver, Alexander McQueen was the quintessential bad boy made
good. He had brains and brawn, having survived over ten years as a solo designer and being brought into the
Gucci Group stable, which bought a 51 per cent stake in his company 2002. In 2008, his company not only
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John Galliano
John Galliano was born in Gibraltar and graduated from Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design in
London. He sold his graduation collection to the London designer store Browns in 1984. He is one of the most
influential and original designers of the late 20th century, whose clothes are often shocking. His collections are
sometimes based on themes such as Fallen Angels. Galliano also bases his ideas on historical themes, using
contexts such as the Highlands of Scotland, the Russian Steppes, and American gangsters, to product kilts,
frock coats and ball gowns. Although Galliano raids historical themes for his ideas, he uses modern fabrics and
precision tailoring with bias fabric cutting to create clothes that influence many other designers. In 1995
Galliano was made chief designer for the French fashion house Givenchy haute couture and RTW, but left in
1996 to design for Dior. He also designs for his own label.
Is John Galliano a pirate, Russian migr, revolutionary, dandy, or soldier? For every collection as chief designer
at Dior, he adopted each look as he thoroughly immerses himself in his creative process.
Incredibly, after 20 years in the business, he still maintains the drive of the impoverished fashion student he
started out as. Superb tailoring and delicate detail are his trademarks.
Born in Gibraltar in 1960.
His first class degree collection from Saint Martins College, 'Les Incroyables', was bought by Joan Burstein for
the window of her South Molton Street shop, Browns.
John Galliano launched his own label in 1984. He was British Designer of the Year in 1987, 1994 and in 1997 he
shared it with Alexander McQueen.
Due to frequent bankruptcy, in 1995 he accepted the job of creative director Givenchy in Paris. He was the first
Brit to head a French couture house (His designs from that era are now collector's items).
In 1996, Galliano was appointed as creative director of Christian Dior.
He was made a Chevalier in the French Legion of Honour in January 2009.
Galliano is almost as famous for his dramatic final-bow-costumes as he is for his fantastical designs. He has
finished his show wearing all from Napoleon and country squire outfits to looks inspired by the artful dodger
and an astronaut.
In 2011, he helped VOGUE.COM celebrate its 15th birthday by sharing his 15 favourite fashion memories, from
Kate storming the runway in a crinoline to dressing Diana, Princess of Wales.
He is known for creating some of the industry's most famous collections, including the Blanche Dubois (inspired
by Streetcar Named Desire and starring Kate Moss) in October 2008, the Napoleon and Josephine (inspired by
the love story of these famous historic figures) in March 1992 and the Princess Lucretia (inspired by the Russian
princess) in October 1993.
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Christian Dior
Christian Dior was a French couturier, best known for his eponymous fashion house which is often referred to as
just Dior.
Born in the seaside town of Granville on the coast of Normandy in 1905, he was the son of a wealthy
fertiliser manufacturer and was one of five children. Aged five, he moved with his family to Paris.
Although his parents had hopes of him becoming a diplomat, Dior was artistically inclined and began
to sell his sketches on the street to make pocket money. Upon leaving school, Dior took over a small
art gallery which his father bought for him, where he and a friend sold work by artists including Pablo
Picasso.
Following the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, the death of both his mother and his brother, and
the collapse of his father's business, Dior was forced to close his art gallery. He then went to work with
fashion designer Robert Piguet until he was called up for military service in 1940.
At the end of his service in 1942, he began working for couturier Lucien Long, where he and Pierre
Balmain were the primary designers. During the war, Lelong - like other French ateliers including
Jeanne Lanvin and Nina Ricci - dressed the wives of Nazi officers and French collaborators as a way of
preserving the fashion industry throughout the conflict for both economic and artistic reasons.
At the same time, Dior's younger sister Catherine joined the French Resistance, resulting in her capture
by the Gestapo and subsequent imprisonment at the Ravensbrck concentration camp. She survived
and was liberated in 1945. In 1947, Dior named his debut fragrance Miss Dior as a tribute to her.
He founded the house of Christian Dior on December 16, 1946 at 30 Avenue Montaigne Paris, backed
by Marcel Boussac, a cotton-fabric magnate. Officially, the house of Dior considers 1947 to be the year
of conception as that is when Dior showed his first collection.
On February 12, 1947, Dior showed his debut collection, presenting the 90 different looks. Named
"Corolle" and "Huit", the lines were quickly christened the "New Look", a phrase coined by US Harper's
Bazaar magazine editor Carmel Snow. The look consisted of a calf-length, full skirt, a cinched waist and
fuller bust than had been seen since the turn of the century. A rebuttal to post-war fabric restrictions the average dress used 20 yards of fabric - the look received some criticism upon release. The
opulence of his designs contrasted with the grim post-war reality of Europe, and helped re-establish
Paris as the joyful fashion capital it had once been.
The house was inundated with orders and world-famous stars such as Rita Hayworth and Margot
Fonteyn bought and wore pieces, raising Dior's profile significantly. Dior was even invited to stage a
private presentation of the collection for the British royal family - although King George V reportedly
forbade the young princesses, Elizabeth and Margaret, from wearing the New Look in case it set a bad
example at a time when rationing was still in force.
He was known to be very superstitious, a quality which increased with age. Each collection included a
coat named after his place of birth, Granville; in each show at least one model wore a bunch of his
favourite flower, lily of the valley; and he never began a couture show without having consulted his
tarot card reader.
Dior established a luxury ready-to-wear house on the corner of 5 th Avenue and 57th Street in New York
in November 1948. It was the first of its kind. In the same year, he launched Dior Parfums - with Miss
Dior being the first fragrance to launch, and Diorama launching the following year.
In 1949, Dior was the first couturier to arrange licensed production of his designs. Having realised the
importance of the complete look - and that the New Look could not be successfully achieved without
the correct Dior shoes, gloves and hat - Dior, together with business partner Jacques Rout, licensed
his name to a range of luxury accessories. Furs, stockings, ties and perfume were also manufactured in
regional centres across the world, spreading his brand name quickly around the globe. Although this
move was heavily criticised by the French Chamber of Couture - who denounced the move as
cheapening the haute couture industry - licensing became a profitable move for Dior and the atelier's
lesson was followed by nearly all of the period's fashion houses.
In 1955, the 19-year-old Yves Saint Laurent became Dior's design assistant. Christian Dior later met
with Yves Saint Laurent's mother, Lucienne Mathieu-Saint Laurent, in 1957 to tell her that he had
chosen Saint Laurent to succeed him at Dior. She said at the time she had been confused by the
remark, as Dior was only 52 at the time.
Shortly after his meeting with Saint Laurent's mother, Christian Dior suffered a fatal heart attack on
October 24, 1957, leaving the house in disarray. Some 2,500 people attended his funeral, including all
of his staff and famous clients led by the Duchess of Windsor. In an attempt to stabilise the label,
Jacques Rout appointed the then-21-year-old Yves Saint-Laurent as artistic director.
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Saint Laurent remained in the position until he was conscripted into the army, during which time he
was dismissed from Dior by Rout and replaced by Marc Bohan. Bohan proved very successful as Saint
Laurent's replacement, defining a new era and new silhouette for Dior, the Slim Look, a more modern
and svelte version of Dior's iconic shape.
In 1978, the Boussac Group filed for bankruptcy and its assets, including Dior, were sold to the Willot
Group. After it went into administration, Bernard Arnault and his investment group purchased the
Willot Group's holdings for "one symbolic franc" in 1994. On assuming power, Arnault drastically
altered Dior's operations. In 1985, Arnault became chairman, CEO and managing director of Christian
Dior. He repositioned it as the holding company Christian Dior S.A and in 1988, took a 32 per cent
equity stake into the share capital of LVMH creating one of the leading and most influential luxury
goods conglomerates in the world, whilst Christian Dior remains to stand alone as a megabrand in its
own right.
Gianfranco Ferre was made stylistic director of Christian Dior in 1989, replacing Marc Bohan. He
remained in this position until 1997.
In 1997, Arnault appointed British designer John Galliano to replace Marc Bohan at the creative helm.
"Galliano has a creative talent very close to that of Christian Dior. He has the same extraordinary
mixture of romanticism, feminism and modernity that symbolised Monsieur Dior. In all of his creations his suits, his dresses - one finds similarities to the Dior style," said Arnault of Galliano.
Coco Chanel
So great is Coco Chanel's legacy that fans make pilgrimages to her Paris apartment (although she also lived in
the Paris Ritz for 30 years), which is preserved as she left it and endlessly referenced for style - as is every
image of her and every tiny thing she ever designed. From her use of monochrome to her oversized 'costume'
pearls and cuffs, everything is still sublimely, continuously referenced. As she once said: "Fashion fades, only
style remains the same."
Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel was born in 1883 and died in 1971
She created a new look for women in the 20th century, creating clothes that were primarily comfortable. A
Chanel suit of 1923 or handbag is still seen as a landmark purchase for women of increasingly younger ages
The Chanel No.5 scent is the bestselling in the world
The interlocking Cs of Coco Chanel remain one of the ultimate brand insignia
Since 1983, Chanel has been designed by Karl Lagerfeld
The building where her apartment is in Paris was bought by Chanel in 1920, and still houses the ground-floor
shop, the haute couture workrooms in the attic (where 100 seamstresses still work entirely by hand), and what
is now Karl Lagerfeld's study
Coco Chanel's bobbed hair, bright red lips and outspoken manner also broke the mould. This smoking,
outspoken woman never married - although she had relations with the English industrialist Arthur "Boy" Capel who lent her the money to buy Rue Cambon - Igor Stravinsky and the second Duke of Westminster Hugh
"Bendor" Grosvenor, the richest man in Europe. Keira Knightley followed Kate Moss as the new face of Coco
Mademoiselle in 2007. The brand could not be more alive with watches, beauty, fragrance, womenswear and
new stores.
In 2009 a biopic film based on her life titled 'Coco before Chanel' was released. Audrey Tatou was given the
lead-role and follows as she goes from orphan to Haute Couture designer.
19203 and 1930s:
In France, the designer Coco Chanel epitomised the modern woman. She designed comfortable, loose blouses,
chemise dresses and clothes that were sporty, relaxed, wearable and well suited to the outdoor lifestyle that
was being promoted as healthy in the 1920s. These clothes were designed to be worn without corsets and were
made with fewer linings to make them lighter and more flexible. Chanel believed that fashion must meet the
needs of modern lifestyles and give women freedom of movement. In 1916 she began using knitted jersey
fabrics, a relatively cheap fabric previously sued for underwear and by 1918 was producing cardigans and
twinsets. Chanel was one of the most influential designers of the 20 th century. Her clothes broke away from the
fussy over decorated clothing of the 19th century. She adapted mens tailoring and produced classic suits with
short skirts, always relying on good cut, finish and high quality fabric. What we now consider to be a normal
part of womens clothing trousers, tweeds, pea jackets, berets, blazers, raincoats, the little black dress,
slinback shoes and accessories were all introduced by Chanel.
In the 1920s fashion clothing became more widely available as clothing by designers like Chanel was copied by
RTW. Clothing that once had only been for the wealthy suddenly became available to the woman on the street.
This was a dramatic change for ordinary people who had previously only has every day and best clothes that
had to last for years. Of course, designer clothing was still unaffordable for most people, but its very exclusivity
increased its desirability. The production and distribution of affordable RTW fashion was an important turning
point in the democratisation of fashion. The very styling of the clothes themselves, together with lower prices
meant that social class was not immediately discernible through what you wore.
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Art Movements
Arts and Crafts Movement
Inspired by socialist principles (everyone being equal) and led by William Morris, the
members of the movement used the medieval system of trades and guilds to set up their
own companies to sell their goods. Unfortunately, it has the reverse effect and, apart from
the wealthy middle classes, hardly anyone could afford their designs.
The arts and crafts movement is called a reform movement because it was closely
associated this the anti-industrial movement that came about in the late 19 th century.
William Morris (1834-1836) was the most influential thinker of the Arts and Crafts
movement. His philosophy revolved around a love of simple design inspired by the Middle
Ages when art and production were closely connected in medieval craft guilds
Morris saw the effects of industrialisation environmental pollution, poverty for workers
and the production of poor quality products and proposed the reform of commercial art in
order to manufacture well-designed and well-crafted consumer goods.
This was the start of the revolt against the over decorated products beloved by well-off
Victorians.
The Arts and Crafts movement promoted the idea of handcrafted products as being
superior to industrial ones.
This type of simple undecorated furniture and furnishings created a demand for simplicity
of design and fitness for purpose
It had an important influence on Art Nouveau, the Bauhaus, on Scandinavian and UK design
and can be said to form the basis of modern design in Europe
The legacy of William Morris is still seen today. have nothing in your house that you do not
know to be useful or believe to be beautiful
Morris raised the design for everyday domestic accessories and fittings to an art form. He
drew his inspiration from the flowing shapes of nature and interpreted them as repeat
prints for wallpaper and textiles
These products represented the values of truth to material and form. Morriss style has
been reproduced and reinterpreted throughout the 20th century, making him one of the UKs
most influential textile designers.
Today, manufacturers such as Libertys and Sanderson are still producing textiles inspired
by Morris.
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Art Nouveau was an important reform movement that developed at the turn of the 19 th
century in France
It developed into an international movement between 1895 and the First World War. Art
Nouveau styling was built around the use of simple natural forms, the curved lines and
shapes of climbing plants, geometric forms based on Japanese art.
Art Nouveau was an influential decorative style, which was used in architecture, wrought
ironwork, glass, furniture, fabrics and wallpaper.
The paintings of Gustav Klimt, often used as inspiration by textile designers typify the Art
Nouveau style.
In some ways the Art Nouveau movement was similar to the Arts and Crafts movement. Art
Nouveau designers considered themselves to be artists rather than designers, rejected
industrial mass production, produced design work that was only available to the wealthy.
Art nouveau is sometimes described as being between art and industry, because it
encouraged a return to handcrafted [products. Some say that it delayed the development
of modern industrial design.
The Bauhaus
1919 1933
The Bauhaus school was founded by the architect Walter Gropius in 1919. In 1937 the
new Bauhaus was founded in the USA, where the Bauhaus style became known as the
international style
These design principles influence modern teaching about industrial design many Bauhaus
products still look modern today. The principal aims of the Bauhaus were to use modern
materials and to combine the concepts of form and function
Design and education in the Bauhaus school was centred on students experimenting with
colour, form and modern materials
In some ways it has a similar philosophy to the reforming Arts and Crafts movement,
because it offered an education in artistic and handicraft skills
The Bauhaus art training was given by important artists of the day, such as Johannes Itten,
Lyonel Feininger, Paul Klee, Georg Muche and Oscar Schlemmer. It was the first time that
professional artists were involved in teaching future industrial designers.
The key difference from the Arts and Crafts movement was that the Bauhaus linked the
design of products to their manufacture by industry
Students chose a commercial workshop and the longest running and most successful was
textiles, which was run and attended by women
Textiles in the hierarchy of design was seen as womens work. However the Bauhaus
textile designers were talented designers who embraced technology and incorporated the
use of new or unusual materials, such as cellophane, leather and early synthetics.
The result was a rebirth of hand weaving and a new professionalism in designing textiles
for mass production
The Bauhaus textile designers created fabrics that has acoustic and light-reflecting
properties, were reversible, were multi-layered with some combining double and triple
weaves, were made by the Jacquard loom
Art Deco
Art Deco was originally a French phenomenon that was influential in the early decades of
the 20th century
Although Art Deco style was thought to be highly modern and elegant, it was definitely
anti-mass production
It focused on one-off, expensive products made from precious materials like snakeskin,
ivory, bronze, crystal and exotic woods. Later materials like steel, glass and plastics were
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used, but the aim was to exploit their decorative characteristics rather that any functional
properties
The Art Deco style was influenced by Art Nouveau, Cubism, Futurism, African Art and
Egyptian cultures
In furniture and other products the styling made use of geometric shapes and zigzag
patterns or ornamental inlays imitating ivory and tortoiseshell
Although it was anti-mass production, Art Deco did influence the design of many massproduced products that were made from new materials such as aluminium
The Art Deco style was used extensively in domestic interiors and architecture between
1920 and 1939. The great couturiers such as Poiret, Chanel and Schiaparelli were all
influential designers of the Art Deco era.
Memphis
Memphis was the name of a group of designers who established themselves in Milan in
Italy in 1981
The main figure in the group was the architect Ettore Sottass, a consulting product
designer
The Memphis designers were interested in the practical objects of daily life, the mass
production of such objects and their promotion and marketing through advertising
Influenced by comic strips, films, punk music and different combinations of materials, their
witty, stylistic designs typified the fast pace of interior fashion in the 1980s
Memphis designers combined materials such as colourful plastic laminates, glass, steel,
industrial sheet metal and aluminium
Emerging at exactly the right time in the 80s, the Memphis group introduced a new
understanding of design, the main purpose of which was decorative and witty, rather than
functional
The groups sheer innovation and boldness influences any number of bright, interesting
ideas that emerged around that time. It sparked a chain reaction across Europe, most
notably Spain, Germany, France and the UK. Inspired by Memphis, designers shunned the
purely functional in favour of the funky.
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